Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)

Father Of Spiritualistic Pluralism

German Rationalist Philosopher and Mathematician

The Aristotle of modern era

Notable works:
Monads
Theodicy
The Monadology
New Essays Concerning Human Understandin
Principles of Nature and Grace
Discourse on Metaphysics

Monads:
Spinoza did not accept the dualism of mind and body of Descartes; he changed Descartes’ mind-body
dualism into thought and extension attributes. But the problem was that how can thought and extension
being opposite attributes to each other be found in one substance i.e. God. We do not get logical and
satisfactory answer to this question in Spinoza’s philosophy. To solve this problem in philosophies of
Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz established his concept of Monad.
Leibniz's best-known contribution to metaphysics is his theory of monads, as exposited in Monadology . He
proposes his theory that the universe is made of an infinite number of simple substances known as
monads. These simple substances or monads are the "ultimate units of existence in nature". Monads have
no parts but still exist by the qualities that they have. These qualities are continuously changing over time,
and each monad is unique. They are also not affected by time. Monads are centers of force; thus substance
is force, while space, matter, and motion are merely phenomenal.


Here we see that the only substance according to Leibniz is Monad. He is different than other rationalists
(Descartes and Spinoza) in his perception of Substance, number of substance, relation of mind and body.
According to him Independent activity is the sole criteria for being substance. According to him the
ultimate constituents of reality are spiritual, indivisible atoms called Monads. But his atoms are not
indivisible units of matter, for because matter is extended, a piece of matter, however tiny is always
further divisible. But monads are indivisible units of force or energy or activity. Monads are self-active,
immaterial substances, and unextended in nature. Monads are not physical or mathematical points but
metaphysical points hence objective realities.


Leibniz accepts mind as the model of his substance. In his words, “a substance is a simple, indivisible unit
and is like mind.” Thus we see that he defines substance in terms of mind. Which includes the unconscious
state as well. This substance he calls Monads. Thus we see that Monads are like mind. They are spiritual
units (Emanated from God’s miracle). Further, they are indivisible and self –active.
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Classification of Monads

Though all Monads are active so we cannot see the qualitative difference between them. In this view they are
alike. But quantitative difference between them is manifested on the basis of manifestation of activity. So we
can classify them into the following classification.
1. Naked Monads
Least active so they are called sleeping Monads too. This is the state of material world

2. Sub-conscious or dreaming Monads

Active but don’t move. Activity cannot be manifested as Plants

3.Conscious Monads
Clear activity is manifested as animals and birds

4. Self-Conscious-Monads
Clear activity as they have feelings, knowledge i.e. Humans

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5. Supreme Monad or Queen Monad

God, Monad of all Monads and the soul of all Monads. He is the cause and creator of all Monads. Every
monad’s ultimate aim is to become supreme Monad. God is completely active Monad.

Characteristics of Monads


• Full of independent and source of activity within themselves
• Windowless (does not affect with other things)
• Unextended (no essential quality of matter i.e. shape, size)
• Monad is a point not mathematical or physical but metaphysical
• Each monad is independent with other monads they have no causal relationships with each other


Laws of monads


1. Law of continuity:

There are continuous arrangements of monads from the lowest to highest. There is incremental continuity
on the basis of their level of consciousness. (From Bare Monad to Queen monad)

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2. Law of similarity


Monads are all simple units of force, indivisible; spiritual thus the basic character of every monad is alike.
And every Monad is a Windowless closed system.


3. Law of dissimilarity

Though basic properties of all Monads are alike still two Monads cannot be exactly identical. They differ
quantitatively on the extent of consciousness and thus arranged in hierarchal order.

4. Principle of conservation of force

Descartes was of the view that the sum of the motion and rest is conserved Spinoza accepted the same but
Leibniz holds that it is the force that is conserved. This view is held by modern physics too.



Explanation of matter and extension

It is conscious experience that material elements and extension are perceived in the world. Thus, the question
arises, that if everything in this world is made through conscious and in-extendable monads, then why do we

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find experience of matter and extension? Leibniz has answered this on the ground of materia Prima and
materia secunda.

According to Leibniz all monads possess some quantity of consciousness. This consciousness is not only active
consciousness as explained by Descartes but only dimmed or inactive in nature. Matter is the world is made of
bare monads,that consist of the least quantity of consciousness.

By Materia prima, he means inactivity. The power of resistance. due to this motion of Monads or active force
of monads become Limited. The More inactive a Monad is the more material it looks so it is the inactivity or
the passivity of Monads that account for the material world

According to Materia Secunda Monads have collectivity All Monads live in collection or aggregate forms. And
this collection is look in the form of matter and extension.

Space and time

According to Leibniz, space and time do not have absolute reality. They are relative and not entities in
themselves. They are mere construct from spacio temporal relations between object and events. Space
depends on Co- Extension and time upon succession. Without objects there would be no space, no events and
thus not time. He rejects the notion of absolute space and time as real things.

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Mind-Body Relationship

Descartes:
Interactionism
Spinoza: Parallelism
Leibniz: Pre-Established Harmony


Pre-established Harmony

Gottfried Leibniz's theory of pre-established harmony is a philosophical theory about causation under which
every "substance" affects only itself, but all the substances (Monads) in the world nevertheless seem to
causally interact with each other because they have been programmed by God in advance to "harmonize" with
each other.

Leibniz's theory is best known as a solution to the mind–body problem of how mind can interact with the body.
Leibniz rejected the idea of physical bodies affecting each other, and explained all physical causation in this
way.

God has made every monad as an independent body. God has made them in such a way that in spite of being
independent with each other they are united and harmonious. God fostered in them his harmony and unity
previously at the time of their creation. Because of this pre-established harmony every Monad keeps the world
united and harmonious in spite of being independent. This harmony is inclined in monad’ nature. He gives the

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example of orchestra in which every musical instrument has its own music but together they all produce a
harmonious music that sooths our mind.



Example:

Consider the common analogy of two clocks. The two clocks are on different sides of a room and both keep
good time (that is, they tell the same time). Now, someone who didn't know how clocks work might suspect
that one was the master clock and it caused the other clock to always follow it. When two things behave in
corresponding ways, then it is often assumed (without any real evidence) that there is causation occurring. But
another person who knew about clocks would explain that the two clocks have no influence one on the other,
but rather they have a common cause (for example, in the last person to set and wind them). Since then, they
have been independently running in sync with one another, not causing each other. On Leibniz's view, every
monad is like a clock, behaving independently of other monads. Nevertheless, God synchronizes every monad
with one another, according to his vast conception of the perfect universe. (We must be careful, however, not
to take this mechanical image of a clock too literally. Not all monads are explicable in terms of physical,
efficient causes.)

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Arguments for the existence of God

• Argument from PEH: Harmony between Monads is impossible without accepting God that establishes the
PEH in Monads.

• Ontological Argument:


o All possible things have existence
o God is possible
o So god has existence

• Argument from eternal truth:

Leibniz says that all necessary and eternal truths must have a locus and this locus can be God only.
However Leibniz is forgetting that all necessary truths are truths in themselves they don’t need any Locus
outside themselves.

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Estimate:


• Russell says that Monadology fits ill with the concept of god. All Monads are both active and passive, but
God is pure activity.

• God cannot create Monad as he is himself a Monad and so Windowless.

• If every Monad is independent or self-dependent and windowless then it is illogical to say each Monad
reflects the condition of other Monads and they are regulated by Pre-Established Harmony. If Monads
are guided by Pre-Established Harmony then, they will lose their status of substance.

Previous Year Questions:

1. What according to Descartes is a clear and distinct idea? What is the epistemological status of clear and
distinct ideas? Does this account help Descartes prove that material objects exists? Explain (2017/20)
2. Explain Leibniz’s principle of ‘identity of indiscernible’. (2015/15)
3. Does Descartes cogito principle entail that he is an essentialist? Discuss. (2015/15)

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4. Explain the doctrine of Cartesian Dualism and examine critically arguments in favor of it. (2014/15)
5. Does Leibniz’s theory of pre-established harmony necessarily lead to determinism? Discuss. (2014/10)
6. Write a short critical essay on Spinoza’s conception of freedom of an individual. (2013/12 ½)
7. Explain Descartes method of doubt. Can this method be used to justify his belief in the existence of
God? Argue your case. (2013/12½)
8. Give a critical account of Leibniz’s principle of the identity of indiscernible. (2013/12 ½)
9. Does Monadology sufficiently explain the nature of Substance? Are monads independent of each other?
Explain. (2012/15)
10. Does Leibniz succeed in combining the mechanical with the teleological view of the world? Explain
his theory of Pre-Established Harmony. (2012/15)
11. If ‘ Every determination is negation ‘ then how can Substance have attributes? Explain. (2012/15)
12. How does Descartes’ ‘cogito ergo sum’ affect Hume and Kant’s transcendental philosophy? Explain
(2012/12)
13. Is the concept of freedom consistent with the theory of determinism of Spinoza? Support your
answer with arguments. (2011/30)
14. Why does Descartes not doubt the existence of God? Explain. (2011/15)

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15. Why does Spinoza think that God alone is absolutely real? Explain. (2010/20)
16. Interactionism in the philosophical context. Short notes (2009/20)
17. Compare the views of Leibniz and Hume on the concept of substance. (2009/30)
18. Compare the views of Spinoza and Sartre on Freedom. (2009/30)
19. Explain Leibniz’s notion of monad. Can monad be regarded as a basic particular in the Strawsonian
sense? (2008/60)
20. Discuss Descartes Dualism. (2006/60)
21. Explain Spinoza’s theory of Substance. (2006/60)
22. Mind and Body as two interacting substances. Short notes. (2005/20)
23. Spinoza’s conception of the Ultimate Substance. Short Notes. (2005/20)
24. ‘I think, therefore I am.’ Short Notes. (2004/20)
25. State and critically examine Spinoza’s doctrine of the identity of the Substance, God and nature.
(2002/60)

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