MCK - Digital Media in Kenya

The Impact of
Digital Technologies
and Internet
on Media and Journalism in Kenya
The Impact of
Digital Technologies
and Internet
on Media and Journalism in Kenya
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First Published in April 2016

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Contents
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms..............................................................................................6
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................7
Executive Summary.........................................................................................................................8
1 Introduction: Technology and the Business of the Media.................................................. 11

Convergence................................................................................................................................12
Participatory productions.......................................................................................................13
Regulation.....................................................................................................................................14
Objectives of the project.........................................................................................................15
Research Methodology............................................................................................................15
Secondary and primary research..........................................................................................15
2 Introduction: Digitisation in Perspective............................................................................. 17

What is digital TV broadcasting?..........................................................................................17
The move from analogue to digital TV transmission: The Kenyan experience....17
Current status of digital migration in the country..........................................................19
Journalism and Social Media.................................................................................................19
Description of various social media networks.................................................................20
The rise of social media globally and locally ...................................................................20
Use of social media by journalists .......................................................................................22
Impact of social media on journalism practice ..............................................................23
3 Introduction: The Impact of Digitisation on Media and Journalism in Kenya................... 25

Coopetition .................................................................................................................................25
Convergence................................................................................................................................30
Pay....................................................................................................................................................38
Training in media schools ......................................................................................................39
Summary.......................................................................................................................................40
4 Conclusions and Recommendations..................................................................................... 43

Recommendations ....................................................................................................................45
References .......................................................................................................................... 47
Appendices .......................................................................................................................... 53
Appendix 1: Questionnaire ....................................................................................................53
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADN Africa Digital Network
AFP Agence France Presse
AMWIK Association of Media Women in Kenya
APA Association of Practitioners in Advertising
BAKE Bloggers Association of Kenya
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BSD Broadcast Signal Distributor
CA Communication Authority [of Kenya]
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CNN Cable News Network
COFEK Consumer Federation of Kenya
DTC Digital Television Committee
DTT Digital Terrestrial Television
DVB-T Digital Video Broadcasting-Terrestrial
FTA Free to Air
IEBC Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission
ITU International Telecommunication Union
KBC Kenya Broadcasting Corporation
KCA Kenya Correspondents Association
KTN Kenya Television Network
KUJ Kenya Union of Journalists
MCK Media Council of Kenya
MOA Media Owners Association
NCS National Communications Secretariat
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NMG Nation Media Group
NTV Nation Television
PANG Pan Africa Network Group
PPARB Public Procurement Administrative Review Board
SG Standard Media Group
SPBSD Self-Provisioning Broadcasting Signal Distribution
STBs Set Top Boxes
UGC User Generated Content
6 The Impact of Digital Technologies and Internet on Media and Journalism in Kenya
Acknowledgements
The Media Council of Kenya extends its sincere appreciation to Dr. George Nyabuga who
spearheaded this study and all the respondents whose input and opinion enriched chapters in
this report.
Much gratitude also goes to MCK CEO, Dr. Haron Mwangi, his deputy Victor Bwire and MCK head
of Media Monitoring and Research for conceptualization and strategic leadership in all stages of
this study, MCK head of Communication James Ratemo and Assistant Communication Officer,
Kevin Mabonga for their input in proof reading and editing of the final report.
We immensely appreciate the Ford Foundation for funding data collection, analysis, report
writing and editing of this study and UNESCO Regional Office for Eastern Africa in Nairobi for
facilitating the design and printing of the final report. Without your continued support, we
would not have realized this project’s objectives and success.
The Impact of Digital Technologies and Internet on Media and Journalism in Kenya 7
Executive Summary
This research was conducted to determine the impact of digital technologies on media and
journalism in Kenya. Taking cognisance of the overarching view that the media and journalism
have been significantly impacted by digital technologies, including the migration from analogue
to digital broadcasting, the study sought to find out whether the media can operate sustainably
while staying true to values of pluralism and diversity, transparency and accountability, editorial
independence, freedom of expression and information, public service, and high professional
standards. In addition to this overall aim, the research also sought to broadly study the issue
of digital migration and media freedom issues in Kenya, and how digital technologies can be
used to promote media business and practices in Kenya. In addition, the enquiry sought to
determine existing perceptions about journalists and the journalism practice in Kenya following
the appropriation and utilisation of digital technologies and establish key benchmarks that
could inform the policies and regulations governing digital switchover. Ultimately, it makes
recommendations on how global industry best practices that promote and protect media
freedom in the digital age can be applied in Kenya.
This study finds out that access to mobile and digital technologies and their increasing application
in Kenya have had numerous consequences on media production, dissemination, reception and
consumption. In essence, traditional media have had to adapt to changing trends by embracing
digital technologies as they struggle to remain profitable and relevant. Declining audiences for
traditional media such as newspapers, radio and television means it is imperative for companies
operating such platforms to embrace change, and adopt technologies for their own good.
They have also adopted digital technologies, particularly mobile phones and wireless Internet
as instruments through which they can quickly collect, package, and disseminate information.
Granted, the demands of the marketplace, including immediacy and instantaneity, means that
sometimes media houses hardly take time to refine information so as to offer audiences better
packaged journalism. Nevertheless, it is clear that people now have some ability to resist the
commercial culture underpinning the operations of profit-seeking media.
Accordingly, digital technologies have firmed their place in business structures in many media
houses, and enhanced the speed of the production of journalism and other media products.
Even though there have been arguments that innovations are often messy and risky particularly
at the infant stages (this as a consequence of job losses, streamlining operations etc.), it is clearly
perilous to ignore digital technologies given the changing trends and effects on both media
productions and consumptions.
It should be noted, however, that the benefits of digital technologies in Kenya are not
homogenous. Rather, they depend on how people and organisations utilise them. Therefore,
quality of use rather than mere access determines the efficacy and effects as well as any benefits
accruing from such utilisation. This means that although a judicious study of the consequences
of digital technologies on media in Kenya is required, there is no doubt that the increasing use
of such technologies has influenced the way media organisations operate. Moreover, although
we cannot proclaim the death of traditional media, media organisations’ use of technology has
had to change radically due to their desire to re-strategise and restructure their businesses.
From a consumer perspective, it is abundantly clear that their consumption of, and interactions
with media is enriched thanks to technology. Ordinary people are able to participate in media
productions. The developments mean they are able to consume and produce content (user-
generated content, and now they are aptly referred to as prosumers) and sometimes inform
media decisions. This active involvement means they are able to challenge mainstream media
dominance. In effect, some of the marginalised communities, or those who feel their issues are
hardly given space in mainstream media, can utilise the technologies to articulate their issues.
The rise of citizen journalism is built on such premises. Besides, consumers can now become
more demanding of media in the sense that they want information or products that are relevant
to them.
Notwithstanding the rich prosumer experiences, and new business opportunities for media
companies, technological appropriation and use have engendered some challenges. As this
research holds, credibility, reliability and quality of information produced by users or audiences is
not always guaranteed. Citizen journalists are not subject to the high ethical standards applied to
professionals. Accordingly, citizen journalists can publish defamatory material without worrying
about the consequences. Also, there are rising concerns that digital technologies have made it
easier to infringe on copyright and intellectual property. Granted, and as this study shows, the
use and consequences of digital technologies depends on how individual media and journalists
use them. And this is what this research attempts to determine.
1 Introduction:
Technology and the Business of the Media
Older electronic and print media are seeking to reaffirm their status within our culture
as digital media challenge that status.
Bolter, Jay David & Grusin, Richard (1999)
Remediation: Understanding New Media.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, p.5
That digital technologies are impacting apace. These trends are undoubtedly
media operations, and business dynamics exacerbated by technologies that have made
is not in doubt. The operations, structures it easier to start and run or manage media
and performances of traditional, new and businesses especially in the digital era.
converged media formats have been affected
In the media industry, digital and mobile
by the availability and appropriation of
technologies are expected to induce
digital technologies. The modes of media
significant growth in addition to intensifying
production, distribution and consumption
cross-media ownership in line with current
have been affected as well as transformed
trends. For example, the Nation Media Group
by digital technologies. The appropriation of
mobile technologies by media businesses Limited (NMG), the Standard Group (SG),
is opportunistic but hugely appropriate as Royal Media Services (RMS), Radio Africa
media houses seek to respond to economic, Group (RAG), and Mediamax Networks all
business and market challenges and audience have a number of media platforms in their
demands. And as the rather prophetic fold. In fact, except the Royal Media whose
statement above by Bolter and Grusin (1999) main concentration is electronic media, the
shows, traditional media are fighting to survive other organisations run television, radio,
and reaffirm their place in a hypercompetitive and print media as well as websites. Such
digital media environment. concentration is expected to produce greater
added value than separate activities. As Kung
Digital technologies have had serious effects et al. (2008: 132-133) observe, cross-media
on the market structures, value chains, strategies will benefit the media organisations
business strategies, structures and operations because ‘systematic effects from coordination
(cf. Kung, Picard and Towse, 2008). Even and fusion of activities will reduce costs and
though technology is sometimes expensive increase avenues, and that shared resources
and risky (cf. Pavlik, 2001), and some people and knowledge and competence transfer
may resist change, and attendant new modi among operations will produce additional
operandi, digital and mobile technologies benefits’. Similarly, the economic advantages
are now part and parcel of many media of cross-media ownership are enormous.
operations in Kenya.
These include additional use of existing
Economic and business considerations are content and reduction of costs due to
sometimes major drivers of technological acquisition of content (Kung et al., 2008). This
appropriation. This is based on the idea that approach, referred to as ‘value chain’ (Porter,
technologies enhance efficiency, contribute 1980) means that companies are able to
to cost-cutting, and ultimately contribute to create products and services with more value
profitability. Thus the structure, consolidation than the combined resources invested in the
and concentration of the media are happening process.
Digital technologies have enabled the creation Besides, media organisations have taken
of value chains by, for example, reducing the advantage of mobile technologies to address
costs of production and distribution. This can changing audience needs and demands.
be achieved both online and offline. Kung Media organisations such as the SG and NMG
et al. (2008) call this an extension of media. send regular news updates or breaking news,
In this case, media products whether print, via mobile phone, of local and international
audio, or television contents are offered both events to those who have subscribed to the
service. The ‘instant’ and constant delivery of
through traditional and new media to reach
news and other media products via mobile
fragmented audiences. Therefore, by bringing
telephony has been the focus of many
together different media platforms, media
‘opportunistic’ media businesses keen on
organisations are able to benefit from reduced finding new modes of delivering ‘tailor-made’
investments. For example, from its converged content to consumers who subscribe and
newsroom, the SG is able to use fewer pay a premium for such material. These new
resources to generate news content from a revenue streams are inevitable in a (hype)
pool of reporters and correspondents with competitive media environment.
skills to report for print, radio, and television (cf.
However, market and audience demands
Herrick, 2003). Herrick (2003: 25), for example,
seem to be forcing the media to provide ‘bitty’
posits that mobile journalists have become raw information in the form of breaking news.
a ‘one-man-band’ or ‘one-woman-band’. This On one hand this benefits the consumer who
is because they are expected to become receives information instantly without having
jacks of all trade, and operate all gadgets– a to wait for ‘news time’ or for the next day’s
wireless laptop, a digital camera and a digital newspapers to learn about events around
camcorder – necessary to write stories for them or in other parts of the world. This has
converged media houses. This is considered forced many organisations to quickly adapt as
more efficient as journalists are ‘able to write they seek to satisfy the needs of fragmented
a story, take a picture, shoot and edit a video audiences in their bid for survival. However, as
as part of their work. … [J]ournalists are now McNair (1998) posits, this tendency threatens
required to have more than two or three skills depth and the quality of information offered
to survive in the modern media and journalism to audiences as well as the credibility and
environment’ (Herrick, 2003: 25). reliability of media as conveyors of ‘truthful’,
credible, and reliable information, pictures,
To illustrate the above arguments, the SG, and video and audio material. Nonetheless, the
in a bid to improve operational efficiency, new breed of consumers known as producer-
maximise on resources, and enhance consumers (the prosumers) are seeking
performance introduced in 2009 a converged content that satisfies their particular needs
newsroom. The idea behind the converged regardless of professional considerations and
newsroom was that changing technologies challenges.
had made it easier to practice journalism and Convergence
as such staff were expected and required The growing convergence and availability of
to multitask, and thus report for different various media forms have further contributed
platforms – the newspaper, both daily and to a richer experience between media, the
weekend editions, a television station, and producers and consumers. Convergence
a website. These strategies were aimed at is especially critical to existing traditional
enhancing efficiency, cost-cutting, and media companies seeking to diversify their
maximisation of its human, capital and other businesses in attempts to explore and capture
resources. new markets, and the growing group of
consumers, especially the affluent young 2011: 8) makes economic sense because of
digital natives. the need to address or meet the media needs
of disparate audiences.
Television and radio broadcasting and the
availability of mobile Internet have changed Participatory productions
the focus of media investments towards the The collection, packaging, analysis and
search for new avenues of communication. dissemination of media products are
The various approaches, including cross- becoming increasingly participatory. The
media ownership, coopetition (see, for active participation of users or consumers is
example, Kung et al., 2008), and other seen not only as a common feature of modern
forms of inter-organisational strategies productions but desirable as part of increasing
combined with declining prices of mobile cultivation of symbiotic relationship and
handsets, subscriptions to mobile services, discipleship, and loyalty which is important
and innovative methodologies of delivering as competition for audiences (and to a large
popular content like music and news via radio, extent revenue) intensifies. Facilities such as
television and the Internet may be aiding the Twitter, Facebook, Flickr and YouTube have
media. changed the way journalism is practised in
The rising need for convergence – particularly Kenya. ‘Ordinary’ people are now increasingly
technological and economic (see, for involved in media business by contributing
example, Pavlik and McIntosh, 2011) – of stories, pictures, and audio visual material for
media formats by the so-called mainstream publication by mainstream media, leading to
media organisations continues to support the the growing practice of what is commonly
notion that traditional media are on a terminal referred to as digital or indeed networked
decline. However, media organisations have journalism. In essence, people now easily
seen that resistance to change would spell interact not only with content, but also with
doom and are now seeking ways of not only media workers. In addition, they can easily ‘tell’
diversifying but also making themselves their own stories by side-stepping information
relevant in the new digital environment. gatekeepers or middlepersons who once
controlled information and media products.
Innovative collaboration arrangements
between television stations have, for instance, Digital technologies have offered the user
emerged not only as part of restructuring and what Bakker and Sadaba (2008) call so many
restrategising, adapting to modern business opportunities and power to determine what
trends, but also as part of their desire to survive they want to consume. Although this impacts
and be profitable in a hyper-competitive media professional journalistic values and modi
environment. To forestall the consequences of operandi, the rise of consumer involvement
technology on media businesses, and access and to some extent power to prosumers, and
expatriate Kenyans and others interested in in the process circumvent vested interests of
the country, the broadcasting arms of media media owners, advertisers and others. These
companies like the Standard and the Nation prosumers are now more proactive, active
media groups (KTN and NTV) respectively) and questioning of journalism and media.
have taken to streaming live online. They Another emerging and rather established
regularly post their news video and audio trend in the media industry is the desire of
clips on YouTube and other online platforms. producers and users to engage with each
These kinds of technological convergence, other interactively. In fact, interactivity has
defined broadly as the converging of specific been one of the most cited characteristics of
media types such as print, audio, and video digital media. According to Steur (1994: 84),
into digital formats (Pavlik and McIntosh, interactivity refers to ‘the extent to which the
user can participate in modifying the form and and other such texts delivered straight to the
content of a mediated environment in real mobile handsets have moralists worried as
time’. Besides, Jensen (1998: 201) argues that these do not ostensibly conform to societal
interactivity involves the ability of a medium to mores. The argument has been that rational
‘let the user exert an influence on the content adult human beings should not be policed or
or form of the mediated communication’. told what to consume as long as that is within
the law. But given the fact that pornography
Despite the growth of consumer participation
is illegal in Kenya as indeed other African
in media productions, especially journalism,
countries, there is the notion that unchecked,
for example, there are numerous concerns
unmonitored or unregulated mobile industry
that this has eroded professional values.
is becoming the new site of immoral and
The credibility and reliability of information
unlawful material.
generated by citizens practicing citizen
journalism is often in doubt although In addition, the media choices available as a
sometimes even established mainstream result of commercial and market demands
use content generated by audiences. In fact, and pressures are pushing media towards
oftentimes it is such media that encourage what Allan (2004: 194) calls ‘sleazoid’
users to contribute content, and thus journalism in which content becomes more
participate more actively in productions. The sensationalist as the news agenda is now
rise of YouTube, Twitter, Facebook and other increasingly determined by its potential for
similar social media is seen as typical examples generating revenue. This undoubtedly affects
of active user-participation. The success the way media behave and what they avail
of such social media thus persuades other to consumers especially those who desire
media, most of which actually have Facebook, particular custom-made content that might
YouTube and Twitter accounts; there is need not subscribe to prescribed particular legal,
for such media-audience relationships. As cultural or societal requirements. Besides, it has
indicated above, the attendant symbiotic become easier for prosumers to circumvent
relationship and discipleship developed from regulators or moral police because content is
such strategies leads to brand loyalty which is demand driven and might not be on the mass
important as competition for audiences and market.
revenue intensifies.
Specifically then, in terms of regulation, unlike
Regulation traditional media such as TV, radio and print,
The growth of the media industry that would be easier to regulate and police,
notwithstanding, media industry watchers, mobile media offers opportunities to beat
regulators and moral police have begun regulation and control. For example, it is
to worry about the quality of content vis- significantly easier to infringe copyright and
à-vis societal mores which they reckon is intellectual property. The ability and capacity
increasingly corrupted because of lack of strict to download material without worrying about
controls oftentimes applied to traditional sanctions or penalties is increasing despite
media. The democratic nature of mobile and efforts to strengthen state and international
citizen journalism means producers of these law. Besides, the global nature of mobile media
new forms of journalism and media products means it is difficult to apply state law to content
are unencumbered by particular legal or even originating elsewhere. Even if international
cultural strictures and considerations. Indeed law was to become an instrument for fighting
if mobile phones are not used by scammers piracy and copyright infringement, there is
and criminals to fleece unsuspecting innocent hardly capacity to deal with the emerging
users and even gullible people, pornographic problems (cf. Kung, Pickard and Towse, 2008:
11-12). Accordingly, there is without doubt Research Methodology
the need for policy and regulatory framework Methodology
as well as change in consumer behaviour Sampling
to deal with numerous problems that have This research used purposive sampling
arisen from the increasing appropriation and technique. This was informed by the fact that
adoption of digital technologies. the research aimed at determining the way
This research puts the above issues into the media in Kenya operate in the digital
perspective, and details both opportunities era. It was also meant to find out whether
and challenges obtaining the adoption and the appropriation of digital technologies
use of digital technologies. More importantly, have affected the practices of journalism
this research seeks to determine how the particularly with regards to sustainability,
media and journalism can navigate the storms and application of and effect on the values
of digitisation and what it takes to survive in of pluralism and diversity, transparency
the age of digitisation. and accountability, editorial independence,
freedom of expression and information,
Objectives of the project public service, and professional standards.
Overall objective These issues determined the selection of
To determine whether the media can operate secondary material as well as primary sources
sustainably while upholding principal values and methods.
of pluralism and diversity, transparency
and accountability, editorial independence, Secondary and primary research
freedom of expression and information, public Secondary material
service, and high professional standards. The research conducted both literature
review and document analysis. This related
Specific objectives specifically to secondary material examining
Examine the impact of the digital migration the application of digital technologies in
on journalism and media in Kenya. media and journalism operations not only
Examine digital migration and media in Kenya but elsewhere. This was meant
freedom issues in Kenya and elsewhere. to determine current application of digital
technologies, and what effects or impact they
Provide strategies on how digital migration have had on journalism and media practices
can be harnessed and promoted for the and operations, as well as evidence to support
good of the media sector in Kenya. and validate facts. This also informed the
Assess how social media and other forms issues to examine, and choice of sources to
of internet-driven media have influenced interrogate.
media operations and journalistic practices. Primary research
Establish key benchmarks that may inform The research used both qualitative and
policies and regulations governing the quantitative methods to collect primary
digital switchover. data. Questionnaires were used to collect
quantitative data while interviews were
Recommend global industry best practices
conducted with key respondents in the media
that promote and protect media freedom
sector so as to give qualitative data.
in the age of digitisation.
Questionnaires
Using the above objectives, this research used
The research drew and sent out a
various methods in the collection and analyses
questionnaire (see a copy of the questionnaire
of both primary and secondary material.
in Appendix 1) to journalists all over the
country. The questionnaire contained both
open-ended and closed-ended questions unstructured, but mostly semi-structured
to collect both standard information while in-depth) interviews were used to extract
giving respondents opportunity to offer their information from key informants in Kenya.
views on numerous issues. Accordingly, the
In-depth interviews were conducted with
questionnaires offered both quantitative and
senior editors in leading mainstream media
qualitative data.
houses, directors of two of the new digital
The questionnaire was distributed mainly TV stations; Elimu TV which broadcasts
to journalists in the database of the Media education content and Njata TV (a station
Council of Kenya (MCK). This is because MCK that broadcasts in Kikuyu language). Most
keeps a list and contacts of all accredited of the editors interviewed are in charge of
journalists working in Kenya, including digital platforms in their media houses. Two
those working full time for media houses, scholars from two local universities were also
correspondents, freelancers and even trainees interviewed. Another interviewee was an
in various universities and colleges (see official with the Association of Media Women
the list of accredited journalists at <http:// in Kenya (AMWIK).
www.mediacouncil.or.ke/en/mck/index.
The interviewees were sampled because of
php/programs/mck-accreditation/2015-list-
the positions they occupy in Kenya’s media
of-accredited-journalists>). Consequently,
and journalism as well as their understanding
all journalists in Kenya were given an equal
of and research into the practices of journalism
opportunity to participate in the research.
in Kenya. In addition, their comprehension
Moreover, journalists in Kenya work in a
of the application and effects of digital
cross range of media houses, including both
technologies in Kenya was also considered.
traditional and new media, and understand
both the opportunities and challenges they The interviews were conducted to generate
face in the digital era. One hundred and twenty views as well as corroborate data collected
journalists responded to the questionnaire using questionnaires and information
(See a presentation of the data and generated from documents. The interviews
discussion of the data and findings below). were conducted between the months of
Of those who responded to the questionnaire, November 2015 to January 2016.
58 per cent work as full time journalists, 25 Data analysis
per cent as correspondents and 17 per cent Data collected from the interviews was
contribute to various social media platforms. transcribed and the responses coded in
33 per cent work in television, 37 per cent in line with the interview guide. One of the
newspapers, 29 per cent in radio. Thirteen (13) challenges encountered during the data
per cent said they work for online platforms, collection process was finding time to
some in addition to of their main media. Fifty schedule interviews with the editors who
three per cent said they use computers (41 are extremely busy people. A majority of the
per cent desktop computers, and 11 per cent respondents agreed to face-to-face interviews
laptops) in their work. 94 per cent of those while others responded to questions via email.
interviewed said they have a social media
account and thus a significant number could
be accessing such media from their mobile
phones given the percentage of those who
use computers at work.
Interviews
Non- standardised (both semi-structured and
2 Introduction:
Digitisation in Perspective
The global debate on digital migration was What is digital TV broadcasting?

started in 2000 by member countries of the Digital broadcasting occurs through radio
International Telecommunication Union frequencies where multiplex transmitters
(ITU) (CA, n.d.). The countries later met at a are used “to allow the reception of multiple
conference in Geneva in 2006 and endorsed channels on a single frequency range” (CA,
an agreement requiring members to begin n.d.). The CA states that the main difference
a transition from analogue broadcasting between analogue television and digital
with a deadline that was set for June 2015. television is that analogue transmission
According to the agreement the countries “requires a large amount of bandwidth to
could transmit on both analogue and digital transmit sound and picture while the digital
platforms during the transitional period but transmission needs less but can “carry more
were expected to have switched to digital content and provide better quality pictures
broadcasting by June 2015. and sound” (CA, n.d.).
In Kenya, a task force to spearhead the digital
The move from analogue to digital TV
migration process was set up in March 2007.
The taskforce comprised of representatives
transmission: The Kenyan experience
from the Media Owners Association (MOA), The Digital Television Committee agreed
the Communications Commission of to carry out the analogue switch off in
Kenya (now Communications Authority phases. Nairobi and the surrounding areas
of Kenya (CA)), the Ministry of Information were to be switched off from analogue TV
and Communication (now the Ministry of in December 2013 while the other parts of
Information, Communication and Technology the country would be switched off in March
(ICT)), the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation 2014. One of the first steps in digital migration
(KBC), the of MCK and Association of was the issue of licensing broadcast signal
Practitioners in Advertising (APA). One of the distributors. A report by the CA describes
recommendations of the task force was for the a signal distributor as one who puts up
formation of a Digital Television Committee broadcasting infrastructure and enables a
(DTC) which was to oversee the migration number of broadcasters to share a transmitter
process. The committee was established (CA, n.d.). The CA report explains that the
in 2008. The committee’s representatives signal distributor ensures that the broadcaster
were drawn from the information ministry, concentrates on developing content and does
the communications commission, KBC, the not have to invest in expensive infrastructure
National Communications Secretariat (NCS), which was the case in analogue broadcasting.
signal distributors, Digital Decoders Dealers In 2009, the Digital Video Broadcasting-
Association, Digital Broadcasters Association,
Terrestrial (DVB-T) was launched with Signet,
Pay TV service providers and consumer
a company owned by KBC being the first
groups.
broadcast distributor. The country however, Broadcast Signal Distributor (BSD) licence
changed the digital transmission technology issued to PANG. This ruling was to open
to DVB-T2 in 2010 which is more superior another court battle, this time with CA moving
technologically. The first generation of DVB-T to the Supreme Court. In a ruling made on
technology was phased out in 2012. September 2014, the Supreme Court reversed
the decision on PANG, ordered the parties to
Due to challenges that the KBC-owned Signet
agree on a new date pending the June 2015
was facing, the DTC urged the government to
switch-off deadline but further ruled that CA
license more signal distributors. In 2011, the
revisit the application for a BSD licence made
Pan Africa Network Group (Kenya) (PANG) was
by the three main media houses.
licensed as the second signal distributor. PANG
is linked to Chinese-owned Star Times. Royal On 25 November 2014, CA issued a Self-
Media Services and NMG which had formed Provisioning Broadcasting Signal Distribution
a consortium, National Signal Networks (SPBSD) licence to the NMG, Royal Media
lost their bid for the licence and were also Services and SG through their consortium,
unsuccessful in their appeal to the Public Africa Digital Network (ADN). The licence
Procurement Administrative Review Board “enables a licencee to set up a broadcasting
(PPARB). The two media houses moved to infrastructure network to carry their own
court arguing that the then Communications content” (MCK, 2015: 18). CA was to later
Commission of Kenya was not an independent withdraw the licence after the stations aired
body as envisaged in article 34 of the Kenyan adverts accusing GOtv and Star Times of
constitution. carrying their content without consent.
While revoking the licence, CA’s director
Before the eventual move to digital TV on
general, Francis Wangusi termed the advert
14 February 2015, the DTC had set various
as misleading and a move that portrayed an
dates for analogue switch-off that were not
anti-competitive spirit (Wahito, 2015). The
to be (CA, n.d.). The first switch-off scheduled
licence was reinstated by the Supreme Court
on 30 June 2012 did not take off because
in February 2015.
there was a scarcity of set top boxes (STBs)
as the government was yet to order a duty In the 13 February 2015 ruling, the Supreme
waiver. The second migration date slated for Court declined to extend the analogue
31 December 2012 was stopped after the switch-off deadline as requested by the
Consumer Federation of Kenya (COFEK) went Nation, KTN and Citizen. Following the ruling,
to court to challenge the intended switch-off the CA ordered all broadcasters to switch off
on the argument that 2013 was an election their analogue transmission by midnight of
year and that there was the risk of leaving the same day. When the three stations failed
many Kenyans without the means of following to comply, CA switched off their analogue
political campaigns on TV. signals on 14 February 2015. The stations
then withdrew their content from other STBs
The third switch-off date set for 13 December
leading to a standoff with the CA that would
2013 failed after the NMG, Royal Media
last three weeks. The stations came back on
Services and SG moved to court to push for
air on 5 March 2015. Other main stations, for
an extension. A new date was later set for
example, KBC and K24 remained on air.
26 December 2013, which was effected by
the CA. However, this was later reversed on The face-off between CA and the three media
27 December 2013 through a court order. houses was to later create some economic
The Court of Appeal was to further push the constrains for some of the media companies.
switch-off date to September 2014. While For example, last year, the SG recorded a drop
delivering the ruling, the court nullified a in profits, a decrease which was attributed
to a number of challenges among them the consulted but CA maintained that it had
digital migration process. The company’s chief subjected the guidelines to both the public
executive officer, Sam Shollei was quoted and relevant stakeholders. CA stated that the
saying, “the migration from analogue to code was aimed at ensuring “that children are
digital TV broadcasting negatively impacted protected from unsuitable and inappropriate
viewership due to low penetration to set programmes during the family viewing
top boxes (STBs) at the time of migration” or listening hours otherwise referred to as
(Kangethe, 2015). watershed period (5.00am to 10.00pm)” (CA,
2016b).
Current status of digital migration in
the country. The Programming Code also gives guidelines
Kenya currently has 62 television and 139 on how news should be covered by broadcast
radio stations.1 This number is partly as a stations. The guidelines say that a station’s
consequence of the digital migration that news bulletins of the day should not be less
makes it easier to set up television stations. than one and a half hours of a station’s daily
According to the CA (2016a), there are programming. The code further states that
currently 3,094,893 set top boxes on digital news should have informational value rather
terrestrial television (DTT) platform. Of these, than be mere entertainment. According to
416,984 are free to air (FTA) STBs and 2,677,909 the code, broadcasting stations should ensure
pay TV STBs. According to the CA report they exhibit fairness, accuracy and objectivity
published in April 2016, by 31 December 2015 in their news reports. The code further
60 per cent of the Kenyan population had states that stations should ensure that user
access to digital television. The digital signal generated content (UGC) upholds decency
was on air in Nairobi, Nakuru, Nyeri, Mombasa, requirements, is not libelous, does not
Kisumu, Webuye, Eldoret, Malindi, Meru promote hate, does not infringe on copyright
(Nyambene), Kisii, Kericho, Narok, Nyahururu, and is also accurate.
Embu, Kisii, Machakos, Murang’a, Naivasha, The CA has said that broadcasters are expected
Nyeri, Webuye, Narok, Mbuinzau, Kapenguria, under law to comply with the guidelines,
Wajir, Kitui, Lamu and Namanga (CA, 2016a). six months from the time of publication of
Although the digital migration issue is the rules. The authority has pointed out that
now resolved, the new contentious debate broadcasters through an association can also
arising in the broadcast industry is the come up with a programming code which
Programme Code for free to air radio and TV they can be allowed to implement once it has
broadcasting stations published by the CA been scrutinised by CA (CA, 2016b).
on 31 December 2015. The Code outlines Journalism and Social Media
rules for free to air radio and TV stations. CA Defining social media
defended the publication of the code saying Social Media is a term used to describe a
it “outlines the programming standards that type of interactive media where users create
radio and TV broadcasters have to observe, content – including videos, audio materials,
and constitutes one of the licence conditions photos, images, gossip, news, etc. – and
that licensed broadcasters have to adhere share it among other users. To distinguish
to” (CA, 2016b). After the publication of the social media from traditional media, Knight
code, media owners said they were not & Cook (2013) describe it as a form of media
1 Communications Authority of Kenya (CA) (2016a) Quarterly whose prime role is interaction rather than
Sector Statistics Report Second Quarter for the Financial Year
2015/2016 (October-December 2015). Nairobi: CA. Also available
just dissemination of information. A similar
online at http://www.ca.go.ke/images/downloads/STATISTICS/ definition describes social media as “a category
Sector%20Statistics%20Report%20Q2%20FY%202015-2016.
pdf [Accessed 6 April 2016]. of internet-based resources that facilitate user
participation and user-generated content” YouTube is a social media network which has
(Flynn, 2012). been described by some as “the granddaddy
of video sharing sites” (Flynn, 2012). Through
Two key things about social media are
YouTube one can “upload, tag, describe, share,
participation and community (Hill & Lashmar,
find, watch, and comment on videos” (Flynn,
2013). Participation means that users of social
2012).
media not only consume content but also
produce it. Communities are the gatherings Wiki is a site where readers post and edit
on social media of people who share similar content. One of the most popular wikis is
interests. Some of the characteristics of social Wikipedia.
media include “participation, openness,
LinkedIn is a networking site where
conversation, community and connectivity”
professionals create profiles and connect to
(Hermida, 2012:60).
fellow professionals.
It is from the participatory nature of social
Blogs are websites where people post
media that the term citizen journalism
information and experiences. The name is a
emerges. Citizen journalism is a practice
short form of the term weblog. Blogs started
that some have described as “journalism
as personal dairies where people posted their
of the people, by the people and for the
personal experiences but have now evolved
people” (Banda, 2010: 26). Banda notes that
into a form of journalism which expounds
mainstream media have recognised the power
on issues emerging from mainstream media
of citizen journalism and have embraced it
(Harper, 2010).
with an intention of benefiting from it. He
adds that in the process of integrating citizen The rise of social media globally and
journalism into their practices, journalists are locally
finding ways “to inject their own professional Individuals use social media for a variety
instincts, rituals and practices” into the social of reasons ranging from “messaging and
media space (Banda, 2010: 29). communication, communities and social
Another term that is closely linked to social groups, social booking and tagging,
media is social networks. Social networks are collaboration and cooperation, opinions and
“online platforms where users create profiles, reviews among others (Waters & Lester, 2010).
post content, share information, and socialise Obijiofor (2015) states that youth in Africa
with others” (Flynn, 2012). Popular social media have embraced social media for the purposes
sites include, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, of connecting and interacting. He notes that
Instagram, LinkedIn, Google+, wikis, blogs social media has transformed the way youths
and one of the latest mobile apps, Whatsapp. “learn, communicate, collect information,
collaborate with their peers and entertain
Description of various social media themselves” (Obijiofor, 2015). Besides their
networks affordability and interactive nature, social
Facebook is a site which allows individuals media are attractive to African youth because
to create an online profile, share information of the greater degree of freedom they confer
and also invite others to connect with them on citizens, particularly freedom from political,
by being “friends” (Safko, 2012). social and economic control by political
leaders (Obijiofor, 2015:112).
Twitter is a “microblogging site that limits
messages, or tweets, to 140 characters” The influence of social media has been on
(Flynn, 2012). Twitter is a very popular social the rise since the Web 2.0 conference held in
networking forum. 2004 (Waters & Lester, 2010). At this period,
the web moved from a place for just posting
information to a place where users could that citizens used social media to monitor the
share and interact. Waters and Lester credit elections. He points out that through social
celebrities as the force that popularised media; citizens were able to perform the role
social media. The writers give the example of watchdog, in the same manner in which
of actor, Ashton Kutcher as one example of the mainstream media does. The citizens
a celebrity who popularised Twitter. Waters came together through online communities
and Lester say that Kutcher was able to with the goal of monitoring how the elections
attract a million followers on Twitter in 2009 were conducted. Ndlela describes this form of
making CNN acknowledge the power of pulling together as online communities so as
social media. Other Hollywood celebrities to accomplish a goal, crowdsourcing.
followed suit. United States President, Barack
But while Ndlela illustrates the positive power
Obama also popularised social media in
of social media use in Kenya during the 2013
his 2008 presidential campaign. Obama
general election, Lando and Mwangi (2014)
successfully used social networks such as
paint a different picture. The two scholars
Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Flick and others
posit that while there was no postelection
to campaign and to get his supporters to rally
violence on the streets in 2013, the battle was
others behind him (Waters & Lester, 2010).
fought via social media. In a study conducted
The power of social media was also seen as
among 106 adults in the country, Lando and
the force behind the Arab Spring that led to
Mwangi found that Kenyans used social media
regime change in governments in the Middle
to insult and vilify each other on ethnic lines.
East (Hinton & Hjorth, 2013).
The study described these insults as a form of
Globally, a lot of media organisations have verbal violence.
adopted social media. For example, the
The Commonwealth Observer Group which
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) began
monitored the 2013 Kenyan elections noted
integrating social media in 2006. Among the
the increased use of social media by both the
major events that led to this integration were
citizens and the Independent Electoral and
“the Saffron Revolution in Myanmar of 2006,
Boundaries Commission (IEBC). Mainstream
the Mumbai attacks of 2006, the Mumbai
media also used social media to disseminate
attacks of 2008, the Iranian elections of 2009,
information to the public and also to interact
and the Haiti earthquake of 2010” (Gagnon-
with their audiences. Some of the social media
Belair, 2015: 24).
platforms used include Facebook, Twitter and
Kenya’s social media growth has been on the YouTube among others (Commonwealth
rise since the 2007 general election. The 2007- Secretariat, 2013). The report points out that
2008 election crisis left many citizens thirsty the IEBC used social media to update the
for information that was not forthcoming public on the events before the elections,
from the mainstream media. This gap in the during the elections and after. Politicians
dissemination of news saw a group of Kenyans were also not left behind in the use of social
decide to use social media to share any media. They used media to campaign and
information they received. The registration of also to update the public on their political
the first Twitter account, @kamuiri had been events. According to the report, a majority of
done a bit earlier in March 2007 (Digital Rand, Kenyans who interacted on these social media
2014). Other twitter accounts registered platforms used their mobile phones.
shortly after were @kenyamoto and @
A research conducted by Pew Global Research
Sonnimuriuki.
showed that 88 per cent of Kenyan Internet
During the 2013 elections there were more users’ access social media sites (Macharia,
Kenyans using social media. Ndlela (2016) says 2015). According to the CA, most of these
Kenyans use their smartphones to access the current audiences but also seek to enlarge
Internet. the numbers of those loyal to them and their
media outlets) (Ayish & Mellor, 2015). Social
The growth of social media in Kenya has
media have been described as powerful tools
continued with more politicians embracing
in guiding journalists in new ways of telling
the interactive forums. A January 2016 study
stories (Haddow & Haddow, 2013). This is
conducted by the American public relations
because social media have various tools that
firm Burson-Martseller ranked President
enable convergence of audio, video and text.
Uhuru Kenyatta who has two million likes on
Facebook as the most popular sub-Saharan Social media have become a very important
African leader on social media (Agutu, tool for a journalist. This can be explained by
2016). Likewise, other politicians have also the fact that a good number of organisations
embraced social media. A Jubilee Alliance and prominent people sometimes choose to
Party politician, Aaron Cheruiyot who won the give their news via their social media accounts
party nomination ticket for the Kericho Senate rather than go the traditional way of calling a
seat and later the election attributed his win press conference (Bull, 2015). What this means
to his social media campaigns (Psirmoi, 2016). is that a journalist must follow his or her sources
The politician said that although many people on their social media platforms. Therefore, the
did not know him before the campaign, they suggestion is not that a journalist should be
got to know him through Facebook. He added on social media but that a journalist must be
that this made it easier for him to campaign on social media.
as those who had not interacted with him
Before the emergence of social media,
personally had already done so through social
journalists were the custodians of scoops
media.
and breaking news. However, social media
In Kenya, young people use their smartphones have changed this scenario, with journalists
to interact on social media and get information sometimes receiving a big story “third hand
on the goings on in society. There are currently (sometimes even fourth or fifth)” after the
37.7 million mobile phone subscribers in same has been posted on social media
Kenya, with the penetration rate standing at (Alejandro, 2010: 9). The work of the reporter
87.7 per cent. There number of Internet users now becomes to retell the story in a different
is now 35.5 million, a penetration level of 82.6 manner, sometimes having to verify some
(CA, 2016a). A report compiled by Digital Rand facts that were not clear in the story posted
and the Bloggers Association of Kenya (BAKE) on social media. Alejandro further argues that
in 2014 says there were four million Kenyans the face of competition for mainstream media
using social media at the time. The report is changing, with social media networks such
stated that of this four million, Facebook had as Facebook and Twitter being a strong source
the largest users at 3.8 million followed by of news for a huge segment of the population.
LinkedIn at over one million while Twitter This new scenario has made the journalist take
trailed third with 650,000 users. on the “role of the curator whose primary role
is to navigate, sift, select and contextualize the
Use of social media by journalists
vast amounts of data on social media streams”
There are various ways in which journalists use
(Hermida, 2012: 313).
social media. They include, news gathering
(this is done by connecting to sources, A study conducted among six top editors of
verifying information, giving information), global media organisations found that media
branding (journalists promote themselves and organisations use social media for “branding
the organisations they work for) and enlarge and making a presence in the social media
market share (journalists not only connect to sphere, driving traffic to the company’s news
website and breaking news” (Alejandro, 2010: But even as social media enthusiasts regard
24). The six editors were from BBC, Agence themselves as the fifth estate, there are those
France Presse (AFP) (both in USA and Canada, who feel that we cannot disregard traditional
and Singapore), Bernama Radio24 (Malaysia) media either. Their view is that while social
and Antara News Agency (Indonesia). media is good at breaking stories that
traditional media may initially shy away from,
The editors were asked questions relating to
mainstream media is instrumental in digging
social media use by the media organisations
deeper into issues and ensuring they get the
during the news coverage of the 2010 Haiti
attention of those in authority (Nyabuga &
earthquake. The editors said that they used
Booker, 2013).
Twitter to get news about the earthquake
but that they used blogs to disseminate The continued integration of social media into
the news. The preference for blogs as a tool traditional journalism has increased the speed
to disseminate the news was due to the and immediacy with which news is reported
extra space available to write a longer story. (Hermida, 2012). Journalists are today required
Alejandro reports that five out of the six to disseminate news as fast as they can, even
editors hailed social media as an important as they are still expected by their professional
tool for receiving news because of its speed duties to verify the information they give
and immediacy. out. Social media platforms are especially
important in breaking news where there
According to the study, the main risks of using
may be no reporters on the ground. In this
social media in journalism were concerns
case, the work of the professional journalist
about “accuracy, need for verification and the
is to verify the reports on social media gather
loss of control over the information” (Alejandro,
more information on the matter and then
2010: 24). The editors felt that although social
disseminate the news to the public.
media make the work of journalists easier and
faster, reporters must be careful to verify every Witschge & Nygren (2009) in a study conducted
piece of information before disseminating it. among journalists in Sweden and England
argue that the rise of social media and citizen
Impact of social media on journalism
journalism has led to a de-professionalisation
practice of the media profession. They note that
Social media has changed the power although journalists enjoy easier access
structure in journalism, with traditional media to sources, citizen journalists can bypass
now having to recognise the importance of newsrooms and disseminate information on
the audience “not just as news sources but various platforms online. The study however,
as news censors” (Hermida, 2012: 313). This adds that although professional standards
explains why social media has been referred in journalism are diminishing because of the
by some as the fifth estate (Cooper, 2006; changes in the profession, there is “a return to
Jericho, 2012). As the fifth estate, social media professional values by journalists themselves,
monitor mainstream media for inaccuracies which they deem sets them apart from other
and misreporting in a similar way to that in news providers in the current broadened
which traditional media are seen as a fourth mediascape” (Witschge & Nygen, 2009: 38).
estate that keeps the various government
arms in check. Because of the participatory and One of the main challenges that social media
open nature of social media, users are bolder has had on traditional journalism is the loss of
in discussing topics that mainstream media revenue for mainstream media organisations
which have strict gate keeping processes are (Lipschultz, 2015). The audiences for offline
likely to shy away from. media seem to be diminishing while the
younger generation tends to be more social
media-oriented. The tricky part is that the
online audience prefers to get the content
free and is yet to embrace the concept
of subscription. This means that media
organisations are still grappling with ways to
generate money from their online platforms
besides what they make from advertising
(Wellbrock, 2016).
3 Introduction:
The Impact of Digitisation on Media and Journalism in Kenya
Digital technologies have had significant determined not by the available technologies
effects on media and journalism practices in and digitisation but how well journalists and
Kenya, whether in the production, distribution media houses appropriate and use digital
or consumption of content. Indeed, as recent technologies.
trends, strategies and decisions as well as
primary data discussed below show, the Coopetition
media and journalists now have a range of In efforts to survive and thrive in the digital
technologies including computers, mobile era, media organisations have had to devise
phones, email and different applications various strategies. One of the most surprising
which they use in their everyday journalistic moves in the recent past was the decision
practices. by the SG and Radio Africa to work together
to advance common interests. Although
Further, as evidence below shows, the effects the three leading media groups in Kenya,
are as disparate as the applications of the namely the NMG, Royal Media Services and
technologies, and often depend on modalities SG through their consortium, Africa Digital
of use rather than mere presence. What is Network (ADN), were on 25 November 2014
not in doubt, however, is that the effects are granted a licence by the CA to “set up a
enormous and they could be considered broadcasting infrastructure network to carry
both positive and negative depending their own content”, the deal fell through when
on both individual use and organisational they sought to challenge the government on
decisions and modalities of use. In terms of the switch off date. The resulting standoff
media productions, the media houses and between the group and the CA that lasted
workers believe technologies have aided the three weeks between 14 February and 5
production of content, making it easier and March 2015 ended in failure by the group to
effective to produce material that is relevant actualise or effect their cooperation.
to the needs of various publics – audiences,
advertisers, government and others – while Nonetheless, recent events seem to
at the same time helping them develop and have revived or embraced ‘coopetition’,
strengthen various revenue streams especially a phenomenon described as ‘business
in Kenya’s increasingly competitive digital arrangements and strategies in which rival
media marketplace. companies that normally compete establish
cooperative activities through alliances,
This chapter offers a discussion of the effects partnerships, sharing arrangements and
of digitisation on the practice of journalism networks’ (Kung et al., 2008: 131). The
as well as media businesses. Based on such philosophy behind coopetition is that it
issues as coopetition and convergence, this ‘stabilizes competition by differentiation and
chapter argues that digitisation is a natural niche recognition, by seeking organisational
consequence of technological development. effectiveness through flexibility, adaptation
However, the success or failure would be and limiting expenditures, by seeking to
improve the positions of co-operators Mr. Shollei’s arguments above resonate
against a common threat or in exploring a with a majority of those interviewed for this
risky opportunity’ (Kung et al., 2008: 131). The research who contend that digitisation not
motive behind such activities is that synergy, only offers more but also diverse and quality
cooperation, and resource maximisation will content. The respondents attribute this to the
generate benefits and growth for everyone increased number of TV channels available
involved, and that cooperation rather than in Kenya which they feel are now working
competition may be the key to future success. harder in their efforts to compete and
appeal to audiences who can easily migrate
This coopetition was, for example, actualised
elsewhere given available choice. They cited
on 18 February 2016 when the Standard
the emergence of news channels such as KTN
Group signed a Ksh300 million deal with Radio
News, a 24-hour news channel, as evidence
Africa, the publishers of the Star newspaper
that Kenyans now have more access to news,
and owners of radio stations as Classic 105FM,
current affairs, documentaries and other
Kiss 100FM, Radio Jambo, XFM and East FM,
programs. In this sense, the respondents
and television station Kiss TV, for a 50 per
celebrate digitisation because consumers
cent stake in in Lancia Digital Broadcasting,
have a variety of choice, and now enjoy an
the trademark owner of Bamba TV. The SG
increased diversity, including a multiplicity
publishes two newspapers The Standard
of voices and viewpoints represented on
(Daily, Saturday, and Sunday editions), and
different types of content. The respondents
The Nairobian, two TV channels – KTN Home
also feel the competition birthed by the
and KTN News – and a radio station – Radio
multiplicity would result in better or quality
Maisha. The company also runs an outdoor
content. Mr. Rob Jillo, the Online Editor at
media advertising business – Think Outdoor.
Capital FM, argues that competition birthed
The partnership allows viewers to access the by digitisation is a blessing to both media
two KTN channels on Bamba TV, a free-to-view companies and audiences. He argues that
multiple international channel service with the migration from analogue to digital
countrywide distribution. This deal, according transmission has enhanced the quality of
to SG CEO Sam Shollei, will enhance consumer programmes because increased “competition
experience whilst delivering audiences to has forced media houses to work harder to
advertisers in a bid aimed at benefiting meet their audiences needs and tastes.” This
the two companies. “Through Bamba TV view is shared by Ms. Christine Mbithi-Magori,
we will not only continue to offer the very the Online Editor at Mediamax, and Mr. Edwin
best of KTN but now also, a multiplicity of Gitau, the Director of Njata TV who feel the
competitive international and local channels pressure to appeal to disparate audiences can
for our viewers across the entire country. We only lead to “better” and “richer” content.
are offering our advertisers increased variety
Although it’s still early to judge the overall
from a channel perspective while ensuring a
quality of news and current affairs, Mr. Nathan
higher return on investment with audiences
Masambu, a lecturer at Daystar University,
that are targeted and specific. We will also be
feels digitisation has significantly improved
looking to develop and adapt international
the quality of television programmes. To him,
formats and shows for the local market so that
“Kenyans now have access to more channels
we can not only meet audience expectations
including international ones with better news
but start to define new content categories,”
and other content. They are thus becoming
said Shollei during the launch.2
more exposed and informed. In effect, given
2 See Standard Reporter (2016) ‘Standard in Sh300m deal with
that Kenyans can now get news from different
Bamba TV to raise participation in digital TV’. The Standard sources, the local stations must offer better
[online], 18 February. Available at <http://www.standardmedia.
co.ke/business/article/2000192090/standard-group-in-sh300-
… they have to work hard to improve the
million-deal-to-raise-participation-in-digital-tv>. [Accessed 18 quality of their programmes. The multiplicity
February 2016].
of channels makes the quality of news better.” channels. The free-to-view package on digital
Accordingly, the SG-Radio Africa deal and terrestrial television is a first in Africa. Over
other than have recently been announced the next five years, it is expected that the
are seen as a promise of better albeit fluid or company will invest up to KSh1 billion in the
unpredictable times. service subject to regulatory approval.”5
Bamba is accessible through a one-off Whether such self-promotion meets the
purchase of a set top box currently retailing public and audience expectation is another
at Sh3,599. Thereafter the programming is free matter but it is clear that companies are feeling
of charge for life. Bamba has reportedly rolled the pressure of the digitisation process and
out 13 broadcast sites across the country with thus the need to develop new relationships
70 percent coverage of television households. and business models to survive. In fact, a few
The service carries over 30 local and days after the SG-Radio Africa deal and in
international channels, the majority of which anticipation of the increased competition in
were previously only available on Pay TV. the industry, the StarTimes Media announced
Bamba TV now competes with GOtv with and it was cutting its monthly subscription fees for
StarTimes. According to a survey conducted its two premier pay television bouquets by
by GeoPoll in December 2015, 41 per cent of up to 40 per cent. The company dropped its
Kenyans own a GOtv set top box followed by StarTimes satellite (Super) price by Ksh1,000
StarTimes with 24%.3 from KSh2,499 to KSh1,499 a month. Those on
terrestrial (Unique) package now pay Sh1,499,
The deal is thus seen as a way of catching up
a 29 per cent drop from the previous Sh2,099.
with the competitors and allowing the two
The company’s vice president Mr. Mark Lisboa
companies to leverage on their positions
said the move was informed by the need to
in Kenya. “We will be looking to roll out an
drive uptake of the pay TV services through
additional 12 sites while optimising the
affordable pricing.
current 13 sites that we already have in place
over the next nine months. This signals the Moreover, the arrival of United States’s Netflix
importance of developing partnerships that has further jolted the industry. Being online
are underpinned by the resolve to provide and the fact that it offers unlimited access to
solutions for common challenges,” said Radio movies, documentaries and series at monthly
Africa’s CEO Mr. Patrick Quarcoo.4 rates of between Sh815 and Sh1,222, means
companies are now again facing competition
In the story published by The Standard, for the local market from global players based
partly to promote and justify the deal, the everywhere and nowhere in the virtual and
“new partnership will see KTN offer more networked world. This is especially because
and diverse programming via the Bamba TV their rates are significantly lower than that
platform ensuring that it continues to be the which Kenyan, for example, pay TV firms
preferred home of family entertainment in the Wananchi Group and MultiChoice (the owner
country. Bamba TV is positioned as Kenya’s of the DStv brand). The two companies
premier family entertainment platform airing operate Zuku and DSTV respectively. Perhaps
cartoons for children, movies, entertainment because of the fluidity and unpredictability
and fashion channels for women, sports and of the market, in September 20-15, DSTV
news channels for men as well as documentary increased its bouquet costs by up to 15 per
3 See Wainaina, Eric (2016) ‘Gotv is the most popular decoder as set
top box ownership at 71% of TV owners’. Techweez [online], 19 cent to charge between KSh1, 050 and KSh9,
January. Available at <http://www.techweez.com/2016/01/19/ 400 a month. On the other hand, Zuku charges
gotv-most-popular-decoder-in-kenya/> [Accessed 7 March
2016]. between KSh1, 199 and KSh9, 799. Netflix,
4 See Standard Reporter (2016) ‘Standard in Sh300m deal with 5 See Standard Reporter (2016) ‘Standard in Sh300m deal with
Bamba TV to raise participation in digital TV’. The Standard Bamba TV to raise participation in digital TV’. The Standard
[online], 18 February. Available at <http://www.standardmedia. [online], 18 February. Available at <http://www.standardmedia.
co.ke/business/article/2000192090/standard-group-in-sh300- co.ke/business/article/2000192090/standard-group-in-sh300-
million-deal-to-raise-participation-in-digital-tv>. [Accessed 18 million-deal-to-raise-participation-in-digital-tv>. [Accessed 18
February 2016]. February 2016].
whose high uptake in the US has hit audience Kenyan – the best TV channels free for the
ratings and slashed advertising revenues rest of their lives. We will also create a diversity
for cable and satellite channels, already has of content and give Kenyan producers an
about 74 million subscribers mainly in the US opportunity to build and launch their own
and Europe. However, the fact that people channels on Bamba TV,” Mr. Shollei says.
need significant bandwidth may work against
The arrangement between two competing
Netflix. Granted, the growing access to
companies marks a new one in Kenya’s
smartphones means people can watch Netflix
capitalistic and competitive media
on the go from their phones and other mobile
environment. For one, the deal makes sense
devices. What’s more, because it is one of the
in the digital environment where television
leading providers of Internet connection
companies offering different programmes
alongside Jamii Telecom, Zuku could benefit
and targeting different audiences can gang
from Netflix given people will need significant
up to deliver a bigger audience especially to
bandwidth to enjoy its content. In fact, such
the advertisers. And this is what Mr. Shollei
thinking has already piqued the interest of
alludes to in his assertion that they will offer
Zuku whose management says they are
“advertisers increased variety from a channel
ready to capitalise on Netflix’s entry. “We
perspective while ensuring a higher return
have prepared the network for the influx of
on investment with audiences that are
customers that believe in the reliability of
targeted and specific”. Such arguments may
Zuku fiber. Netflix users can count on Zuku’s
demonstrate the increasing corporatisation
broadband to complete their experience,”
and coopetition in Kenya’s media environment
said Santiago Benedit, Wananchi’s group chief where underlying profit motives inform
executive, in a story published in the Nation.6 business decisions and strategies. However,
Zuku and other Internet service providers given the growing support for the free market
might also count on other entrants including economy (characterised by liberalisation,
Sweden-based software and infrastructure deregulation and market reform), it makes
firm Ericsson which is reported to be eyeing sense to cooperate and survive. There is also
the Kenyan TV market with a video-on- the thinking that such trends would promote
demand service that will be broadcast on efficiency, productivity, competitiveness,
smartphones and tablets. It is reported that increased investment and innovation
subscribers will either pay a monthly premium and attendant by-products like greater
fee of about Sh511 to access all content or a employment, lower prices and more consumer
weekly fee of about Sh204 which offers select choice (cf. Brittan, 1983; Davis, 2007; Littlechild,
content.7 2000). In addition, the move could be seen as a
Back to the SG-Radio Africa deal, it is clear that remedy to dwindling fortunes at the SG which
the SG has had to rethink its initial resistance made losses amounting to Sh289.6 million in
to the digital switchover. According to Mr. the year ended December 2015 compared
Shollei, the move is part of riding the tide of to a profit of Sh220 million the previous year.
digitisation. “We totally are supportive of the The company attributes the loss to increased
digital migration initiative and this partnership costs, bad debts, one-off restructuring costs
heralds a new television era for the ordinary and accelerated depreciation of equipment.
The group’s revenue slipped to Sh4.5 billion
6 Mutegi, Mugambi (2016) ‘Kenya pay-TV firms set to feel the from Sh4.8 billion in 2014 even as operating
heat of Netflix launch’. Nation [online], 8 January. Available
at <http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Corporate-
costs rose to Sh4.7 billion from Sh4.4 billion in
News/Kenya-pay-TV-firms-set-to-feel-the-heat-of-Netflix- the period under review.8
launch/-/539550/3025120/-/kuc6eg/-/index.html> [Accessed 8
January 2016].
7 Mark, Okuttah (2015) ‘Ericsson eyes Kenya pay-TV market with 8 See Nation Reporter (2016) ‘Standard Group shelves dividend
on-demand videos’. Nation [online], 22 December. Available as losses bite’. Nation [online], 29 March. Available at <http://
at <http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Corporate-News/ www.nation.co.ke/business/corporates/Standard-Group-burns-
Ericsson-eyes-Kenya-pay-TV-market/-/539550/3005432/-/ Sh289mn-worth-of-assets-/-/1954162/3137590/-/9xj65dz/-/
wca7fd/-/index.html> [Accessed 22 December 2015]. index.html> [Accessed 29 March 2016].
Even though it may seem that the SG is doing do not visit websites. It is a platform for editors
badly, the fortunes at the NMG are not rosy to meet audiences in a friendly or preferred
either. Its earnings announced in March platform.” These sentiments are shared by
2016 show that the group’s full-year earnings others like Mr. Churchill Otieno, the Managing
dropped to Sh2.2 billion from Sh2.5 billion a Editor in charge of Digital Convergence at the
year earlier. The drop was attributed to the NMG who says: “Social media has delivered
disruption of its TV business during a turbulent audiences to us. It has taken news to the
migration to digital broadcasting that caused people. It is giving people an opportunity to
a month-long shutdown of TV stations in a be heard.”
stand-off with the CA.9 Some interviewees for this research, however,
Interestingly, the NMG’s chief executive officer hold different views. They feel that social media
Mr. Joe Muganda, identified the digital space has been slowly eating into the revenue of
as a key area of growth for the media house, traditional media. Mr. Timothy Wanyonyi, the
which already has a sizeable digital footprint Managing Editor of Saturday Nation attributes
in the region and which it seeks to optimize. the loss of revenue to online consumers who
“Our digital profits, though small, grew by want content free of charge. He, however, says
more than 200 per cent over last year and that matters could change in future if people
we expect its revenues to constitute eight to found ways to monetise digital content. Mr.
10 per cent of our total revenues in the near Kinoti Gituma of Royal Media shares these
term,” said Mr. Muganda.10 sentiments, arguing that it is important for
media organisations to come up with business
Such predictions are based on the fact the models for their online platforms.
digital space is the new frontier which media
companies in Kenya as elsewhere are keen to However, some respondents argue that
exploit in attempts to survive in the increasingly the digital platform is already making good
competitive yet unpredictable digital era. For money for media organisations. Mr. Ohito for
instance, the news was followed by statistics example, describes Standard Digital as one
showing that the NMG has more than six of the most profitable online platforms in
million followers on Facebook, 2.6 million on Kenya. “We sell e-papers, digital ads, Google
Twitter and 106,000 on Instagram. The social AdSense, and have companies stream live on
media platforms popular among the various our platform,” he says. Ms. Mbithi-Magori of
media houses include Facebook, Twitter, Mediamax and Mr. Jillo of Capital FM also note
Whatsapp, Pinterest, YouTube, Instagram and that digital platforms make money through,
Google+. People interviewed for this study say for example, adverts posted on websites
social media has become an integral part of even though people like Dr. Samuel Kamau, a
modern media and journalism practices. For lecturer at the Aga Khan University Graduate
example, Ms. Mbithi-Magori of K24 says: “News Media School, feel that online adverts are still
cannot exist without online platforms. In 2008, not a huge source of income given that online
Facebook had been banned in newsrooms, news consumers hardly click on adverts or
now a journalist cannot work without quickly skip when offered an opportunity on
Facebook.” To Mr. David Ohito, the head of sites like YouTube.
Standard Digital Content: “Social media is a While attempts to monetise content on
way of taking news to bigger audiences who such platforms are not easy given the
9 See Nation Reporter (2016) ‘Nation Media Group keeps full- competition from other media houses,
year dividend level but profits lag’. Nation [online], 22 March.
Available at <http://www.nation.co.ke/business/Nation-Media- upcoming companies and even startups
Group-keeps-dividend-as-earnings-lag/-/996/3128658/-/ and individual digerati, the attempts to
jpm819/-/index.html> [Accessed 22 March 2016].
10 See Nation Reporter (2016) ‘Nation Media Group keeps full- invest in digital platforms is important given
year dividend level but profits lag’. Nation [online], 22 March. notions that to ignore such spaces would be
Available at <http://www.nation.co.ke/business/Nation-Media-
Group-keeps-dividend-as-earnings-lag/-/996/3128658/-/ perilous and unwise. These views are shared
jpm819/-/index.html> [Accessed 22 March 2016].
by respondents for this research who believe efficient particularly in organisations with
digitisation has introduced changes to the multiplatform operations. In fact, what the
modi operandi in television stations. For NMG was implementing is what the SG did
example, Ms. Jane Muthiga, a Director at Elimu a few years ago as part of its convergence
TV, believes that digital migration has changed strategy which entailed bringing together
the concept of news and programming. To various teams to work towards common
her, “digital migration has changed the TV goals aimed at the maximisation (and even
world. The TV world was previously focused exploitation) of human, monetary and other
on politics and entertainment but we are resources in an era where companies are
now seeing TV becoming a development cutting costs amid stiff competition and
tool. It is a development tool because we are declining audience and revenue share. Such
now focusing on development issues such as thinking gave rise to a converged newsroom
education. Digital TV has opened up space that allowed journalists to work together,
and journalists need to come to the space and share ideas and the diary, stories and work for
lead positively.” various products and platforms.
Ms. Muthiga also points out that digital TV has While the NMG announcement was apparently
changed the concept of prime time. “At Elimu received with consternation by workers who
all our time is prime time because students are feel they are expected to multitask without
interested in learning and we teach various corresponding compensation (especially
levels of students in the different hours of the monetary), David Aduda, the NMG’s head
day. If you are an advertiser, you can target a of Business Development, says this is part
particular group of learners during the time of streamlining work processes aimed at
their lesson is airing,” she says. making news collection more efficient and
cost-effective. The merging of teams is also
The change experienced due to digitisation
expected to serve the newsroom that is
has also spread to the public broadcaster, the
now operating on a 24-hour shift as part of
Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC). Mr.
Kennedy Osir, the Chief News Editor at KBC attempts to meet the news and information
argues that digital migration has allowed the demands of its audience.11 However, this
national broadcaster to run more news on KBC increasing synergy within major media
channel 1 because the station has offloaded organisations is not lost to people who feel
some of the other content to Heritage TV, a that the practices are subsuming journalistic
channel also owned by the corporation and practices within the overall corporate goals
dedicated purely to entertainment. of the media firms and the profit motive that
is driving media decisions and strategies.
Convergence What’s more, the merging of desks as well
In February 2016, the NMG announced that – part of the convergence strategy – is
it was merging its business reporting teams changing newsroom organisation and
as a way of restructuring editorial practices structure, and patterns of news and content
and streamlining business and related production. These changes could be seen as
news reporting, analyses and presentation both disruptive and effective in an era where
on its various platforms. Whilst this news immediacy or instantaneity and simultaneity
was welcomed with both celebration and are also desirable. Whilst these moves are
resistance, it was long in coming given many both desirable and inevitable, they are
media organisations’ efforts to streamline undoubtedly creating internal pressures for
work processes. In what Pavlik (2000) refers journalists that some contend conflict with
to as the changing nature of the structure traditional principles of journalism, including
and organisation of the newsroom, such specialisation (cf. Campbell, 2004: 246).
business decisions are meant to ensure that
The above arguments are borne out by
journalists and media workers are more
11 Based on a telephone interview with Aduda, 1 March 2016.
primary data. More than half of those means there is no clear demarcation between,
interviewed, 54 per cent (See Figure 3.1), say, a print and a broadcast journalist.
indicate that it is now normal to write for more
Figure 3.2: Are you expected to be multi-
than one platform. This is especially true for
skilled to survive in the media?
those working in media houses with multiple,
for example, television, newspapers, radio and
online platforms.
No
Figure 3.1: Are you expected to write for 25%
more than one medium?
Yes
75%
No
46%
Yes
54%
A large majority of the journalists interviewed

– 82 per cent – said their work had been
significantly impacted by the digitisation, and
available technologies which have made it
easier to access information and write stories
In fact, the top four media houses have all and other content. Figure 3.3 below shows
the aforementioned platforms. The NMG, SG, the huge figures of respondents who have
Mediamax, and Radio Africa, have television, no doubt about the effects of digitisation
newspaper, radio, and online platforms and on their work. Seen as both beneficial and
journalists – including staff members, and disruptive, many of those interviewed are
correspondents – are expected to produce hugely optimistic that digitisation makes
content that fit into the platforms. Royal Media work not only easier but also interesting. All
Services and KBC with their television, radio the respondents agree that digital media
and online platforms also expect their media has had a profound effect on the journalism
workers to produce content suitable for all profession. Narrating how digital media has
of them. The expectations and the fact that changed journalism, the respondents say
many journalists are now expected to, and news gathering had been made easier, less
indeed are, multi-skilled is a boon to not only costly and more interactive. They argue that
the workers themselves but the media houses news is now reported in real time. To Ohito, for
which are increasingly demanding that their example, “digitisation is the greatest thing to
workers possess skills to be able to survive in have happened in my 20-year-old journalism
the new digital media environment. This issue career. It has revolutionalised the way
is reflected in Figure 3.2 below which shows news is covered, reported and rendered on
that three quarters of those interviewed different platforms.” These hugely optimistic
are expected to be multi-skilled, and often sentiments are shared by others, most notably
multitask as part of their normal daily routines Mr. Wanyonyi who says the digital era has
and practices. Multitasking often gives had profound effects on his thinking as a
journalists an opportunity to demonstrate journalist. “I have had to change my mindset
skills outside their comfort zone or preferred and operations in view of the fact that my
particular mode of journalism whether it is audience/readers have changed the way in
print, audio, television or online. This trend which they consume news. Many now get
and the increasing demand for journalists able their news online and so I have to think of
to work in a multimedia digital environment, them first before those who consume in print,”
he says.
Mr. Jillo of Capital FM argues that digital media Figure 3.3: Has the digitisation process
has made everyone a reporter and in turn affected your work as a journalist?
forced journalists to find creative or innovative
ways of gathering and breaking news. Don’t
know
According to Mr. Bernard Ogoi, a Programmes No
9%
Officer at Association of Media Women in 10%
Kenya (AMWIK), digital media has made it

easier for a journalist to go to the field without
necessarily being accompanied by a camera
person and get the report, the pictures, and Yes
also edit the story and send it to the newsroom 81%
for transmission. Mr. Otieno of NMG agrees

and notes that journalists with multimedia
skills are now more marketable. He points
In fact, as Figure 3.4 indicates, many journalists
out that digital media has democratised the
news space and demystified the notion of can hardly operate without the Internet
who a news source is. He says that while in which is increasingly seen as a key resource in
the past, prominent people tended to be modern journalism. The Internet’s importance
the main news makers, anyone with a smart is growing mainly as a source of information
phone can now be a news source. Dr. Kamau and other content that has largely – despite
expresses similar views. He says journalists no existing challenges like plagiarism, large
longer have the monopoly of disseminating amounts of trivia, etc. – improved the quality
news. “With the advent of digital media, of journalism around the world. What’s more,
what constitutes news has changed because the Internet is seen as the driver behind the
the readers online are a bit different. Some data journalism which is considered the
sources trust bloggers more than they trust new frontier in journalism. This is especially
mainstream journalists. There is more scrutiny true given that data journalism combines
on journalists now,” Dr. Kamau argues. traditional news, with new possibilities
Mr. Osir emphasises the importance of social engendered by available data. The fact that
media as a platform which has expanded the most of these data is available online means
scope of news, making it more diversified and the Internet is a must companion in the age
engaging. He views user-generated content of digitisation.
(UGC) as crucial given that it enables journalists
to examine trending topics on social media Figure 3.4: How often do you use the
to generate story ideas. “Everyone in the Internet in your work?
newsroom is now expected to sniff stories
from social media,” he says.
Daily
Despite these developments, most journalists 10%
say their work is still important. With available

technologies, particularly computers, the
Internet and mobile telephony, they are able
to perform their work quickly, efficiently and
cost-effectively. They are also able to multitask,
Hourly
sourcing, writing, taking pictures, editing and 81%
performing tasks that were previously done
by other colleagues or people.
The above arguments are reflective in They may lead us down the wrong alley, but
responses on whether the Internet has often they are great sources of information.
affected the work of journalists. As seen in We can then begin doing our investigations,
Figure 3.5 below, 82 per cent believe the calling sources and trying to confirm stories
Internet has significantly impacted journalism that may be trending.” Editors interviewed for
mainly because it is seen as the driver behind this study indicate that social media platforms
digitisation. Moreover, those interviewed are major sources of investigative stories.
believe it is the main catalyst for convergence. They argue that journalists should keep an
eye on Facebook, Twitter and blogs of some
Figure 3.5: Do you think the Internet has of the daring citizen journalists as a source of
affected your work as a journalist? possible stories. What’s more, they contend
that digital media has made recording and
No
editing of sensitive stories easier. There was
18% the view that new mobile gadgets such
as smartphones make it easier to gather
information. The digital gadgets have also
made editing of sensitive information easier.
For example, Mr. Ohito points out that the
gadgets are useful when one is seeking to
Yes
82%
conceal the identity of a source. “It is now
easier to record and alter a source’s voice
through the available digital technologies,” he
says. In addition, the gadgets can be used to
Some of those who acknowledge that their improve the security of journalists covering
work had been affected by digitisation say particular stories.
they have benefited hugely from recent
developments and adapted to remain What’s more, the different viewpoints offered
both relevant and useful in the changing by different people or sources via various
nature of news collection and dissemination digital media, including social media, may
business. As Figure 3.6 below shows, 90 per help strengthen stories. “It broadens my
cent of those interviewed say digitisation knowledge in terms of understanding many
has enhanced work processes and news issues within a very short time. I can use
collection practices. Some are particularly the same information to write and transmit
happy with the idea that they can file stories confirmed reports quickly,” a respondent says.
quickly irrespective of where they are at any Figure 3.6: Has the digitisation of media
particular moment. In addition, they can learn enhanced the news collection process?
from what is happening from other sources,
or from whatever is ‘trending’ particularly in a
No
Twitter crazy Kenya. Trending material can give 10%
them ideas or contribute material to whatever
stories they file. One respondent had this
to say: “[It has] made it easier to learn about
new things that are trending particularly
when things happen far from where I am … .
Correspondents sometimes cover large areas.
Yes
So we have to rely on numerous sources 90%
including Twitter … . Tweets can tell us what
is happening, and it is then our job to try and
confirm whether the information is true or not.
The publication of news on different Consider the views of this respondent: “I have
platforms has also forced journalists to look had to change my mindset and practices in
for different angles particularly when they view of the fact that some of my audiences and
work for newspapers which are often printed readers have changed the way they consume
much later after the news has been published news. They first go online and hence we have
elsewhere. Those in the newspaper industry had to implement the digital-first approach in
say they have had to adapt in order to remain our news coverage and publication.”
relevant due to what a respondent says is the
But while there is much praise for digitisation,
“fast changing news environment where you
some journalists feel there are negative
constantly have to scan the environment for
consequences, including the respect for
new angles, new information, new sources
journalistic values or principles, as well as their
to make stories relevant and interesting. You
own security. For example, as Figure 3.7 below
have to package news stories in a way that
indicates, 86 per cent of the respondents
will make readers buy a newspaper. When a
believe digitisation has impacted journalistic
news story breaks, online media are the first to
values and ethics.
report it. If you have to report it the following
day, you have to make it interesting and Figure 3.7: Do you think digitisation has
appealing to your readers. Some of them may had an impact on journalistic values?
already have read the story elsewhere.”
Don’t No
Another respondent said: “News breaks on the know 5%
9%
Internet, is told on social media, and discussed
extensively on numerous sites and platforms.
I am forced to look for a new angle. Being a
weekly, that would drive the conversation to
a different level. Also, I engage readers a lot
on social media, who give their feedback on
stories before publication. This improves our
engagement with readers which is relatively Yes
new in the media environment in Kenya.” 86%
The above sentiment was shared by other

respondents who note that they have also
had to change tact in the news collection Many respondents mention the privacy,
process and publication of the same on accuracy, and fairness as some of fundamental
multimedia platforms. “Breaking news alerts principles that have taken a hit in recent
are constantly being sent out via mobile ones. days. This is also reflected in the responses
Then social media pick the same stories, then on whether digitisation has affected ethical
websites and blogs. This means that I have to considerations. As indicated in Figure 3.8, it is
be on top of things at all times so as to get the clear that a large majority believe digitisation
news fast, get facts fast, send alerts first then has affected privacy protection, accuracy and
get the story published on the website with the need to verify information, data fidelity. It
accompanying photographs and videos or has also increased data theft and plagiarism.
audio clips.” In fact, some respondetns believe digitisation
has resulted in lazy journalism where people
The fact that audiences have access to merely use available resources, esepcially
different platforms from whence they can the Internet, as the source and verifier of
retrieve news and other content means it is information.
vital for journalists to change tact or perish.
Figure 3.8: Do you think digitisation has access media houses’ editorial database and
affected media ethics (privacy protection, reveal sources and information and destroy
data theft, broadcast of unchecked records. They can also easily access stories
information, plagiarism)? before publication. In fact, the editors are
concerned intelligence agencies like the
No
National Intelligence Service (NIS) often
6% snoop on them. This is considered a breach
of journalistic security which is the backbone
of investigative journalism. This is especially
dangerous in an era when investigations
into corruption, land grabbing, abuse of
power and human rights etc. have become
important as the country seeks to consolidate
democracy and accountable leadership.
Yes “Intrusion of privacy is a serious problem in
94%
the digital era,” says Mr. Ohito. This problem
is worsened by the existence of databases
and information management systems in
Respondents say that the rising cases of many modern media houses. The ability to
plagiarism are a consequence of laziness access such databases makes it dangerous for
exhibited by “untrained” and “unprofessional” investigative journalists. The editors are also
charlatans masquerading as journalists. This concerned that digitisation may make it easier
is also exacerbated by the scoop mentality, for disgruntled employees and others to pass
the idea that, as one respondent puts it, stories or secrets to rival media houses.
“the push to be the first one to publish
information … the competition for scoops In addition, the editors are worried about the
has made journalists post things they haven’t place of social media in modern journalism.
verified, unconfirmed information that is They reckon that social media is continuously
sometimes also plagiarised”. Consequently, blurring the lines between public and private
one respondent says journalism values are lives, making it extremely important for
the “same whether in the traditional or digital journalists to uphold professional standards
environment. They must be respected and on both online and offline spaces. “Through
upheld at all times.” citizen journalism, one is able to record
information and distribute in its raw form
Some of these practices, including lack of without processing and removing unwanted
respect for privacy, publication of invective aspects thus sometimes even infringing
material may have contributed to the security on people’s privacy, exposing subjects to
challenges journalists say they face. In ridicule,” says Mr. Ogoi. Even with the many
addition, there is the issue of data theft that positive effects that social media has had on
threatens the fidelity of journalistic principles mainstream journalism, there are a number
or values. Ms. Mbithi-Magori of Mediamax of challenges that the platform brings to
says some often people steal others’ work via journalistic work. Most of the challenges
the Internet and post it on their platforms identified by the respondents have to do with
as their own. She states that journalists and journalistic ethics. These challenges include
newsrooms have to invest in enhanced the propagation of inaccurate and unverified
security to safeguard their work. information, the spread of hate messages,
Related to data theft is the issue of hacking. the increase in plagiarism, the lack of balance
Some editors interviewed for this study fear and objectivity in stories on these platforms
that investigative work is becoming dangerous among others.
in the digital era because hackers can easily The respondents feel that because of the
pressure to publish stories quickly and in raw break stories quickly even as they await more
forms, immediacy and instantaneity, journalists details.
may publish unverified or unconfirmed stories. However, the use some technologies, and
This trend, they argue, is detrimental to the increasing snooping by intelligence and
mainstream media’s credibility as conveyors of security agencies has made it difficult to
truthful and reliable information. The editors investigate some stories. Hacking and
say that while it is extremely important to tell snooping has increased the fear levels among
the story quickly so as to remain current, there some recalcitrant and investigative journalists.
must be verification of information or content Even though only 42 per cent indicate that
of the story before dissemination. Both Mr. they are fearful of personal security and safety
Aduda and Mr. Otieno of NMG say the ability in the digital era (see Figure 3.9below), the
to publish accurate and reliable information figure is high enough to warrant concern
supersedes the need to publish stories quickly especially in an era where investigative
because of the scoop mentality. They argue journalism has unearthed information on
that accuracy is a cardinal rule that must be sensitive issues such as corruption, poor
upheld by all even when working under the leadership and abuse of office, and abuse of
pressure of digital journalism. human rights and extrajudicial killings.
Hate speech, abusive language, defamatory Figure 3.9:Has your work as a journalist
statements and other negative comments ever caused you any security concern in
have also been transferred by readers the digital era?
to media online platforms trough user
generated content. Despite the fact that
media houses have social media policies on
their websites, some readers often break or
do not respect rules. This is exacerbated by
Yes
the fact that some stories attract significant 42%
user commentary. “We receive over 3,000
comments on our digital platforms daily … to
No
moderate these effectively, one needs at least 58%
six experienced editors working 24 hours,”
Mr. Ohito of the Standard says. Even though
moderation is important, excessive editing
of reader comments may interfere with the
people’s right to respond to issues and the
spirit of interactivity in online fora. Interactivity
is one of the most notable positive effects of And as Figure 3.10 shows, person safety as well
social media on traditional media. Through as that of family and informants rank highly in
social media, mainstream media can connect issues that now worry journalists. Nonetheless,
to a huge audience base wherever they are in despite such concerns, many journalists have
the world. Through the feedback at the social not had any security incidents in the last 12
platforms, the media can deduce what their months as seen in Figure 3.11. However, this is
audience feels about their content and hence limited to security issues emanating from the
improve on it. Social media have also become use of the Internet and social media. Granted,
a source of news for journalists who can sift
those who reported having had negative
through user-generated content to look for
consequences as a result of using the Internet
newsworthy content. This has made the news
gathering process easier and faster. Through and social media indicate that they received
social media, journalists can quickly send personal threats (24 per cent) mostly via short
updates on their newsrooms, for example, messaging services (29 per cent) as shown in
through tweets. This enables media houses to Figure 3.12:
Figure 3.10: If yes, what types of issues are Figure 3.11: In the past 12 months, have you
of concern to you? experienced any negative consequences
Others
4%
due to your journalism as a result of using
the Internet and social media?
Don’t
know
Security 6%
of family
16%
Personal Yes
safety 37%
37%
Security No
of informants
63%
23%
Security
of people
I work with
12% Security of
Information
2%
Figure 3.12: How were you threatened?

I had my emails intercepted Others
or data stolen 14%
2%
I was sacked, demoted
or reprimanded at work
4%
I was personally
I was arrested threatened
or detained 24%
3%
My friends or family
were threatened I was threatened
0% by email
16%
I was physically
I was threatened
attacked
by SMS
8%
29%
Despite the existence of serious security Figure 3.13: Does your employer offer any
concerns, a small number of journalists safety and security measures to protect
in Kenya feel there are sufficient security you against online threats?
measures to protect them against threats
emanating from their use of new technologies
and applications. As Figure 3.13 below show, Yes
13%
most of those interviewed either have no
security from employers or do not know Don't Know
whether such arrangements exist. Worryingly, 35%
almost all of the journalists interviewed – 99
per cent as Figure 3.14 below shows – do
No
not believe the government is capable of 52%
protecting them. These respondents believe
the government is the source of security
concerns and thus lacks both the capacity
and willingness to protect them.
Figure 3.14: Do you think the government Freelancers and correspondents are
offers sufficient protection to journalists in particularly disadvantaged given that many
Kenya? hardly have contracts and thus assured
Yes income. As one respondent says: “I work in a
1% difficult environment … there is no hardship
allowance or reimbursement for money
spent pursuing stories despite the fact that
we are paid only for stories published.” These
sentiments may contribute to the view that
the working conditions for most journalists
No
99%
are difficult despite the notion that journalism
is now much easier because of available
technologies that make it easier to source and
file stories, pictures and other material.
In contrast, 82 per cent of those interviewed
Pay say the working conditions are conducive
While journalists are expected to write (as seen in Figure 3.16) although some felt
for multiple platforms, possess different employers need to improve. This is particularly
skills, work long hours in environments true for those journalists working outside
that are sometimes dangerous and thus urban areas where the quality of facilities
non-conducive, they claim their pay is not and working environments have improved
commensurate with the amount of effort significantly in recent days. Such challenges
they invest in their work. As Figure 3.15 are sometimes the source of conflict between
below shows, 96 per cent of journalists are journalists’ associations and media houses. For
dissatisfied with their pay. This finding may example, the Kenya Union of Journalist (KUJ)
resonate with findings by the MCK (2003) that and Kenya Correspondents Association (KCA)
most journalists in Kenya are poorly paid.12 are often at loggerheads with employers for
Although the report is three years old, there what they believe is the exploitation of media
is still an overarching view among many workers. What’s more, the realignment of work
journalists interviewed for this research, and processes has seen many media houses lay
off journalists in the recent past as they move
as reflected in Figure 3.15 below, that current
to contain expenditure. For example, the SG,
salary scales are not commensurate with the
NMG, Royal Media and Radio Africa have
efforts they invest in their work as well as the recently laid off tens of journalists because
cost of living. of what the companies say are efforts aimed
Figure 3.15: Is your pay reflective of the at curbing the wage bill as well as ensuring
amount of work done? efficiency and productivity. KBC on the other
Yes hand has had to deal with a serious dip in
4% revenue and is reportedly on the verge of
collapse.13 Granted, the problems at KBC
go back many years and is not necessarily
the consequence of digitisation. However,
the emergence of new media companies
in addition to its legacy problems means
No KBC is unable to meet some of its financial
96% 13 See, for example, Mureithi, Francis (2016) ‘Union seeks bailout
for state firms KBC, Posta on 'verge of collapse'’. Nation [online],
1 March. Available at <http://www.nation.co.ke/news/KBC-
-Posta-almost-collapsing-union-bailout-uhuru-kenyatta/-
12 See Media Council of Kenya (2013) Training and Welfare of /1056/3097670/-/12j76mkz/-/index.html> [Accessed 7 March
Kenyan Journalists. Nairobi: Media Council of Kenya. 2016].
obligations including paying workers as well as value added by these vernacular TV stations?”
the Communication Workers’ Union claims, for he poses rather rhetorically and refers to their
example.14Such challenges will undoubtedly offerings of ‘cheap’ tribal and ‘partisan’ political
be exacerbated by the increasing competition discourses rather than meaningful discussions.
engendered by digitisation and challenges Alluding to the coverage of ‘tribal’ politics, Mr.
such as heightened competition and reduced Ohito points out that these stations may be
revenue share. unable to give balanced and fair coverage to
politicians who do not hail from regions where
Figure 3.16: Are the working conditions the languages they broadcast in are spoken.
conducive? Ohito cites Ramogi TV’s Luo slogan for: Ma en
marwa (this is ours). “This means the TV station
belongs to the Luo community. Will someone
No like opposition politician Musalia Mudavadi
18%
get fair coverage?” Mr. Ohito poses.
These arguments could be manifestation of
other problems, particularly training that is
Yes seen as catalyst for quality and diversity of
82%
content. For example, Mr. Ogoi believes poor
quality is indicative of little investment in
people, training and professionalism. To him,
the kind of content offered by some stations
In addition to the arguments above, some is reflective of “incompetent staff, inadequate
respondents feel that although digital capital investment in production as well as
migration has increased the number of lack of required broadcasting equipment.” Mr.
television channels available, the multiplicity Ogoi’s sentiments are shared by Dr. Kamau
of stations alone cannot be taken as a sign of who feels the quality of digital content is still
‘genuine or better quality’ of news and other wanting due to low levels of human capital.
programmes. For example, Mr. Otieno doubts Training in media schools
quality can be engendered by more stations. All the interviewees held the view that
He believes quality can only be achieved by journalism schools are yet to take social media
more investment in both human and other as a serious field of study. They call for the
resources including equipment and training. review of existing curricula to include digital
Moreover, he believes some stations merely journalism. The respondents say that while
regurgitate what others broadcast. This is those graduating from journalism schools
especially seen in many stations that link may be active on social media sites, they do
to global channels like BBC, CNN, Deutsche yet possess the skills to operate effectively in
Welle, and Al Jazeera. new digital environments. For example, Ms.
Another respondent, Mr. Ohito is critical of the Mbithi-Magori of Mediamax argues that the
vernacular TV stations borne out of the digital development of a digital journalism specialism
process. He claims the television stations do is key to the success of modern journalism in
not offer quality programmes. He chides the Kenya. “The digital journalist is the modern
stations for focusing more on local language day journalist and he or she must thrive in
programmes that are, unfortunately, devoid of traditional journalism and online journalism,”
serious content. “Besides language, is there any she says.
14 See, for example, Mureithi, Francis (2016) ‘Union seeks bailout Dr. Kamau on the other hand believes
for state firms KBC, Posta on 'verge of collapse'’. Nation [online], journalism schools need to embrace social
1 March. Available at <http://www.nation.co.ke/news/KBC-
-Posta-almost-collapsing-union-bailout-uhuru-kenyatta/- media and recognize the power of mobile
/1056/3097670/-/12j76mkz/-/index.html> [Accessed 7 March devices in the new dispensation. “The
2016].
number of people watching television, since the digital switchover in 2015. These
reading newspapers and listening to radio offer increased diversity in terms of content
has reduced while those accessing news via and allow for a multiplicity of voices and
mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets viewpoints particularly in news and current
and mobile devises is increasing,” he says. affairs programmes. As evidence above
shows, media organisations have embraced
Mr. Gituma argues that journalism schools
both convergence and coopetition. The
and media houses should work together
effects of convergence, particularly on
in developing curricula that integrates
individual journalists and newsrooms, have
digitisation. Mr. Masambu of Daystar
become clearer in the past few years given
University concurs, adding that media
the fact that media houses are appropriating
trainers need to get rid of their conservative
and using modern technologies that have
attitudes towards social media, for example,
made journalism easier, interesting and cost-
and embrace it as part of the journalism of
effective. However, while there are celebratory
today. He points out that journalism training
sentiments, others warn that digitisation has
institutions should invest in multimedia labs
exerted significant pressures on journalists
where students can gain modern skills. This
and media houses, and that media houses
is perhaps the thinking around NMG new
are pandering to corporatist ideals. This is
training strategy. In recent days, the Nation
seen in, for example, modern newsroom
has now shifted its training to convergence in
cultures where journalists are required to be
what the company calls attempts to keep up
multi-skilled and ready to report for multiple
with the changing nature of journalism and
platforms. The demand to multitask means
media operations. Addressing trainees and
journalists have to operate outside their
others for its seventh edition of the Nation
comfort zone or preferred mode of journalism
Media Lab, the NMG CEO Mr. Muganda said:
– print, audio or television (cf. Campbell, 2004).
“If we are going to compete with everyone
Consequently, the rise of digital journalism is
across the world, convergence must be a
blurring the lines between different modes of
minimum requirement.” The NMG Editor-in-
journalism which is welcome especially by the
Chief Mr. Tom Mshindi echoed Mr. Muganda’s
young digerati. Unfortunately, many journalists
sentiments, noting that convergence is key to
working in major media houses have lost their
the success of journalism in a digital world. The
jobs as a result of digitisation. This is especially
trainees are expected to undergo an intensive
if they cannot fit the new environment given
four-month training aimed at producing all-
the obscurity of their skills, or their inability to
round journalists comfortable reporting for
adapt or acquire new ones. The loss of jobs
any of NMG’s platforms.15
is also a consequence of the proliferation
Summary of media houses that has put pressure on
That digitisation has had a significant impact the revenue base of the organisations as a
on journalism and media businesses is not in consequence of fragmentation and reduction
doubt. Whereas there are varying degrees of of audiences.
effects on both media and journalism, there What’s more, even though media synergies
is evidence to show that media organisations are inevitable, some consider new practices
in Kenya have embraced digitisation as they as incongruent with normative or traditional
seek to survive and thrive in what has become principles, practices and roles of journalism.
a hypercompetitive environment. Moreover, the pressures birthed by digitisation
Besides, digitisation has increased consumer have seen a change in the modi operandi
choice. New television stations have emerged of media organisation. Newspapers have
15 See Kubania, Jacqueline (2016) ‘Nation Media Lab to train perhaps been the biggest victims of new
students on digital journalism’. The Nation [online], 7 March. changes as they seek to remain relevant in
Available at <http://www.nation.co.ke/news/Nation-Media-
Lab-digital-journalism/-/1056/3106328/-/370hcx/-/index.html> an age where immediacy, instantaneity and
[Accessed 7 March 2016].
simultaneity have become key ideals in an
information and networked society. Granted,
such changes are inevitable in a modern world
where information consumption patterns are
changing. In essence, media organisations
and journalists have had to change tact
and adapt to the disruptive possibilities of
digitisation. The full impact of this will be seen
in the coming years although the signs are
both promising and ominous.
4 Conclusions and Recommendations
While the effects vary from one media audiences (and to a large extent revenue)
organisation to another, and one journalist to intensifies. The use of such facilities as Twitter,
another, digital technologies have become Facebook, Flickr and YouTube has changed the
part and parcel of media operations not only practice of journalism. By actively engaging in
in Kenya but also across the world. These news and journalistic productions, journalism
changes notwithstanding, it is imperative seems to have migrated from ‘conventional’
to determine the extent of adoption and or mainstream media organisations to the
application and effects. Thus the essence of audience. This means that ‘ordinary’ people
this study. are now increasingly practising ‘journalism’ by
contributing stories, pictures, and audiovisual
Some of the most profound changes
material for publication by mainstream media,
engendered by the adoption of digital
and especially those with an online presence.
technologies are seen in changing work
In essence, people now easily interact not
processes as well as relationships between
only with content but also with various media
the media and its various publics including
platforms where they can tell their own stories
audiences/consumers, advertisers and news/
by side-stepping information gatekeepers
information sources. These developments
or middlepersons who once controlled
have raised both opportunities and
information and media products. Facilities
challenges, including, for example, that the
such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and
media have opportunities to expand and
Flickr have also made it possible for people
develop new revenue streams, and that work
to engage in real-time social networking that
processes have changed for the better. Thus
was impossible before the introduction of
digital technologies are celebrated. However,
digital technologies. Such use also means that
there is no doubt that digital technologies
people can resist corporate media dominance
have impacted the way journalists do their job;
and any ideologies they may advance.
the nature of news content; the structure and
organisation of the newsroom; and the nature As demonstrated above, market and audience
of the relationship between and among news demands seem to be forcing the media to
organisations (Pavlik, 2000: 230). provide ‘bitty’ raw information in the form
of breaking news. As we have argued, this
As seen above, the collection, packaging,
may benefit the consumer who receives
analysis and dissemination of media products
information instantly without having to wait
are becoming increasingly participatory. The
for ‘news time’ or for the next day’s newspapers
active participation of users or consumers
to learn about events around them or in other
is seen not only as a common feature of
parts of the world. This has forced many
modern productions but desirable as part
organisations to quickly adapt as they seek
of the increasing cultivation of symbiotic
to satisfy the needs of fragmented audiences
relationship and discipleship, and loyalty
in their bid for survival. However, as we posit,
which is important as competition for
this tendency threatens depth and the quality
of information offered to audiences as well have the capacity to hire experienced staff
as the credibility and reliability of media as in their stations. This lack of competent staff
conveyors of ‘truthful’, credible, and reliable is demonstrated in the low quality of content
information, pictures, and video and audio transmitted by these stations.
material. This also contributes to the erosion
Turning to social media, it is evident that
of professionalism and well as non-adherence
Internet-driven journalism is the face of the
to the golden values of journalism especially
profession today. Media houses are competing
truth and accuracy, objectivity, balance,
with each other to see who has more followers
fairness, and respect for privacy.
on the different social media platforms. A
There is also the increasing proliferation of number of media organisations have mobile
media houses. In fact, the biggest effect apps through which audiences can download
that digital migration, for example, has had news. Every media house today has a digital
on the Kenyan media scene is the increase team that deals with social media and
of TV channels. This increase means that content on the online segment. It is evident
audiences now have a variety of content to that although most media organisations are
choose from besides the usual politics and still grappling with how to make the online
entertainment. The entrance of digital TV has platform highly profitable, it is a space they
seen the emergence of stations that deal with must continue investing in and growing. As
various issues such as education, farming, one respondent posits, media houses must
health, women and children issues among keep revising their digital strategy to survive
others. The result is that a segment of the TV in the ever-changing industry.
industry has embraced the educative role of
It is also evident that social media platforms
mass communication. Mainstream media
have radically changed the way journalists
houses have embraced digital TV with some
gather and disseminate news. Today’s
like KTN creating sister stations to provide 24-
journalist will hardly depend on the newsroom
hour news. Others like KBC now have extra
diary or phone tip offs from sources but will
time for news, having offloaded some of their
also have their eye on social media platforms
entertainment programmes to their sister
to see what has been posted or what “gossip”
station.
has been put up which they could probe
Another positive aspect that can be attributed further to see whether it could lead to a story.
to digital migration is the creation of job Social media platforms of prominent people,
opportunities for content producers. Unlike like CEOs and even some government officers
the past where producers had very few places are important because some of these sources
where they could sell their programmes, will put up important information on these
new comers in the market can now make platforms rather than call the media for press
a name for themselves through the new conferences.
stations that are still trying to create a niche
Social media can also be seen as de-
in the market. This means that those who
professionalising the journalism practice as
graduate from media schools do not have
indicated earlier (cf. Witschge & Nygren, 2009).
to seek employment in a media house but
Professional journalists no longer enjoy the
can instead start a production company with
status of being the sole news gathers and
the aim of producing content for the digital
disseminators. Citizen journalists, through
stations.
social media can bypass the rigorous gate
However, the study demonstrates that keeping processes of the newsroom and
quantity of stations has not translated to post breaking news on their online platforms.
quality of programming. New entrants into This competition with social media has seen
the TV industry are yet to make inroads in some journalists slowly discard some of their
the advertising market and so do not yet professional ethics of ensuring verification
before giving reports, ensuring balance and plays an important role in safeguarding
even good taste. and promoting such issues as good and
Some mainstream media houses have in their accountable leadership, and democracy.
bid to compete with citizen journalists and to Media organisations need to find ways
ensure hits on their online platforms resulted of wholly embracing social media while
to sensational reporting that one would at the same time ensuring they do not
normally not find on their offline platforms. compromise on journalism ethics.
It appears that everyone is angling to have
massive presence on the digital platforms, Digital television stations should continue
even at the expense of ethics. improving on the quality of their
productions. The stations could do this
Recommendations by investing in equipment and hiring
A number of recommendations can be drawn upcoming talented content producers.
in attempts to advance journalism in Kenya in The attitude of anything goes as long as it
the age of digitisation. is content that can be put on air should be
Media organisations, the MCK and discarded. Improvement in the quality of
training institutions should collaborate in content would be a clear indication of the
developing curricula that encompasses value that the stations place on customer
the social media/digital media journalism satisfaction.
as a way of preparing future journalists for Further research on digitisation could target
both the job market and emerging issues media consumers of the various digital
and challenges. stations to find out how they perceive the
There is need to reexamine media ethics stations and the content disseminated. This
and professionalism as technological would be helpful in helping the stations
changes generate challenges requiring gauge their performance and understand
continuous examination and application their audiences better. The research
of existing standards. This will promote would also be helpful in understanding
professionalism as well as trust in the how the Kenyan audience has received
media as an important actor in Kenya. This digital migration from the time it was fully
is especially due to the fact that the media implemented.
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media propelled my win’. Standard Digital most-popular-decoder-in-kenya/>
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Most Popular Online Communities.
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Avon, MA: Adam Media.
2016].
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Safko, L. (2012) The Social Media Bible: Tactics,
Impact on Journalistic Quality’. In
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Lugmayr, A. & Zotto, C.D. (Eds.) Media
Success. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Convergence Handbook: Journalism,
Standard Reporter (2016) ‘Standard in Broadcasting and Social Media Aspects
Sh300m Deal with Bamba TV to Raise of Convergence. Volume 1. London:
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standard-group-in-sh300-million-deal-
Appendices
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
The impact of MIGRATION from analog to ditigal broadcasting and internet driven media on
journalism and media perfomance
The Media Council of Kenya is researching the effects of digital migration and use of the Internet
and popular social media like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube in journalism Kenya.
Accordingly, this questionnaire is meant to help generate primary data/information to inform
the research. To help inform this research, you have been identified as a key respondent and
thus request you to take a few moments to respond to the questions below. You are hereby
assured that any information that you provide shall remain confidential, and usage of the same
shall be for research purposes only. If you have any questions regarding this research, please
contact the Media Council of Kenya on 0727 735252 or 020 2716265. Thanks in advance for your
assistance.
How would you describe your current occupation?
 Staff Journalist  Correspondent  Freelancer
 Professional Blogger  Citizen Journalist / Blogger Other__________________
For what medium do you work? Please tick as appropriate and indicate which organisation(s)
 Radio  Newspaper  Online publication
 Television
Has the digitisation process affected your practice as a journalist? Please explain your answer.
 Yes  No  Don’t know
Are you expected to write for more than one medium?

 Yes  No
Are you expected to be multi-skilled to survive in the media?

 Yes  No
Is your pay reflective of the amount of work done?
 Yes  No
Are the working conditions conducive? Please explain your answer

 Yes  No
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Which technologies and tools do you use in your work?

 Desktop PC  Laptops/Tablets  Mobile Phones
 Email and collaborative tools (e.g. Google Docs)  Internet
 Social media and networking websites (Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram etc.)
 Video/Audio recording devices
 Others (please specify)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Do you have a social media account? If yes, which one(s)?

 Yes  No
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Has the digitisation of media enhanced the news collection process? Please explain your
answer.
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
How often do you use the Internet in your work?

 Hourly  Daily  Weekly
 Never
Do you think the Internet has affected your work as a journalist? Please explain your answer
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What is the impact of digitisation to professional ethical considerations, particularly those

relating to the collection of information?
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Do you think digitisation has had an impact on journalistic values? (particularly accuracy
and verification, balance, fairness). Please explain your answer
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Do you think digitisation has affected media ethics (privacy protection, data theft, broadcast
of unchecked information, plagiarism)? Please explain your answer
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Has your work as a journalist ever caused you any security concern in the digital era?
If yes, what types of issues are of concern to you?

 Personal safety  Security of information
 Security of people I work with  Security of informants
 Security of family  Others  Don’t know
In the past 12 months, have you experienced any negative consequences due to your
journalism as a result of using the Internet and social media?
If yes, please select what is relevant from below:

 I was personally threatened
 I was threatened by email
 I was threatened by SMS
 I was physically attacked
 My friends or family were threatened
 I was arrested or detained
 My computer got a computer virus and my data was affected
 My identity was exposed against my wishes
 I was sacked, demoted or reprimanded at work
 My publication, website or blog was attacked or hacked
 I had my emails intercepted or data stolen
 Any other
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
If you are a female journalist, have you ever faced any threats because you of your gender?
What is the source of that threat?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
What is the biggest source of threats (please list, e.g. police or any other security agents,
government officials, including provincial administration like chiefs, county officials, etc.)?
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Does your employer offer any safety and security measures to protect you against online
threats?
If yes, what security measures are put in place to protect you?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Do you think the government offers sufficient protection to journalists in Kenya? Please
explain your answer
Explain
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Media Council of Kenya
Britam Centre, Ground Floor , Mara/Ragati Road Junction, Upper Hill
P. O. Box 43132 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 2737058/ 2716265/2716266/0727 735252
Email: info@mediacouncil.or.ke
Website: www.mediacouncil.or.ke
@MediaCouncilK @MediaCouncilK
The Impact of Digital Technologies and Internet on Media and Journalism in Kenya

MCK - Digital Media in Kenya

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MCK - Digital Media in Kenya

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The Impact of

Britak Centre, Ground Floor, Mara/Ragati Road Junction, Upper Hill.

United Nations Kenya National

Designed and printed by: United Nations Office at Nairobi

First Published in April 2016

1 Introduction: Technology and the Business of the Media.................................................. 11

2 Introduction: Digitisation in Perspective............................................................................. 17

3 Introduction: The Impact of Digitisation on Media and Journalism in Kenya................... 25

4 Conclusions and Recommendations..................................................................................... 43

The global debate on digital migration was What is digital TV broadcasting?

more than one medium?

A large majority of the journalists interviewed

Officer at Association of Media Women in 10%

Kenya (AMWIK), digital media has made it

for transmission. Mr. Otieno of NMG agrees

say their work is still important. With available

The above sentiment was shared by other

Figure 3.12: How were you threatened?

Agutu, N. (2016) ‘Uhuru most popular Africa Media-in-Kenya-2015-report.pdf>

Are you expected to write for more than one medium?

Are you expected to be multi-skilled to survive in the media?

Are the working conditions conducive? Please explain your answer

Which technologies and tools do you use in your work?

Do you have a social media account? If yes, which one(s)?

How often do you use the Internet in your work?

What is the impact of digitisation to professional ethical considerations, particularly those

If yes, what types of issues are of concern to you?

If yes, please select what is relevant from below:

If yes, what security measures are put in place to protect you?

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