Japanese Psychological Research

1975, Vol.17, No.4, 203-212

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES ON SIZE CONSTANCY (I):

EXPERIMENTS ON SIZE CONSTANCY IN THE
PHOTOGRAPHS WITH SINGLE
COMPARISON METHOD'

TOSHIHIDE SHIMADA2,3

Departmentof Psychology,Kagoshima University

An experiment was conducted on the development of size constancy, after

the technique of Weinstein (1957), with controlled background of photographs,
which restrict cues for distance perception. With 86 Os from 5-yr. old children
to the adults, longitudinal method (2, 4 years' interval), single comparison
method, etc. were adopted. Size constancy was observed in the 5-yr. old
child when cues of distance were deleted in a photograph. Under these condi-
tions, size constancy changes with age, but it is not a linear change but one
with specific traits at each age level. There was no significant difference in
size constancy between children and adults when cues are abundant.

The problem of development in size cy, experimented with single comparison

constancy, which can be traced back to method and found that size constancy
the philosophical argument between the develops with age. Piaget and Lambercier
empiricism and nativism of cognition pre- (1943, 1951), Lambercier (1946), Kume
sented by Helmholtz and Hering, respec- (1956, 1961) etc. also reported that size
tively, was for the first time studied ex- constancy develops with age. On the
perimentally by Frank (1925) and with contrary, Koffka (1935), Akishige (1937),
the aged accumulation of experimental Locke (1937), Cruikshank (1941) and
data it has become one of the most im- Misumi (1951) maintained a nativistic
portant subjects in the study of the de- theory of size constancy, and reported that
velopment of perception. size constancy can be observed in the
Frank (1925) and Beyrl (1926), the first animals at the low level of evolutionary
advocators of empiricism on size constan- ladder and congenital blind persons at
1 The present study is confined to the report of the time of temporary recovery of sight.
experiment with single comparison method. The All of these psychologists experimented
next study will be on the experiment with serial with cross-sectional method controlling a
comparison method under the same experimental number of conditions such as an experi-
conditions as this. mental method, experimental situation,
2 The author is grateful to Prof . Y. Akishigefor stimulus objects, etc. and tried to clarify
his advice on this study, and to Prof. T. Funatsu the quantitative difference in size con-
of Kyushu Univ. and Prof. T. Kuroda of Kagoshima stancy between children and adults.
Univ. for their critical reading of the manuscript. However, as is pointed out by Gibson and
The author also would like to thank to Asistant
Olum (1960), it is impossible to draw a
Prof. T. Ozasa at the Department of English, School
of Education, Kagoshima Univ. for his help in the general and persuasive conclusion on the
English version of this paper. development of size constancy from the
3 Requests for reprints should be sent to Toshi- findings obtaihed by the above-mentioned
hide Shimada, Department of Psychology, School scholars. One of the main reasons for this
of Education Kagoshima University, 1-20-6, lies, in the author's opinion, in that they all
Kohrimoto-cho, Kagoshima-shi, 890, Japan. approached to this problem from either of
204 T. SHIMADA

the two above-mentioned, mutuallyex- gree is lower than the one obtained from
cluding viewpoints, nativism and empiri- unmodified perfect photograph.
cism. He thinks either of them is not Shimada (1968, 1971) compared the
valid as an experimental hypothesis for degree of size constancy in the tri-dimen-
the solution of this problem. From a sional space and that of the photograph
viewpoint such as the above, Shimada of the same space and found that in the
examined the change of the quantitative latter case quite a high degree of size
ratios of size constancy with age by a constancy is observed although its degree
traditional method, then made an experi- is slightly lower in the latter than in the
ment controlling the factors which seem former. Based on this basic research
to regulate it, and, finally, investigated the Shimada experimented on the develop-
process of the change of these factors with ment of size constancy with the composite
age in their functional role. The present photograph in which properly controlled
paper, which deals with the problem of are the factors regulating the perception
size constancy in the perception of ob- of size and distance. The present study
jects in the photograph, makes a part of aims to make a cross-sectional and longi-
these studies. tudinal study on the following points with
It has been pointed out by not a few 3 kinds of composite photographs.
scholars that there is a close correlation (1) Is size constancy observed in the
between perceived size and apparent dis- photograph in which ' texture-gradient' is
tance and that the cues for distance per- completely deleted (Photograph A)?
ception are important factors regulating (2) Is quantitative change of size con-
size constancy (Ogasawara, 1935; Holway stancy observed when the` texture-gradi-
& Boring, 1941; Makino, 1956; Kuroda, ent' is added to Photograph A (Photo-
1965). Boring (1964) and Leibowitz, graph B) and further the' perspective
Bussey, and McGuire (1957) reported background' (Photograph C) ?
there is no size constancy observed when (3) When the' texture-gradient' de-
one sees a photograph since a photograph, leted photograph is used, does the degree
reducing the cues of distance, inhibits the of size constancy change with age ?
perception of depth. Gibson (1950) found (4) How does the degree of size con-
that ' texture-gradient' in the visual field stancy change with age when background
is an indispensable condition for the per- condition of a photograph is controlled ?
ception of distance and size and that
depth is perceived and thus size constancy METHOD
is observed as far as this factor exists.
Apparatus
Weinstein (1957) experimented on Gib-
son's theory with the photograph modified As a stand to present a stimulus object,
to delete the' texture-gradient' and found black-painted steely pipes were used (diameter
that continual' texture-gradient' is not 3.6cm; height= 70.0cm). A white-painted
an indispensable condition to regulate size steely stake was inserted into the pipe and its
constancy. Smith (1958), experimenting length was adjusted by setting the stake rang-
under the same experimental condition, ing from 12.5 cm to 87.5 cm. These stakes
found that there is not a striking difference were used as a standard stimulus (Ss) and a
between the apparent size perceived in the comparative stimulus (Sc).
Using this stimulus apparatus photographs
perfect photograph and the one perceived
in the tri-dimensional space and that there were taken and negative film of arranged
is quite a high degree of size constancy in stimulus was prepared. The photographs were
the artificially modified photograph to taken in the 16 m 16 m playroom under the
delete` texture-gradient' although its de- artificial illumination. A camera was set at
 Developmental Studies on Size Constancy (I) 205

the height of 75.0 cm above the floor. Sc was Background A (Photo A) represents white Ss
set at the distance of 8.0 m from the camera, and Sc against the homogeniously grey back-
and Ss was set at the distance of 2.0 m from ground.
the camera at an angle of 4•‹ to the right from Background B (Photo B) represents flat,
the line between the camera and Sc. The homogenious grass running approximately 400
camera lens was adjusted so that a point 4.0 m m to some trees. This represents Gibson's re-
distant from the camera can be in focus and gularly continual ` texture-gradient'.
the bottom of Sc can be at the center of the Background C (Photo C) represents' tex-
finder. Twelve kinds of photographs were ture-gradient' by means of sleepers and stones
made, each containing a 50.0 cm white-painted under the railway lines, and further represents
stake as Ss and a white stake as Sc with its a pair of lines and various buildings in per-
height ranging by the step of 2.5 cm from 45.0 spective. (Hereafter, Background will be ab-
cm to 72.5 cm. In processing the film we breviated to Bg.)
artificially deleted every background including The followings are examples of the com-
the black-painted stand, and thus we prepared posite photographs copied on a reduced scale.
12 exposures of negative film of the arranged
stimuli containing only the Ss and Sc. Procedure
Next, we made 3 kinds of negative film of the A photograph of Bg. B was presented at the
background. Photo A (Background A) was point 60.0-70.0 cm distant from 0 and slightly
taken of the grey paper on the vertical wall, lower than the O's eye-level, and 0 was in-
Photo B (Background B) of grass at the golf structed to compare the objective size of Ss
course, Photo C (Background C) of a station and Sc. The following was the instruction.
"Here are two white stakes;one(Ss)nearer
yard. In each case, a picture of the back-
ground was taken under the natural light with a to you than the other (Sc). Which do you
camera adjusted to focus a point 75.0 cm high think is the longer of the two if the two stakes
above the ground and 16.0 m distant from the are set at the same place?"
camera. To each background, 0 was told to say the
Then, we made 36 frames of composite film PSE of each of the ascending series and de-
combining the 12 frames of stimulus negative scending series. The 3 backgrounds were
filmand the 3 frames of background negative presented at random to each 0. The same
film togethcr-From this film 29.0cm×33.5 stimulus set and procedure were used in Ex-
cm photographs were enlarged with the periment I and Experiment II.
lower end of Sc at the center. In these com- 4 This comparative method
, used by Weinstein,
posite photographs the length of Ss was 4.0cm. is the one by which Sonoda (1961) found that the
The 3 photographs of the background had the degree of size constancy in the photographs is higher
following characteristic. than by other methods.

PHOTO A PHOTO B PHOTO C

(Background A) (Background B) (Background C)
206 T. SHIMADA

TABLE 1-I TABLE 1-2

Mean of PSE in each age group under Analysis of variance of mean of
the 3 backgrounds (cm) PSE in Table 1-1

*ρ<0 .05**P<0,01

yrs. group. At the time of Exp. I1-2, there-

fore, Os were in the 12-yrs. group and 14-
yrs. group, respectively.
Experiment I Exp. II was conducted in June, 1972 and
Purpose. Experiment I (Exp. I) aims by the June, 1974. The stimuli and procedureof the
cross-sectional method, a generally adopted experimentwere the same as Exp. I. The dif-
method in the developmental study on size ferenceof the number of Os between Exp. I
constancy, to examine the existence and de- and Exp. II was due to the fact that some of
velopment of size constancy in the photograph. Os had moved out and it was impossibleto
Observer. Observers were (1) children at followthem up.
the age of 5-6 years (5-yrs. group), (2) chil-
dren at the age of 7-8 years (7-yrs. group), RESULTS
(3) children at the age of 10-11 years (10-yrs.
group), and (4) college students (adult group). The results of Exp. I and Exp. II are
The number of 0 was 16 in each of the 4 described in Result I and Result II, re-
groups (8 boys, 8 girls) and 64 in total. The spectively.
experiment was conducted in June, 1970.
ResultI
Experiment II Comparisonof matchedsize (PSE) in Exp. I.
Purpose. Experiment II (Exp. II) aims to Each cell of Table 1-1 represents a mean
examine the result of Experiment I (cross- of PSE by 0 in the ascending and descend-
sectional method) by a new approach, longi- ing series (converted score into real size)
tudinal method which has not been tried under the conditions of background and
yet in the developmental study of size con- age. Table 1-2 is the results of analysis
stancy, and also to elucidate the process of of variance of Table 1-1.
change in size constancy at the age level of Figure 1-1 indicates by Z-ratios of
7-14 years, a hypothesis suggested by Piaget Thouless the change in the degree of size
and Lambercier (1951), Kume (1961), etc. constancy with age under each of the 3
Obsever. Observers were the same as those background conditions. In Fig. 1-2 the
of Exp. I. In Exp. II-1, we retested two years difference in the mean of PSE between
after Exp. I with 12 children of the 7-yrs. group the background conditions was presented
of Exp. I (9-yrs. group), and 4 years after Exp. for each age with an aim to evaluate the
I with 8 children of the same 7-yrs. group of effect of the cues of each background.
Exp. I (11-yrs. group). Table 1-2 shows that there were statistical-
In Exp. II-2, the same experiment as Exp. ly significant differences both in the four
II-1 was retested, two years after Exp. I with age groups (p<0.05) and in the 3 back-
12 children of 10-yrs. group and four years grounds (p <0.01).
after Exp. I with 10 children of the same 10- As for the data of Table 1-1 and Fig.
 Developmental Studies on Size Constancy (I) 207

1-1 in terms of size constancy, in either of age of 5 to 7, decreased from 8 to 10 show-

the age groups Bg. A showed the highest ing the minimum value, and then, at the
mean of PSE (M=63.5 cm), then Bg. B age of adult, increased remarkably. Un-
(M=59.6 cm), and Bg. C the lowest der Bg. C, size constancy increased a little
(56.8 cm). Z-ratios computed from those during a period from the age of 5 to adult,
values were 0.83, 0.87, 0.91 for the Bg. A, but between the minimum value of the
B, C, respectively, and even in Bg. A, in 5-yr. old children and the maximum value
which the degree of size constancy was of the adults, there was not such a sig-
generally low, 0.81, 0.83, 0.80, and 0.87 nificant difference as under the two above-
for the 5-yrs., 7-yrs., 10-yrs. and adult mentioned background conditions.
group, respectively. These data suggest As is shown in Fig. 1-1 and Fig. 1-2,
the existance of a remarkably high size the adult group already showed a high
constancy in the photograph. degree of size constancy under Bg. A, and
Figure 1-2 shows that there was a sig- even when another condition such as Bg. B
nificant difference in the background con- and Bg. C was added, size constancy did
ditions (F=16.835, df=6/2, p<0.01), in not remarkably increase. On the con-
the age groups (F=5.164, df=6/3, p< trary, however, the child group, when
0.05) and that when the condition of other conditions were added, showed a
'texture -gradient'was added to the con- remarkable increase of size constancy.
dition of Bg. A (Bg. B—Bg.A), the degree
of size constancy increased and when the Result II
background condition of various things Comparison of matched size (PSE) in Exp.
arranged in perspective (Bg. C) was added II. In Exp. II, as we did in Exp. I, we
to Bg. A (Bg. C—Bg.A), the degree of size computed and compared the means of
constancy increased remarkably. matched size (PSE) as an indicator of size
Next is the problem of the change of size constancy. The results of Exp. II-1 and
constancy with age. As is shown in Fig. Exp. II-2 are shown in Table 2-1, and
1-1, size constancy changes with age but 2-2 respectively.
the process of the change is affected by the Table 2-1 contains the results of Exp. I
background conditions. Under Bg. A and as well as those of Exp. II. Table 2-1
B, the change in size constancy showed
similar process: It increased a little at the

FIG. 1-2. Change with age in the difference of

mean of PSE under the 2 backgrounds. This
figure indicates the degree of increase in the mean
of PSE when' texture-gradient' was added to Bg.
A (Bg. B-Bg. A), and ' texture-gradient' and ' per-
FIG. 1-1. Change of Z-ratios with age under spective background ' were added at the same time
the 3 backgrounds. to Bg. A (Bg. C-Bg. A).
208 T. SHIMADA

TABLE 2-1
Mean of PSE at the age of 7, 9 and 11 under the 3 backgrounds (cm)

TABLE 2-2
Mean of PSE at the age of 10, 12 and 14 under the 3 backgrounds (cm)

reads the following. As for Bg. A, the trends were found under the other back-
mean of PSE by the 16 Os of the 7-yrs. ground conditions in Table 2-1 and under
group was 63.6 cm (See Table 1-1), and all of the background conditions in Table
the mean of PSE by the 12 Os of the 9-yrs. 2-2.
group, who were followed up in Exp. II The analysis of variance computed from
two years after Exp. I, was 64.1 cm (the the mean of PSE (Table 2-2) of the 8 Os
mean of PSE by the 12 Os in Exp. I was followed up for 4 years indicates that there
63.7 cm), and the mean of PSE by the 8 were no significant differences in the age
Os of the 11-yrs. group, who were followed groups (F=3.226, df=4/2) but there were
up 4 years after Exp. I, was 65.0 cm. significant differences in the background
The mean of PSE by the same 8 Os who conditions (F=33.409, df=4/2, p<0.01).
were followed up in Exp. II, was 64.0 cm The analysis of variance of the mean of
and 63.5 cm at the age of 9 and 7 respec- PSE (Table 2-2) of the 10 Os followed up
tively. Bg. B and C of Table 2-1 and for 4 years indicates that there were sig-
Table 2-2 read the same way as above. nificant differences in the age groups (F=
As for Bg. A of Table 2-1, there were no 13.347, df=4/2, p<0.05) and in the back-
statistically significant differences in the ground conditions (F=129.33, df=4/2,
mean of PSE (at the age of 7) in the three p<0.01) respectively. Figure 2 is c-ratios
groups, i.e., 16 Os of the 7-yrs. group computed from the results of Exp. II and
(63.6 cm), the 12 Os out of the 7-yrs. plotted, superposed on Fig. 1.
group who were followed up at 9 (63.7 To sum up these results, in Exp. II-1
cm), and the 8 Os out of the 7-yrs. group there was observed a high degree of con-
who were followed up at 11 (63.5 cm). stancy in each age group under Bg. A,
There were no significant differences in and under Bg. B and C it remarkably in-
the mean of PSE (at the age of 9) between creased. The same trends were observed
the 12 Os followed up at 9 (64.1 cm) and in Exp. II-2 and they are quite similar to
the 8 Os out of the 12 Os who were fol- those of Exp. I. The analysis of variance
lowed up at 11 (64.0 cm). The same indicates a general trend that under each
 Developmental Studies on Size Constancy (I) 2G9

of the background conditions, size con- there is a close relationship between per-
stancy decreased from the age of 7 through ceived size and distance (depth), and the
9 to 11 (Table 2-1, Fig. 2), although there relationship was formulated by Kilpatrick
were no significant differences. and Ittelson (1953), Kuroda, and others
In Exp. II-2, as indicated in Table 2-2 as ' size-distance invariance hypothesis'
and Fig. 2, size constancy did not change that the degree of size constancy is closely
with age under Bg. C but under Bg. A related to the cues for the perception of
and B, it remarkably increased from 12 distance. Among many cues of distance,
to 14. (From 10 to 12 it was unchanged.) some specific cues are under restriction in
The results of the retest of Exp. II not only the photograph, i.e., binocular conver-
reconfirm the results of Exp. I on the traits gence, disparity and accommodation, etc.
of size constancy under each background In the present study, a high degree of size
and the trends of its development with constancy was found in the artificial,
'texture -gradient' deleted photograph,
age, but, as is indicated in Fig. 2, show:
(1) under Bg. C there was not a remark- which was stressed by Gibson as well as
able change in size constancy with age, Weinstein, Smith, etc. Namely, in Photo.
but (2) under Bg. A and B, size constancy A the Z-ratio of the 10-yrs. group, whose
once decreased from the age of 7 to 10, size constancy was the lowest, was 0.80
remained unchanged from 10 to 12, and in mean, and that of the adult group,
from 14 it remarkably increased approxi- whose size constancy highest, was 0.87 in
mating to that of the adult. mean.
These results support the views of
DISCUSSION Weinstein and Smith in which Leibowitz's
view was criticized, and show that if there
On the existenceof size constancyin photo- are cues of relative size and relationship
graph. As mentioned above, it has been of position of the objects compared, there
pointed out by many researchers that exists perception of depth, and therefore
size constancy even in the bi-dimentional
plane in which, texture-gradient is com-
pletely deleted as well as binocular con-
vergence and disparity, the necessary cues
for distance perception, are restricted.
Certainly these cues are not enough for
perfect size constancy. When cues of
`texture -gradient'were added to'rela-

tive size and relationship of position ' of

the objects, size constancy increased by
5.4% (Z-ratio was 0.827 under Bg. A, and
0.873 under Bg. B). Furthermore, when
cues of ` texture-gradient ' and ` perspec-
tive background ' were added at the same
time, the degree of size constancy was in-
creased by 9.4% (Z.-ratio was 0.827 under
FIG. 2. Change of Z-ratios in Exp. I and II
Bg. A, and 0.908 under Bg. C).
with age under the 3 backgrounds.
To conclude this, size constancy in a
●shows the change of Z-ratios by the same Os

of the 7-yrs. group who were followed up at 9 and photograph approximates to the perfect
11, and•£shows the change of those by the same degree with the existence of such cues
Os of the 10-yrs. group who were followed up at as 'texture-gradient',' perspective back-
12and I4. ground ' and ' relative size and relation-
２10 T. SHIMADA

ship of position'of the objects inthe When texture-gradient is added to the

photograph. photograph of Bg. A (Bg. B), the degree
On thedevelopment of size constancywith age. of size constancy increases more than un-
It was Piaget and Lambercier (1943) and der Bg. A in either age group, but the
Lambercier (1946) who criticized Akishige's change with age shows the same tendency
theory of differentiation of spatial structure as that of Bg. A.
(1937), in which he claimed the innateness It has been pointed out by Lambercier
of size constancy, and maintained its em- (1951), Kume (1956), etc. that there is not
piricism based on their unique experiments. linear relationship between size constancy
They conducted their experiments with ar- and age. This was also confirmed by the
ranged' systeme de reference' in front of results of our experiment with two photo-
the 0 between Ss and Sc on the apparatus graphs of different background condition,
and found that the 5 to 7-yr. old children but as for its developmental trends, the
cannot take advantage of the ` systeme de results of the present study were slightly
reference ' arranged in perspective, and different from those of theirs. It is im-
after a transition period of 7 to 9, at 9 to portant to note here that there are some
11, they manage to relate directly or differences between the present experi-
indirectly both stimuli (Ss and Sc) with ments and theirs in experimental situation,
'systeme de reference' and thus hold a
stimulus objects, 0, and, what is more im-
high degree of size constancy. portant, in the experimental design. Theirs
Shimada (1960, 1961, 1963) questioned used only a cross-sectional method while
their experimental method including the the present study adopted both cross-
arrangement of ' systeme de reference', sectional method and longitudinal method.
yet, as a suggestive developmental study In the author's opinion, the significance
on size constancy, retested and examined of the present study lies in that it reaffirmed
it. In the present study, instead of Piaget by the longitudinal method the results
and Lambercier's artificial type of ' sys- obtained by the cross-sectional method.
teme de reference ' as perspective back- As is stated earlier, when the conditions
ground, an experiment was conducted on of ` texture-gradient ' and ` perspective
the development of size constancy con- background ' were added at the same time
trolling the cues existing naturally in the to Bg. A (Bg. C), the degree of size con-
familiar space such as ' texture-gradient', stancy was high in every age group, and
'perspective  background,
, etc. under Bg. C, there was no significant dif-
Our results show that even the 5-yr. old ference between the child groups and adult
children hold a high size constancy (Z- groups. The adult can hold high degree
0.798) as long as two objects are arranged of size constancy in a photograph without
'texture _gradient'and' perspective back
in different distance, i.e., there exist ` rela-
tive size and relationship of position ' of ground ' if only he has cues of ' the relative
the objects even if binocular convergence size and relationship of position' of the
and disparity for the depth perception are objects. In the child group, however,
controlled, and texture-gradient and per- this is not the case ; in the 7-yrs. group the
spective background are deleted from a effect of ` texture-gradient ' is more sig-
nificant than in the 5-yrs. group (the
photograph. With a photograph modi-
fied to delete cues of distance (Bg. A), degree of size constancy increases); in the
however, size constancy increases from 5 10-yrs. group the effect of the' perspective
to 7, decreases for some period from 7 to background' is much more significant
10 indicating the minimum value, and than in the 5 and 7-yrs. group (the degree
again rapidly increases from 12 to 14 ap- of size constancy decreases). From these
findings it may safely be assumed that from
proximating to the degree of the adult.
 Developmental Studies on Size Constancy (I) 211

5 to 7 size constancy changes quantitative- New York: Harcourt, Brace.

ly but the mechanism of perception is KURODA,T. 1965 Methodological and experi-
similar to the previous one, and that from mental studies on size constancy. In Y.
7 to 10 the mechanism of perception Akishige (Ed.), Experimental researches on
develops quantitatively and at about 10 structure of the perceptual space V. Bulletin
of Faculty of Literature, Kyushu University,9,
the child comes to acquire a mechanism
49-96.
quantitatively similar to that of the adult LAMBERCIER, M. 1946 Recherches sur le de-
though his size constancy is inferior in veloppement des perceptions VII. La con-
quantity to that of the adult. figuration en profbndeur dans1a constance
des grandeurs. Archivesde Psychologie-Geneve,
31, 287-324.
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