UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4Hrs)

Introduction

The Horn of Africa is -

referred as the cradle of human being

Where early civilization took place.
Where the developments of social evolutions, economic formations and socio cultural
and political settings took place.
The home to diverse peoples, cultures and economic activities.

2.1. Human evolution

There are two theories about the evolution of human beings .These are the evolutionary theory
and the scientific theory.

(A). The creationist theory-says that human beings are created with complete physical and
anatomical shape by the will of God.

(B). The Evolutionary theory –states that human beings are evolved on the earth through a
gradual natural process since the earth was evolved at about (c.4.5 billion years B.P).

The earliest life came to being between 3 and 1 billion years B.P.
At c.800 million years B.P Blue green algae, small plants fishes, and other small beings
were emerged.
Between 200-170milion years B.P. branched of placental mammal stream and then some
primates developed in to Pongidae (such as Gorlla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) and
the other primates developed to Hominidae (Human ancestors).
Archaeological evidence suggests that East Africa n Rift valley is a cradle of humanity
because many different fossil remains were discovered at different sites. For in stances:

 Chororapithecus (dated10million years B.p.) in Anchar in West Hararge in 2007.

 Ardipithecus ramidus kadaba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years B.P.) in middle Awash.
 Ardipithecus ramidus (dated 4.2.million B.P.) at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 Other Australopithecines at Belohdelie (dated back3.6 million years B.P.) in middle Awash.
 A 3 years old child’s fossil of Australopithecines termed as Selam (dated back3.3million
years B.P) at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Australopithecus Afarnesis called Lucy or Dinkinesh (Dated back 3.8million years B.P) at
Hadar in Afar in 1974.
 Australopithecus Anamesis discovered around Lake Turkana.
 Australopithecus Garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated back 2.5 million years B.P.
at Bouri, Middle Awash between 1996 and 1999.
The 3-genus Homos between 2-2.5 million years B.P. were discovered at different parts of
Ethiopia and the horn. The three genus homos are: Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus and Homo
sapiens.
Homo Habilis: derive from a Latin terms ‘’Homo’’ means ‘human being ‘and ‘’Habilis
means skillful use of hands, dated 1.9 million years B.P discovered in the lower Omo.
2. Homo Erectus: means walking upright dated 1.6 million years B.P.

Its fossil remains discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb.
Had 900-1100cc brain size.
Seems to have originated in Africa and spread out to the rest world.
Invented fire
Started burial practices
Used Acheulean tools invented found at Kella Middle Awash in 1963.
3. Homo Sapiens: is classified in to archaic Homo sapiens and Homo Sapiens Sapiens.

I). Archaic Homo Sapiens:-is knowledgeable human being (dated to 400,000 years) B.P. called
as Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.

II). Homo Sapiens Sapiens: dated 100,000years B.P.

 Its fossils discovered at Porc epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around lower Omo in 1967.
 Kibish fossils re-dated to 195,000 years B.P. It was the oldest date in the world for Homo
Sapiens.
 Homo sapiens Idaltu, found in the Middle Awash in1997, lived about 160000 years B.P.
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped as Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age.
 A). Stone Age: During this time stone are raw materials for making tools. It can be divided
into:
i). Mode I ;-called as Oldowan based on the report made at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.

 Stone tools are mainly crude and mono facial styles produced by direct percussion.
 Used by Homo Habilis, discovered near Gona(dated 2.52million years B.P) in 1992 and
Shungura in Afar.
ii). Mode II -called as Acheulean named after the 1st report at St. Acheul, France.

 Tools were produced indirect percussion by using hand axe or hammer.

 The tools were mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
iii). Mode III-known as Sangoon produced by Homo Sapiens that trace back to 300,000 years
B.P. mainly characterized by flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian.

The oldest evidence of stone tools in the world is found at Dikika in 2010. Ethiopia and the
horn are regions where different fossil remains and stones are discovered.
For instances:

 Gademotta –in central Ethiopian Rift valley dated back to 200,000 years B.P.
 Gorgora, ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia
 Midhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered information about Stone Age communities. .
The period of usage of stone tools is divided in to sub-periods as:
A). The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age);-dated back 3.4milion years -11,000 years B.P.

During this period:-

Human beings developed language and lived in shelter caves.

Used stones, bones wood fur and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
Begun sex-age labor division as hunter of fauna for male and gatherers of flora for
females and children.
B). Mesolithic/Middle stone age/:-is dated between 11,000-10,000years B.P. It is a transitional
between Paleolithic and the Neolithic periods.

C).The Neolithic /New stone Age/:-covers between 10,000 to 6,000 years B.P.

2.2. Neolithic Revolution

During this period human beings had begun sedentary way of life and domestication of
animals and plants. They become food producers rather than hunters and food gatherers. In
Ethiopia and the horn, different plants were cultivated in the more elevated and water parts such
as:

Teff (Erogrotis teff) Nug (Guzutia abyssinica)

Dagusa (Eleusine coracana) Enset(Enset ventricosum)

There are different sites where different evidences were discovered in Ethiopia and the horn of
Africa. Example:

At Emba-Fekade(around Adigrat inTigray)- polished axes, grinding stones, beads,stone

figures and animal remains.
At Aqordat and Barentu(in Eritrea) –Neolithic material cultures.
At Gobedra rock shelter (near Aksum) –Agricultural stone tools.
At Lalibela caves (South Eastern shore of Lake Tana) -domesticated cattle, chickpeas
and vegetables.
At Laga Oda rock shelte(near Charcher)- stone tools, rock paintings of domesticated
animals
At Lake Basaqa(near Matahara) - domesticated cattle.
Outside Ethiopia and the horn there are many historical sites in Africa such as Playa, Napata
and Kado in Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were places of
domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus ) cattle that in due course
expanded to Ethiopia and the horn.

2.3. The people of the Region

2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic processes

Ethiopia and the Horn region are known by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about more
than 90 languages and with 200 dialects. Linguists classify these languages n to two super
families as Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

1. Afro-Asiatic super family –sub divided as

 Cushitic sub family-also divided as
Northern Cushitic- spoken by Beja in Northwestern Eritrea bordering Sudan.
 Central Cushitic- Agaw, Awigna, kunfel, Qimant, Hamtang and Bilen.
Eastern Cushitic-Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Gedeo, hadiya,
Halaba,Kambata,Konso,Libdo,Moise,Oromo,Saho,Sidama,Somali,Tambaro,Tsemai
etc.
Southern Cushitic- Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
 Semitic sub family sub divided into two as
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken
in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray)
South Semitic –sub divided as
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, KachamaGanjule, Karo,
Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem,
Zayse etc. Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is
Keficho.
B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

2.3.2. Settlement patterns

A settlement patterns of peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn is shaped and reshaped based on the
environment, social-economic and political processes. Based on historical linguistic and history
of inter peoples relations, the Cushitic and the Semitic had been inhabited the areas between the
red sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west. In due course:
The Cushitic have evolved to be the largest linguistic grouped followed by the Semitic
and spread over from the Sudan to Tanzania.
The Semitic eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south-central,
and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the horn.
The Omotic peoples are inhabited in southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo river except
the Shinasha (in Benishangul Gumuz ) and the south Mao (Anfillo ) in wollega.
The Nilotes are settled largely along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
 The chari-Nile family inhabited as far as Southern Omo and Chari Nile identified as
Karamojo cluster living around Lake Turkana along Ethio-kenyan border.

2.3.3. Economic formations

The economic activities of Ethiopia and the Horn are largely influenced by Topographic
features. The major economic activities are mainly agriculture, trade and crafts. The lowland
areas are pastoralists but the highlanders (plateau areas) are agriculturalists (Mixed
agriculture).For instances:

The eastern lowlands-are pastoralists’ rare animals like camel, goats, and cattle. They
depend on the rivers such as Afar, Somali Karayu and Borana on the Awash River, Afar
and Karayu on the Wabe Shebelle /Juba river.
The Plateau areas have sustained mixed farming and began sedentary agriculture since
10000years BP by Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic peoples.
Thje Omotic people engaged by mixed farming and trade in northern Omo and pastoralism
in Southern Omo. They were also known by Metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.
In the Western lowlands along the Ethio-Sudanese border the dominant economic activity
are Pastoralism, shifting agriculture and fishing and hunting.
Along the Blue Nile and Baro Akobo rivers, the Nilotes have been known by Shifting
cultivation. Sorghum is their stable food and cattle have high economic and social values.
They had also trade contact with Northern Sudan.

2.4. Religion and Religious process.

2.4.1 Indigenous Religion

It is a belief in one Supreme Being ,but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena
which are considered as sacred .Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals ,propitiate divinities
are held as intermediaries between the society and the sprites.

Waaqeffanna : is an Oromo religion based on the supreme God called Waaqaa’ Waaqa’s
power is manifested through the sprit called Ayyaana. The major sprite includes:
 Abdar/Dache (Soil fertility sprite)  Chato/Dora (Wild animals defender)
 Atete(women and human and animal  Gijare/Nabi(father and mother’s sprit)
fertility spirit)  Jaricha (peace sprit)
 Awayi/Tiyyana(sanctity sprit)  Qasa (anti-disease sprit) etc.
 Balas(Victory sprit)
 Ekera –is a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost .in the surrounding of his /her
abode before death, or his /her cemetery (Hujuba).
 Irrecha –A thanks giving ceremony in the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge
of ever flowing river and top of mountain respectively beside New Year (Birbo).
 Qallu(male) / Qallite(Female)-revered experts who have maintained link between the
Ayyana and the believers. They can interpret mysteries. There is a Dalaga/ecstasy at which
Qallu or Qalitti is possessed by Ayyana on Wednesday and Fridays.
 Galma-Qallu ritual house located on the hilltop or in the grove of large trees.
 Qallu is also called as Abba Muda or father of anointment. The Jila /Makkala (delegated
messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu/Abba Muuda until
the 1900.
 Abba Muuda –had turban surrirufa of tri-colors; black, red and white respectively
representing in pre active life, active (Luba and those in post active life respectively.
Waa-is a Supreme Being among the Hadiya people, who is believed to exist before
everything (hundam issancho) created world (qaccancho) and whose eyes are represented
by elincho(sun) and agana(moon).
Spirits attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen
by Anjancho and Jaramoncho are Jara-males protector, Idato –females guard and
Hausala, Qedane and Warriqa.
Worqimene clans are belived to be have the power to send rain in draught and
Fandanano/fandancho is a practice believed to be introduced by either spritual
leaders , Itto and Albajo from Bimado clan or Boyamo was followed by inhabitants
of Boshana, Misha etc.
Negita/ArichoMagano/-sky God-is a Kambata beliefs and Magnancho are kambata religious
officials.
Mageno- the Gedeo Supreme Being and Deraro is their thanks giving ceremony.
Waaq/Wakh-is the worship of the Konso people.
Diban/sky God- is the Supreme Being of Gojjam Agaw.
Waq/Goita(Supreme Being), Bozha(thunder diety) and Damwamwit(health goddess) are
beliefs among the sections of the Gurage people.
 The Gurage and the Yem had a common diety called as Abba at Ennar (Hennar).

Ha’o(Sky God):- is worship of the Yam. So’alan clan was considered as the top in religious
duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital diety).
Magos are religious functions performed through couriers in each villages of
Yam.
God Tosa: - is the worship of the Wolayta people. Wolayta’s spirit Ayyana includes:

Tawa-Awa/Moytiliya(father’s Wombo (rain spirit)

spirit) Micho (goat spirit)
Sawuna(justices spirit) Nago (sheep spirit)
 Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit) Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya,
Gomashera (war spirit) omo spirit) etc.

Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya.

Mitta was a place where annual worship spirits performed usually at the end of May and
beginning of June to offer sacrifices of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha).
Dongowa is a tree where the Wolayta people gathered around but it may vary from clan
to clan. For instance: Sycamore (Ficus sur exasperate) for the Bubula and Podocarpo for
the Zatuwa.
The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). The wolayta had the practice of
Chaganne (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster.
Sharechuwa- is a religious practitioners who had Becha or Kera Ezaketa( ritual house).
The Kaficho people
Yero is their Supreme Being and Ego is their sprit who hosts Eqo called as Alamo or
eke-nayo.
Dochi/dehettteno/-is a father of all spirits and its hosts called dochi-nayo or
Ibedechino/Ibedegudeno inculuding Arito and Wudia Riti with residence at Adio. There
are many spirits among the kaficho people like
Kollo(harvest spirit) sacrifices to it is dejo.
Showe-Kollo(earth spirit)
Dude-Baro(area spirit)and other local spirits like Damochochi of channa,
Yaferochi of sharada and Wogidochi of Adio.
Gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner and the Dungo clan
led spiritual services.
The Baro-Shinasha People:-
 Iqa – is their super natural power, which created everything and presides over the
universe.
 Their religion prescribed praying for the preservation of drought, flooding erosion
disease and starvation within the community.
 Gure Shuka –is the 1st among their various rituals practiced through slaughtering
animals by calling the name of God being at the top of the mountains.
 Shode Dena-is the 2nd praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happened.
 Marrowa Shuka –is the 3rd pray slaughtering for children to grow without disease
and to prevent them from evil spirit attack, for rehabilitation of wealth, to promote
harmonious ways of life and productivities in the family.
 The elders from the three clans of Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa led the rituals and
blessed the people.
The Nuer People:
 Kuath Nhial (God in Heaven);--is a believed in but believe in the coming of god
through rain, lightning and thunder bow is necklace of god.
  Said that Sun and Moon and other entities are manifestation s of God and
WiW(spirit of war )is a spirit associated with thunder.
 Believed that when a person dies flesh is committed to earth while breath/life goes
back to Kuath(God) and Soul remains alive as a shadow or reflection and departs
together with Ox sacrificed to a place of ghost.

2.4.2. JUDAISM
Is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the
ancient Jewish (Hebrew).
It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century Ad ,when the Bete Israel(House os Israel) refused
to be converted to Christianity,
Bete Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices which are generally recognized as Israelites
religion that differ from Rabbinic Judaism.)
Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the very
ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons
of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
There were different sources about the coming of Bete Israel to Ethiopia .These are:
 The later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the
southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I,
who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel
and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first
Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and
Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
 Others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. The
Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia.

2.4.3. Christianity
 Christianity entered Ethiopia during king the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360) by Syrian
brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos) in 334 A.D .Before the coming of this
religion Ezana followed indigenous religion like:
 Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
 Arwe (serpentpython god),
 Bahir (sea god) and
 Midir (earth god)
 The first bishop of Ethiopia appointed by Alexandrian patriarch, Atnatewos (328-373) was
Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) and consecration of bishops from Coptic
Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian
Patriarch.
 It was expanded to the masses of Ethiopian society in later 5th century during the reign of
Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below: Table I: The Nine
Saints

Name Location of the Church

Origin Church/Monastery
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika’el) Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa
Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum
Abba Afse) Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a) Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta

Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to1270 (Addis Ababa:
Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-9.
 The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.
 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained
fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches
and monasteries were constructed. These includes

 Rock-hewn churches of
Lalibela,
 Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea;
 Debra-Hayiq in Wollo,
 Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq
in Gojjam;
 Debra-Libanos in Shewa,
 Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
 Debre-Asabot on the way to
Harar
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the
ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.

 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert

Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. This led to bloody conflicts that in turn led
to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious
controversies within EOC.

 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. For instances:

 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis

(Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie.

 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of

London (CMSL)

 Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders
were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.

 The Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local
people. For example:

They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.

They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used
them in new versions as equivalent to God.

Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith to all children of
chiefs and farmers.

They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of
followers.

2.4.4 ISLAM
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced
opposition from the Quraysh rulers. The Prophet sent some of his early followers to
Aksum led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of
Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give relief from what you are suffering."
The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash
in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah
to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply and he said to have replied, "If you
were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge
with me.”
Islam spread to the Horn of Africa through peaceful ways including trade.
a) Through Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century.
In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a
 sultanate and it was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior through the agency of preachers
and merchants.
b) Through, the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important
gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and
Hararghe. By the 8th and 9th centuries Islam firmly established itself in the coastal.
From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of
Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. For example Sheikh
Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in
the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
c) Through Benadier coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca Islam introduced into
Somali territories in the 8th century A. D. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil setup
Mogadishu Minatare c.1269.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of
cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.