Transport of respiratory gases ................................................................................................................

2
A closer look at Haemoglobin and Myoglobin .................................................................................... 2
Hemoglobin ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Myoglobin........................................................................................................................................ 2
Foetal haemoglobin............................................................................................................................. 3
The Bohr shift ...................................................................................................................................... 3
CO2 transport in the blood .............................................................................................................. 4
CO2 and the pH of the blood ............................................................................................................... 4
Remember: The heartbeat .............................................................................................................. 5
Sensing the pH of the blood ................................................................................................................ 5
Living and breathing at high altitude................................................................................................... 5
Remember: Emphysema ................................................................................................................. 6
Treating emphysema ................................................................................................................... 6
Transport of respiratory gases
A closer look at Haemoglobin and Myoglobin
Both Haemoglobin and Myoglobin are associated to the binding of oxygen in the body

• They both include one or more heme groups

• Each iron ion in each heme group can bind to one O2 molecule

Haemoglobin contain four heme groups attached to one polypeptide chain each

Myoglobin consist of only one heme group attached to one polypeptide

Haemoglobin is responsible for holding on to O2 during transport in the blood

Myoglobin stores O2 in muscle cells

Both molecules becomes oxygenated

Hemoglobin
Haemoglobin changes shape and affinity when carrying more oxygen

• The more O2 that binds, the easier it becomes to

bind O2 to the next heme group.

The dissociation curve of haemoglobin is S-shaped

At low O2 conc. Hemoglobin has a low affinity for O2

At high O2 conc. Hemoglobin has a high affinity for O2

Totally necessary for the transport and deposition of O2 in cells that need it. It slowly gather oxygen
that is why it has an S-shaped dissociation curve.

Myoglobin
Myoglobin consist of only one polypeptide with only one heme group

• The dissociation curve is not S-shaped

• Myoglobin can hold on to oxygen until it is really needed

Myoglobin is use after hemoglobin is use then the myoglobin is then use as a last resort. After that if
oxygen is still not recover, the body use lactic acid.
Foetal haemoglobin
Before birth a special form of haemoglobin is present called foetal haemoglobin

• It has a greater affinity than adult haemoglobin

• The fetus must be able to recieve O2 from the mother’s blood through the placenta

The Bohr shift

Apart from four O2 molecules, haemoglobin can also bind to one CO2 molecule

• Upon binding to CO2 the affinity for O2 decreases in haemoglobin

• Causing it to release more O2 in tissues containing a lot of CO2

• This is called the Bohr shift.

• Niels Bohr’s dad Christian Bohr created this theory.

CO2 transport in the blood
Some CO2 bind to haemoglobin, changing its shape

A small amount dissolves in the blood and remains as CO2 (liquid form)

The most part (70%) is converted into hydrogen carbonate ions inside red blood cells

The enzyme carbonic anhydrase reacts with CO2 and H2O, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3)

• This dissociates into a hydrogen carbonate ion and a hydrogen ion

Both ions exit the red blood cells and travel in the blood plasma

CO2 and the pH of the blood

Remember: CO2 is constantly formed in the cellular respiration

• CO2 is transported from the tissues to the lungs

CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid

• which dissociates into hydrogen carbonate and a hydrogen ion

This leads to a lowering of blood pH

The homeostatic range of the pH of the blood is 7,35 – 7,45

• Under resting conditions this is maintained by buffering mechanisms

contributed to by haemoglobin and other blood proteins

Remember: the amino acids of proteins can contain charged side chains

• Negatively charged side chains can hold a hydrogen ion

• preventing it from appearing in the solution, thus acting as a buffer.

If the pH drops below 7,35 the body needs to increase it’s ventilation rate

• Happens ex: during exercise

Controled by the medulla oblongata of the brain

Remember: The heartbeat
A part of the brain called the medulla oblongata is sensing the needs of the body cells

• The medulla senses the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood

The cranial nerve sends signals to the SA node for an increase in heartbeats

The vagus nerve sends signals to the SA node for a decrease in heartbeat

Sensing the pH of the blood

Chemoreceptors in the aorta senses levels of pH and thus CO2 of the blood

• If concentration of CO2 becomes too high, and pH to low, signals will be

sent to the medulla oblongata

• The medulla itself also contain similar receptors

The medulla sends action potentials to the diaphragm which starts to

contract at a higher rate

• This leads to a greater ventilation rate and facillitates the ventilation of CO2

Living and breathing at high altitude

The air at a high altitude, ~>2500 m, has a low air pressure

• This means that all molecules are dispersed more compared

to the conditions at sea level

• O2 molecules are also more dispersed

o We get less O2 from each breath

The body needs to compensate for this

On short term the body increases ventilation- and heart rate

On long term the body:

• Produces more erythrocytes (red blood cell) and haemoglobin

• Increase amounts of capillaries in lungs and muscles

• Increase the size of the lungs

• Increase amount of myoglobin in muscles

Remember: Emphysema
Emphysema is the destruction of alveoli due to different harmful chemicals

• The alveoli collapse and are destroyed

• This result in shortness of breath and can lead to cancer

The most common cause is tobacco smoke

Other causes can be:

• Marijuana smoke

• Exposure to second-hand smoke from cigarettes or marijuana

• Fumes from manufacturing plants

• Coal dust

• Air pollution

Treating emphysema
If the emphysema is mild it can be treated by removing the causative agents

• Over time the alveoli will heal

Some medications can also aid this process

Usually cases are however worse and eventually the person will need supplemental oxygen from a
gas tube

Cases of emphysema becomes less each year as populations become more educated

Remember: The Alveoli

The type I pneumocytes are extremely thin cells over which gas exchange easily can occur

The type II pneumocytes are cuboid cells that produce a surfactant in the alveolus

A chemical similar to phospholipids or detergent

Prevents the walls of the alveolus from sticking to each other

An exercise!

Look at light microscope slides of blood cells and lung tissue

Look at electron micrographs of the same tissue

Identify:

• Red blood cells

• Capillary

• Capillary endothelium cells

• Type I pneumocyte
The light micrographs
X400

X100
X400

The electron micrographs