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OUTLINES
What is Linguistics? The prescriptive & Descriptive approaches to linguistics

The Genesis / origin of language The difference between linguistics & Traditional
Grammar
The types of linguistics (Branches & The study of semantics Various kinds of
Kinds) semantic meaning
The study of pragmatics , the importance of speaker, The development of writing
hearer, context, Diesis background
Importance, cooperative principle, Tact Politeness , How we acquire first language/
Speech Act. Pre supposition & regrent Mother tongue.

Linguistics: A Historical Survey

A The Indian tradition F the contribution of the American
B The Greek & The Roman Tradition (Structuralists especiallyof bloomfield )
C Linguistics after the Renaissance G The prague School
th
D 19 century linguistics H The later development
th
E linguistics is the 20 century

Table of Contents

What is Linguistics (Kinds + Branches) ............................................................. 4

Descriptive & Prescriptive Approaches in Linguistics ....................................... 5
The Genesis & Origin of Language .................................................................. 6
Grammar / Linguistics ...........................................................................................
Difference between Linguistics & Traditional Grammar .................................... 7
Study of Seamantics ....................................................................................... 8
First Language (Language Acquisition) ............................................................ 9
The Development of Linguistics ..................................................................... 11
Study of Pragmatics ...................................................................................... 12
Linguistics (A Historical Survey) ................................................................... 13

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Notebook
If u Work Hard - Innsha_Allah- u will be Success.

Assalam o Alaikum, my Dear Students,

I hope You are All getting Good

knowledge, good Improvement in your

own work hard, but I give you this

notebook, which will help you in

Exams`s, so Please, if I make any

mistake, please help me, then I will

Improve them, and also get more

knowledge from all of you,

Thanks.
Obediently:
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What is Linguistics? (Kinds + Branches)

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves an
analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context,
as well as an analysis of the social, cultural, historical, and political
factors that influence language.
Linguists have identified five basic components (phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics) found across
languages.
KINDS OF LINGUISTICS
Symantic: Represents Sructure / meaning of sentences (Vocabulary
meaning of word) .
Phonetics: The study of speech sound in their physical aspects.
Syntax: Study of sentences.
Phonology: Study of Sounds / production of sound of language.
Morphology: Study of Spelling. , Structure ,/ how words form,ation
grammatical.
Pragmatic: Study of language use.
BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS
Pure / Theoretical Linguistics:
This is related to General term linguistics
i-e Phenology , Syntax , Analyse , Structure
Applied Linguistics:
Try to understand language practically. Detailed Study , learn
language, teaching & speaking.
Psycholinguistics:
Mind language, direct relationship between mind and language.
Anthropological Linguistics:
Study of language and culture , relationship between language
and culture
Computational Linguistics:
The simulation of language by the use of somputers.
Stylistics:
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Study of language and literature

Historical Linguistics:
The study of language change over the time
Comparative Linguistics:
The study of different languages and their respective, linguistics
system.

Descriptive & Prescriptive Approaches in

Linguistics

Prescriptive Grammar describes when people focus on talking

about how a language should or ought to be used.

Descriptive Grammar, on the other hand, focuses on describing

the language as it is used, not saying how it should be used.

A Descriptive Grammar is a study of a language, its structure, and its

rules as they are used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life,
including standard and nonstandard varieties.

A Prescriptive Grammar, on the other hand, specifies how a language

and its Grammar rules should be.

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The Genesis, / Origin of Language

Origin of linguistics
The origin of language (sound and written), its relationship with
human evolution, and its consequences, have been a centuries-long
subject of study for the human race. The topic is difficult to study
because of the lack of direct evidence. Consequently, scholars wishing
to study the origins of language must draw inferences from other kinds
of evidence such as the fossil record, archaeological evidence,
contemporary language diversity, studies of language acquisition and
comparisons between human language and systems of
communication existing among animals (particularly other primates).
Many argue that the origins of language probably relate closely to the
origins of modern human behavior, but there is little agreement about
the implications and directionality of this connection.
Seven Theories
1 The Bow-Wow
2 The Pooh-Pooh
3 The Ding-Dong
4 The Gesture
5 The Yo-He-Ho
6 The Musical
7 The Contact
There are 7 Theories, 4 written in a
given image, & missing written below.
5 The Yo-He-Ho:
Involving natural sound,
The Idea is that the sound of a
person involved in physical effort.
6 The Musical:
Considered Rythems, tonal
systems, of pitch sounds.
7 The Contact:
Language contact occur
when speakers of two or more
language interact, & influence
each oeher.

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Difference Between Linguistics

& Traditional Grammar
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including
the study of Grammar, syntax, and phonetics.

Traditional Grammar is to the type of language study that existed

before the beginnings of modern linguistics.
Most importantly, `TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR `is Prescriptive &
`MODERN LINGUISTICS` is Descriptive.
This is the main difference between Traditional Grammar &
Linguistics.

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Study of Semantics
In Linguistics, The Semantics is the subfield that studies meaning The
meaning of a word, phrase or text Relationship between Form and
Meaning.
Two types
Conceptual meaning & Associative meaning.

There are various types of meaning. The famous scholar Geoffrey

Leech has given Eight (8) types of meaning or Semantic. They are--

1. Denotative meaning
Denotative meaning the logical meaning which indicates the essential
qualities of a concept that distinguish it from other concepts.
2. Connotative meaning
The additional are associated meaning which is attached to the denotative
conceptual meaning it consists of associations made with a concept to
whenever that concept is referred to.
3. Social meaning
It is the meaning that a word possesses by which virtue of its use in
particular social situations and circumstances.
4. Thematic meaning
It lies in the manner in which a message is organized for emphasizes.
5. Lexical & Grammatical meaning
This is the distinction between word meaning and sentence meaning that is
the meaning of in the visual lexical items as a distinct from the meaning
which they have in combination with other atoms in sentences.
6. Sense & Refference
While reference is the indication of relationships between a word and a
concept or object in the external world sensor is the internal relationship of
the word with other words sense relationship include relations of synonym
similar meaning hyponymy inclusion of the meaning of one within the other
antonym opposite meaning and a homonymy name similar sound different
meaning.
7. Sentence & Utternace

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Sentence is the grammatical unit which contains a logical statement are

preposition and eternis is the speaking a writing of a sentence by a user in a
context.
8. Entailment & Presupposition
One sentence into another when it includes the meaning of the Other
sentence one sentence presupposes in other when it implies and earlier
meaning which is known

Acquire first Language / Mother Tongue

What is Language Acquisition?
Ans: First language acquisition refers to the way children learn their
native language. Second language acquisition refers to the learning of
another language or languages besides the native language.
For children learning their native language, linguistic competence
develops in stages, from babbling to one word to two word, then
telegraphic speech. Babbling is now considered the earliest form of
language acquisition because infants will produce sounds based on
what language input they receive. One word sentences (holophrastic
speech) are generally monosyllabic in consonant-vowel clusters.

Q.How do children acquire language?

Do parents teach their children to talk?
Ans: Children acquire language quickly, easily, and without effort or
formal teaching. It happens automatically, whether their parents try to
teach them or not.
the language must be used for interaction with the child;
for example, a child who regularly hears language on the TV or
radio but nowhere else will not learn to talk.

Children acquire language through interaction - not only with

their parents and other adults, but also with other children. All normal
children who grow up in normal households, surrounded by
conversation, will acquire the language that is being used around them.
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And it is just as easy for a child to acquire two or more languages

at the same time, as long as they are regularly interacting with speakers
of those languages.

Q. When do children learn to talk?

Ans: There is no one point at which a child learns to talk. By the time
the child first utters a single meaningful word, he or she has already
spent many months playing around with the sounds and intonations of
language and connecting words with meanings.
The first sounds a baby makes are the sounds of crying. Then,
around six weeks of age, the baby will begin making vowel sounds,
starting with aah, ee, ooh.
Many parents hear a child in this stage produce a combination like
"mama" or "dada" child has uttered his or her first word.

The Development of Writing

Writing is the physical wat of spoken language. It is thought that human
being developed Language. The first Systematic Writing systems were
developed about 5000 Years ago.
The first fully developed Syllabic Writig system were used by
Phoenicians in between 3000 – 4000 years ago.
Name the different phases in the development of writing.
The major phases in the development of writing are:
pictographic writing, ideographic writing, logographic writing
rebus writing, syllabic writing alphabetic writing.

Pictographic Writing:
Pictographic writing using picture to represent an object.
For example, the use of  to mean `PEN`
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Ideographic Writing:
Ideographic writing is the use of picture-like symbols to represent
the idea of an object.
For example, one may draw a circle (O) to mean ‘the sun’ &
WallClock ().
Logograpgic Writing:
Logographic writing is the use of arbitrary signs to represent the
idea of an object.
For example, Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3...) are arbitrary symbols which
represent a whole idea. Other common logograms include the signs &
(ampersand), @, (at), % (percent), currency signs ($, ¢, €, £, ¥ etc.)
Chinese and Japanese writing are logographic.
Rebus Writing:
Rebus writing uses symbols such as pictograms as sounds symbols
to represent new words. (In Latin language, rebus meant "by things").
A. The association of a picture with a sound was the earliest attempt to
write sounds. This method is used in many ancient writings to
represent abstract ideas.
Syllabic Writing:
In Syllabic writings, signs represented syllables rather than the
whole word.
Alphabetical Writing:
Alphabetical writing is the use of signs to represent both the
consonant and vowel sounds. Alphabetic writing was discovered by the
Phoenicians. Greeks improved it by adding separate symbols for
vowels.

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Study of Pragmatics
We think about meaning , it is also important to take into
account the contribution on context, in terms then we
can think about Pragmatics as the study of the
contribution on context to meaning.
Pragmatics is the study of how words are used, or the study of signs
and symbols.
An example of pragmatics is how the same word can have different
meanings in different settings.
An example of pragmatics is the study of how people react to different
symbols.
Types / Kinds
1. Physical Context:
We can think of this in term of where the conversation is taking
place, what Object are present , what actions are occurring, and
so forth.
2. Epistemic Context:
The Epistemic context refers to what speakers know about the
world. For Example, what background knowledge is shared by the
speakers is crucially part of your Epistemic knowledge when you
have a conversation with someone else.
3. Linguistics Context:
The Linguistics Context refers to what has been said already in the
utterance. For Example, If I begin a discussion ny referring to Jane
Smith and in the next sentence ,refer to `her` as being a top
notch athlete , the linguistics context lets me know that the
antecedent of `her` (the person `her` refers to) is Jane Smith.
4. Social Context:
The social context refrs to the social relationship among speakers
and hearers.

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Linguistics : (A Historical Survey)

a. The Indian Tradition:
b. The Greek & The Roman Tradition:
c. Linguistics after the Renaissance:
d. 19th – Century Linguistics:
e. 20th – Century Linguistics:
f. the contribution of the American (Structuralists especially of
bloomfield):
g. The prague School:
h. The later development:

THE INDIAN TRADITION AND THE DISCOVERY OF

SANSKRIT:
Among the most prominent Indian scholar, there was one who
thoroughly described the ancient Indian language Sanskrit:
Panini (~ 4th C B C). The grammarian’s work was discovered by the
European only by the 18th C.

Panini:
wrote a grammar of Sanskrit (between 600 B.C. and 300 B.C.)
called (literally ) Panini’s grammar of Sanskrit is highly systematized
and technical. He defined and described the concepts of the phoneme,
the morpheme and the root, which were recognized by Western
linguists some two millennia late! His rules have a reputation of a
scientific study — that is, they are claimed to describe Sanskrit
phonology and morphology fully, without any redundancy.
In ancient and modern linguistics. Besides, It was Panini who first
enunciated that grammatically, Sanskrit has eight cases for the noun
(nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental,
vocative, and locative)

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The Renaissance (History of European )

It is a French, (Rebirth) Period in European civilization
immediately following the Middle ages (modern age).
During this period, grammatical descriptions were written for
several European languages. The Bible was also translated into many
different languages during the Renaissance.

The 19th Century:

variety of human language structure, which was later hailed by
Leonard Bloomfield as 'the first great book on general linguistics.' The
book promotes the idea that language is the product of the creativity of
the human mind, and so language shouldn't be evaluated according to
antiquated ideas about grammatical structure.

The 20th Century

The advent of structuralism at the beginning of the 20th century is
associated with Ferdinand de Saussure, a French-Swiss scholar whose
ideas have had a lasting effect on the linguistic thought of following
generations. Saussure stressed the interaction at any one time of
elements in a language's structure and maintained that these were
interrelated in a network of relations. Diachrony is in his view just a
stringing together of various synchronic slices, so that the structure of a
language at one point in time is primary and historical considerations
are dependent on the principles derived from viewing language
synchronically.
With the development of linguistics, the status of linguistics is
increasing, which is closely related to other subjects. In particular, the
language development has entered a new stage in 50s and 60s in 20th
century. The research is sufficient to prove that linguistics has entered a
cross disciplinary research, among them the more influential are the
structuralism linguistics and post structural linguistics.
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A M E R I C A N (B L O O M F I E L D):
Structuralists especially of bloomfield )
It was a American that many of the most important developments
in mid-century Linguistics took place, in many respects these owed
much to the concern of American Anthropologist to record the culture
and Languages, but in 1933 the Linguist , Leonard Bloomfield ,
published a book called, Language , in which he outlined a
methodology for the description of any language. Bloomfield`s
approach was rigorously descriptive , sometime reffered Descriptive
Linguistics Ocassciaonly as `Structuralist`, (in a slighty different sense
than the Saussurean), for Bloomfield the task of Linguists was to collect
data from native speakers of a Language and then analyse it by
studying the Phonological and Syntactic Pattern.
Leonard Bloomfield “stimulus—response” view of language.
In the language theory, Bloomfield also
discussed the essence of language. He pointed out: To study the
phenomenon of language, the necessary step is to observe the
language activities..

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTICS

Teaching and Applied Linguistics Language dictionary “Language is
human communication system, composed of organized speech system
(or its written form), the speech series constitute the larger units, such
as morphemes, words, sentences and discourse. he defined the
language was as a means of oral communication. Different
philosophers, linguists with different views on the differences in
language showed differences in their knowledge and understanding on
language. In the history different masters and scholars gave the
definition from their points of view. The following are the general
summary of the definitions of language.

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LANGUAGE IS A KIND OF PRACTICE.

It is a kind of practice both for oneself and for others, and it is a
consciousness of existence for oneself and for others. Language is the
same as consciousness, just because of the need, and the urgent need
to communicate with other people.
Language is not an instinctive act but a social custom. He said, “Speech
is a kind of non-instinctive, acquired ‘culture’ function” (Sapir, 2002, p.
4). In his the General Linguistics Discourse, Ferdinand Saussure also
clearly put forward the “language has its own side, also has its social
side, the two cannot be separated”

THE SCHOOLS OF LINGUISTICS

Schools of linguistics are raised and put forward by many linguists
and philosophers. From different perspectives on language, linguists
and philosophers have different understanding of language. People put
the researches into different schools. The Western Linguistics Schools
illustrated the main western linguistic schools.
(1) TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR:
Traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the
structure of a language. Traditional grammars are commonly
used in language education. They may be contrasted with
theories of grammar in theoretical linguistics. Traditional
grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used, or
to teach people to speak or read them. Traditional grammars generally
classify words into parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word
inflection, and the rules of syntax by which those words are combined
into sentences.
(2) HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS:
Historical linguistics, is also called diachronic linguistics. Principal
concerns of historical linguistics include: to describe and account for
observed changes in particular languages, to reconstruct the pre-

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history of languages, and to determine their relatedness, grouping

them into language families
(comparative linguistics), to develop general theories about how and
why language changes, to describe the history of speech communities,
and to study the history of words, i.e., etymology.
(3) SAUSSURE’S LINGUISTICS:
Saussure’s linguistic theory of regarding language as a synchronic
and static sign system has turned the historical trend of linguistics
and opened up a new pattern of modern linguistics, thus makes
linguistics get great achievement in the 20th century.
(4) THE PRAGUE SCHOOL:
The Prague School, or Prague linguistic circle, was an influential
group of literary critics and linguists in Prague. Its proponents
developed methods of structuralist literary analysis and a theory
of the standard language and of language cultivation during the
years 1928–1939. The linguistic circle was founded in the Café
Derby in Prague, which was also where meetings took place
during its first years.

(5) STRUCTURALISM SCHOOL:

In sociology, anthropology, and linguistics, structuralism is the
theory that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of
their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure. It works
to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do,
think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher
Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of human
life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These
relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the
surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract culture.

Good- Luck

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