SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

1. Describe the lake ecosystem in term of their zonation and its biotic components. [10 marks]

Lake zonation

Based on light penetration Based on the distance from the shore

(and water depth)
Photic zone
Aphotic/ profundal zone Littoral
Limnetic
Benthic

i. Based on light penetration

Photic zone
- The upper layer where light is sufficient for photosynthesis
- Include littoral and limnetic zone

Aphotic zone/ profundal

- The lower layer that receives little light/ deeper waters where light does not penetrate /
photosynthesis absent
- Detritus sinks through this zone to bottom sediments
- Communities of diverse bacteria/ decomposers/ fish

ii. Based on the distance from the shore (and water depth)

Littoral zone
- Shallow/ water close to shores
- (rooted and floating) aquatic plant/ insects/ crustaceans/ frogs/ fish/ algae
- Diversity is greatest here

Limnetic zone
- Well-lit, open surface waters/ far away from the shore
- Occupied by tiny organism such as plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton)/ fish/
cyanobacteria/ green algae

Benthic zone
- The sediments at the bottom
- Zone of decomposition
- Dominated by bacteria/ decomposer/ benthos
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

2. Explain the terrestrial ecosystem of tropical rainforest. [10 marks]

- Tropical rain forest a terrestrial biome

- characterized by high levels of precipitation/ high humidity and high temperatures throughout
the year
- Distribution mainly at equatorial and subequatorial regions
- Stratification is based on vertically layered for light penetration

Emergent layer
- The tallest trees and are usually over 50m tall
- receives a lot of sunlight
- Exposed to strong wind & high temperature
- Examples of living organism: Kapok tree, Tualang tree and eagle
Canopy
- Trees at 40m tall
- the leaves blocking out the sun from the lower layers
- The canopy contains over 50% of the rainforest wildlife, includes birds, snakes, monkeys
and orchids
Understory
- Tree is about 20m tall
- Not as dense, as it receives less sunlight under the canopy
- Consists of smaller trees
- Plant: Many plants adapted to climb already-established host trees e.g: Lianas sp.
Shrub
- receive 2-5% sunlight/tree is about 3.5m tall
- has the densest plant growth contains shrubs, ferns and insects.
Ground/forest floor
- receive 0-2 % sunlight
- usually dark and damp with 100% humidity
- contains a layer of rotting leaves and dead animals/rich in nutrients.
- Organisms include mosses and millipede
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

3. Explain natural selection and artificial selection. [10 marks]

Selection

Natural selection Artificial selection

Process of selection involving Process of selection involving

environmental factor as selecting human as selecting agent
agent

example example

Natural Selection
i. Process of selection involving environmental factor as selecting agent
ii. It is a random event that act as a mechanism of evolution
iii. Members of a population become adapted to the environment / greater fitness
iv. Favourable traits increase in successive generation // favourable traits are passed on to the
next generation
v. Less favourable traits become disappear/ extinct
vi. Three types of natural selection; stabilizing, directional and disruptive

Artificial Selection
i. Process of selection involving human as selecting agent
ii. It is a planned event
iii. Which leads to changes in allele / genotype frequencies in a population
iv. Producing a new breeds / strains / varieties / races / subspecies of organism
v. Carried out by selective breeding on organism showing desired characteristic / traits
vi. Useful / for a specific purpose
vii. Two types; inbreeding and outbreeding
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

4. Describe the types of natural selection. [10 marks]

Types of natural selection

Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection

Stabilizing selection
i. Favours intermediate phenotypes
ii. Acts against extreme phenotypes
iii. Reduced genetic variability

Directional selection
iv. Acts against one extreme phenotypes
v. Favours the other extreme phenotypes
vi. Shifts the curve towards the favoured phenotype

Disruptive selection
vii. Favours two extreme phenotypes
viii. Acts against intermediate phenotypes
ix. Two extreme distinctive phenotypes separated // two new species will be formed // two
subpopulations will be formed
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

5. Define genetic drift and explain its effects to a population. [10 marks]
Genetic drift

Founder effect/principle Bottleneck effects

Occurs in small population which

Occur in small surviving population
is isolated from the original
after an environmental disaster
population

Genetic drift is change in gene/ allele frequencies within population that occur by chance

Founder effect/principle
- Occur when a small population colonizing/ migrated into a new area
- The small population is isolated from the original population
- Becoming pioneering population
- Forms a new colony /population
- Alleles frequencies of the founders may not be the same as frequencies of the original
population

Bottleneck effects
- Occurs when the population suddenly reduced in size/ occur in small surviving population
- due to natural disaster
- certain allele maybe over represented/ under represented
- Some allele maybe eliminated
- Causes genetic drift in small population of survivors
- Only a few individuals contribute genes to the entire future population
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

6. Discuss the reproductive isolation mechanism in speciation. [12 marks]

- Speciation is a process of formation of new species (from pre-existing species) through

evolution.
- Speciation will only occur as a result of the formation of barriers that prevent interbreeding.
- Which lead to reproductive isolation between members of the population.
- Mechanism of action acting before fertilization (pre-zygotic) or after fertilization (post-zygotic)

Pre-zygotic mechanism
- Habitat isolation = Populations live in different habitat and do not meet / breed
- Seasonal / temporal isolation = Mating / flowering occurs at different times / seasons
- Behavioral isolation = Little or no sex attraction between males and females of different
species // different in courtship pattern / behavior
- Mechanical isolation = differences in genitalia prevent successful copulation / incompatible or
different sexual anatomical structure that prevent mating.
- Gametic isolation = Female and male gametes fail to fuse to form a zygote / inviable

Post-zygotic mechanism
- Hybrid inviability = zygotes fail to develop / fail to reach sexual maturity
- Hybrid sterility = Hybrid / F1 fail to produce functional gametes
- Hybrid breakdown = F1 are fertile but F2 are sterile
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

7. Describe the properties of an enzyme. [8 marks]

i. globular proteins
ii. acts as biological catalyst
iii. speed up the rate of metabolic reactions
iv. highly specific in action / only catalyse a reaction when the substrate and active sites have
complementary shapes
v. possess active sites
vi. lowers die activation energy
vii. Reusable remain unchanged by the reaction it catalysed
viii. Required in small amount
ix. Denatured by extreme pH /high temperature
x. Enzyme may catalysed reversible reaction

8. Explain the mechanism of enzyme action based on induced fit hypothesis. [8 marks]

i. the hypothesis suggested that the active site is flexible

ii. active site is not exactly complementary to the shape of the substrate
iii. the substrate binds to active site,
iv. the binding induces, a slight change in the shape of the active site of enzyme
v. allowing the substrate to fit precisely into the active site
vi. the active site becomes full complementary with the substrate
vii. forming an enzyme-substrate complex
viii. Reaction takes place and products formed and released.
ix. the active site returns to its original shape
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

9. With the aid of a diagram, discuss the effect of temperature on the enzymatic reaction. [10 marks]

Diagram: 2 marks

- All enzymes work within a range of temperature specific to the organism

- Increases in temperature generally lead to increases in reaction rates

- At low temperatures, an enzyme-catalysed reaction takes place slowly

- Movement of molecules slow
- decreases the chances of colliding with active sites

- As temperature increases, the movement of molecules increases // increases chances of

colliding with active sites of enzyme molecules
- Thus the reaction between substrates and enzymes is accelerated
- For every 10oC rise in temperature, the rate of reaction is doubled
- Up to the optimum temperature
- Optimum temperature is the temperature at which the reaction is at the maximum rate

- Beyond the optimum temperature, decreases in reaction rates

- This is due to the denaturizing of protein structure / change the conformation of active sites
- Resulting from the breakdown of the weak ionic / hydrogen bonding / hydrophobic interaction
/ disulphide / Van der Waals
- Substrates can no longer fit into the active sites of the enzymes
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

10. Describe the Krebs cycle. [10 marks]

- Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.

- Acetyl Co-A, 2C enters matrix of mitochondria
- And combines with oxaloacetate, 4C to produces citrate,6C
- Citrate,6C is converted to isocitrate,6C through isomerization process
- Isocitrate,6C become α-ketoglutarate,5C through oxidative decarboxylation process
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ and releasing CO2
- α-ketoglutarate, 5C undergo oxidative decarboxylation to produce Succinyl-CoA,4C
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ and releasing CO2
- Succinyl-CoA, 4C changed to succinate, 4C. In this step, ATP is produced
- Succinate is converted/ oxidized to fumarate, 4C
- FAD is reduced to FADH2
- Fumarate, 4C is rearrange to malate, 4C by hydration process
- Malate, 4C is converted/ oxidized to oxaloacetate, 4C
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+
- Oxaloacetate repeats Krebs Cycle
- NADH and FADH2 produced and enter electron transport chain.
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

11. Compare between aerobic and anaerobic respirations. [8 marks]

Similarities
i. Both processes produce ATP/energy and both processes involve glycolysis for glucose molecule
breakdown.
ii. Both processes involve glycolysis to produce pyruvate.

Differences
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Involve Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and Involve glycolysis only
oxidative phosphorylation.
Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria Occurs in cytoplasm only
Complete breakdown or oxidized of Incomplete breakdown or oxidized of
glucose molecule. glucose molecule.
By product of this process are H2O and By product of this process are ethanol,
CO2. CO2 or lactic acid.
More efficient/more ATP produced / 38 Less efficient/less ATP produced /
ATP 2 ATP
Require O2 Does not require O2
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

12. Describe how one molecule of glucose is able to produce 38 ATP via aerobic
respiration. [10 marks]

In glycolysis
- 4 ATP are formed
- through substrate level phosphorylation
- 2 ATP produced from conversion 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate
- And 2 ATP produced from of PEP to pyruvate
- Net production 2 ATP and 2 NADH + 2H+

Link reaction
- Conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA produce 2 NADH+ 2H+

In Krebs cycle
- 2 ATP are produced
- Through substrate level phosphorylation
- During conversion succinyl-CoA to succinate
- Other product is 6NADH + 6H+ and 2 FADH2

In electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

- ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation
- each NADH 3 will generate 3 ATP
- each FADH2 generate 2 ATP
- 2 NADH from glycolysis are transported into mitochondria to generate 6 ATP
- 2 NADH produced from link reaction generate 6 ATP
- 6 NADH from Krebs cycle generate 18 ATP
- 2 FADH2 from Krebs cycle generate 4 ATP

So, total ATP produced is 38.

SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

13. Discuss the fermentation pathways under anaerobic condition that occurs in plant and
animal cells. [10 marks]

- In absence of oxygen
- Pyruvate the product of glycolysis will undergo fermentation/ anaerobic respiration
- plants undergo alcohol fermentation
- animal / muscle cell undergoes lactic acid fermentation

Plant
- Pyruvate, 3C is converted into acetaldehyde, 2C
- By the removal of CO2 / decarboxylation process
- Acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol by NADH // NADH transfer electron and hydrogen ion to
acetaldehyde
- NADH is oxidized to NAD+ and H+

Animal
- Pyruvate is reduced by NADH / NADH transfer electron and hydrogen to pyruvate
- NADH is oxidized to NAD+ and H+
- To form lactate / lactic acid
- Without release of CO2
- Lactate / lactic acid is converted back to pyruvate in the liver
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

14. Describe the synthesis of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. [10 marks]

- Oxidative phosphorylation involves of electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

- Occurs at inner mitochondrial membrane/cristae
- Electron transport chain consist of protein complexes NADH Dehydrogenase, Succinate
Dehydrogenase, cytochrome c reductase, and cytochrome c oxidase.
- The mobile electron carriers are ubiquinone/ CoQ and cytochrome C.
- NADH from glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle while FADH2 produced from Krebs cycle only
- NADH oxidized/ release its electron at NADH Dehydrogenase
- FADH2 are oxidised/ release its electron at Succinate Dehydrogenase
- electrons are transfer along electron transport chain by redox reaction
- Transfer of electrons releases energy
- The energy is used to pump out H+/ protons from matrix into intermembrane space
- Causing the accumulation of high concentration of protons / H+ (in the inter membrane space)
- Creates proton gradient/ proton motive force
- Protons / H+ flows back to the matrix through ATP synthase
- Causes ADP combine with Pi / ADP is phosphorylated to form ATP
- Using energy from the electrochemical gradient
- The final electron acceptor is oxygen
- Water/H2O is produced // ½ 02 + 2e + 2H+ → H20
- One NADH forms 3 ATP
- One FADH2 forms 2 ATP
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

15. Compare cyclic photophosphorylation and non-cyclic photophosphorylation. [12 marks]

Similarities:
- Production of ATP by (chemiosmosis)
- Both involved in light dependent reaction

Differences:
Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Cyclic electron flow Noncyclic electron flow
No NADPH produced NADPH produced
Only ATP produced ATP and NADPH produced
Involve Photosystem I / PSI / P700 Involve Photosystem I / PSI / P700 and
Photosystem II / PSII / P680
Electron source : PSI reaction center Electron source : water
Last electron acceptor : PSI Last electron acceptor : NADP+
No oxygen release // photolysis of water Oxygen release // photolysis of water
does not occur occur

Cyclic photophosphorylation:

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation:
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

16. Discuss the non-cyclic photophosphorylation of light dependent reaction. [10 marks]

- Light energy is absorbed by accessory (antenna) pigments of PSII

- Then transferred to the reaction center/ P680
- Electron from P680 is photoactivated / excited and released at PSII
- This creates an electron deficiency
- Photolysis of water molecule will produce H+, electron and O2
- Electrons form photolysis of water replace the electrons released from PSII
- The PSII / P680 molecule returns to its reduced / stabilized state
- The electrons released from PSII are accepted by primary electron acceptor / phaeophytin
- And pass along ETC that consist of plastoquinone (Pq), cytochrome complex and plastocyanin
(Pc)
- Transfer of electron through this ETC will release energy and it is used to synthesis ATP
- Electron then reach PSI / P700
- Electron from PSII replace the loss electron at PSI/ P700
- High energy electrons in PSI / P700 are ejected and are accepted by primary electron acceptor
- And pass along the ETC until Ferredoxin
- NADP+ reductase transfers the electron to NADP+
- NADP+ receives proton (from photolysis) to form NADPH (which is released into the stroma)
- The process also produces O2, ATP and NADPH
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

17. Explain how plants convert CO2 from the atmosphere into a sugar molecule. [10 marks]

Enter via stomata

6 C intermediate (splits into two 3C)

(RuBP carboxylase)

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

- 3 molecule of CO2 is fixed with 3 molecule of RuBP, 5C molecule forming 3 molecules of
unstable 6C intermediate
- Catalysed by Rubisco
- Each unstable 6C intermediate, immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, PGA
(3C).
- So total PGA produced are 6 molecules

Phase 2: Reduction
- One phosphate group (from ATP) is added to each 3-phosphoglycerate, PGA
- To form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
- 6 NADPH oxidized to 6 NADP+
- Thus, 6 molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is reduced to 6 molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate, G3P (3C)
- Only 1 molecule of G3P is use to make the sugar molecule

Phase 3: Regeneration of RuBP

- Through a complex series of enzymatic reactions, remaining 5 molecules G3P are rearrange
into 3 molecules of RuBP
- 3 ATP is required to phosphorylate 3 molecule ribulose phosphate after the rearrangement.
- RuBP ready to receive CO2 again and the next cycle continue.

Therefore, to produce one molecule of glucose (6C), 6 molecules of CO2 is needed/ six turns of
Calvin cycle need to occur.
I molecule of glucose produced in Calvin cycle requires 6 CO2, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

18. Describe carbon fixation in C4 plants. [10 marks]

- Present of Krantz anatomy in C4 plant

- In mesophyll cell, Hatch-Slack pathway occur

- CO2 reacts with phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), 3C to form oxaloacetate (OAA), 4C
- catalyses by PEP carboxylase
- PEP carboxylase has greater affinity for CO2 and can fix CO2 efficiently even when the
concentration of CO2 is very low
- OAA, 4C will be converted to malate, 4C

- Malate are transported into bundle sheath cells.

- Malate, 4C converted to pyruvate, 3C
- releasing CO2 / decarboxylation occur
- CO2 reacts with RuBP to form 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA)
- Rubisco fixes CO2 in Calvin cycle
- Pyruvate is transported back to mesophyll cell
- converted to PEP, 3C (using energy from ATP)
- C4 plants have adaptation to fix CO2 efficiently
- Through Hatch-Slack pathway, the concentration of CO2 in the bundle sheath cells increases,
which is high enough to ensure efficient carbon fixation by Rubisco
- So, the Rubisco is not competing with the oxygen and avoids photorespiration.
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

19. Describe the oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin and myoglobin with the
aid of a graph. [10 marks]

- Haemoglobin has a high affinity towards O2

- The higher the partial pressure of oxygen (ρO2), the higher is its percentage of saturation with
O2
- At higher partial pressure of oxygen, more haem groups bind to oxygen // cooperative binding
- At very higher partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobin is very saturated with O2
- All haemoglobin bind with O2
- for example, at the alveolus of the lung
- At low partial pressure of O2, it easily dissociates from haemoglobin
- Less haemoglobin binds with O2
- For example, at the active muscle

- Myoglobin has a higher affinity towards O2

- Even at low partial pressure of oxygen (ρO2), its percentage saturation with O2 is still high
- Only release O2 when O2 level in the blood is very low
- Acts as a storage for O2 in skeletal muscle
- Ensures that aerobic respiration continues for as long as possible before anaerobic respiration
takes over
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

20. Describe the transport of carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs in human. [10 marks]

There are 3 ways of which the CO2 is transported in the blood:

(i) 7% of the CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma

(ii) 23% binds to the amino ends of the haemoglobin forming carbaminohaemoglobin
(iii) 70% is transported in the blood in the form of bicarbonate where,
- The CO2 will diffuse out of the tissue into the blood plasma
- The CO2 will then diffuse into the red blood cell
- CO2 combined with water to form carbonic acid
- This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase found in the red blood cell
- The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions
- The hydrogen ions (H+) will bind to haemoglobin to form haemoglobinic acid
- This is to avoid the blood become too acidic
- The bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the RBC into the blood plasma and transported into
the lungs.
- To maintain electrochemical balance, a chloride ion (Cl-) enters the erythrocyte for each
HCO3- that exits.
- This called chloride shift.
- Erythrocytes move along blood vessel to lung.
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

21. Discuss the role of chemoreceptor in controlling human breathing rate. [12 marks]

- Peripheral chemoreceptor in the carotid and aortic bodies are sensitive to small changes in the
concentration of CO2 in the blood
- Increase in CO2 level stimulates these chemoreceptors
- Decrease in pH of cerebrospinal fluid stimulate central chemoreceptors
- Chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the inspiratory in the medulla
- The inspiratory centre sends out nerve impulse
- Via the phrenic nerves to the diaphragm
- And via thoracic / intercostal nerve to the external intercostal muscles
- Causing them to increase the rate of inspiration / causing external intercostal muscles to
contract
- This increase the rate of inspiration // inspiration takes place
- As the lung expand / inflate, stretch receptor in their walls of alveolus are stimulated
- Impulses pass along the vagus nerve
- To the expiratory center (in the medulla) inhibits the inspiratory center
- The diaphragm and external intercostal muscle relax
- Expiration takes place
- The lungs are no longer stretched and stretch receptor are no longer stimulated
- The expiratory center becomes inactive and inspiration begins again
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

22. Explain the regulation of stomatal opening and closing based on starch-sugar
hypothesis. [10 marks]

In the presence of light / day time

- photosynthesis occurs, guard cells synthesize sugar/ sucrose
- It lowers the water potential of the guard cell
- water from the surrounding epidermal cell / subsidiary cell enters guard cell
- by osmosis
- guard cells become turgid and stomata open

In the absence of light / night,

- no photosynthesis occurs
- sugar converted into starch
- increase water potential in guard cell
- Guard cells release water to the surrounding epidermal cell / subsidiary cell
- by osmosis
- Guard cell become flaccid and stomata closed
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

23. Describe the structure and functions of human lymphatic system related to the
lipid transportation. [10 marks]

- In the lumen of small intestine, lipid is digested into fatty acid and monoglycerides
- Fatty acid and monoglycerides enters the villi of the small intestine
- By diffusion
- Fatty acid and monoglycerides then combines with protein, cholesterol and phospholipid to form
chylomicrons
- Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic system
- Through lacteal
- Lacteal are lymphatic capillaries in the villi of the small intestine
- Lymph in lacteal is known as chyle
- Chyle is then transported into lymphatic vessel
- Backflow is prevented by the lymphatic valves
- Then through lymphatic node
- Then through lymphatic trunk
- Through lymphatic duct
- And then enter the left and right subclavian vein into the blood circulation system
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

24. Explain the pathway of water being transported from surrounding soil to the root vascular system in
plant. [10 marks]

- Cell sap in the root cell vacuoles contains high concentration of dissolved nutrients / sugar /
minerals
- Water potential in the roots are lower than water potential of soil
- Water is drawn by osmosis from the soil into the root hairs
- Water potential in the root hairs increases
- Water moves by osmosis to the cortex
- Water goes through cortex via apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathways
- Apoplast pathway – water moves along the cell walls / intercellular space (until endodermis)
- At the endodermis, the apoplast pathway is hindered by the Casparian strip
- The water movement (from apoplast pathway) then continues via symplast and vacuolar
pathway
- Symplast pathway – water moves through cytoplasm of adjacent cells
- Through plasmodesmata
- Vacuolar pathway – water moves through the vacuoles across the tonoplast by osmosis
- The movement of water via the symplast and vacuolar pathways continue until it reaches the
xylem
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

25. Describe the pressure flow hypothesis of sugar on in phloem. [12 marks]

At source:
- Sucrose is manufactured in mesophyll cells/ leaf
- Thus, leaf is sugar source
- Sucrose is transported from the source to companion cells and sieve tubes
- by active transport using ATP/ energy from mitochondria in companion cell
- Accumulation of sucrose in sieve tube
- lowering water potential in sieve tube
- Therefore, water from xylem enter sieve tube by osmosis
- Create high hydrostatic pressure in sieve tube

At sink:
- Sucrose from sieve tube is unloaded into root cell / sink
- Water potential in the sieve tube increases
- Water diffused out from sieve tube into xylem by osmosis
- Therefore, create low hydrostatic pressure in the sieve tube
- There is pressure difference between source and sink
- Sucrose from the source is translocated follow the hydrostatic pressure gradient
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

26. Describe the mechanism of heart beat in mammals. [10 marks]

- Cardiac / heart muscle is myogenic.

- The heartbeat starts at sinoatrial node / SA node / pace maker generate impulses.
- The impulse from the SA node spread across both atria.
- Both atria contract /atrial systole
- The impulse reaches the atrioventricular node / AV node.
- The impulse is delayed for 0.1 second after reaching AV node.
- Impulse travel through bundle of His to Purkinje fibre
- spread to all parts of both ventricles
- Both ventricles contract / ventricular systole.
- Events known as cardiac cycle.
- ‘Lub’ sound is produced as the atrioventricular valve / tricuspid and bicuspid closed.
- ‘Dup’ sound produced as semilunar valve closed.
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

27. Discuss why urine becomes more concentrated and less when someone drinks less
water. [8 marks]

- Less intake of water caused an increased in osmotic pressure/ osmolarity/ low blood volume
- Detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
- Stimulates the posterior pituitary gland
- To secrete ADH
- Antidiuretic hormone increases water permeability of distal tubule and collecting duct
- Increases water permeability
- More water is reabsorbed from filtrate into the blood vessel
- By osmosis
- Osmotic pressure / blood volume back to normal
- Involved negative feedback mechanism
 SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

28. Compare the transmission of impulses at a synapse and along an axon. [12 marks]

Differences:

Synapse Along axon

Occurs between two neurons Occurs along axon (myelinated neuron or
non-myelinated)

Involves neurotransmitter No neurotransmitter

Impulse is chemically transmitted Impulse is electrically transmitted

Involved voltage gated Na+ channel Involved both voltage gated Na+ and K+
Na+ ion channels on membrane of post synaptic Na+ ion channels along the axon
membrane membrane
leads to either depolarization or hyperpolarization Leads to action potential
Speed of impulse transmission : is slower Speed of impulse transmission is faster
Presence of Ca2+ channels / involve diffusion of No Ca2+ channels/ does not involve diffusion
Ca2+ of Ca2+
Involve receptor protein Do not involve receptor protein

Similarities:

Movement of impulse is unidirectional/ one direction

Involve voltage gated Na+ channel/ Diffusion of Na+ across a membrane is needed undergoes
depolarization
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

29. Explain the propagation of action potential along the axon of neuron. [12 marks]

- propagation of action potential

controlled by electrical potential
between inner and outer axon
membranes
- Caused by differences in sodium,
Na+ and potassium, K+ ion
concentrations

- During resting potential, Na+

concentration is higher at outer
membrane
- K+ concentration is higher at inner
membrane
- 3 Na+ is pumped out and 2 K+ are
pumped in through Na+-K+ pump
(active transport)
- Axon membrane is impermeable to
Na+, but more permeable to K+.
- K+ flow out through non-voltage
gated K+ channel

- When stimulus is present Na+-K+

pump stop functioning
- Na+ diffuse into the axon through
voltage-gated Na+ channel
- Axon membrane depolarized
- When threshold potential is reached,
more Na+ will move into axon
- Action potential forms
- Na+ flow to the next region of axon
- Causing action potential forms at the
next region of axon ahead
- Inner membrane is positively charged
and outer membrane is negatively
charged

- As the action potential travel down

the axon, repolarization occur
- K+ diffuse out of the axon through
voltage-gated K+ channel
- To restore the negative charge inside
the axon
- Hyperpolarization occur to form
refractory period
- Then, axon membrane back to
resting potential
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

30. Describe the transmission of impulse between two neurons. [10 marks]

- The arrival of an impulse at the synaptic knob

- opens calcium ion/ Ca2+ channels in the presynaptic membrane
- Calcium ions flow into the synaptic knob// trigger influx of Ca2+
- This induces a synaptic vesicle containing neurotransmitters to fuse
- with the presynaptic membrane
- The vesicles release their contents/neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
- by exocytosis
- The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft
- binds with its receptor protein on the postsynaptic membrane
- it causes the sodium ion channels/ ligand-gated ion channels to open
- when open, allows sodium ion/ Na+ to pass through
- The entry/ influx of sodium ion depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
- If the depolarization reaches the threshold level
- A new action potential is generated in the postsynaptic neuron
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

31. Draw a labelled diagram of a synaptic knob. Describe how cocaine influences the transmission of
impulse at the synaptic knob. [10 marks]

Diagram: 4 marks

- Cocaine increases impulse transmission at synapse

- Cocaine blocks dopamine from returning to the synaptic knob (after depolarization
completed)
- Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine by binding competitively with the transport
proteins
- Dopamine continuously binds to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
- Depolarization is repeated / occurs continuously at the postsynaptic neuron
- This triggers the repetition of impulse transmission
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

32. Describe the events at the neuromuscular junction which cause skeletal muscle to contract.
[12 marks]

Neuromuscular junction:
- Action potential arrives at the end of axon (of motor neuron)
- voltage gated Ca2+ channels in the end of axon open
- Ca2+ diffuses into axon terminal
- Ca2+ stimulates synaptic vesicles to fuse to presynaptic membrane
- Acetylcholine is released into synaptic cleft
- By exocytosis
- Acetylcholine binds to ligand gated Na+ channel / receptor on the postsynaptic membrane
- Na+ diffuses into postsynaptic cell
- Depolarisation / excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) occurs

Muscle:
- Action potentials occurs depolarization above threshold
- Action potential spreads down through transverse tubule / T tubule
- Reaches sarcoplasmic reticulum and stimulates SR to release Ca2+
- Ca2+ diffuses into sarcoplasm/ myofibrils
- Ca2+ binds to troponin
- Tropomyosin shifts / moves
- Myosin binding site (on actin) / active site of actin exposed
- With ATP, myosin forms cross-bridge with actin
- Sliding of actin to the center of sarcomere / power-stroke
- Muscle will contract/ sarcomere shorten
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

33. With reference to a labelled diagram, describe the structure of a sarcomere. State what happens to
the myofibrils during contraction and relaxation of muscle. [10 marks]

Diagram: 3 marks

- A sarcomere is the region between two Z lines of a muscle fiber

- Myofibrils composed of thick filaments, myosin and thin
- Filament, actin
- The dark band or A band consists of thick (myosin) and thin
- filaments (actin)
- Within the A band is the H zone which consists of only thick
- filaments (myosin)
- The thick filaments (myosin) are held by M line and thin
- filaments (actin) are held by Z line
- During muscle contraction, thick filaments do not change
- in length
- Thin filaments slide along the thick filaments
- Myofibrils become shorter and thicker // I band and H zone
- get shorter
- During muscle relaxation thick filament do not change
- Thin filaments slide out to normal condition
- Muscle turns to normal size and relaxes
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

34. Describe the sliding-filament theory during muscle contraction. [10 marks]

- Action potentials enter the cytoplasm / sarcoplasm via T tubule

- Stimulating the releases of calcium ion / Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic reticulum into the
sarcoplasm
- Ca2+ bind with troponin molecule
- causing tropomyosin change its configuration / shift
- Expose myosin active site
- ATPase at the myosin head is activated
- Causing ATP to be hyrolysed / broken down to ADP and phosphate
- Enabling the formation of cross bridge (between myosin head and myosin active site)
- The cross bridge bends during the power stroke
- The thin filament is pulled to the middle part of sarcomere // thick and thin filament side with
each other
- New ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head
- Myosin and actin detached // cross bridge detached
- Cycle of cross bridge repeats
- The muscle contract
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

35. Compare steroid and protein type hormone action mechanisms at the cellular level. [10 marks]

Steroid Non-steroid/ Protein-type

SIMILARITIES
i. Both act on specific target cell// Both bind to specific receptor// Both form hormone-receptor
complex
DIFFERENCES
ii. Able to diffuse the plasma membrane ii. unable to diffuse the plasma membrane

iii. bind to receptor in cytoplasm/ iii. bind to receptor on the plasma membrane
nucleoplasm
iv. hormone-receptor complex then binds iv. hormone-receptor complex activates a G
DNA/gene activation protein (which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase)

v. No production of cAMP v. cAMP is produced

vi. No cascade events vi. Cascade events occurs
vii. Involve one messenger/hormone only vii. Involve two messengers/hormone and cAMP
viii. Not involving protein kinases viii. Involve protein kinases
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

36. Define photoperiodism and explain how phytochrome regulates flowering in plants. [8 marks]

- Photoperiodism is the response of a plant to changes in day length

- Phytochrome is the main photoreceptor for photoperiodism
- The phytochrome is present in very small concentration in leaves
- It exists in two interconvertible forms, Pr and Pfr
- inactive form is Pr and active form is Pfr
- Plant synthesize phytochrome on the form of Pr
- During the day, Pr absorbs the red light/ day light and changes to Pfr
- Increase level of Pfr promotes flowering in long-day plants and inhibits flowering in short-
day plants
- In long-day plants, more Pr is converted to Pfr
- high levels of Pfr stimulates the production of florigen

- Pfr is converted to Pr in the dark / in the presence of far red light

- In short-day plants, more Pfr is converted to Pr
- Pr increase and Pfr decrease stimulate the production of florigen
- Induces flowering in short-day plants
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

37. Discuss the functions of different types of cells that functions in humoral response. [10 marks]

Type of cell Function

Plasma cell Secretes / forms / produces / release antibodies
Memory (B) cell Initiate production of plasma cell when encounter the same
bacteria / antigen in future infection // secondary immune
response
Helper T cell / Activates B cell / Secretes interleukin II
Helper T4 cell
Macrophage Act as antigen-presenting cells / APC / secretes interleukin I //
ingest/ digest/ process /engulf bacteria / pathogen / virus
B cell Produce plasma cell and memory (B) cells
Memory Helper T Stimulates memory B cell upon the second exposure of the
cell same antigen
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

38. Describe the sequence of event in cell-mediated immunity. [12 marks]

- Virus / bacteria / pathogens invades / infects body cells

- Infected cells display foreign antigen-MHC complex
- Macrophage / dendritic cell / phagocyte engulfs foreign antigen
- Antigen presenting cells / APC also displays fragments of the foreign antigen-MHC complex on
its cell surface
- T helper / TH cell / T cell receptor bind to APC
- Then APC releases cytokine / interleukin-1 / IL-1
- (interleukin) activates T helper cells
- (Activated) T helper cells divide by mitosis // (Activated) T helper cells proliferate // T helper cell
cloning
- produce memory T helper cells
- activated T helper cells release cytokine / interleukin-2 / IL-2 to activate cytotoxic T cells / TC
cell
- then activated cytotoxic T cells migrate to area of infection
- Cytotoxic T cells bind to (MHC complex) infected body cell
- Cytotoxic T cells release perforin which creates pores in the membrane of infected cells
- Water and ions flow into infected cells
- and the cell lyses
- Cytotoxic T cells also release granzymes that initiates programmed cell death / apoptosis
SBO25 GUIDED ESSAY

39. Explain the roles of lymphoid organs in immunity system. [10 marks]

- Bone marrow
- Site for development of lymphocytes
- Maturation of B lymphocyte/cell

- Thymus
- Maturation of T lymphocyte/cell

- Lymph node
- Act as barriers to infection by filtering out pathogen
- Destroying toxins and pathogen/bacteria/virus

- Spleen
- Site for filtering worn out red blood cells
- Fight infection from foreign bodies.

- Tonsil
- To trap bacteria/viruses that being inhaled// prevent throat & lung infections

* explanation depend on correct lymphoid organ

* max 5 pairs – one organ and one explanation

THANK YOU AND GOOD LUCK

‘When you focus on problems you will have more problems.

When you focus on possibilities, you’ll have more opportunities’

MADAM SUHANA
SEM II 2018/ 2019