Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar-Hokuseido Press (1995)

HANDBOOK OF
MODERN JAPANESE GRAMMAR

including
Lists of Words and Expressions
with English Equivalents
for Reading Aid
口語日本文法便覧
(日本語特殊表現とその英語相当訳及び例題付)
by
YOKO M ATSU O K A McCLAIN
University of Oregon
198 1
TH E H O K U SEID O PR E SS
Tokyo
PL
M3/7
Copyright © 1981 by The Hokuseido Press, Japan.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or transmitted in any form or by any means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.
ISBN 4-590-00570-0
ISBN 0-89346-149-0
First printing,1981
Second printing, 1982
Third printing, 1982
Fourth printing, 1982
Fifth printing, 1983
衫ixth printing,1983
P u b lish ed b y T h e H oku seid o P ress

3-12, Kanda-Nishlldcho, Chiyoda-lcu, Tokyo
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The enthusiasm and earnestness of my students at the Univeristy

of Oregon during the past several years gave me the courage, in
spiration and moral support to write this book, and I would first
like to thank all of them. I am also grateful to those who wrote
me from time to time commenting on my previous two books;
their kind words often gave me much-needed encouragement.
Special thanks go to those who took their valuable time reading
the manuscript and offering helpful suggestions: Professors Stephen
Kohl and Ryoko Toyama; Messrs. Bruce Batten, John O’Donnell,
Michael Powell, Miss Juliet Thorpe, my husband Robert and
son Ken.
PREFACE
This book is intended both as a Japanese grammar reference

book and as a reading aid, that is to say, an effective reference
tool for those who study Japanese, either in a classroom or on
their own. For that reason I have tried to explain the various
grammatical points simply and concisely, avoiding the use of most
technical terms and, whenever possible, comparing Japanese gram
mar with that of English for clarity. Reference has sometimes
been made to traditional Japanese grammatical explanations, but
considerable liberty has also been taken wherever necessary to
arrive at satisfactory, as well as easily understood, explanations.
It is clear that the problems of teaching Japanese grammar to
English-speaking students are entirely different from those of teach-
ing this grammar to native Japanese students. For example, no
Japanese, not even little children, would ask which particle, wa ^
or ga が， should be used for a certain occasion. Nor would a
Japanese wonder which would be the correct way to form a verb
and adjective な-form, and so forth. These, however, are some of
the most confusing, if not most difficult, proolems that non-Japanese
students face when they study Japanese. Japanese grammar books
written for non-native students must include clear and convincing
explanations for these kinds of problems peculiar to the Japanese
language. Traditional Japanese grammar sometimes serves well
for this purpose, but at other times it tends to hinder students’
learning by making the Japanese language appear more complicated
than it really is.
Japanese grammar may be complex, but it is not as difficult to
learn as many people believe. Once the basic principles are learned,
the structure of most sentences can be understood. For example,
main verbs are always at the end of a clause or sentence; any
element which changes the status of these verbs, such as nega
tive, desiderative, or passive forms, will be attached at the end of
the verb; and every modifier, whether an adjective, adverb, or
some others, always precedes what it modifies; the position of the
vi PREFACE
rest of the words, such as adverbial phrases, is very flexible, and

so forth.
Therefore, in spite of the often-heard remark, “ Japanese is an
impossible language,” it is indeed possible for most students to
learn to speak, read, and write modern Japanese. Naturally, the
students need to make a conscientious effort, receive effective in
struction if possible, and use quality dictionaries and reference
books.
My previous two books, Intermediate Japanese Reading Aids ，
Volume I, Verbs and Verb-following Expressions, and Volume II,
Particles and Noun-supporting Words and Expressions, have fortu
nately been received favorably by many teachers as well as students
of Japanese. My original intent was to continue the series with a
third volume which would cover adverbs and some other smaller
problems peculiar to the Japanese language. Several users of the
two volumes have suggested, however, that I should combine the
- third volume with the first two, making one comprehensive Japanese
grammar reference book. I am thankful for this suggestion,
because it is a logical step in making my work more useable.
The first two volumes have been revised ；many additional gram
matical points have been included, and Japanese script has been
added after the romanized words and sentences to make the book
more bilingual. Further, because there are many expressions in
Japanese which are difficult, or sometimes even impossible, to find
in the dictionaries, I have added, as in the previous two books,
alphabetically arranged lists of such expressions at the ends of
several appropriate chapters.
In translating Japanese expressions into English, I have tried to
show some literal relationships between the original Japanese and
the English expressions, while also trying to make the English
translations idiomatically sound. Sometimes, however, this was not
possible because of the marked differences between the two lan
guages, in which case the literal translation is given in the paren
theses immediately after the more idiomatic equivalents.
Readers may find some inconsistencies in the use of kanji and
々awe 仮名• For example, the word 如 is usually written in フ7
in such a case as かそんな事 “ such a thing,” but it seems
to be more common to write it in hiragana in such an expression
PREFACE
as ことにする “ to decide.” This variation also depends

on writers. Although the Japanese government has on several oc
casions issued guidelines concerning the use of kanji and kana as
well as the readings of kanji, it seems that even at present no
uniformity exists, and convention in some cases persists, and in
others gives way. Words which are often written in hiragana, but
sometimes in kanji, depending on the writer, are first transcribed
in hiragana, then followed by the corresponding kanji in parentheses.
The book now begins with verbs and then goes to adjectives, a
special class 〇£ verbs in Japanese. It then proceeds to particles,
nouns, and the remaining parts of speech. I have adopted this
order because I believe that verbs and particles are the most im
portant grammatical elements in Japanese, while nouns and other
parts of speech, though they have their own peculiarities, are less
complex than verbs and particles. The work is complete with
cross references and two indexes, one for verb- and noun- following
expressions, and the other for grammatical points.
My sincere hope is that this book will prove to be a useful
reference tool for all those who use it.
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................*................................... iii

PREFACE............................................................................................. v
PARTS OF SPEECH ........................................................................... 1
VERBS ................................................................................................. 3
Dictionary Form of JapaneseV e rb s............................................ 3
Three Categories of Japanese V erbs............................................. 3
I. Vowel-stem verbs 1 . -IRU verb ................................. 3
2. -ERU verb ................................. 3
Exceptions—Consonant-stem verbs, ending with 4ru or -eru 4
II. Consonant-stem verbs ....................................................... 4
1 . Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus a
consonant ................................................................. 4
2. Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus the
consonant -W .............................................................. 4
consonant - T .............................................................. 4
consonant - S .............................................................. 4
III. Irregular verbs 1 . suru ............................................ 4
2. kuru ............................................ 4
3. nasaru type.................................. 4
4. gozaru ......................................... 5
Conjugations of Japanese V e rb s................................................... 5
Functions of Six Bases 1 . First Base .................................. 5
2. Second Base .............................. 5
3. Third B a s e ................... 6
X CONTENTS
4. Fourth Base .............................. 6

5. Fifth Base .................................. 6
6. Sixth Base .................................. 6
Conjugation Charts ............................................................... 6
I. Vowel-stem verbs ............................................................ 6
II. Consonant-stem verbs ....................................................... 8
III. Irregular verbs....................................................................... 10
Conjugation of Suffix M a s u .............................................................13
Copulas, Da and Desu....................................................................... 13
Conjugations of Da and Desu.................................................. 15
How to form Ta-iorm and Te-iovm of Verbs .......................... 16
I. Vowel-stem verbs ............................................................... 17
II. Consonant-stem verbs ......................................................... 17
III. Exception .............................................................................. 18
IV. Irregular verbs....................................................................... 18
Tenses of Japanese V erbs................................................................ 18
Specificity of Japanese Verbs in Describing an A ction............... 19
Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs (力 .. 21
List of Taddshi and Jiddshi................................................... 22
Directional V e rb s............................................................................ 24
I. kureru， kudasaru................................................................. 25
II. yarn, ageru ........................................................................ 25
III. morau, itadaku.................................................................... 26
Directional Verbs as Auxiliaries................................................... 27
I. V«e kureru, kudasaru......................................................... 27
II. Vte yarn, ageru ................................................................ 27
III. Vte morauy itadaku............................................................. 28
Causative Verb 7>-form plus a Directional Auxiliary Verb---- 28
Other Verbs of Directional R estrictions...........••....................... 29
Conditionals....................................................................................... 29
I. V8 to .................................................................................. 30
CONTENTS xi
III. ^ ta r a...................................................................................... 31
IV. V8 n a r a ............................................................................... 31
Use of Toki...................................................................................... 32
Subjunctive...................................................................................... 33
I. “ if” 1 . H ypothetical.................................33
2. Contrary to fact ....................... 33
II. ''I wish. . Wish orDesire.............................................. 34
Miscellaneous Conditional Patterns ............................................ 34
I. Prohibition........................................................................... 34
II. Obligation............................................................................ 35
III. Denial of Obligation .......................................................... 36
IV. Permission............................................................................ 36
V. Suggestion............................................................................ 37
AUXILIARY VERBS ........................................................................ 38
VERB-FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS ............................................ 39
I. Expressions which follow the First Base of the Verb .. 39
II. Expressions which follow the Second Base of the Verb.. 47
III. Expressions which follow the Third Base of the Verb .. 60
IV. Expressions which follow the Fourth Base of the Verb.. 81
V. Expressions which follow the Fifth Base of the Verb .. 82
VI. Expressions which follow the Sixth Base of the Verb .. 82
VII. Expressions which follow the Stems of the Adjectives .. 83
VIII. Expressionswhich followthe Copular N o u n s......................86
ADJECTIVES...................................................................................... 87
Conjugation of Adjectives 1 . -ai ................................................ 88
2. -» ................................................ 88
3. -ui ............................................... 88
4. -oi ................................................ 89
Ku-iorm of Adjectives..................................................................... 89
Kute-iorm of Adjectives................................................................. 90
Common Adjectival Tenses .......................................................... 90
xii CONTENTS
Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives ................ 91
NON-CONJUG ATIVE ADJECTIVES................................................ 92
PARTICLES.......................................................................................... 93
Alphabetical List of Particles and Their Functions................... 94
INTERROGATIVE WORDS PLUS PARTICLES........................... 141
Alphabetical list of interrogative w o rd s ......................................141
Interrogative word + 如 ..................................................................141
Interrogative word+ _ ..................................................................142
I. Interrogative word+ mo+ positive verb ........................... 142
II. Interrogative word+ wo+ negative verb........................... 144
Interrogative word+V«e mo {de m o )............................................. 145
Convenient things to remember concerning some forms of
interrogative word+ particles.............................................147
N O U N S..................................................................................................150
I. Characteristics of Japanese Nouns ..................................150
II. Various Forms of Japanese Nouns .................................. 150
1 . Noun usage similar to English u s a g e ........................150
2. Nouns used as adverbs without changing in form ..150
3. Nouns which are modified not by (verbal) adjectives
but by adverbs or non-conjugative adjectives__ 151
4. Nouns which can be used as adjectives as well as
adverbs ..................................................................... 152
5. Nouns which are unique to Japanese........................152
Copular nouns (Adjectival n o u n s ).................... 153
Pseudo-nouns (Nouns in form )........................... 153
III. Derivation of Noun F o rm s................................................154
1 . True nouns..................................................................... 154
2. Nouns derived from other parts of speech ............. 154
3. Compound nouns.............. 154
4. Abbreviated n o u n s ....................................................... 154
CONTENTS xiii
5. Japanized Western words............................................. 155

NOUN-FOLLOWING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS.................... 156
COMMON NOUN-PREFIXES ...........................................................175
COMMON NOUN-SUFFIXES ..................... 179
COMMON PROPER NOUN-SUFFIXES ......................................... 182
Geographical Names................ 182
Personal Names................................................................................ 184
TERMS FOR FAMILY MEMBERS AND RELATIVES ............. 186
NOUN MODIFIERS............................................................. 189
PRONOUNS...........................................................................................191
I. Characteristics of Japanese Pronouns...............................191
II. Common Japanese Pronouns .............................................191
1 . P e rso n ............................................................................ 191
2. Thing (Demonstrativepronoun).................................... 192
3. Place.................................................. 192
4. Direction.........................................................................192
5. Interrogative.................................................................. 192
ADVERBS.............................................................................................. 193
I. Forms of Japanese Adverbs ............................................ 194
1 . True adverbs..................................................................194
2. Adverbs derivedfrom other parts of speech.................194
II. Common Adverbs and their U sage.................................. 195
1 . T im e................................................................................195
2. Q uantity......................................................................... 196
3. Degree............................................................................ 196
4. Circumstance..................................................................197
III. Commonly Used Adverbs with Limitations according to
Use ................................................................................... 197
1 . Adverbs used only with positive expressions ..........197
xiv CONTENTS
2. Adverbs used only with negative expressions or

negative ideas ...........................................................197
3. Adverbs with meanings varying according to use
with positive or negative expressions....................198
4. Adverbs used with conditional expressions ............... 200
5. Adverbs used with tentative expressions .................. 200
6. Adverbs used with negative-tentative expressions .. 201
7. Adverbs used with expressions of comparison........... 201
ONOMATOPOEIC WORDS {GISEIGO and G ITA IG O ).................202

Alphabetical List of Common Giseigo and Gitaigo .................... 202
CONJUNCTIONS ................................................................................208
Alphabetical List of Common Sentence-beginning Conjunctions.. 208
Conjunctions betw een..................................................................... 210
1 . Nouns ............................................................................ 210
2. Adjectives ..................................................................... 210
3. Copular nouns .............................................................. 210
4. Clauses............................................................................ 210
a. Co-ordinating conjunctions........................... 210
b. Subordinating conjunctions ........................211
INTERJECTIONS................................................................................213
I. S urprise................................................................ 213
II. Distress ................................................................................213
III. Address ................................................................................213
IV. Answer ................................................................................213
V. Doubt ................................................................................... 213
VI. Resolving D oubt..................................................................213
VII. Admiration .........................................................................213
VIII. Urging...................................................................................214
FORMAL LEVEL OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS................ 215

Levels of Formality in Japanese....................................................215
CONTENTS
I. Informal Level..................................................................... 215

II. Polite L e v e l.........................................................................216
III. Formal L e v e l ..................................................................... 216
IV. Very Familiar L evel......................................................... .216
Honorific and Humble Verb Forms .............................................217
I. Honorific Forms Borrowed from Other Verb Forms----217
1 . Passive voice fo rm ....................................................... 217
2. Causative-passive form ................................................ 217
II. Regular Honorific and Humble Forms ........................... 218
III. Irregular Honorific and Humble Verb F o rm s .................219
Chart of Irregular Honorific and Humble Verb F o rm s............. 220
Formal Level of Adjectives ...........................................................224
Formal Level of Some Common Expressions...............................225
Three Levels of Im perative...........................................................226
Honorific Noun-Prefixes: O and Go .............................................227
Nouns of Time in Formal Speech................................................ 229
Extremely Colloquial Expressions ................................................ 231
APPENDIX I COUNTING SYSTEM.............................................233

Numbers .......................................................................................... 233
Original Japanese counting system ......................................233
System borrowed from the Chinese......................................233
Ordinal num bers..................................................................... 234
Japanese numbers and English numbers ...........................235
Counters................................................................................... 235
D ates................................................................................................. 241
Japanese y ears.........................................................................241
Conversion table: Modern Japanese Eras/Christian Era .. 242
Months of the year .............................................................. 243
Days of the week ..................................................................243
Days of the m onth..................................................................240
Lunar months .........................................................................244
xvi CONTENTS
The Chinese Zodiac.........................................................................244

Hour of the day ........................................................................... 245
Duration of time ........................................................................... 246
APPENDIX II PUNCTUATION................................................... 247
APPENDIX III HOW TO READ A JAPANESE SENTENCE
(SIMPLE STEPS TO FOLLOW) ....................248
INDEX I VERB-FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS AND NOUN
FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS ....................... 253
INDEX II GRAMMAR .................................................................264
PARTS OF S P E E C H 品詞くひんし〉
According to their uses in sentences, Japanese words are divided

into seven large classes, which are again subdivided as shown below.
Some parts of speech are similar to their English counterparts
(e.g. common nouns such as tsukue {<desk/5 or interjections such
as S ああ ‘‘ah”)， some are used quite differently, and other parts
of speech do not even exist in English. For example, Japanese
adjectives can be conjugated and are actually a special class of
verbs, and some groups of nouns, called copular nouns or adjectival
nouns, have no English equivalents. The characteristics of each
part of speech in Japanese will be explained later under separate
headings.
1 . V e rb s 動詞〈どうし〉
(Regular) Verbs
Auxiliary V erb s 助動詞〈じょどうし〉
Auxiliary verbs will be treated as verb suffixes in this book;
thus they are included in the section of Verb-following Ex
pressions.
2. Adjectives 形容詞〈けいようし〉
(Conjugative) Adjectives= Verbal Adjectives 形容詞
Non-conjugative Adjectives 連体詞〈れんたいし〉
3. P articles 助詞〈じょし〉
4. N ouns 名詞〈めいし〉
N ouns 名詞
Pronouns 代名詞〈だいめいし〉
Copular Nouns=Adjectival N ouns 形容名詞〈けいようめいし〉
Because this sort of noun is always followed by the copula
{da [desu]f def na, etc.), it is treated as an adjectival verb
形容動詞〈けいようどうし〉 in traditional Japanese grammar ，
instead of being categorized as a special class of nouns.
5. A dverbs 副詞〈ふくし〉
6. Conjunctions 接続詞〈せつぞくし〉
7. Interjections 感動詞〈かんどうし〉間投詞〈かんとうし〉
If we examine the above Japanese parts of speech, we notice
2 Parts of Speech
that two English parts of speech are missing, namely, articles and
I prepositions. Articles, either definite or indefinite, do not exist in
| Japanese. Prepositions are sometimes expressed by particles in
Japanese, but particles are always post-positional rather than pre
positional as in English. Moreover, Japanese paffides have a much
broader usage than English prepositions, as explained in the sec-
tion “Particles” （pp. 93-140).
VERBS 動詞くどうし >
Because the Japanese sentence often omits the subject, the verb
assumes paramount importance for the reader. Tms chapter deals
with various aspects of verbs, beginning with their conjugation.
In order to present grammatical points as simply as possible, how-
ever, many of these points are included in the section “Verb
following Expressions.” These expressions are alphabetically ar
ranged under the six bases of verbs at the end of this chapter (pp.
39-83). For the benefit of those who are not familiar with Japanese
verb conjugations, an alphabetical index of verb-following expres
sions is provided at the end of the book (pp. 253-63), separate
from the index of general grammatical points.
The expressions which follow the stems of adjectives as well as
of copular nouns are also included in this chapter, since many of
these expressions are very similar to verb-following expressions
(pp. 83-86). Some peculiarities of Japanese verbs which cannot be
briefly explained in the section dealing with Verb-following Ex
pressions (such as directional verbs, miscellaneous conditional pat
terns, etc.) are presented under separate headings immediately
after verb conjugations.
DICTIONARY FORM OF JAPANESE VERBS

The dictionary form of all Japanese verbs ends with u. This
form appears as the third base of the verb conjugation on the
charts that are presented on pp. 7-16.
JAPANESE VERBS ARE ROUGHLY DIVIDED INTO THREE

CATEGORIES
I. Voweレstem verbs
1 . -IRU verb (Stem consisting of one or more syllaoles with
the final vow el- / ) 上一段活用〈かみいちだんかつよう〉
e.g. m/r 汉（ m i/ru ) 見る “to see”
frw ( i/ru ) いる “to be，’’ etc.
2. -ERU verb (Stem consisting of one or more syllables with
4 Three Categories of Japanese Verbs
the final vow el-五）下一段活用〈しもいちだんかつよう〉

e . g . 化知ダ汉（ ta b e /ru ) 食べる “to eat”
ぬ rw (d e /ru ) 出る “to go out，” etc.
Exceptions: £he following verbs, though enamg with -iru or
-erut belong to the consonant-stem verb group,
(h air/u ) 入る “to enter”
み仍ゐ/⑼ （ h ash ir/u ) 走る “to run”
かw ( ir /u ) い（要）る “to need”
(k aer/u ) 帰る “to return”
ゐ呀かw (kag ir/u ) 限る “to limit”
々かw (k ir/u ) 切る “to cut”
s/z/rw (sh ir/u ) 知る “to know,” etc.
II. Consonant-stem v e r b s 五段活用〈ごだんかつよう〉

1 . Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus a consonant
e.g. arw ( a r /u ) ある ‘‘to be，” “to exist,” “to have”
(kak/u ) 售く “to write”
ッ麵 w (yom /u) 読む “to read，” etc.
2. Stem consisting of one or more syllables plus the consonant
-W (This -W is missing from the dictionary form. Thus the
final u is preceded by another vowel.)
e.g• か（ iw/ ) 言う “to say”
对 araw (naraw/ ) 習う “to learn”
-T (Dictionary form of this group of verbs ends -TSU.)
e.g. ma/sw (mat/ ) 待つ “to wait”
化なm (tat/ ) 立つ “to stand”
•S
e.g• ぬ sw (d a s/u ) 出す “to take out,” “to mail”
III. Irregular verbs

1 . ⑽r なする “
to do”サ行変格活用〈サぎょうへんかくかっよう〉
2 . 々Mrw来る “to come” 力行変格活用〈力ぎょうへんかくかっよう〉
3 . 对 asar ななさる “to do” （honoritic form of verb swrw)
kuaasaru ドさる “to give” （honorific torm of verb ゐ鉍
ossharu おっしゃる “to say” （honorific form of verb か）
かassみarw いらっしゃる “to be,” “to go,” “to come” （honorific
Six Bases of Japanese Verbs 5
form of the verbs iruy iku, kuru) 不規則五段活用〈ふきそくご

だんかつよう〉
4 . 取 12c
* m ござる “to be” （polite form of the verb 不規則
五段活用
Only the 2nd base is used in modern Japanese with the
auxiliary masu.
e.g. Koko ni hon ga gozaimasu. ここに本がございます.
“There is a book here.”
Koko ni hon ga gozaim asen. ここに本がございません•1
“There is no book here.”
Koko ni hon ga gozaim ashita. ここに本がございました.
“There was a book here.” etc.
CONJUGATIONS OF JAPANESE VERBS

On the following pages, the conjugations of Japanese verbs will
be given. The six verb bases in traditional Japanese grammar
are slightly different from the ones presented here. Due to the
change in the kanazukai (kana usage) of verb endings, it
seems logical to modify somewhat the traamonal conjugation in
order to facilitate the student’s learning.
It is essential for students to be well acquainted with these six
bases, since numerous suffixes may be attached to them, creating
broad ranges of meaning.
FUNCTIONS OF EACH BASE (The Japanese term, the arbitrary

English term, and the abbreviation are given with each base.)
1 . F/;が及脱未然形〈みぜんけい>—Negative Base (V\)
Negative Base is an arbitrary term, because it refers to
only one of the functions of this base. However, it may be
helpful to use the term to keep the form in mind, because
it is tairly simple to remember the nai-iovm of most verbs.
2. ゴ及脱連用形〈れんようけい>—Continuative Base (V2)
This is one of the most used forms. It is the form used
in creating compound verb forms. Verbal nouns are also
derived from it, e.g. kangae ^thoughf5 from kangaeru,
“to think,” • 帰り “the way back,” from ゐ從 “to re
turn.” The Second Base also functions as a coordinating
conjunction, “and,” e.g. Ototo wa uchi de hon o yomi，
6 Six Bases of Japanese Verbs
watakushi wa toshokan de benkyo sh im a sh ita . 弟は家で本を

読み私は図書館で勉強しました. “My younger brother read a
book at home, and jl studied at the library.”
3. 77h>ゴ及脱 Ja• 終止形〈しゆうしけい〉一 Conclusive B a se l 'v 、
\b• 連体形くれんたい分い Attributive Base” 3’
The third base is the dictionary form of all verbs. The
classical Japanese verb conjugation divided Conclusive and
Attributive into two separate bases. However, the Japanese
language has experienced fairly extensive grammatical
changes through the centuries, and the conclusive and at
tributive stems of modern Japanese no longer have separate
forms (Exception: copular da [Conclusive], na [Attributive].
See p.lo.) Students should remember that the suffixes belong
to the attributive verb functions. Tms will help to avoid
confusion when students are introduced to classical grammar
later. The attributive form of the verb is followed only by-
nouns.
4. F ⑽バゐ及 ^ 仮定形〈かていけい〉一 Conditional (V4)
The only function of this base in modern colloquial speech
is to take the ending -bat which becomes simple conditional
“if” or “when.” （For conditional-k, see pp. 30, 81.)
5. i7/// み万仍设命令形〈めいれいけい〉一Imperative Base (V5)
As an imperative form, this is used only in rough speech.
Therefore, the beginner should avoid it. However, this
form is used often enough in sentences before the quotative
to, e.g. Sensei ni kore o shiro to iwaremashita. 先生にこれを
しろと言われました. “I was told to do this by the teacher.”
6 . 汾ズ认 5as 沒推量形〈すいりょうけい>—Tentative Base (V6)
In traditional Japanese grammar, the tentative verb was
formed from the First Base. However, with use of the new
kanazukai since 1946, it seems easier for students to re
member this form if it is separated from the First Base
and defined as a new base.
CONJUGATIONS OF JAPANESE VERBS

I. Vowel-stem verbs
Conjugations of Japanese Verbs 7
-77?¢/ verb, m/rw (m i/ru ) 見る “ to see”

stem base suffix* arbitrary term
formative for base
1. mi -nai, -zu Negative

-rareru
-saseru, -sasu
-saserareru, etc.
2. mi -masu Continuative
-tai
-sugiru
-yasui, -nikui, etc.
3. mi ru a. Conclusive
—(desho, daro)
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. mi re -ba Conditional
5. mi ro Imperative
y〇
6. mi y〇 Tentative
■£7?ひ v e rb , 才
^ erw (tabe/ru) 食べる “ to eat”

formative for base
1. tabe -nai, etc. Negative
2. tabe -masu, etc. Continuative
3. tabe ru a. —(desho, daro)

Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. tabe re -ba Conditional
5. tabe ro Imperative
y〇
6. tabe y〇 Tentative
Exceptions: Some verbs, though ending with - ir u or - e r u y belong to
the consonant-stem verb group. For some examples, see p. 4.
♦For complete suffix list, see pp. 39-83.
8 Conjugations of Japanese Verbs
II. Consonant-stem verbs

1 . 々M m (k ak /u ) 書く “to write”
formative for base
1. kak a -nai, -zu Negative

-reru
-seru, -su, etc.
2. kak i -masu Continuative
-tai, etc.
3. kak u a. —(desho, daro)
Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. kak e •ba Conditional
5. kak e Imperative
6. kak 5 Tentative
2 .か（
iw**) 言う “to say”
formative for base
1. iw a -nai, etc. Negative

2. i i -masu, etc. Continuative
3. i u a.—(desno, daro) Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. i e -ba Conditional
5. i e Imperative
6. i 6 Tentative
*For complete suffix list, see pp. 39-83.
**In modern Japanese, the sound represented in transliteration by
“w” disappears before all vowels except “a.”
mafeM ( m a t /) 待つ “ to wait”

formative for base
1. mat a -nai, etc. Negative
2. mach i -masu, etc. Continuative
3. mats u a.—(desho, daro) Conclusive

(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. mat e -ba Conditional
5. mat e Imperative
6. mat 6 Tentative
ゴ仍 m ( d a s /u ) 出す “ to take out,” “to mail”

formative for base
1. das a -nai, etc. Negative
2. dash i -masu, etc. Continuative
3. das u a.一 (desho, daro) Conclusive

(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. das e -ba Conditional
5. das e Imperative
6. das 0 Tentative
Note: The negative suffix n a i is the negative of the verb a r u t but
n a i is in an adjectival form, and thus conjugates like an ad
jective (see pp. 88-89). There is no such word as a r a n a i.
Regarding the verb a r u (consonant-stem verb) and i r u (vowel-
stem verb):
Both a r u and i r u mean Mto beJ, in the sense of “to exist,”
but a r u is used with an inanimate object for its suoject, while
ir u is used with an animate object for its subject.
e.g. Koko ni /ww ga anVwfl似 . ここに本があります . “There
is a book here (A book exists here).’’
10 Conjugations of Japanese Verbs
K oko n i ゐ你 g a 2•撕似 • ここに人がいます. “The r e are

people here (P eop le ex ist here).”
A r u is also u sed in th e se n se of wto h a v e ,w but distin gu ish
th is a ru from m otsu Kto have/*
e.g. N 5 to g a o n ’wflSM k a • ノートがありますか‘ “D o you have
notebook s (in you r p o ssession or to sell)?’’
N oto o m o tte im a su ka. ノートを持っていますか. “Do
you have a n otebook (m you r personal p ossession )?，，
III. irregular verbs

1 . stiru 寸'る
stem base suffix* arDitrary term
form ative for base
1. sh i -nai N eg a tiv e
s e -zu
s a -reru
-seru , -su, etc.
2. sh i -m asu C ontinuative
-tai
-niku i, -yasu i, etc.
3. su ru a.一 (desho, daro) C onclusive

(D iction ary Form )
b. N ou n A ttrib utive
4. su re -ba C onditional
5. se yo Im perative
shi ro
6. sh i y〇 T en tative
♦For co m p lete su ffix list, s e e pp. 39-83.
The verb suru is perhaps the most often used verb in the
Japanese language. First, it is used as the verb meaning “to
do,” or “to make** (something) into (something)•” e.g. Ima
shukudai o s/h•な/桃仍w• 今宿題をしています. “I am doing my
** D istin gu ish th is “to m ak e” from “to m ake“ in th e sen se of “to crea te.”
e.g. K yonen kon o y5fuk u o 去年この洋服を作りました. “I
m ade th is dress la st year.”
home work now.” Kono furui ki o (kitte) maki ni shimashd.

この古い木を（
伐って）
薪にしましょう• “Let’s make firewood out
of this old tree (by cutting it).’’ It is also used as the verb
meaning <4to cost.,> Kono udedokei wa ichiman-en shimashita.
この腕時計は一万円しました• “This watch cost ¥ 1 0 , 0 0 0 It
is also used for the passing of time, e.g. Ato ni-nen suru to
uchi no kodomo wa daigaku o sotsugyd shimasu. あと二年す
ると家の子供は大学を卒業します. “In two years our child will
graduate from the university.”
The verb suru is attached to many nouns of foreign origin
(whether Chinese or Western), making them into verbs. For
exam ple, つ^ 初旅行（ t r a v e l ) m e a n s “to travel,” and
ぬダンス ( d a n c e ) m e a n s “to dance.” Also suru is
used in some special expressions which almost cannot be
translated into English. For example, Ano uchi wa omoshiroi
0 s/n•な m あの家は面白い形をしています. means
aThat house has an interesting s h a p e , a n d Ano hito wa
仍 f we 0 か /桃a s w あの人は青い目をしています. means
“That person has blue eyes.” m’ swrw 口にする means
ato speak (of),,> or sometimes ato eat,}, and Ano hito wa
sensei o shite imasu• あの人は失生'を 1 ています. means “He
is a teacher (He serves as a teacher).’’ （for more usages oi
the verb suru, see pp. 20-21)
来る “to come”
formative for base
1. k 0 -nai Negative
-rareru
-saseru, -sasu, etc.
2. k i -masu Continuative
-tai
-nikui, -yasui, etc.
3. ku ru a. Conclusive
—(desho, daro)
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. ku re -ba Conditional
5. ko i Imperative
6. ko y〇 Tentative
Conjugations of Japanese Verbs
The character should be read ko, kit ku} according to

the varied forms of its conjugation, e.g• 来ない（
々onai),来ま
す W m asu), 来る（々《r u ) , 来れば（
々wreba), 来い（知?i) , 来よう
{koyo).
Note: The verbs iku and k u r u are sometimes used in a different way
from the English verbs “go” and “come.” When one uses iku,
the direction of the action is always away from the location
of the speaker, while with k u r u the direction of the action is
always towards the speaker. Therefore, while in English one
can ask, “May I come to your house tomorrow?”， in Japanese
one has to say, A sh ita otaku n i itte m o ii desu kat and never
A sh ita otaku n i k ite m o ii desu ka, unless one is at the listener^
house, and asks, “May I come here again tomorrow ?’’ A sh ita
m o k ite i i d e su ka. (See also p. 55 for Vte iku , pp. 56-57 for
V«e k u r u )
nasaru なさる（honorific form of swrw)

formative for base
1. nasar a -nai, zu, etc. Negative
2. nasa** i -masu Continuative
nasar -tai
-yasui, nikui, etc.
3. nasar u a. 一 (desho, daro)
Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. nasar e -ba Conditional
5. nasa** i Imperative
6. nasar 6 Tentative
**r is dropped before -masu and in the imperative form.
gozaru ござる（polite form of /zrw)

In modern Japanese, only the following forms are used:
gozaimasu ございます；gozaimashita ございました；gozaimasen
ございません： g 〇zaimash6 ございましょう. （ r is dropped
before -masu)
Conjugation of Suffix masu 13
CONJUGATION OF SUFFIX ルMSC/ ます

Masu is attached to the second base of all verbs and makes the
tone of speech polite. Aside from changing the tone, it has no
meaning.
stem base suffix arbitrary term
formative for base
1. mas e -n Negative
2. mash i •te, -ta Continuative
3. mas u a.一 (desho) Conclusive

(Dictionary Form)
b. Noun Attributive
4. mas ure -ba Conditional
5. mas e Imperative
mash i
6. mash 6 Tentative
Note: Te-form {m ashite) and Imperative (mase, m a sh i) are used only-

in a very polite level of speech. Attributive (m asu before
noun) and Conditional (m asureba) are seldom used in modern
Japanese. The forms m a sen (negative present), m a sh ita (per
fective), m a su (present), m asho (tentative), m a sen desh ita (nega
tive perfective) are very common.
COPULAS, DA fd AND DESU ^ (Be-verb)

Copula da (informal form) and desu (polite form) may both be
used as follows:
1 . As a predicate verb, they show that the subject (A) equals
the complement (B). A complement may be a noun or some
other part of speech.
e.g. Watakushi wa gakusei desu• 私ぬ学生•です.
A B
“I am a student.” (A=B)
Watakushi no jugyo wa ni-ji made desu. 私の授業は
A B =
二時までです. “My classes are until two o’clock•”
(A=B)
14 Copulas, da and desu
2. As a predicate, da (desu) is sometimes used as a substitute for

other predicate verbs.
e.g. Boku wa kareraisu da (ni suru) kedo, kimi wa nan* ni
s u r u ? 僕はカレーライスだけど君は何にする.
^Fll choose (decide on) curry and rice; how about you?
Boku wa sushi d a . 僕はすしだ• “I’ll choose sushi.”
Note: This d a is used when the meaning is clear from the context
as shown above. It often expresses one selection out of many
choices.
Watakushitachi no kurasu wa Amerika-jin ga go-nin
de (ite) Furansu-jin ga san-nin desu (imasu) . 私達の
クラスはアメリカ人が五人でフランス人が三人です.
"In our class five are Americans and three are French
(There are five American and three French people).
3. After a place noun, ぬ and 加 w mean “is located at (in)” and
are used in the same way as ni arimasut or ni imasu.
e.g. Watakushi no uchi wa 7^々少0 ゴぬ私の家 ^: 東京です.
=Watakushi no uchi wa Tokyo ni arimasu. “My
house is in Tokyo.”
Gakusei wa 々jyJs/w’fewぬ似•学生は教室です • =Gakusei
wa kyoshitsu ni imasu. “The students are in the
classroom•”
4. After o-V2i they form the honorific expression.
e.g. Ano kata wa okosan ga takusan ocn• ぬsm•あの方はお
子さんが沢山おありです• = ⑽ n' m• 則 r/wz仍 “He
has lots of children.”
BUT: After predicate adjectives, desu changes the ending to
the polite level. It should be remembered that this desu
does not have a verbal function, since Japanese predicate
adjectives are not only adjectives but also verbs. Because
predicate adjectives are the informal verb ending form,
da is redundant, as shown in the following example.
e.g. Kono uchi wa （informal ending)• この家は大きい.
“This house is large.”
Kono uchi wa J 々“ ぬ sw (polite ending)•この家は大きい
です. “This house is large.”
Wrong:
Kono uchi wa okii da. {Da is redundant and cannot
be used after adjectives.)
Conjugation of Copula, da 15
5. daro (desho) after V3 or Vta shows probability.

e.g. Kare wa mo sugu Amerika e iku dard. 彼はもうす
(直）ぐアメリカへ行くだろう. “He will probably go
to America soon.”
daro {aesho) after V8 or Vta also indicates a light question,
when the statement ends with a rising tone.
e.g. Ashita irassharu ぬs/^• 明日いらっしゃるでしよう.
“You are going tomorrow, aren’t you?”
CONJUGATIONS OF COPULAS, DA AND DESU

Conjugations of both da and desu are highly irregular.
1. da f i
formative for base
1. —
2. de Continuative
dat -ta
3. da Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
na Attributive
4. nar a -ba Conditional
5. 一
6. dar 6 Tentative
da—de aru
present perfective tentative
positive da: de aru datta: de atta daro: de aro
negative de wa* nai de wa* nakatta de wa* nai daro

*A more colloquial form of ぬでは is プa じや .
16 Conjugation of Copula, desu
2. desu です
formative for base
1. —
2. desh i -te*, -ta Continuative
3. des u Conclusive
(Dictionary Form)
(na) Attributive
4. (nara) Conditional
5. —
6. desh 6 Tentative
*T^-form (d e sh ite ) is not commonly used. De often takes its
place.
desu=de arimasu
present perfective tentative
positive desu: deshita: desho:
de arimasu de arimasnita de arimasho
negative de wa* arimasen de wa* arimasen de wa* arimasen
deshita desho
de wa* nai desu de wa nai deshita de wa nai desho
*A more colloquial form of d e w a is ja .
Differences in usage: d a used in informal prose; informal men’s
speech
de aru impersonal; used in formal writing such
as newspaper and scholarly articles
d esu polite conversational
d e a r i m a s u used in such occasions as formal lectures
and speeches
HOW TO FORM T^l-FORM AND TE-FORM OF VERBS

In classical Japanese tari-tovm (modern day ^-form) and te-iorm
were formed by adding tari and te directly to the second base
ending of all verbs. This is still true with vowel-stem verbs (for
use of ta-iorm and ^-form, see pp. 51-59).
Formation of /fl-form and お-form 17
I. Vowel-stem verbs—simply add ta or te to the stem, i.e. to the

second base.
third base stem ta - io v m te - io r m
(die. form)
iru いる i simply add t a or te ita いた ite l 、て

miru 見る mi mita 見た mite 見て
deru 出る de deta 出た dete 出て
taberu ^ tabe tabeta tabete
食べた食べて
II. Consonant-stem verbs—This group of verbs went through

various changes through the years. The formation of the
modern te-iorm can be divided into four categories as shown
below, and the one exception (the verb iku) that follows.
third base stem final stem â-form te - io r m
(die. consonant
form) change
1. yomu yom m changes to n : yonda yonde '

add d a or d e
yobu yob b changes to n : yonda >(んだ） yonae >(んで）
呼 (ぶ ) add d a or d e
shinu shin n remains: shmda shinde
死 (ぬ ) add d a or d e
2. i u 言 ( う） iw* w changes to t : itta itte

add ta or te
matsu mat t remains: matta >(った ) matte >(って )
add ta or te
wakaru wakar r changes to t : wakatta wakatte,
add t a or te
3. kaku kak k changes to i : kaita ( いた ) kaite (いて )

add ta or te
isogu isog g changes to i : isoida ( いだ ) isoide (いで )
add d a or d e
4. dasu das add ta or te dashita ( した ) dasnite ( して)

to the 2nd base
Note: Generally, if the final consonant is voiced, the /-sound of to and お
is changed to a ^-sound, d a and d e.
*Exceptions: Some classical verbs ending with u う which are still in
occasional use (e.g. / ⑽ 問う） becomes /⑽ /fl 問うた .
18 Tenses of Japanese Verbs
III. Exception
iku 行く ik k changes to t : itta 行った itte 行って
add ta or te
IV. Irregular verbs
1. k u r u 来る add ta or te to the 2nd base kita 来た kite 来て
2. suru する add ta or te to the 2nd base shita した shite して
T E N SE S OF JA PA N E SE V ERBS
Jap anese verb fo rm s h a v e tw o m a in te n se s, th e p resen t and th e

p erfe c tiv e (w h ic h d en o te s c o m p letio n of a ctio n and o fte n eq u als
th e p a st te n se in E n g lish ). T h e r e is no fu tu r e te n s e form , and th e
p resen t te n s e fo rm se r v e s th a t fu n ctio n . F or ex a m p le, su ch E n g lish
ex p r e ssio n s a s “I e a t,” “I sh a ll e a t,” “I w ill e a t,” and “I am g o in g
to ea t /5 ca n all b e ex p re sse d in Jap an ese b y Watakushi wa tabe-
masw• 私は食べます . t h o u g h in a ctu a lity su ch e x p r e ssio n s as
Tabeyd to omotte i m a s u . 食べようと思っています . or Taberu to
o m o im a s u . 食べると思います • a re m o re lik e ly to b e u sed . T h e
Jap an ese p resen t te n se also e x p r e sse s h a b itu a l action : H undo shita
ato de wa itsumo yoku ta b em a su . いい運動した後ではいつ（何時）もよ
く食べます . “Af t er e x e r c isin g w ell, w e a lw a y s ea t a lo t.”
O ne h a s to k eep in m ind, h o w e v er , th a t the_ p resen tJten se_Q i-th e
Jap an ese verb o fte n im p lies an in sta n ta n e o u s a ctio n o f th e p resnt
rath er th a n a p rolon ged a ction . F or ex a m p le, w h ile in E n g lish w e
ca n u se a sim p le p resen t te n s e and sa y , “I liv e in T o k y o n o w ,” in
Jap an ese o n e h a s to u se iru fo rm an d sa y , Watakushi wa ima
Tokyo ni sunde i m a s u . 私は今東京に住んでぃます • a s lo n g as so m e
d uration is in v o lv ed in th e a c tio n of th e verb. T h e fo rm Yte iû
(ita) is m a in ly u sed fo r th e te n s e eq u iv a len t to th e E n g lish (1)
p resen t (past) p ro g re ssiv e (for an a ctio n o cc u r rin g at th e m om en t),
and (2) p resen t (past) p e r fe c t (for an a ctio n th a t b eg a n in th e past
and co n tin u es in to th e p resen t). T h e r e a re se v e r a l o th e r verb s
b esid es sumu w h ic h are u su a lly u sed m th e V te iyu form .
e.g. motsu {<to h a v e J, O k ane o motte imasu k a . お金を持ってい
ます力、 . “D o yo u h a v e m o n e y ? ”
Specificity of Japanese Verbs 19
lie , motte imasen. いいえ持っていません .

“N o, I don’t.” （ S ee p . 10 for m ore about
motsu)
shiru c<to k n o w w W a ta k u sh i w a ano h ito o shitte imasu. 私
はあの人を知っています • “I k n o w h im (I
c a m e to k now h im , and I still k n o w h im ).”
but in n e g a tiv e : W a ta k u sh i w a s m n m a s e n . 私は知りません .
“I don ’t k n o w .”
P robability is ex p ressed b y adding daro {desho) a fter th e d ic
tionary form (V3) fo r th e p resen t and th e fu tu re ten ses, and after
th e p erfectiv e form (V/fl) for th e past.
e.g. present: Y a m a m o to -sa n w a ima T o k y o ni su n d e iru desho.
山本さんは今東京に住んでいるでしょう.
“Mr. Y am am oto probably liv e s in - T o k y o n o w .”
fu tu r e : Jon son-san w a ⑽ 5哎 m N ih on n i ta tsu 伽 /^ .
ジョンソンさんはもうす ( 直）ぐ日本に発 (立 ) つでしょう .
^Mr. Johnson w ill probably lea v e for Japan v ery
so o n .”
p ast: S uzu k i-san w a w J N ihon e k a etta ゴ以加 •鈴木さん
はもう日本へ帰ったでしよう.
uMr. S u zu k i h as probably g o n e b ack to Japan al
read y.w
Note: As shown in the above examples, the form d a r o {desho) is usually

used for the probability of the action of the third person. For a
sentence whose subject is first person, such as “I’ll probably
go tomorrow,” one will most likely say in Japanese, A s h i ta w a
おろmw 设 m / oow仍似 . 明日は多分行くと思います • or simply AsA办
⑽ 如 • 激 zsm• 明日は多分行きます • without ぬ W (ぬ s/的 at the
end.
SPE C IFIC IT Y O F JA P A N E S E V E R B S IN DESCR IBIN G A N ACTIO N
T h e Japanese verb is so m etim es m ore sp ecific m d escrib in g th e

action it rep resen ts th a n is th e E n g lish verb. T h a t is, in Japanese
one m ay h a v e to u se se v er a l different verb s fo r a ce rta in action for
w h ich on ly one verb ca n b e u sed in E n glish . O ne good ex a m p le is
th e E n g lish verb “to w ea r.” In E n g lish w e ca n say, “I w ea r a d ress,”
“I w ear a h a t,” “I w ea r a pair of sh o e s,” and so forth. B u t in
Japanese one has to ch a n g e th e verb, d ep en din g on w h ich part of
20 Specificity of Japanese Verbs
th e b ody th e clo th in g w ill b e put on.
I w ea r a d ress. Y o fu k u o k i m a s u . 洋服を着ます .
(put on th e body)
I w ea r a hat. B 6sh i o 々以似《• 帽子をかぶ（被）りま
す . (put on th e head)
I w ea r a pair o f sh o es. K u tsu o h a k im a s u . 革ftをは（履）きます .
(put on fo o tw ea r)
I w ea r g lo v e s. T eb u k u ro o h a m e m a su (sh im a su )• 手袋を
はめます• （ゐ<2俯 ^ ^ a lso m e a n s to in sert)
I w ea r a rin g. Y u b iw a o hamemasu {shimasu).
指輪をはめます.
I w ea r a tie. N ek u ta i o shimemasu {shimasu). ネクタ
イを締めます. me a n s to tie)
I w ea r g la sses. M e g a n e o 々a 知桃 asw • 眼鏡をかけます .
{kakeru m ea n s to h an g)
I w ea r a sh aw l. S h5ru o kakemasu. ショールを； ^ けます.
I w ea r a scarf. S u k a fu o makimasu. スカーフをまきます -
{maku m ea n s to w rap around)
I w ea r a b adge. B atji o tsukemasu. ノマッジをつけます.
{tsukeru a lso m ea n s to attach)
I w ea r a w r ist w a tch . U d ed ok ei o s/z/m 仍 w• 腕時計をします .
A n oth er good e x a m p le is th e E n g lish verb “to p la y ,” w h ic h h as

m ore th a n h a lf a d ozen co u n terp a rts in Japanese.
C hildren p lay in th e K od om o w a n iw a de か子供
yard. 庭で遊びます.
I p lay th e piano. P ian o o hikimasu. ピアノを弾きます .
(u se th e verb hiku fo r th e m u sica l in
str u m e n t w h ic h req u ires m a in ly th e
m a n ip u la tio n o f fin gers)
I p lay th e arum . T a ik o o tatakimasu. 太鼓をたたきます.
(u se th e verb tataku “b e a t” fo r th e m u
sic a l in stru m e n t w m c h req u ires b ea tin g )
I p lay th e flute. Fue o fu k im a s u .笛を吹きます .
(u se th e verb fu ku fo r th e m u sica l in
str u m e n t w h ich req u ires b lo w in g )
W e p lay cards. T oram p u o shimasu. トランプをします.
I p lay a record. R ekodo o k a k e m a s n . レコードをかけます一
I p lay th e role o f H a m u retto no y a k u o enjimasu . ハムレ
H am let. ットの役を演じます.
Tadoshi— fiddshi 21
T h e y are p la y in g A n o g ek ijo de H a m u retto o joen shite

Hamlet at th e theatre. / 桃似 w• あの劇場でハムレットを上演して
います.
W e play* ten n is. T e n isu o s h im a s u ^ . テニスをします .
*This verb is applicable to most other sports as well.
N ote: The verb asobu means primarily <{to amuse oneself.5, e.g. Kodo-
motachi ga 3^ 々如 0 s/w•な ⑽ ぬ imasu •子供達が野球をして遊んでい
ます . “Children are enjoying themselves， playing baseball.” Toran-
pn o shite asonde imasu. トランプをして遊んでいます • “They are
enjoying a card game.”
T R A N S IT IV E V E R B S 他動詞〈たどうし〉 and IN T R A N S IT IV E V E R B S
自動詞！
〈じどうし〉
A s th e C h in ese ch a ra cters sh o w , tadoshi lite r a lly m ea n s other-
m o v in g w ord ,J, w h ile jiddshi m ea n s ase lf-m o v in g word.^ T h e y
rou gh ly corresp ond to E n g lish tr a n sitiv e and in tr a n sitiv e verbs.
M an y Jap anese v erb s e x is t in tadoshi and jidoshi p airs w h ic h h a v e
th e sa m e verbal base, but h a v e d ifferen t en d in g s (cf. E n g lish verbs,
“la y ” and “lie ”). S p ecia l a tte n tio n sh ou ld be paid to th e u se of
th e se verbs. C om pare th e fo llo w in g th r ee se n te n c e s:
1 . M ado g a aite i m a s u . 窓があ（開 ) いています . “T h e w in d o w is
op en .” (N o a g e n t is in v o lv ed .) Jidosm-te fnllnwgH hy th e
au x ilia ry verb ini is u sed m dftsr.riptive se n te n c e s.
似•な is a な-fo rm o f ( ノ名ゴおみ/， m e a n in g “to b e o p en ”）
M ore ex a m p les:
Jid osha g a tomatte i m a s u . 自動車がとまっています . “T h e
car is p ark ed .”
H ito g a atsumatte i m a s u . 人が集まっています . “Peopl e are
g a th e re d .”
M ach igai g a 似 0故 / 桃《似 • 間違いが直っています • “M ista k es
are co rrected .”
2. M ado g a a 知か窓があ（開）けてあります • “T h e w in d o w
is op en .” (T h e w in d o w h a s b een op en ed b y so m eo n e, and is
s till open.) Taddshi-te fo llo w e d b v th e a u x ilia r y verb aru is
u sed in d escrip tiv e se n te n c e s.
is a な-fo rm ot ひ^ / み/, m e a n in g “to op en ”）
M ore ex a m p les:
Jidosha ga tomete a r i m a s u . 自動車が止めてあります . “T h e
ca r is p ark ed .”
22 Taddshi— Jiddshi
H on g a atsumete a r im a s u . 本が集めてあります • “T h e b o o k s
are g a th e r e d .”
M a ch ig a i g a naoshite arimasu. 間違いが直してあります .
“M ista k es are c o r re cted .”
T h e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n th e ab ove tw o c o n stru ctio n s is th a t in
( 1) no a g en t is im plied , but in ( 2) th e a ctio n h a s b een done b y
so m eo n e and th e sta te r e su ltin g fro m th e a ctio n s till co n tin u es.
O ften th e tra n sla tio n o f th e tw o se n te n c e s, Mado ga aite imasuy
and Mado ga akete arimasu, c o m e s out th e sa m e in E n g lish . uT h e
w in d o w is o p en .”
3. M ado o akete i m a s u . 窓をあ（開 ) けています . “He is o p en in g
th e w in d o w .” Vte (both jiddshi and tadoshi)-\-iru is u sed as
th e p r o g r e ssiv e form .
M ore e x a m p le s:
W a ta k u sh i w a m a c h ig a i o naoshite i m a s u . 私は間違いを直
しています •（如ゴ仍M + かw) “I am c o r r e c tin g th e m ista k e s.”
W a ta k u sh i w a hashitte i m a s u . 私は走っています .
{jidoshi+iru) “I am r u n n in g .”
H ow ev er, Y te-\-iru h a s a d ifferen t u se w ith so m e m o tio n
v er b s {iku, kuru, kaeruy etc.)
-
T a n a k a -sa n g a kite i m a s u . 田中さんが来ています .
(m o tio n v e r b “Mr . T a n a k a is h ere. (Mr. T a n a k a
ca m e and is s till h er e .)”
T a n a k a -sa n g a 々ぬ /携仍 hY a• 田中さんが来ていました .
“Mr. T a n a k a w a s h e r e .”
G akko m itte imasu. 学校に行っています .
(m o tio n v e r b + かw) “H e is at sch ool. (H e w e n t to sch o o l
and is s till th e r e .)’’
U ch i e kaette imasu. (m o tio n verb + かw ) 家へ帰っています .
(m o tio n v e r b + かm) “H e is h om e. (H e ca m e h o m e and
is s till h o m e .)’’
A P A R T IA L L IS T O F T A D O S H I-JID O SH I P A IR S
Taddshi Jiddshi
ageru 上 ( 揚，挙 )げる “to r a ise ” agaru 上 ( 揚，挙 ) がる “to r is e ”
ak eru あ（開，明）ける “to op en ” ak u あ（
開，明）く “to be op en ”
Taddshi— Jiddshi 23
Taddshi Jiddshi
am asu 余す “to save, to lea v e am aru 余る “to rem ain, to be le ft
o v er” o v er”
ateru 当てる “to h it” ataru 当たる “to be h it”
atsum eru 集める “to g a th e r” atsum aru 集まる “to b e ga th ered ”
azukeru 預ける “to en tru st to azukaru 預かる “to ta k e ch arge
so m eo n e” o f”
dasu 出す “to put out, to se r v e ， deru 出る “to com e out, to appear”
to tak e o u t”
fu k u 吹く “to b rea th e” fuk u 吹く “to b lo w ” （sa m e as ta-
doshi)
fu yasu 殖やす “to in cr ea se” fueru 殖える “to be in crea sed ”
hajim eru 始める “to b e g in ” hajim aru 始まる “to b e g in ”
horobosu 滅ぼす “to d efea t” horobiru 滅びる ‘‘to p erish , to be
ru in ed ”
ireru 入れる “to put in, to in se r t” hairu 入る “to enter, to b e put
in ”
k aesu 返（帰 ) す “to g iv e b ack ， to kaeru 返（帰）る “to retu rn ”
retu rn ”
kudaku 砕く “to b reak ” kudakeru 砕ける “to b e cru sh ed ”
m ach igaeru 間違える “to err” m ach igau 間違う “to be in error”
m ageru 曲げる “to b en d ” m agaru 曲がる “to b e b en t”
m asu 増す “to in cr ea se” m asu 増す “to in c r e a se ” (sam e
as tadoshi)
m azeru 混ぜる “to m ix ” m azaru 混ざる “to be m ix ed ”
m itsu k eru 見つ (付 ) ける “to look m itsuk aru 見つ（付 ) かる “to be
for, to find” fo u n d ”
m oyasu 燃やす “to b urn ” m oeru 燃える “to be b u rn t”
m ukeru 向ける “to tu rn to w a r d s” m uku 向く “to tu rn o n e’s h ead ”
n agasu 流す “to le t flow ” nagareru 流れる “to flow ”
naosu 直す “to co rrect” naoru 直る “to be m en d ed ”
n atsu keru なつ (懐 ) ける “to m ak e n atsu ku なつ (懐）く “to b ecom e
som eo n e attach ed attach ed to ”
to o n e se lf”
n okosu 残す “to le a v e ” nokoru 残る “to be le ft”
ok osu 起こす “to r a ise ” okiru 起きる “to g e t up”
otosu 落す “to dron” ochiru 落ちる “to f a ll”
oeru 終える “to finish ” ow aru 終る “to en d ”
sageru 下げる “to low er, to h a n g ” sagaru 下がる “to g o d ow n , to be
h a n g ed ”
24 Taddshi—Jidbshi
Tadoshi Jiddshi
sh im eru 閉 (締 ) める “to c lo se ,”
“to tig h te n up” “to be tig h te n e d up”
sh izu m eru 静 ( 鎮 ) める “to c a lm ” sh izu m a ru 静（鎮）まる “to calm
dow n”
sh izu m eru 沈める “to s in k ” sh izu m u 沈む “to s in k ”
sod ateru 育てる “to b rin g up” so d a tsu 育つ “to g r o w u p ”
su g o su 過ごす “to p a ss” su g iru 過ぎる “to p a ss b y ”
su su m er u 進める “to a d v a n c e” su su m u 進む “to a d v a n c e”
tateru 立（建）てる “to erect, to ta tsu 立 (建 ) つ “to sta n d , to be
b u ild ” b u ilt”
tom eru 止（留）める “to sto p ” tom aru 止（留）まる “to sto p ”
tsu k eru つ（付）ける “to attach, tsu k u つ (付）く “to stic k to, to be
to lig h t” lit”
tsu m eru 詰める “to stu ff” tsu m a ru 詰まる “to be stu ffed ”
tsu n a g er u つなげる “to c o n n e c t” tsu n a g a ru つながる “ to b e con-
(tsu n agu ) n e c te d ”
tsu ta eru 伝える “to c o n v e y ” tsu ta w a ru 伝わる “to b e trans-
m itte d ”
ukab eru 浮かべる “to float” u kabu 浮かぶ “to flo a t”
u m eru 埋める “to b u r y ” u m aru 埋まる “to be b u ried ”
w atasu 渡す “to p ass over, to w ataru 渡る “to g o over, to cro ss
hand o v e r ” over”
yak u 焼く “to b ak e, to ro a st” y a k eru 焼ける “to be b a k ed ”
D IR E C T IO N A L V E R B S
T h er e are s ix v er b s (th re e p airs) fo r “g iv in g ” and “r e c e iv in g .”

T h e co r re ct u sa g e o f th e se d ep en d s on th e in terrela tio n sh ip s
(superior 目上一 in ferio r m 從ZhYc 目下 rela tio n sh ip a ccord in g
to Jap anese trad ition ) b e tw e e n th e first, th e seco n d , and th e third
p ersons.
S p ecial a tte n tio n sh o u ld b e g iv e n to th e third p erson w h e n o n e’s
im m ed ia te fa m ily is in v o lv ed . T h a t is, on e sh o u ld a lw a y s con sid er
all im m e d ia te fa m ily m em b ers (n ot o n ly o n e’s o w n ch ild ren and
y o u n g e r sib lin g s, b ut a lso old er sib lin g s, sp ou se, and e v e n p aren ts)
in ferior to th e p erson to w h o m o n e is sp e a k in g if th a t p erson is
n ot a fa m ily m em ber.
E x a m p les o f ea c h in sta n c e w ill b e g iv e n b elo w :
Directional Verbs 25
くれる
卜‘to g iv e ”
1如 f ite a r w 下さる (honorific form of kureru))
Subject {Giver) Verb Indirect object (Recipient)
you | g iv e ⑻ to m e (us)
h e (th ey)} to th e one w h o is c lo se to m e
Never I (w e) •to you w h o are c lo se to m e
1. W h en th e g iv e r is in ferior to th e recip ien t, u se kureru.
Otdto gdi watakushi ni kuremashita• 弟が "私
Jiこくれま h ti.
“M y y o u n g er b rother g a v e it to m e .”
2. W h en th e g iv e r is su p erior to th e recip ien t, u se kudasaru.
Sensei 职 watakushi ni kudasaimashita• 先生ガ、
私に飞さ
いました • “T h e tea c h e r g a v e it to m e .”
Sensei ga watakushi no ototo ni kudasaim ashita. 先生
が私の弟に下さいました• “T h e tea c h e r g a v e it to m y
b rother.”
Sensei anata ni kudasaimashita ka .先生があなナこに
下さいましたか • “D id th e tea ch er g iv e it to y o u ? ”
Sensei ga watakushi no haha n i kudasaim ashita. 先生
が私の母に下さいました. “T h e tea c h e r g a v e it to m y
m oth er.”
3. W h en th e g iv e r is a d irect ta m ily m em ber, and on e is
sp ea k in g to a n o n -fa m ily person, u se kureru.
Chichi g a watakushi n i ku rem a sh ita . 父が私にくれまし
すこ. “M y fa th er g a v e it to m e.”
W h en th e g iv e r is a d irect fa m ily m em ber, but on e is
sp ea k in g to an oth er m em b er of th e fa m ily , e.g. to o n e’s
siste rs or b rothers, o n e m ay sa y :
Oto-san g a watakushi n i kudasaim ashita. お父さんが私
に下さいました • “F a th er g a v e it to m e 广
やる
卜“to g iv e ”
l a ぎびw 上げる (honorific of yarn))
Subject {Giver) Verb Indirect object {Recipient)
I (w e )I
|t o you
you > g iv e ⑻
[to h im (th em )
h e (th ey) j
1. yaru
T h e verb yaru should b e u sed w ith d iscretion , sin c e th is
26 Directional Verbs
d irection al verb in d ica tes th a t th e recip ien t is d ecisiv e ly in

ferio r to th e g iv e r ; th a t is, th e recip ien t is on e's o w n child,
y o u n g e r sib lin g , pet, or e v e n a plant.
Watakushi w a ototo ni o k a sh i o yarimashita. 私は弟にお菓
子をやりました . “I g a v e a ca k e to m y y o u n g e r brother.”
Cmchi w a inu n i goh an o yarimashita. 父は犬にごはんをや
りました • “F a th er fed th e d og.”
Haha w a hana ni m izu o yarimashita. 母は花に水をやりま
した . “Mo t her g a v e w a ter to th e flow er.”
2. ageru
In oth er c a se s of g iv in g ex c ep t th e above, ageru should be
used.
w a sews の• ni rin g o o 0供 ka•あなたは先生に
リンゴ (林檎）を上げましたか . “D id y ou g iv e an apple to
th e te a c h e r ? ”
Watakushi w a haha n i hon o a g e m a s h ita . 私【ま母に:本を上
げました . “I g a v e a book to m y m o th er .”
Sensei w a gakusei ni en p itsu o agemashita. 先生は学生に鉛
筆を上げました • “T h e tea c h e r g a v e th e stu d en t a p en cil.”
Gakusei w a sensei n i h on o agemashita. Ji
げました . “T h e stu d en t g a v e th e tea c h e r a b ook•”
III• 产もら (貰）う . ”
ゴいただ（
戴，頂）く（ honorific of wwr⑽ ) r e ce iv e
Subject {Recipient) Verb from whom {Giver)
I (w e)
ffrom * you
y ou > receiv e(s)
h e (th ey ) J [from h im (them )
* t h i s f r o m is expressed by the Japanese particles n i or k a r a
1. W h en th e recip ien t is su perior to th e g iv e r , u se morau.

Watakushi w a k ore o imoto n i (kara) moraimashita.
私はこれを妹にもらいました . “I re ce iv e d th is from m y
y o u n g e r sis te r .”
2. W h en th e recip ien t is in ferio r to th e g iv e r, u se itadaku.
Gakusei w a k ore o sensei ni (kara) itadakimashita.
はこれを先生にいただきました • “T h e stu d en t receiv ed
it from th e tea c h e r.”
3. If th e g iv e r is a m em b er of th e re cip ie n t^ im m ed ia te
Directional Verbs as Auxiliaries 27
family, the recipient uses moran when reciting the story

to a non-family member.
Watakushi w a kore o haha ni (kara) moraimashita.
私はこれを母にもらいました • “I received this from my
m other.”
W hen the giver is the recipient’s im m ediate family-
member, but th e recipient is reciting the story of receiv
ing to his own fam ily member, the recipient may say:
Watakushi wa kore o oka-san ni (kara) itadakimashita.
私はこれをお母さんにいただきました . “I received this
from M other.”
DIRECTIONAL VERBS AS AUXILIARIES

Each of th e above directional verbs may occur as auxiliaries
following th e Verb te~iorm. T he direction of the action is the
same as in th e case of th e independent directional verb.
l.V te ' '
(Implication—Someone is kind enough to do som ething

for someone else)
Haha ga watakushi ni kono hon o katte kurem ashita. 母
が私にこの本を買ってくれました. “My m other bought
this book for me. (My m other was kind enough to
buy th is book for me.)’’
Sensei ga watakushi no ototo ni hon o yonde kudasai-
m 似 M 仏先生が私の弟に本を読んで下さいました . “My
teacher read the book to my younger brother. (My
teacher was kind enough to read the book for my
younger brother.)”
II. V 切やる
.a奴 r w 上げる
(Implication—Someone is doing somebody else a favor.)
Watakushi wa imoto ni hon o yonde yarimashita. 私は
妹に本を読んでやりました • “I read a book to my younger
sister. (I did a favor for my sister by reading a book.)”
Sensei ga Yamamoto-kun o tetsudatte agemashita• 失i生が
山本君を手伝って上げました . “丁1 ^ 1 6 & (^ 1 * 1 ^ 批 (1]\^_
Yamamoto. (The teacher did a favor for Mr. Yamamoto
by helping him.)’’
28 Causative Verb te-iovm plus a Directional Auxiliary Verb
III. V& Jm orau もら ( 貰）う

i i t a d a k u いただ ( 戴 , 頂）く
(Im p lication — S om eon e is th e recip ien t o f so m eo n e else's
k ind ness. U su a lly som eon e ask s for som eon e e lse ’s
fa v o r b efore h e r e c e iv e s it.)
Imoto n i y o fu k u o tsukutte m oraim ashita. 妹に洋服を作っ
てもらいました . “I w as fo rtu n a te th at m y y o u n g er
siste r m ade a d ress fo r m e .,>
Watakushi no ototo w a sensei ni hon o yonde itadaki-
was/wYa• 私の弟は先生に本を読んでいただきました .
“M y y o u n g er brother w a s fo rtu n a te th a t th e tea ch er
read a book to h im .”
C A U S A T IV E V E R B ァ五-FO RM P L U S A D IR E C T IO N A L A U X
IL IA R Y V E R B
T h e d irection of th e action is th e sa m e as in th e ca se o f th e in
depen dent d irectio n a l verb.
T h is p attern m ean s, “to do so m eo n e th e favor of le ttin g h im do
so m eth in g ,” or “to p erm it so m eo n e to do so m e th in g ”
V o w el-stem V i [sa sete* | kureru yaru m orau
[sa sh ite J ‘kudasaru ageru itadaku
C on son an t-stem sete* 1 kureru yaru m orau
‘sh ite f ‘kudasaru ageru itadaku
Irregular
suru fsasete* kureru yaru m orau
[sa sh ite .kudasaru ageru itadaku
kuru Jkosasete* kureru yaru m orau
[k osash ite kudasaru ageru itadaku
and se te forms are more refined than the s a s h ite and s h ite forms
S a s e te
respectively.
e.g. Im 6to g a jiten sh a n i wora% 紿々m m w 似み// a：• 妹 ;^ 自転車に
乗らせてくれました • “M y y o u n g er siste r let m e ride h er
b ic y c le .”
S en sei g a w a ta k u sh i ni b en k yo o tsuzukesasete kudasai-
w 仍 /h•如 • 先生が私に勉強を統けさせて下さいました . “M y
tea ch er p erm itted m e to co n tin u e m y stu d ies.
Im 6to ni b 6ru o 供 5似 0か： yanVw似 /»’如 . 妹にボールを投
Verbs of Directional Restrictions 29
げさせてやりました • “I let m y y o u n g er siste r th ro w m y
b a ll.”
T an aka-san n i w a ta k u sh i no ok ash i o tabesasete age-
m a s h ita . 田中さんに私のお菓子を食べさせて上げました .
“I let Mr. T a n a k a ea t m y cak e.”
C hichi n i か似 • 父に泳がせてもらいまし
た • “I w a s p erm itted , by m y fa th er, to sw im .”
Sensei ni kosasete itcidakimashita• 先生Jiこ来させてい于こ t i き
ました • “I w a s p erm itted , b y m y tea ch er, to co m e .”
O T H E R V E R B S OF D IR E C T IO N A L R E STR IC TIO N S
B esid es th e th ree p airs of d irection al verb s ju st d iscu ssed , th ere

are sev era l Japanese verb s w h ich also h a v e ce rta in re stric tio n s of
d irection in th eir u sage. F o r exam p le, w h e n th e fo llo w in g verb s
are used, care has to be ta k e n as to w h o m th e w ord s are directed.
kawaigaru 可愛がる “to pet，’’ “to treat w ith lo v e ,” d irected to
meshita from meue (see p. 24). e.g. A n o se n se i w a h on to ni
yok u u k em o ch i no k od om otach i o ka w a ig a rim a su . あの先生は
本当によく受持ちの子供たち (達 ) を可愛がります . “Th a t tea c h e r
reallv tre a ts th e ch ild ren in h er room n ic e ly .”
shitau 慕う “to adore,” d irected to meue fro m meshita. e.g.
D akara kodomotachi mo kanojo o taihen か仍 w• だか
ら子供たちも彼女を大変慕っています. “The r e f or e ， t he ch ild ren
adore her, to o .”
/が幻みm 尊ぶ = t 6tobu “to r e v er e,” d irected to w 衫從 from m 從 /z /k .
e.g. A no rojin w a k ono m ach i de hijo n i tattobarete i m a s u . あ
の老人はこの町で非常に尊ばれています• “T h a t old m an is h ig h ly
resp ected in th is to w n .”
uyamau Wc う “to respect,” directed to 所⑽设 from m 以か7仏 e.g.
W arew are wa oya o 瓜ぬ 0 naranai • 我々は親を敬
わなければならない• “We m ust respect our parents.”
C O N D IT IO N A L S
T h e fo llo w in g fou r con d ition al fo rm s a re o fte n u sed in te rc h a n g e

ably, as in d icated in th e p aren th eses, but th e -tara con d itional h as
th e least restrictio n in its u sage.
30 Conditionals
I. V3 to ty p e con d itional
(In m o st ca ses th e resu lta n t part is an ob jectiv e sta te
m en t.) T h e verb b efore to is a lw a y s in th e dictionary-
form , and its te n se a lw a y s fo llo w s th a t of th e principal
clause.
1. “w h e n ”
a. habitual o ccu rren ce
N a tsu g a kuru to y ok u y a m a n i ik im ash ita.
夏が来るとよく山に行きました. （ not in te r
ch a n g ea b le w ith -baf -tara, or nara) “W h en
su m m er cam e, w e o fte n w en t to th e
m o u n ta in s.”
b. sp ecific o ccu rren ce
M ado o akeru to {=aketara) yuKi g a fu tte im a-
s h ita • 窓をあ（開) けると雷が降っていました.
(not in terch a n g ea b le w ith -ba or nara) uW h en
I op ened th e w in dow , it w a s sn o w in g .”
Note： The clause following V3 to conditional is often
unexpected.
2. “i f ”
K ore o nakusu to {=nakusnitara) ta ih e n d esu . これ
をなくすと大変です • （ not in terch a n g ea b le w ith
or nara) “If I lo se th is, I’ll be in trou ble.”
II. -ba ty p e con d ition al
(In m o st ca ses th e re su lta n t part in v o lv es o n e’s w ill or
d eterm in ation, or is an in ev ita b le o ccu rren ce to th e co n
d ition al part.)
“if ”
A n a ta g a ikeba {=itiu nara) w a ta k u sh i m o ik im asu.
あなたが行けば私も行きます . (not in terch an geab le
w ith eith er to or -tara) aIf yo u go, I w ill g o to o .,>
lakakereba {—takakattara, takai nara) k a im a sen . 高
ければ買いません • （ not in terch a n g ea b le w i t h か）
“If it is ex p en siv e , I w o n ’t b u y it.”
A sh ita y u k i nara {=dattara) ik im a se n . 明日雪なら
行きません. （ n ot in terch a n g ea b le w ith か） “If
it sn o w s tom orrow , I w o n ’t g o .” {Nara (ba) is
th e con d ition al of th e cop u la da\ se e p . 15 fo r co n
ju gation s of copula.)
Conditionals 31
III. -tara ty p e conditional

“if”
S en sei ni kiitara {= kikeba, kiku to)w akarim asu yo.
先生に聞いたらわか ( 分）りますよ • （ not interchan ge-
able w ith nara) “If you ask you r tea ch er ， y o u ’ll
understand it.”
A sh ita am e ぬ “ a rc ( = warめ ik im a sen • 明日雨だった
ら行きません • （ not in terch an geab le w ith ぬ如）
Note: When the resultant clause is either imperative or inter
rogative, use the -tara conditional. Avoid using the to
or -ba conditionals.
Shitte ぬ ra oshiete kudasai• 知っていたら教
えて下さい • “If you know it, please tell me.”
Ame ga futtara, omukae ni lkimasho ka. 雨が降ったら
お迎えに行きましょうか . ‘‘If it rains， sh a llI come and
get you?”
T h e fo llo w in g th ree sen ten ce s are so sim ilar in m ean
in g th a t n a tiv e sp eak ers m ay not b e able to m ake clear
distinction s. H ow ever, slig h t d ifferen ces m ay be d e
tected.
幻 atatak ai y 6fuku o k im a su •寒いと暖かい洋
月艮を着ます. uWh e n e v e r it is cold, w e w ear w arm
clo th es.” 一 habitual o ccu rren ce: resu ltan t clause
is an ob jective statem en t.
Samukereba atatak ai yofuk u o k i m a s u . 寒ければ暖
かい洋服を着ます . “If it is cold, w e ’ll w ear w arm
clo th es.” 一 resu ltan t cla u se in v o lv es w ill, and is
an in evitab le occurrence to th e conditional part.
Samukattara atatakai yofuk u o k im a su . 寒かったら
暖かい洋服を着ます . “If it is cold, w e w ear warm
clo th es.” 一 plain con d itional
IV. V 3 [no, nf] nara=no (n') dattara

(B ecau se nara is a short form of naraba，th e conditional
form of th e copula dayV 3 nara is freq u en tly interchan geab le
w ith -ba con d itional (see I I , 1 ) , but th e subject of the
nara con d itional cla u se is u sually so m eo n e (or som ething)
other than I.) Nara conditional cla u se is o ften follow ed
by an im perative clause.
“if,” “in ca se th a t”
32 Toki
Issh o ni ik ita i nara, su g u sh ita k u o sh in a sa i. 一緒

に行きたいなら，す ( 直）ぐ仕度をしなさい . “If you
w a n t to g o w ith m e, g e t ready rig h t a w a y .s,
cf. Anata g a inu nara, w a ta k u sh i m o lk im asu.
あなたが行くなら私も行きます • “If y ou go,
I’ll go, to o .”
Watakushi g a ikeba (not iku nara), anata m o
ik im asu k a • 私が行けばあなたも行きますか .
“If I g o , w ill y o u g o to o ? ”
Y o m ita i nara, k a sh ite a g em a sh o . 読みたいなら貸し
てあ（上）げましょう . “If you w a n t to read it ， I’ll
lend it to y o u .”
S am u i nara, se ta o k in asai. 寒いならセーターを着な
さい • “If y o u ’re cold, put on a sw e a te r .”
TO K I 時
"w h en ，
，
1. Span of tim e
Yasumi no toki, b en k y o sh im a sen . (N o u n + wo t o k i ) 休み
の時勉強しません • “W h en it is a h oliday, I d on ’t stu d y .”
Isogasnu tokit k on ai d e kudasai. (Adj 3+ な?々 /)忙しい時来
ないで下さい • “P le a se don ’t co m e w h e n I am b u sy .”
Chiisakatta toki ( = ch iisa i* toki) (Adj/fl/A d j 34-^^*) T o k y o
ni su n d e i m a s h i t a . 小さかった時東京に住んでいました .
ltl liv ed in T o k y o w h e n I w a s little .M
H ana g a kirei na toki k o en n i iKimasho. (Copular n o u n +
似幻知）花がきれい ( 綺麗）な時，公園に行きましょう .
“L e t’s g o to th e park w h e n th e flow ers are p retty .”
C hichi g a genki na {= datta) toki, y ok u issh o n i dekake-
m a sh ita • 父が元気な時，よく一緒にでかけました . “ W h en
m y la th e r w a s w ell, w e o fte n w en t out togeth er.
N ih on ni iru^ N ih o n g o o n araim ash ita. (V^/Vta
か々/ ) 日本にいる時日本語を習いました . “ W h en I w a s in
jap an , I learn ed Jap anese•”
2. Specific tim e
T e g a m i o kaku toki pen g a irim asu. (V 3+ 如 b. ) 手紙を書
* The present tense of adjectives or verbs can be used even though the
occurrence was in the past, and in fact this usage may be more common.
Subjunctive 33
く時ペンがい ( 要）ります . “W hen we w rite a le tte r , we

need a pen.”
Gohan o tab ete ita tokif tom odachi ga kim ashita. (Vm +
かが）ごはん ( 御飯 ) を食べていた時，友達が来ました .
“W hen we w ere eatin g ， our friend cam e.”
Note: Special attention should be paid when the verb which
precedes t o k i is a motion verb such as ik u , k u r u y or k a e r u .
Nihon e tomodachi ni aimasu• 日本へ行く時友達
に会います. “ On the way to Japan，I’ll see my friend.”
Nihon n i 出 a か々/， tomodachi ni aimasu• 日本に行った時
友達に会います • “When I go to (After I arrive in) Japan，
1，11 see my friend.” Use the perfective lorm even it
the action will occur in the future.
Nihon ni 认级か々/， tomodachi ni aimashita. 日本に行く時
友達に会いました • “ 〇n the way t0 JaPan， 1 met my
friend.”
Nihon ni i tta to k i, tomodachi ni aimashita. 日本に行った
時友達に会いました . ‘‘When I went to (After I arrived
in) Japan, I met my friend.
SUBJUNCTIVE
I. “if”
1 . H ypothetical
suru to すると
!
1
shitara したら
sureba すれば
suru n a r a するなら
Kyoto m iku to suru to itsu ikim asu ka. (V3 to suru
か）京都に行くとするといつ (何時 ) 行きますか • “i f yo u
w ere to go to Kyoto, w hen would you g o ? ”
Kino Nihon o deta to shitara im a w a mo A m erika ni
iru hazu desu. QJta to s h ita r a ) 昨日日本を出たとし
たら，今はもうアメリカにいるはず (害 ) です . "If (pre
sum ably) he left ja p a n yesterday, ne should be m
th e U nited States already.”
2. C ontrary to fact
a. present
Y asui mono nara {=dattara) kau no ni (kau
n ’ desu ga) • • • 安い物なら買うのに … “If it
w ere a cheap thing, I would buy it (but I
34 Subjunctive
w on’t b uy it, b ec a u se it is not ch eap ).”

Yasukereba {=yasukattara) kau no n i (kau n ’
d esu g a ) . . . 安ければ買うのに •. • “If it
w e r e ch eap , I w ou ld b uy it (but I w o n ’t b uy
it, b e c a u se it is n ot ch ea p ).’’
b. p ast
Y a su i m on o nara {= dattara) k a tta d e s h o . 安
い物なら買ったでしょう• “I f 辻 had b een a
ch eap th in g , h e w o u ld h a v e b o u g h t it.”
Yasukereba (=yasukattara) k a tta n ’ d esu g a
. . . 安ければ買ったんですが. •• “If it had
b een ch ea p , 丄 w ou ld h a v e b o u g h t it.”
II. “I w ish • • • ”
1. w ish fo r p resen t
K yo o ten k i nara (=dattara) ii no n i (n , d esu g a ) . . .
今日お天気ならいいのに. •• ul w ish th e w ea th er
w e r e good to d a y (but it is n ’t).”
2. w ish fo r fu tu r e
A sh ita o te n k i nara {dattara) n n* d esu g a . . . 明日
お天気ならいいんですが •• • “I h op e th e w ea th e r
w ill b e go o d to m o rro w (but I h a v e so m e d ou b ts).”
一 D o n ot u se no ni fo r lu tu re.
A sh ita o te n k i %似tz ii d esu n e . 明日お天気ならいいで
すね . “It w ou ld b e n ic e if th e w ea th e r w e r e good
tom orrow , w o u ld n ’t it ? ”
3. w isn to r p ast
K in o o ten k i nara {=dattara) y o k a tta no n i (n J d esu
g a ) . . • 昨日お天気ならよかったのに •• • “It w ou ld
h a v e b een n ic e ii th e w ea th e r had b een good
y e ste r d a y .”
M ISC E L L A N E O U S C O N D IT IO N A L P A T T E R N S
te wa is th e co n d itio n a l fo rm m e a n in g ''if/' w h ic h is a lw a y s fo l
low ed b y a n e g a tiv e idea.
I. P ro h ib itio n
1 . te {de) wa komarimasu “W e ’ll b e in trou ble, if yo u
d o "
S on n a k oto o itte wa komarimasu. (Ste komari-
Miscellaneous Conditional Patterns 35
m a s w ) そんなことを言っては困ります • “W e ’ll b e in
trouble, if y o u sa y su ch a th in g .”
Okikute wa komarimasu. (Adj^ wa komarimasu)
大きくては困ります. “W e ’ll b e in trouble, if it is
b ig .”
K on n a mono de wa komarimasu. (N ou n de wa
k o m a rim a s u ) こんな物では困ります • “W e ’ll b e in
trouble, if it is th is kind of th in g .”
2 . な（ぬ）泌0 / 知 m 仍 ⑽ “Y ou m a y n o t . • • “Yo u m u st not
• • • ’’(liter a lly ， “if y o u do … ， it c a n ’t g o [it w o n ’t d o ]”).
Sonna koto o itte wa ikemasen. (Vte wa ikemasen)
そんなことを言ってはいけません. “You m ust not
say such a th in g .”
Chiisakute wa ikemasen. (A dj^ wa ik e m a s e n ) 小さ
くてはいけません • “It m u st n o t b e sm a ll.”
S onn a mono de wa ikemasen, (N ou n de wa ikemasen)
そんな物ではいけません . “It m u st n ot b e su ch a
th in g .”
3. te {de) wa dame desu “Y ou m u st n o t • • • ，’’ “It is not
g o o d if … ”
Tabete wa dame desu. (Vte dame d e s u ) 食べて
は駄目です. “Yo u m u st not eat. (It is n ot good
if y o u ea t.)”
Chiisakute wa dame desu. iPAite wa dame desu) ，
\ヽ
さくては駄目です • “It’s not go o d if it ’s sm a ll.”
C hiisai no de wa dame desu. (N ou n de wa dame
d e s u ) 小さいのでは駄目です . “It ’s n ot good if it’s
a sm a ll o n e.”
O b ligation
1 . nakereba ikemasen. u You m u st d o . . . M (litera lly , aif
y o u d on’t • • . ， it c a n ’t g o ”).
K yo b en k y o shinakereba ikemasen. (Vnakereba ikema
sen) 今日勉強しなければいけません . “Yo u m u st
stu d y to d a y .”
Akakunakereba ikemasen. (Aajnakereba inemasen) 赤
くなければいけません • “It m u st b e red .”
2. nakereba narimasen. UI m u st d o . . . M (literally, aif I
d on ’t • • • , it w o n ’t b e c o m e ”).
36 Miscellaneous Conditional Patterns
S e n se i to hanasanakereba narimasen. Ynakereba nari~

m 仍 ⑽ ）先生と話さなければなりません • “I m u st ta lk
w ith m y te a c h e r .”
3. nakereba dame desu. <£Y ou m u st d o . . . w (litera lly , aif
y o u d on ’t … ， it is n o t g o o d ”).
K y o k ore o shinakereba dame desu. (Snakereba dame
ぬ似）今日これをしなければ .駄目です • “Y ou h a v e to
do th is to d a y .”
Akakunakereba dame desu. dame desu)
赤くなければ駄目です • “It h as to b e red .”
III. D en ia l o f O b ligation
1 nakute mo n desu. <{Y ou do not h a v e t o . (literally,
“e v e n if yo u don ’t … ， it is a ll r ig h t”).
K on o hon w a yomanakute mo ii desu. (VnakutB
" ぬ似）この本は読まなくてもいいです . “Yo u d on ’t
h a v e to read th is b o o k .”
2. nakute mo kamaimasen.
Ikanakute mo kamaimasen. (ynakute 麵 kamaimasen)
行かなくても構いません• “It d o esn ’t m a tter if yo u
d on ’t g o .”
IV. P er m issio n
1 . te mo kamaimasen. “It d o es not m a tter e v e n if y ou
do...w
Kaite mo kamaimasen. (Ste 讯〇 kam aim asen) 書 I 、
ても構いません . “It d o e sn ’t m a tter e v e n if y o u w r ite .”
Kitanakute mo kamaimasen. (A dj^ mo kamaimasen)
汚くても構いません . “It d o esn ’t m a tter e v e n if it ’s
d ir ty .”
C h iisai hon de mo kamaimasen. (N ou n de mo kamai-
m 仍 ⑽ ）小さい本でも構いません • “It d o e sn ’t m a tter
if it is a sm a ll b ook .”
2. te mo ii desu. “Y o u m a y d o ”
Kaette mo ii desu. (Vte u desu) プ帚ってもいいで
す . “Y ou m a y g o h o m e .”
Kaette mo ii desu k a . 帰ってもいいですか . “Ma y I
go hom e?”
Answer: positive—Hai， kaette mo ii d e su . はX 、，
帰ってもいいです • “Y es, you
Suggestion 37
m ay g o h o m e .”
n e g a tiv e — lie， kaette wa ikemasen.
いえ，帰ってはいけません .
“N o, y ou m a y n ot g o h o m e .”
Chiisakute mo ii desu. (Adj^ 桃0 むぬ抓）小さくて
もいいです . “It’s all rig h t if it is sm a ll.”
C hiisai uchi de mo ii desu. (N ou n de mo ii desu)
小さい家でもいいです • “It is all rig h t e v e n if it is
a sm a ll h o u se .”
S u g g e stio n (not a co n d itio n a l pattern)

ho ga ii desu. ult is b ette r th a t y o u d o . . .
S ono h on o y o n d a ho ga n desu yo. (Vt〇 ho ga ii
ゴ以w ) その本を読んだ方がいいですよ • “It is b ette r
to read th a t b ook .”
Sorosoro k ek k o n su ru ( = s h it a ) ho ga n desu yo.
C^z/Vta hd ga ii d e s u ) そろそち結婚 'する方が、
で
すよ . “ It is b ette r to m arry so o n .”
O kiiho ga ii desu y o . (A dj3 ho ga ii desu) 大きい
方がいいですよ • “It is b e tte r to h a v e a b ig o n e .”
Note: H o g a i i is not a conditional pattern, but it is easy to
remember it with other conditional patterns. H o g a i i
can be preceded either by the third base or the ta - io r m
of the verb.
AUXILIARY VERBS 助動詞くじょどうし>
A u x ilia ry v er b s a re v erb s th a t g iv e ad d ition al m e a n in g s to m ain

verbs. T h e y a re in clu d ed in th e se c tio n o f “V er b -fo llo w in g E x
p r e ssio n s” （pp. 3 9 -8 6 )，b e c a u se th e y a ll m a y b e a tta c h e d to th e
en d of th e m a in verb or ad jectiv e. S o m e o f th e fu n c tio n s o f v e r y
co m m o n a u x ilia r y v er b s a re n eg a tiv e, d esid era tiv e, p a ssiv e , p er
fe c tiv e , p oten tial, and ca u sa tiv e. A ll th e s e fo rm s c o n ju g a te th e
sa m e as m a in v er b s or a d jectiv es. S o m e a u x ilia r y v er b s a re in
verb fo rm s (e.g. rareru and saseru\ and o th ers a re in a d jectiv e
fo rm s (e.g. naif tai or rashii).
VERB-FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS
T he phases of th e Japanese verb are shown by adding a variety

of suffixes. A broad range of m eaning can be derived by supply
ing th e appropriate endings or combination of endings. Some
endings, such as ~nai ない or ィ瓜• たい， are adjectival in nature,
and thus take fu rth e r endings w henever necessary (e.g. Ikitaku
似^ が^: • 行きたくなかった • “I didn’t w ant to go.”)•
T h e ex p ressio n s are a lp h a b etica lly arranged u nd er s ix b a ses of
th e verbs, ad jectiv es, and cop u lar nouns, in order to be ea sily a c
c e ssib le as a read in g aid. A s m en tion ed in th e se ctio n , uH ow to
F orm 2 V fo r m and 7V-form ，” on p . 16， both M -form and か-form
w er e fo rm erly m ade from th e seco n d b ase of th e verb. T h erefo re,
th e ex p ressio n s w h ich fo llo w ^ -fo r m or te-iorm a re liste d m th is
v o lu m e under seco n d base.
S om e en d in g s u sed in v er y fa m ilia r sp eech h a v e n ot b een included.
If one learn s th e m ea n in g and u se of th e en d in g s listed in th is
book, one w ill be able to deal w ith m ost prob lem s of v er b s w h ich
appear in m odern Jap anese w ritin g .
Inform al endings of th e verb (Dictionary form) are used for the
headings of th e verb-following expressions, but in the accompany
ing examples, both polite (masut desu type of endings) and informal
{de am , da, miru} taberu, yomuy kaku type of endings) are used.
F ir st base, secon d b ase, third b ase, fo u r th b ase, fifth b ase, and
six th b ase of th e verb, ad jective, and cop u lar noun, a re h erea fter
ab breviated V b V 2, V 3, V 峁（V 4+ ⑽ ，V imperative (V 5)， Vtentative (V6)，Adj.
and Cop. n. ， re sp ec tiv e ly . In th e h ea d in g s, th e w ord in th e
p a ren th eses ( ) sh o w s th a t it is in terch a n g ea b le w ith th e p reviou s
w ord, e.g. iku to (ni) shite m o : iku to shite mo or uzu ni shite mo,
and th e w ord in th e b ra ck ets [ ] sh o w s th a t it ca n be added
after th e p reviou s w ord, e . g . 々0 々0 or ゐ0
I. Expressions which follow the First Base 未然形〈みぜんけい〉 of

the verb.
-/w似. まい（tentative negative) follows th e 1st base of vowel-stem
verbs and irreg u lar verbs su m and kuru. follows the 3rd
base of consonant-stem verbs (see p. 68 for more -mai). It
has tw o functions:
40 ■»’ V^following Expressions
1 . n e g a tiv e w ill, e.g. Sonna koto wa mo shimai to kesshin

• そんな事はもうしまいと決心した • “I d ecid ed not to
do su ch a th in g an y m o re .”
2. n e g a tiv e prob ability, e.g. Sonna koto wa mo shimai.
そんな事はもうしまい • “P erh ap s h e w o n ’t do su c h a th in g
an y m o re .”
•w’ ん（ te n ta tiv e )= -m w sp ea k er’s co n jectu re, e.g. w似tzw か，祕辦队
そうならんと願う • “I h op e it w ill tu r n ou t to be s o .” （ n e g a tiv e )=
-nai^~nuy e.g. So wa i k a n . そうはいかん • “It w o n ’t w o rk out
th a t w a y .”
-nai 卞こ、、 (in form al n e g a tiv e en d in g) c o n ju g a tes a s an a d je ctiv e:
naku fo r ^w-form, and nakereba fo r con d ition al, nakatta fo r p er
fe c tiv e , e.g. T a b e n a i. 食べない . “ I d on ’t ea t.” “I w o n ’t e a t.”
-w似• みa 々の7• ゐ w；0 w似• ないばかりではない n ot o n ly d o es h e n o t ,
e.g. Ano hito wa tabako o nomanai bakari de wa naku, osake mo
n o m im a s e n . あの人はタバコ（
煙草）をのまないばかりではなくお酒も飲
みません . “No t o n ly d o es h e not sm o k e c ig a r e tte s, h e d o e sn ’t
d rink sake eith e r .,>
-nai dake de wa nai ないだけ（丈）ではない =-nai bakari de wa naif
e.g. Kono koaomo wa gohan o taoenai dake de wa nakuy mizu mo
n o m im a s e n . この子供はごはん ( 御飯）を食べないだけではなく，水も
飲みません . “ N o t o n ly d oes th is ch ild n ot e a t rice, h e d oes not
drin k w a te r e ith e r .”
-nai de ヽで =-zu ui in stea d of, w i t h o u t . . . in g, e.g . Kyo gakko
ni ikanai de uchi ni imashita. 今日学校に行かないで家にいました.
“W ithou t g o in g to s c h o o l , I sta y e d h o m e to d a y .”
•nai de hoshu な、、で欲し、、 =-nai de morai tai I do n ot w a n t yo u
to d o , e.g. Sonna koto wa shinai de h o s h i i . そんな事はしな
いで欲しい • “I do n o t w a n t y o u to do su c h a th in g .”
-nai de kudasai 卞こ、ヽで飞さ、、• p lea se d on’t, e.g. Tabenai de kuda-
s a i . 食べないで下さい . “ P le a se d on ’t e a t.”
-nai de morai tai ないでもら [貰 ")い于こ\ 、 =-nai de hoshii Ano hito
ni wa sore ni tsuite hanasanai de moral t a i . あの人にはそれにつ
いて話さないでもらいたい • “I do n ot w a n t y o u to ta lk about it to
h im .”
-wa：/ ぬないで済む g e t b y w ith o u t d o in g so m eth in g , e.g.
sensei ga yasunda no de benkyd shinai de sumimashit a• 今 B 先生^
が休んだので勉強しないで済みました. “Be c a u s e ou r tea c h e r w a s
Vx-foliowing Expressions -nai to wa kagiranai 41
absent today, w e g o t by w ith o u t stu d yin g.”

-ポ^ み似m 泌0 w o / ないはず（害）はない th ere is no reason not t o ,
it’s lik ely th at • • . ，e.g. Ano hito m kore ga wakaranai hazu wa
a rim a sen . あの人にこれが分らないはずはありません . “T h er e is no
reason for h im not to u nderstand th is.” “It is lik ely th a t he
und erstan ds th is.”
-w d 例 “ ない方がいい it is b etter not to d o . . . , e.g. iTjyo
/ 々⑽似• ぎ “ ぬ似夕a 今日は行かない方がいいですよ • “It’s bet-
ter n ot to g o tod ay .”
-w似• 々0切0バ m•ないかわりに in stea d of, e.g. Nihon e ikanai kawari
ni Furansu e i k i m a s u . 日本へ行かないかわりにフランスへ行きます .
“In stead of g o in g to Japan, I’ll g o to F ran ce.”
-w似• 如か切 0 w似• ないことはない It’s not th a t I don ’t • • • , e .g • 五/抑
o minai koto wa arimasen ga amari minai no desu• 映画を見ない
ことはありませんがあま（
余）り見ないのです • “It:’s not th a t 1 don’t
see m o v ies; I don’t se e th e m v er y o fte n .”
俯從 m• ない前に =-nai uchi ni b e f o r e . . . , e.g. Ame ga
w a e m• ぬ々知肢 z s / z J . 雨が降らない前にでかけましょう .
“B efore it rains, le t’s g o ou t.”
Note: The Japanese expression is negative, but the English idea is
positive. This expression is used only when the speaker wishes
the verb before - n a i m a e n i not to occur until he finishes the
action after - n a i m a e n i ， in order to avoid inconvenience, (cf.
m a e n i t p. 67)
-nai nara if not, e.g. Anata ga ikanai nara watakusm

mo ik im a s e n . あなたが行かないなら私も行きません • “If you don’t
go, I w o n ’t go eith er.”
-w似• s/w.. . . w似• ないし … ない not on ly does (he) n o t . . . , (he) d oes not
either, e.g. Yamamoto-san mo konai shi Kimura-san mo konai
ぬ似 • 山本さんも来ないし木村さんも来ないです . “No t o n ly is Mr.
Y am am oto not com in g , Mr. K im u ra isn ’t co m in g eith er.”
-nai to たいと u n l e s s . . . , if n o t . . . , e.g. wo 似 a k 外々w
okinai to shichi-ji no kisha ni maniaimasen yo• 明 B の朝竿く起き
ないと七時の汽車に間に合いませんよ • “U n less y 〇 u g e t up early t〇 -
m orrow m orning, yo u w o n ’t be on tim e fo r th e se v en -o ’clock
train .”
•似 / 如々哎か ⑽ ポないとは限らない it is not im possible, it m ay
he • • • ，e.g. Sonna koto mo okoranai to wa Ragmmcn• そんな專もお
42 -nai uchi ni Vi-following Expressions
こらないとは限らない • “It m a y b e th a t su ch a th in g cou ld hap-

p en too.”
•nai uchi ni こ =-nai mae ni b efore . . . , e.g. Samuku nara-
nai uchi ni niwa o kirei ni shinakereba narim asen. 寒くならない
内に庭をきれぃ ( 綺麗 ) にしなければなりません • “B efore it g e ts cold,
w e h ave to clea n up th e yard .”
•nai wake wa (ga) nai な\ 、わ竹はな、ヽ there is no reason not to
. . . , e.g. Ano hito ga ikanai wake wa nai desu y o . あの人が行
かないわけはないですよ• “T here is no reason for him not to go,
you know.”
•似 / 切0 知ぬ w；0 w a :/ ないわけではない it d o esn ’t m ean th a t I don，t
• • • , e.g. Nihongo ga hanasenai wake de wa nai ga, amari umaku
wa hanasem asen. 日本語が話せないわけではないが，あまりうま（旨）
くは話せません • “It d o esn ’t m ean th a t I ca n ’t sp eak Jap anese;
but I ca n ’t sp ea k it too w ell.”
-w似• 浓 0知《/ [ > 幻 • ないわけにはいかない can’t very well not
do something, e.g. Tetsudawanai wake ni wa ikimasen deshita.
手伝わないわけにはいきませんでした . “I couldn’t very well not
help them .”
夕o « 名な V、ように in order not to, e.g. Gakko ni okurenai yd
m• み砂a 知 Mz•桃似 w• 学校に遅れないように早く起きます • “I g e t up
ea rly in order not to be late fo r sch oo l.”
-nakatta っャこ (p erfectiv e of nai)
-nakattara ナ&かつ t こb (n e g a tiv e con d itional) if not , e.g. Kyd
owaranakattara md ososugimasu yo• 今 B 終ら f t かつナこらもう、遅•すぎ
ますよ • “If y o u don’t fin ish it tod ay, it w ill b e to o la te.”
-wa 知 ;^ ろ0 なければ =_nakattara
-wa知 r め 0 f 知 wa:/ なければぃけなぃ：yaw m u st (often u sed w ith th e
secon d person), e.g. Yoku benkyd shinakereba ikemasen y o . よく
勉強しなければいけませんよ • “Y ou m u st stu d y h a rd !” S e e p. 35
for m ore exam p les.
なければならない/ m u st (often used w ith th e
first and th ird person), e.g., Ashita shiken ga aru karay kyd ben
kyd shinakereba n a rim a se n 明日試験があるから今日勉強しなければ
なりません • “B e ca u se I h a v e a te s t tom orrow , I h a v e to stu d y
hard tod ay.” S e e pp. 35-36 fo r m ore exam p les.
•nakute 卞:乂て because n o t , e.g. Chikagoro gohan ga taberare-
nakute komatte im a s u . 近頃ごはん ( 御飯 )が食べられなくて困ってい
ます. “Lately I haven’t been able to eat, and I am having
V^following Expressions reru 43
trouble (because of it).”

•nakute mo ナこくて％ even if you don’t •••, e.g. Neko wa nannichi-
kan mo tabenakute mo shinanai so desu. 猫は何日間も食べなくて
も死なないそうです • “I heard that cats won’t die, even if they
don’t eat for m any days.”
•nakute mo ii なくてもいい need not, do not have to, e.g. 5^wひ
hon wa yomanakute mo ii d e s u . その本は読まなくてもいいです .
“You don’t have to read th at book•” See pp. 36-37 for more ex
amples.
•nakuto mo 卞s：くとも =-nakute mo
-w必0 w似tzw似• ねばならない =-nakereba naranai (-neba is the con-
ditional form of nu)
ぬ（negative suffix) frequently contracted to -w as in
•rareru られる this form is attached to vowel-stem verbs, e.g.
化知rawrw, and to the irregular verb 来る々 and has
three separate functions. It will generally be clear from the
context which m eaning is intended.
1 . sign of passive, e.g. Watakushi wa kyo haha ni shikarare-
• 私は今日母に叱られました • “I was scolded by my
m other today (and I suffered from In Japanese pas
sive voice, the subject often suffers from the action
expressed by the passive verb. T he agent which takes
“by” in English is expressed by the particle m’ in Japanese
(See p . 122).
Note: a. Directional verbs are not made into passive forms.
b. Intransitive verbs can be made into passive forms in Japanese.
Kyd isogashii no ni tomodachi ni korarete komatta. 今日忙
しいのに友達に来られて困った . “I was busy today, but my
friend came and I had trouble.”
2. as an honorific, e.g. Sensei ga taberaremashita. 先生が食べ
られました • “T he teacher ate it.” （See pp. 217-23)
3. as a potential, e.g. Anata wa Nihon no tabemono ga tabe-
raremasu ka. あなたは日本の食物が食べられますか. “Can
you eat Japanese food?”
•rerw れる this form is attached to consonant-stem verbs, e.g.
and to the irregular verbswrw ,する sflrerM， and lias two
separate functions.
44 -saserareru Vi-following Expressions
1 . sig n of p a ssiv e, e.g. Minna ni warawaremashita. 皆に笑わ

れました . “I w a s lau gh ed at by ev ery b o d y .”
2. as an honorinc, e.g. Sensei ga warawaremashita. 先生が笑
われました . “T h e tea ch er lau gh ed (or sm iled ).”
Note: A consonant-stem verb has a different potential form, e.g. wa-
raeru ucan laugh,H yomeru Kcan read,w kakeru ucan write/* etc.
The irregular verb su m has a potential form, dekiru Mcan do.M
The verb iku has two potential forms, ikeru (regular) and ika-
reru (irregular), ucan go/* both commonly used. Ikareru, besides
being used as the potential form, has a slang usage, meaning
“be touched in the head，” e.g. Aitsu wa konogoro mattaku ika-
ぴか/ na• あいつはこの（此 ) 頃全くいかれているな . “Something
is really wrong with that guy(,s head) lately.w
The verb miru has two potential torms, mieru (irregular), and
mirareru (passive form): the former means Kis visible,w and is
more commonly used. e.g. Kono mado kara Fuji-san ga mie-
騰似 . この窓から富士山が見えます . “Mt. Fuji is visible (We can
see Mt. Fuji) from this window.” Mirareru^ besides being used
as the potential form, has a slang usage, meaning “can bear
to look at,w e.g. Kare no kaita e wa mazukute totemo mirareta
mono ja nai• 彼のかいた絵はまずくてとても見られたものじゃない .
“His painting is so bad that you just can’t look at it.”
The verb kiku has two potential forms, kikeru (regular) and
々/々沉 (irregular); the latter means “is audible.” e.g. Nihonjin
no oku wa eru to dru no chigai ga kikem asen. 日本人の多くはェ
ルとアールの違いが聞けません • “Many Japanese cannot hear the
difference between “1” and “r.” Ii ongaku ga 々沉桃 • いい音
楽が聞こえます a “ Good music is audible.” “I can hear good
music.”
-saserareru させられる = ( causat i ve- passi ve) v o w el-stem
verb, tsuzukesaserareru {tsuzukesasareru). It h a s tw o fu n ctio n s:
1 . is cau sed (forced) to, e.g. Tsumaranai shigoto o tsuzukesase-
rarem ashita. つまらない仕事を続けさせられました . “I w as
fo rced to co n tin u e a b o rin g job.”
2. h igh form of honorific, e.g. Heika ga sore o tsuzukesaserareta.
陛下がそれを続けさせられた . “H is M ajesty d eig n ed to co n tin u e
it.” （ S e e p. 218)
させる (cau sative), both fo rm s are attached to
tabesaseru (tabesasu)t m a k e s on e d o , e.g.
v o w el-stem verb,
Kodomo ni gohan o tabesasemashita. 子供にごはん（御飯）を食べさ
せました . “I m ade m y child ea t,” or “I fed m y ch ild .”
Vi-following Expressions •sete ageru 45
似忍な 0飲 r w させて上げる = - s 似み/ か 0炊 rw -sas^ か fo rm is m ore

refined and preferred. A llo w so m eo n e to do so m eth in g , e.g. fomo-
dachi ni tsuzukesasete agemashita• 友逢 K■
統けさせて上 y f ましすこ.
“I allow ed m y frien d to co n tin u e.”
ネ-sasete itadaku させ X いた t i く = -s o ：s み / か仏 be p erm itted to
do som eth in g, e.g. Oishii mono o tabesasete itadakimashita• お、、
しいものを食べさせていただきました. “ I w a s p erm itted to ea t th e
ta s ty food.”
*-sasete kudasam させて ~f さる = - 從 shY 衫ふ allo w m e to do
so m eth in g , e.g. Sensei ga kurabesasete kudasaimashita• 失i电が較
ベさせて下さいました . “ M y tea c h e r allow ed m e to com p are.”
ネ-sasete
kureru させてくれる = - 似 s/^•か々 ⑽ m ea n in g sa m e as
shove，e.g. Chichi ga sakuban dekakesasete kuremashita• 父が昨
晚出か (掛 ) けさせてくれました • “M y fa th er allo w ed m e to g o out
last n ig h t.”
*-5仍设かさせてもら（貰）う = - 似 s/w•か m ea n in g sa m e
a s -sasete itadaku, e.g. Mado o akesasete moratte n desu ka. 窓
を開けさせてもらっていいですか. “A m I p erm itted to (m ay I)
open tn e w in d o w rn
*-似 s 沒か：させてやる =-sashite yaru m ea n in g sa m e as -sasete
ageru, e.g. Kodomo ni okashi o tabesasete yarimashita. 子供にお
菓子を食べさせてやりました• allow ed m y ch ild to ea t can d y.”
•從 rar び m せられる =-sareru ca u sa tiv e-p a ssiv e, th e se form s, a t
tach ed to con son an t-stem verb, yomaserareru (yomasareru), h a v e
tw o fu n ctio n s:
1 . is cau sed (forced) to, e.g. Tsumaranai hon o yomasaremashita.
つまらない本を読まされました• “I w a s fo rc ed to read an
u n in te re stin g b ook.”
2. h ig h fo rm of honorific, e.g. Heika ga sore o yomaserareta.
陛下がそれを読ませられた• “H is M a jesty read it.” （ S ee p.
218)
-從 m せる（-似）（
cau sative), th e se fo rm s a tta ch ed to co n so n a n t-stem
verb, yomaseru (yomasu), e.g. Imoto ni hon o yomasemashita.
妹に本を読ませました • “I m ad e m y y o u n g er sis te r read a book.”
*-從な a：
辟 r w せて上げるか《炊 rw -沉纶 fo rm is m ore refined *
* For a more detailed explanation on the use of causative verb な-form
plus directional verbs, see pp. 28-29.

46 -sete itadaku Vi-following Expressions
and preferred. A llo w so m eo n e to do so m eth in g , e.g . Kono hon

o yomasete a g e m a s u . この本を読ませて上げます . “I’ll a llo w yo u
to read th is oook.”
ネ-sete itadaku せてい于こf i く = -shite itadaku be p erm itted to do
so m eth in g , e.g. Sensei ni ikasete itadakim ashita. 先生に行かせて
いただきました • “I w a s p erm itted to g o by m y tea ch er.”
ネ-sete kudasaru せて飞さる = -shite kudasaru a llo w m e to do
so m eth in g , e.g. Sensei ga watakushi ni kakasete kudasaimashita.
先生が私に書かせて下さいました. “My tea c h e r allo w ed me to
w rite .”
*-沉な々 wwrw せてくれる =-shite kureru m ea n in g sa m e a s above,
e.g. Ototo ga watakusni ni hon o tsukawasete kuremashita. 弟
が私に本を使わせてくれました • “M y y o u n g er brother allo w ed m e
to u se h is b ook.”
*-沉かせてもら（
貰）う = -sみ / か m ea n in g sa m e as -沉な
itadaku，e.g. Taro ni norasete moraimashita. 太郎に乗らせてもら
いました . “I w a s p erm itted by T a r6 to ride.”
*-沉なツ arw せてやる = -shite yaru m ea n in g sa m e as -sete agerut
e.g. Taro ni yomasete yarimashita. 太郎に読ませてやりました .
“I allo w ed TarO to read.”
-zaru o enai ざるを得ない ca n n o t h e l p . . . in g, e.g. Okorazaru o
怒らざるを得なかった . “I cou ld n ’t help b ein g an g ry .”
-zu - f an oth er n e g a tiv e en d in g, th e sa m e as -w瓜.
力Vwc/ ずじま L、（仕舞） end up w ith o u t. . . in g, e.g. Kyd wa amari
isogashikute ichinichi-ju tabezu jim ai d a t t a . 今日はあま（余）り忙
しくて一日中食べずじまいだった . “I w a s so b u sy all day to d a y th at
I had no tim e to ea t (I en d ed up w ith o u t ea tin g ).”
•zu ni =nai de w i t h o u t i n g , e.g. Gohan o tabezu ni nete

m a s w . ごはん (御飯）を食べずに寝ています • “H e is sle e p in g w ithou t
h a v in g ea te n d inn er.”
m. 〇幻ずにお（
措）かない can n ot help but t o , e.g.
Kono hon wa dokusha o miryo sezu ni wa o k a n a i. この本は読者
を魅了せずにはおかない • “T h is book can n ot h elp but fa scin a te th e
reader.”
•zu shite ずして =-zu ni=nai de*
* For a more detailed explanation on the use of causative verb /e-form
plus directional verbs, see pp. 28-29.
V2-following Expressions -ddshi 47
II. Expressions which follow the Second Base 連用形〈れんようけい〉

of the verb. Som e of th e w ord s listed b elo w m a y also be used
a s independent verbs.
-<2辟上がる（
ガゴ^sW， se e pp. 21-24)
1 . . . . up, e.g. Tachiagarim ashita. 立上がりました • “I stood up.”
2. finish, e.g. 如w 辦沿 mVw似 /z仏 z . 作文が書き上がり
ました • “T h e com p osition is finished.”
上げる（ to/JsA f， se e pp. 21-24)
1 . up, e.g. Bdto o mizusoko kara hikiagemashita, ボー V を水底か
らひき上げました • “W e pulled th e boat up out of th e w ater.”
2. finish … in g ，e.g. Sono shigoto o shiagem ashita. その仕事を
仕上げました • “I finished d oin g th at w ork .”
• 似あさ（
漁）る do so m eth in g in a frenzy, e.g. iTjyd iTflwぬぬ
厶 ⑽ 0 如 /似似似み /如. 今日神田で本を買いあさりました. “Today
I b ought books in a tre n z y in Kanda.,>
か似o k sw お V 2 遊ばす h ig h form of honorific, e.g. O似 a仰
み仍お坐り遊ばしました • “S he sa t d ow n .”
-か ^ば（
栄）え show n (heard) to advantage, e.g. Ano tenrankai wa
ぬ e 卵化 • あの展覧会は見栄えがした • “T h at exh ib ition w as
m uch to look at.” 沿 •々み ⑽ A m 似 ⑽ 取聞き栄えのしない音
楽 “m usic not p leasin g to h ear”
ぬお V2 だ（ colloqu ial h on orific) =〇 V 2 m. 例々々6
no oshigoto mo oari da shi，kodomo-san mo oari da kara oisogashii
d 似 /^•あなたは学校のお仕事もおありだし子供さんもおありだからお
忙しぃでしょう . “Perhaps you are busy, since you not only have
your schoolwork, but you nave children, too.”
- d t o w 出す
1 . . . . 0 u t , e.g. Os/パc t e 如 • 押し出します • “I push it out.”
2. s t a r t . . . in g [in v o lu n ta r ily ], e.g. A rukidashim ashita. 歩き也
しました • “I started w a lk in g .”
Note: The latter usage is the more common.
-de ga aru でがある be su bstan tial, e.g. Kono hon wa yomide ga
a r im a s u . この本は読みでがあります • “It ta k es one a l o n g tim e to
read th is book throu gh .”
•ddshi どうし keep ••• ing, e.g. Asa kara ban made kyd wa tachi-
必 s M ゴぬか7a •朝から晚まで今日は立ちどうしでした • “T od ay I kept
stan d in g from m o rn in g till night.**
48 -enai V2-following Expressions
ぬ• え（
得）ない is not possible ，e.g. Sonna koto wa a rien a i. そん
な事は有り得ない. “Such a thing can’t be possible.” positive of
•enaiy urut p. 59.
•gachi がち tend to • • • ，e.g. Amari atsui no de namakegachi ni
n a r im a s u . あま（余）り暑いので怠けがちになります . “Be caus e it is
too hot, w e ten d to g e t lazy.”
•奴 / 甲斐 w o r t h . . . in g ，e.g. Ano ko wa narC de mo yoku oboeru
如 • 辦 arw •あの子は何でもよく覚えるから教え甲斐があ
る• “Because th a t child can learn everything well, it is worth
teaching him.”
-卵 t o • がた (難）い difficult t o = m •々如• （
-砂 :/瓜• is m ore literary)
•供げ seeming condition of others, e.g. Totemo imi arige na kao
o shite watakushi o m im a sh ita . とても意味ありげな顔をして私を見
ました • “He looked at me w ith a face th at seemed to hold some
meaning.”
•hajinteru 始める start . . . ing, e.g. Tabehajimemasu. 食べ始めます .
“W e start ea tin g .”
•katasu荣ナこす finish，" . wp ，e.g. Okane o sukkari tsukaihatashitcii
お金をすっかり使い果たした • “I u sed up all m y m o n ey .”
-hateru 吳てる en d up, be finished, e.g. Kyo wa isogashikute
tsukarehatete shimaimashita. 今日は忙しくて疲れ果ててしまいまし
た . “I w a s so b u sy th at I w a s ex h a u ste d .”
o-ttasu ^ V2 gC 'f h um ble form , e.g. Odenwa o okake itashimashita.
お電話をおかけ致しました • “I called y ou .” （ S ee p. 218)
-kaest{ 返す r e - . . . in g, do again , e.g.Yomikaeshimashita.読みか
えしました • “I read it a gain .” Iikaesu 言いかえす . “talk b a ck .”
Note: kaesu means to return (tadoshi,see pp. 21-24), (cf. V2 naosu, p. 50).
-kakeru る s t a r t . . . i n g [but soon in terrup ted], e.g. Benkyo
shikaketa tokoro e tomodachi ga k im a sh ita . 勉強しかけたところへ
友達が来ました • “W h en I started stu d yin g, m y friend ca m e.”
-々flw w w 兼ねる be hard to, e.g. 從 m a s w 沿2 •.•申し兼ねま
すが … “It’s hard to say, but … ”
•kata 卞 m anner ， w ay, how to, e.g. Ano hito no Nihongo no
hanashikata wa sukoshi okashii desu. あの人の日本語の話し方は少
しおかしいです • “H is w a y of sp ea k in g Japanese is a little fu n n y .”
•Sみ/々が a：辦《の• . 仕方がない “N o th in g can be done about it.” “It
can’t b e h elped.” (cf. V 2 yd, p. 60)
V2-following Expressions -nagara 49
-々か谷切れる run out of, e.g. Kino uridashita no nit mo urikire-

te shimaimashita. 昨日売り出したのに，もう売り切れてしまいまし
た . aAl t h o u g h th e y ju st sta rted se llin g it y este rd a y , it is already-
sold ou t.},
-kiru 会る be th rou gh , co m p letely , e.g. Kyo wa tchimchi-ju iso-
gashikute tsukarekitte shimaimashita. 今日は一 B 中 1 くて '腹h き
ってしまいました . “ I w a s so b u sy all day to d a y th a t I am n ow
a ll tired ou t.”
込む
1 . in, in to, e.g. Hon ni kakikom im ashita. 本に書き込みました .
“I w ro te in th e book.” Puru ni tobikomimashita. プ _ ルに
飛び込みました • “I jum ped in to th e p ool.”
2. to s e ttle firm ly in th e sta te o f p reced in g V 2, e.g. Kare wa
soko ni suw arikonda. 彼はそこに坐り込んだ . “ H e sa t d ow n
th e re (and did not m o v e).”
o-kudasai V2 p o lite im p era tiv e, e.g. Onomi k u d a s a i. お
飲み下さい • “P le a se d rin k .”
ゴ從お V 2 下さいませ m ore p olite im p e ra tiv e th a n above.
O 如知々 wぬ似/桃仍设 • おかけ下さいませ “W ou ld yo u p lea se sit
d o w n .”
-w 仍 w ます (p olite suffix), s e e p . 13. e.g., I k im a s u . 行きます • “I
w ill g o .”
- m o . . . mo sw n / も • " もする do b oth . . . a n d . e.g. Ano hito wa
Nihongo o yomi mo kaki mo shimasu• あの尺は H本語を読みも售
きもします • “H e read s Jap an ese and w r ite s it as w e ll.”
•mo shinai 也しな \/、 d on’t e v e n do, e.g. Mi mo sh in a k a tta . 見も
しなかった • “S h e d id n ’t e v e n look at it.”
-w o swr 以 0 V 2 肢？s 狀 m もすれば V 2 もする do b o t h . . . a n d . . . ， not
o n ly . . . but a lso • • • , e.g . Ano hito wa yoku tabe mo sureba nomi
mo s h im a s u . あの人はよく食べもすれば飲みもします • “H e not o n ly
e a ts a lot, b u t d rin k s a lot, to o .”
-mono 物 th in g , e.g. 食物 ‘‘th in g to e a t,” “fo o d ”
-nagara ヤ【が b sim u lta n e o u s sta te or actio n o f th e sa m e person
(cf. V 3 aiday p. 60)
1 . whi l e, e.g. Rajio o kikinagara tabako o n o m im a s u . ラジオを
聞きながらタバコ（
煙草）をのみます • “W h ile I am lis te n in g to
th e radio, I sm o k e .”
50 -naosu V2-following Expressions
2. though, e.g. Shitte inagara nani mo iimascn dcshita. 知って

ぃながら何も言ぃませんでした• “Although he knew, he didn’t
tell me anything.”
•naosu 直す r e - . . . , e.g. Kakinaoshimasu. 書き直します • “I’ll re-
w rite it.” {naosu m eans {<to c o r r e c t ,c f . V2 kaesu, p. 48)
償れる get used t o . . . ing, e.g. Kakinareru to kanji mo
，
ツ仍仍み/々w wtzr/masw• 書きなれると漢字も易しくなります . “W hen
you get used to w riting, Kanji gets e a s y ,1〇〇.,}
似似 •なさい im perative, e.g. 似• • 書きなさい . “W rite.”
O ften attach honorific o before th e verb, Oyominasai. お読みな
さぃ • “R ead!”
-w/ に + verb of motion, indicates purpose, e.g. Liga o mi ni iki-
• 映画を見に行きましょう . “ L et’s go to see the movie.”
•ui kakaru s t a r t . . . ing, [w ith some effort] e.g. Rare wa
sassoku hahaoya o nagusame ni kakatta. 彼は早速母親を慰めにか
力、った . “ He sta rte d com forting his m other rig h t away.”
o-m. お V2 になる honorific form . e.g. Sensei ga okaki ni nari-
桃仍ゐ加 •先生がお書きになりました . “ T eacher w rote.” （See p. 218)
にく ( 難 )い difficult to, e.g. Kono hon wa yomimkui desu.
この本は読みにくいです. “T his book is difficult to read.” jyow/-
对 / 々奶’ /2洲読みにくい本 “&130〇1{：\ \ ^ ( ：
1118(1而 (：
1111；1；
0 此 3丄” （
0?-
posite of -yasm, p. 60)
-otosu fail to, e.g. Machigai o miotoshimashita. 間違いを見落
しました• “I failed to see th e m istakes.”
終る finish . . . i n g ，e.g. / / ⑽ ;a r w . 言い終る . “ I finish say-
ing.” Though th e verb owaru is a jidoshi (p. 23), as a suffix it is
used like a taddshi.
-505 swrめ a さえすれ em phatic, if only, e.g. Okane ga ari sae
sureba kotoshi Nihon e iku n’ desu ga • • . お金があ >りさえす ]
今年日本へ行くんですが •• • aIf only I had money, I would go to
Japan th is year, b u t . . . n
•shidai 、
次第 as soon as, e.g. Tabeshidai ik im a s h o .食べ次第行き
ましょう . “ Le1:’s go as soon as we finish eating.”
-sd da そうャと， -sd na そう于s： 100k as if it will (seems imminent),
e.g. Arne ga fu r iso d e s u . 雨が降りそうです • “It looks like rain.”
A m e ga furiso na soramoyd desu. 雨が降りそうな空模様です .
“T he sky looks like it will rain .”
V2-following Expressions -ta{-da)bakari ni 51
-sd mo nai そうも ts：、、 = -s o ni nai it lo o k s a s if one w o n ’t e v e n

d o . • • ， e.g. Ano hito wa kyd kisd mo arimasen. あの入ぬ今 H朱
そうもありません • “I t lo o k s a s if h e w o n ’t e v e n c o m e to d a y .”
-sd ni naru そうに ts：る almost ••• ， e.g. Kesa puru de oboreso ni
n a rim ashita. 今朝プールで溺れそうになりました • “T h is m o rn in g I
a lm o s t d ro w n e a in th e pool.”
-sobireru そびれる fa il to •••， lo se a c h a n c e to •••， e.g . Daiji na
koto o iisobiremashita.大事な事を言いそびれました • “I m isse d a
c h a n c e to s a y a n im p o rta n t th in g .”
-sokonau 損 fs ：う fa il to d o . . . ， e.g . Koen o kikisokonatta. 講演を
聞き損った . “I m issed h e a rin g th e le c tu r e .”
-sugiru 過ぎる o v e r - •••，e.g . Kind tabesugim ashita. 昨日食べすぎ
ました . “I o v e r a te y e ste rd a y .”
-sm沿V w 々/r似• 辦す (過）ぎるきらい (嫌 ) がある th e r e is a te n -
d e n cy to o v e r - . . . , e.g . Ano hito wa hanasmsugiru kirai ga aru.
“S h e h a s te n d e n c y to t a lk to o m u c h .” あの人は話しすぎるきらい
がある.
•ta {-da) ャこ in fo r m a l p e r fe c tiv e en d in g , e.g . Hon o y o n d a . 本を
読んだ • “I re a d a b o o k .” Nihongo de sakubun o k a i t a . 日本語で
作文を書いた. “I w ro te a c o m p o sitio n in Ja p a n e s e .” Ta-iorm is
a lso used a s a n o u n m o d ifier, e.g . 々/wJ ぎa 昨日見た映画
“th e m o v ie th a t I sa w y e s te rd a y .”
N o te : F or fo rm a tio n o f ta {d a )-io rm , se e p p . 1 6 -1 8 ； w h en to u s e ta-
io r m , se e N o u n M odifier, p p .1 8 9 -1 9 0 ；in form al le v e l,p p . 215-16.
-ta (-da) ato de た後で after" .ing ， e.g. Gohan o tabeta ato de
ぬ如知 m c s / z J . ごはん (御飯 ) を食べた後で出か (掛 ) けましょう • “L e t ’s
g o ou t a ft e r e a tin g d in n e r.” N o te th e u se o f ^ - f o r m b e fo r e ato
de, e v e n if th e tim e re fe rre d to is th e fu tu r e .
-ta [-da) baai ▽ wa']于こ場合 = イa r a c o n d itio n a l, if， in c a s e •••，e.g.
Ame ga futta baai wa ik im a s e n . 雨が降った場合は行きません • “If
it r a in s , w e w o n ’t g o .” F o r V 3 baai, p. 60.
•ta {-da) bakari すこ h a s ju s t, e ,g . Ima kita bakari d e s u . 今
来たばかりです . “ I h a v e ju s t co m e now .” F o r V 3 bakari, p. 60.
-ta {-da) bakari ni ヤこ] j us t b e c a u se , e .g . Byoki datta bakari
ni nakayoshi no tomodachi no kekkonshiki ni deraremasen deshita.
病気だったばかりに仲良しの友達の結婚式に出られませんでした.
Uju s t b e c a u s e I w a s i l l , I co u ld n ^ a tte n d m y good frie n d 's w ed
d in g ."
52 •ta{-da) ga saigo V2-foll〇wing Expressi ons
•ta [-dd) ga saigo すこが最'後 = -か， 0 似 /卵 o n c e you d o . ••, e.g.

ga saigo, kaette k im a s e n . 行ったが最後帰って来ません . “On c e he
g o es, h e ’ll n e v e r co m e b a c k .”
•ta irda) k m ナこきり ju s t d i d a n d . . . (im p lie s fin a lity ) e.g .
o karita kiri mada kaesanai. お金を借りたきりまだ返さない . “H e
ju s t b o rro w ed m o n ey and h a s n o t re tu rn e d it y e t.”
-ta {-da) koto ga aru すここヒ t *、ある e x p e rie n c e up to th e p re s e n t,
e.g . Nihon ni itta koto ga arimasu ka. 日本に行ったことがありま
すか . “ H av e yo u e v e r b e e n to Ja p a n ? ” F o r V 3 koto ga arut p. 66.
•ta {-da) koto ga atta 于こことがあっすこ p a st e x p e rie n c e , e.g . Sore
made Nihon ni itta koto ga arimasen d e s h ita . それまで日本に行っ
たことがありませんでした . “ U n til th e n I h ad n e v e r b e e n to Ja p a n ノ
F o r V 3 koto ga attaf p. 66.
-ta {-da、 koto ni suru ここヒ K する a ssu m e , e.g . Koko ni ita koto
ni shimashd. ここにいたことにしましょう . “L e t ’s a ssu m e th a t w e
w e re h e r e .” F o r V 3 koto ni suruf p. 66.
(-ぬ）たまま（儘） a s it is, e.g. Omotta mama o itte kuda-
似 /•思ったままを言って下さい • “P le a s e te ll m e ju s t a s you t h in k .”
-ta {-dd) mono da 于こ％ (Dfi h a b itu a l o c c u r r e n c e in th e p ast, e.g.
Chiisai toki watakusm wa yoku ototo to kenka shita mono desu.
小さい時私はよく弟とけんか (喧嘩）したものです . “I o fte n u sed to
fig h t w ith m y little b ro th e r w h e n I w as lit t le .” F o r V 3 mono
da, se e p. 68.
イa (-ゴa) M た覚えがある re m e m b e r th a t •••, e.g . S o 簡 0 々〇/ひ
o yonda oboe wa a r im a s e n , そんなことを読んだ覚えはありません .
“I d on’t re m e m b e r if I re a d ab o u t s u c h a th in g .”
-ta {-dd) tameshi ga {wd) nai ャこゆ\ ゼ、于以ヽ h a v e n e v e r . . . , e.g . Ano

hito wa okotta tameshi ga arimasen• あの人 H 怒っナこ例がありません •
“H e h a s n e v e r b e e n m ad .”
-ta {-da) tokoro [ _ d a ] たところ = -/ a (-ぬ）か2：々狀/ h a v e ju s t, e.g.

Im a kita tokoro d e s u , 今来たところです . “ I h a v e ju s t c o m e .” F o r
V 3 tokoro, pp. 7 7 -7 8 . tokoro em p h asizes th e situ a tio n , w h ile
bakari e m p h a siz es th e tim e .
•ta {•da'} tokoro de 于こヒこらで e v e n th o u g h , e.g. Yonda tokoro de
wakaranai desho. 読んだところで分らないでしょう . “E v e n if h e
re a d s it, h e w ill n o t u n d e rsta n d i t .”
-ta {-da、 tokoro ga ヤこところが =-ta {-dd) ga w h en (o fte n th e fo l

V2-following Expressions -tara {-dara) 53
low in g c la u se e x p re sse s s o m e th in g c o n tra ry to n o rm al e x p e c ta

tio n s), e.g. Osashimi o tabeta tokoro ga oishii deshita. おさしみ
を食べたところがおいしいでした • “W h e n I a te raw fish, it ta ste d
good— to m y s u rp rise .”
イ0 (■ゴa ) むw m o n .〔ぬ〕たつも（
積）り I am u n d er th e im p ressio n th a t
. . . , e.g. Tegami o dashita tsumori desu g a . . . 手紙を出したつも
りですが ••• aI am u n d er th e im p ressio n th a t I m ailed th e le tte r,
but. . . v F o r V 3 tsumori, p. 78.
-ta {-da) ue de a fte r . . . m g, upon . . . m g, e.g. Hanashita ue
de k im e m a s h d . 話した上で決めましょう . “L e t ’s d ecid e a fte r t a lk
in g it o v e r.”
-tagaru w ish o f so m eo n e e lse o th e r th a n th e sp e a k er, w an t
to , e.g. Kodomo wa itsu mo okashi o tabetagarimasu. 子供はい
つ (何時）もお菓子を食べたがります • “C h ild ren a re alw ay s w a n tin g
to e a t ca n d ie s.”
イ ^たい d esid erativ e, w an t t o . e.g. /々//似•ぬ抓. 行きたいです•
“I w an t to g o .”
N o te : -ta i c o n ju g a tes as an a d je c tiv e ； ta k u for k u -io r m , takereba for

con d ition al, ta ka tta for p erfective, -tai can n ot b e u sed as an
ind ep en d en t word. It is alw ays u sed as a verb suffix, cf. hoshii,
p . 107.
-takute ナこくて仏 fo rm of
-takute tamaranai すこくてt こ' See -kute tamaranai, s e e p. 85.

イ《給え a n im p e ra tiv e su ffix used by m en on a frie n d ly lev el
in m o d ern Ja p a n e se , e.g. Ano hon o y o m ita m a e . あの本を読み給
え. “ R ead th a t b o o k .”
-tara {-dara) f c b collo q u ial co n d itio n al, if, w h en , e.g. Asnita ame
ga futtara ik im a s e n . 明日雨が降ったら行きません . “I f it ra in s
to m o rro w , I w on’t g o .” F o r m o re d etails on co n d itio n als, see pp.
29-32.
(in te rro g a tiv e w o r d )-k r a (dflrめ “ 々0 如0々0，0衫0/ たらいいかわか（

分）
らない• = (in te rro g a tiv e ) V m u 々似^对仍 don’t know (w h a t，
e tc .) to d o , e.g. Do shitara ii ka w a k a r a n a i. どうしたらいい
かわからない. “I don’t kn o w w h at to do.” A ? 知？衫 // 如
々似 • どこ（何処 )へ行ったらいいかわからない . “I don’t k n o w
w h ere to g o .”
54 イara (-ぬ m) sfl如 V2-following Expressions
-tara (-dara) saigo ナこら最後 = -ta {-da) g a saigo

•tari (-dari ) すこり
1. wi t h tw o (o r m ore) tari, a c tio n in a lte rn a tio n , now d oing th is,
now d oing th a t, e.g. K in d ason dari benkyd sh itari shim a-
土如 . 昨日遊んだり勉強したりしました . “Y e s te rd a y I played
and stu d ied .”
N o te : L ast ta r i {dari) is u su ally follow ed b y th e verb su r u , w h ich it

se lf d oes not m ean an yth in g.
2. one tari, re p re s e n ta tiv e o r ty p ic a l a ctio n s, do su ch th in g s as

. . . , e.g. Natsu wa umi ni oyogi ni ittari s h im a s u . 夏をt 海
に泳ぎに行ったりします . “ Du r i n g th e su m m e r w e do su ch
th in g s a s go to th e se a sh o re to sw im .”
Note: tan {dari) is usually followed by the verb suru.
-te (-d e) て fo r th e fo rm a tio n o f か-fo rm , s e e p p . 16-18. 7^ -fo rm

h as no te n se o f its o w n ; it u su ally fo llow s th e te n se o f th e fin al verb .
1 . c o n ju n c tio n fo r seq u en ce o f a ctio n s, and, e.g. Toshokan ni
椒み ⑽ 物如 • 図書館に行って勉強しました • “W e
w e n t to th e lib ra ry , and stu d ied .”
2. c o n ju n c tio n fo r sim u lta n e o u s a ctio n s, w h ile, e.g. Hon o yonde
/桃似本を読んで笑っています . “He is la u g h in g
w h ile re a d in g .”
3. how tn e a c tio n of th e m ain v e rb s is p erfo rm ed , e.g. Densha
ni notte ikim a sh ita . 電車に乗って行きました . “I w e n t by
(rid in g a) tr a in .” Aruite gakkd ni ikimasu. 歩、、て令狡 ](c
行きます • “W e go to sch o o l on fo o t.”
4. e.g. Koko wa ichinen-
b eca u se , th e c a u se o f th e m a in v erb ,
jii atatakakute totemo sumiyasui d e s u . ここは一年中暖かく
てとても住みやすいです . “ B e c a u s e th is p lace is w arm all
y e a r, it is v e ry e a sy to liv e h e r e .), T h is u sag e is sim ila r
to th e E n g lis h p a rticip ia l p h rase, uBeing warm, it is an
e a sy p la ce fo r people to liv e .”
5. sentence-ending in colloquial women’s s p e e c h , ⑴ Mild im
p e rativ e , e.g. ルゐ加々办（似 ).明日来て • “C om e to m orrow ,
O K ?^ (2) I u n d erstan d t h a t . . . , e.g. Ano kata mo Osaka
e irasshatta n f desutte. ul h eard th a t sh e h as alread y gone
to O sa k a .” O th e r th a n th is usage, /^-form does n o t com e
a t th e end o f th e sen ten ce.
V2 -following Expressions -te (-de) iku 55
6. a fte r , o fte n used b e fo re th e tim e w ord, e.g. Kurisumasu no

yasumi ga owatte sugu shiken ga aru kara yasumi-chu mo
is o g a s h ii. クリスマスの休みが終ってすぐ試験があるから休み
中も忙しい • “E v e n d u rin g th e v a c a tio n I am busy, b ecau se
w e ’ll h av e e x a m s r ig h t a fte r th e C h ristm a s v a ca tio n is o v e r.”
^-te {-de) ageru てあ（上）げる（I ) do a fa v o r in d oing so m e th in g ，
e.g. Tomodachi ni hon o yonde agemashita • 友達 :に本を読ん ' であ
げました. “I read a book (did a fa v o r in re a d in g a book) to m y
frie n d •” (cf. -te yarut p. 59)
-か（
-cfe) てある如ゴ沉ゐ / + か orw， d e scrib e s an a c tio n w h ich has
o ccu rre d and is s till in fo rc e , e.g. Mado ga akete a r im a s u . 窓力：
あ（開 ) けてあります • “T h e w indow is op en (T h e w indow h a s b een
opened and is s till op en).，’ S e e pp. 21-22 .
-te (-de) bakari iru てばかりいる alw ay s, e.g. Tabete bakari imasu.
食べてばかりいます • “H e is alw ay s e a tin g .”
•te (-de) hoshii て欲 b い =-te moraitai w an t so m eo n e to do so m e
th in g , e.g. Ano hito ni atte hoshii n’ d e s u . あの人に会ってほしい
んです . “I w an t you to m e e t h im .” -w似• ぬ / ^ se e p. 40.
-te (-de) ii \_no] ka wakaranai ていいか分らな
(in te rro g a tiv e word)
I 、 don^ know how (w h at, e tc.), e.g. Muzukashii ji o do shite
mitsukete ii ka w a k a r a n a i. 難しい字をどうして見つけていいか分ら
ない • “I d on’t know how to find d ifficu lt c h a r a c t e r s .”
•te (-de) iku て行く (o p p osite o f -te kurut p. 56)
1. d ire ctio n of th e a c tio n w h en it is aw ay fro m th e lo ca tio n of
th e sp e a k er, e.g. So iinagara heya o dete ik im a s h ita . そう
言いなが (乍）ら部屋を出て行きました • “S a y in g th a t， he w ent
ou t of th e ro o m .” Kyd kodomo o gakkd ni tsurete ikimashi-
如. 今日子供を学校に連れて行きました . “ I to o k m y ch ild to
sch o o l to d ay .” Obentd o motte ikimashd • お弁 ' ^ を持って
行きましょう • “L e t ’s ta k e ou r lu n ch .” むwr谷な /々m is used
to ta k e a p erso n o r p et along, w h ile motte iku is used to
c a r r y so m e o b je c t along.
2. v e rb of le a rn in g o r p e rfo rm in g a sk ill 4 -^ iku r e fe r s to th e
p e rfo rm a n c e o f an a c tio n fro m th e p re se n t o r so m e fu tu re
p o int in tim e onw ard s, e.g. Kore kara so shite ikimasu.
これからそうして行きます • ‘T U do it th a t w ay fro m now
on .,> (cf. -te kuruy p. 57.)
* For a more detailed explanation on the use of /e-form +directional verbs,

see pp. 27-28.
56 -te {-de) irai V2-following Expressions
-te {-de、 irai て以来 since • • • ，e.g. Nihon ni itte irai Nihon ga suki
ni n a rim a sh ita . 日本に行って以来日本が好きになりました • “S in c e
I w e n t to Ja p a n , I c a m e to lik e Ja p a n .M
•te (-de) iru ている
1. taddshi + te iru p ro g re ssiv e fo rm , co n tin u a tiv e actio n , doing
so m eth in g , e.g. Tegami o kaite im a s u . 手紙を書いています .
“I am w ritin g a le tte r.” S e e p. 22.
2. jiddshi+te ini d escrip tiv e m ean in g , e.g. Mado ga shimatte
• 窓が閉まっています • “T h e w indow is clo sed .” S ee
p. 21.
*-te [-de) itadaku てい于こナと(戴，頂）く (to be fo rtu n a te ) to re ce iv e
som eo n e’s fav o r, e.g. Sensei m eigo o oshiete itadakimashita.
先生に英語を教えていただきました . （ I am fo rtu n a te th a t) m y te a c h
e r ta u g h t m e E n g lis h .” (cf. -te morauy p. 58).
•te {-de、 kara て t 、 b alteT， e.g. Gohan o tabete kara， gakkd e
ik im a s u . ごはん（御飯）を食べてから学校へ行きます . “Af t e r e a tin g
a m e a l , I go to sch o o l.”
•te (-de) koso X こそ only w hen, e.g. Sonna muzukashii kyoku ga
utsukushiku hikete koso, idai na ongakuka to i e r u . そんな難し l 、
曲が美しく弾けてこそ偉大な音楽家と言える . “Onl y w h en he can
play su ch difficult m u sic b eau tilu lly, ca n w e sa y he is a g re a t
m u sicia n .”
•te (-de) kudasai てさい m ild im p erativ e, e.g. Yonde kudasai.
読んで下さい “P le a s e read .” ぬ々 p. 40.
ネ-te (-de) kudasaru てさる (he) is kind to do so m e th in g fo r (m e),
e.g. Sensei ga watakushi ni hon o kashite kudasaimashita.先生
が私に本を貸して下さいました . “My te a c h e r w as kind en ou gh to
lend m e a book.” (cf. 4e kureru, see below )
•te i-de) kure X
く ix abrupt im p erativ e used by m en, o •か
々wr谷 .これをしてくれ • “Do th is (fo r m e).”
*•な々てくれる sam e as -な々 mぬ sflrw e.g. Imoto ga yofuku
0 お汉如说々紛^ mas/h•以 •妹が洋服を作ってくれました • “M y you n ger
s is te r m ade a d ress fo r m e. (M y y o u n g er s is te r w as kind enough
to m ak e m e a d ress.)’’
-te {-de、 kuru X 来る
丄. ver b of m o tio n + か々Mrw d irectio n o f th e a ctio n w h en it is
tow ard s th e sp eak er, e.g. Heya ni haitte kim a sh ita . 部屋
に入って来ました. “He ca m e in to th e ro o m .” （
c f . -お /々w,
p. 55).
V2-foliowing Expressions -te (-de) mo kamaw anai 57
2. verb of learning or perform ing a s k i l l kuruf refers to the

perform ance of an action beginning at any point in the
past and continuing as fa r as the present, but not beyond,
e.g. Ima made so naratte k im a sh ita . 今までそう習って来ま
した. “I have learned it th a t way up to now.” (cf. -te iku,
p. 55).
3. some jiddshi+te kuru begin t o , Ame ga futte kimashita.
雨が降って来ました • “It has begun to rain .”
-te (-de) made てまで even going to the extent o f , e.g. Hito
no okane o tsukatte made sonna koto ga shitai desu k a . 人のお金
を使ってまでそんなことがしたいですか • “Do you w ant to do such
a thing, even at th e expense of oth er people (even going to the
exten t of using oth er people’s m oney)?’’
-か（
-ぬ） / て見える appears a s if, e.g. 心加ル々 m 0 々かw か
futotte m ie m a s u . この洋服を着ると太って見えます • “W hen I w ear
tm s dress, I look fat (it appears as if I w ere fat).”
-te {-de、 miru てみる
1 . try doing som ething, e.g. Furansugo o benkyo shite mimashita
ga m uzukashisugim ashita. フランス語を勉強してみましたが
難しすぎました• “I tried studying French, but it was too
difficult.”
2. to do som ething and see w hat happens, e.g. Kono hon o
yonde mimasho k a . この本を読んでみましょうか • “Shall we
read th is book (and see w hat kind of a book it is) ?”
-te (-de) mo ても even if, e.g. Anata ga itte mo watakusni wa
脱 w . あなたが行っても私は行きません . “Even if you go, I
w on’t go.”
(interrogative word)- 化（ -ぬ）wo ても no m atter how (what, etc.),
e.g. Ano hito wa donna ni tabete mo okiku n a rim a se n . あの人
はどんなに食べても大きくなりません . “No m a tte r how m uch he
eats, he doesn’t g et big.”
-te (-de) mo ii てもいい you may, e.g. Sore o tabete mo u desu yo.
それを食べてもいいですよ• “You m ay eat it.” （see pp. 36-37)
-te (-de) mo kamawanai ても構わない It doesn’t m atter even if you
d o ...,e .g . な ⑽ . やめても構いません • “Even
if you quit, it doesn’t m atter.” （see p. 36)
* For a more detailed explanation o n the use of ^-form +directional verbs,
see pp. 27-28.
58 -te (-de) mo "Vnakute mo V2-foliowing Expressions
-な（
-ぬ）wo w o ても V なくても w h eth er or, e.g_
koto wa shite mo shinakute mo kamaimasen. こんなことはしても
しなくても構いません. “I t d oesn’t m a tte r w h e th e r you do su ch a
th in g o r n o t.”
•か（
-ぬ）仏w• てもら（
貰）いたい =-te hoshii w an t som eon e to
do so m eth in g , e.g. Kodomo m hayaku okiRu natte moraitai desu.
子供に早く大きくなってもらいたいです • “I w an t m y ch ild to g ro w
fa s t.” -nai de moral tai, p. 40.
*-な（ -ぬ） moraw てもら（貰）う（I ) am fo rtu n a te to re c e iv e so m eo n e’s
fav o r, e.g. Ane m ydfuku o tsu/mtte moratmas/nta. 姉に洋服を作
ってもらいました • （ “I am fo rtu n a te th a t) m y s is te r m ad e a d ress
fo r m e.” (cf. ~te itadaku, p. 56)
-te {-de') naranai て十い =-te {-de、 shiyd ga nai.
•te {-de、 nokeru てる m an ag e to do, e.g. Hidoku muzukashii
shigoto o umaku shite n o k e ta . ひどく難しい仕事をうま（旨）くしての
けた . “ I m an ag ed to do a v e ry d ifficu lt jo b w ell.”
•te {■de') oku ておく
1 . do so m e th in g fo r fu tu r e use, e.g. Tomodachi ga kuru kara

okashi o katte okimasu. 友達が来るからお菓子を買っておき
ます. “I ’ll buy c a k e s b e ca u se m y frie n d w ill c o m e .”
2 . l eave it o r le t it g o at th a t, e.g. So kotaete okimasnita. そ

う答えておきました. “I an sw ered th u s, and let it go at
th a t.”
-紿（
-a の o n ており =-te tta (co n ju n ctiv e ) is d o i n g . . . , and e.g.
Chichi wa ima Tokyo ni ryokd shite ori， haha wa Kyoto ni nokotte
o rim a su . 父は今東京に旅行しており，母は京都にのこっております .
“F a th e r is tra v e lin g in T o k y o now, and M o th e r re m a in s in
K y o to .”
-te (-de) sae てさえ V ば on ly if, e.g. Yoku benkyd shite
sae okeba daijobu d e s u . よく勉強してさえおけば大丈夫です • “O nly
if you stu d y h ard now w ill e v e ry th in g b e all rig h t.”
•te (-de) shimau てしまう co m p letio n o r fin a lity o f an a ctio n , e.g.
Wasurete shim aim ashita. 忘れてしまいました • “I co m p le te ly fo r
g o t about it.”
4e {-de) shiyd {sho) ga nai て仕様（しよう）がない = ■か WGrawfl：/
cou ld n’t h e l p . . . in g ， e.g. Nakete shiyd ga nakatta. 粒} f て仕緣
がなかった • “I co u ld n ’t help c ry in g h ard .”
V2-follctWing Expressions -wa shinai 59
4e {-de) wa て^: c o n d itio n a l fo r m o f th e p a tte rn , i f A, th e n a

n e g a tiv e co n se q u e n c e . E x a m p le s a re b elow . S e e also pp. 3 4 -3 5 .
•か（ -ぬ） /々ewa/ てはいけない（ p ro h ib itio n ) lite ra lly , it c a n ’t go
if yo u do s o m e th in g , th e r e fo r e , you m a y n ot, e.g. Mite wa
ik e m a se n . 見てはいけません • “Y o u m a y n o t lo o k .” S e e p. 35.
•化（
-ぬ）似 • てはいられない b e u n able to b e a r . . •，e.g . T o か；^ ?
mite wa ira re n a k a tta . とても見てはいられなかった . “I co u ld n ’t
b e a r to lo o k a t i t.”
•te (-de) wa komaru X M 祖る w e w iil b e m d ifticu lty if you do ••.，
Sonna koto o shite wa komarimasu• そんナここ }! をしては思り戈す .
“ Y o u d is tr e s s m e (in c o n v e n ie n c e m e) by d o in g s u c h a th in g .”
S e e pp. 3 4 -3 5 fo r m o re ex a m p le s.
4e {-de) wa naranai てはならない（p ro h ib itio n ) w e m u st n o t, e.g.
Nihongo no kurasu de wa eigo o tsukatte wa naranai no desu.
日本語のクラスでは英語を使ってはならないのです. “W e m u st not
u se Jbnglish in o u r Ja p a n e s e c la s s .,>
*-な（
-ぬ）夕an/ てやる（I ) do a la v o r in d oing s o m e th in g , e.g.
Kodomo ni hon o katte ya rim a sh ita . 子供に本を買ってやりました .
“I did a fa v o r in b u y in g a b o o k fo r m y c h ild .” (cf. -te ageruy
p. 55)
-なな々wsw 尽くす fin ish up, e.g. Motte iru mono o zenbu uritsukusni-
m 仍 /h•如. 持っているものを全部売り尽くしました . “ I sold e v e ry th in g
t h a t I h ad .”
-tsutsu つつ =-nagara w h ile, th o u g h , e.g. Warui to shiritsutsu
sasete shimaimashita. 悪いと知りつつさせてしまいました. “ A 1-
tn o u g li I k n e w it w as w ro n g , I ie t h im do it.”
七知 r w 続ける c o n t in u e •. •in g , e.g . B ⑽ 妙 J s み治な從如rw. 勉強
し続ける • “H e c o n tin u e s s tu d y in g .”
-teru 得る b e p o ssib le t o . • .，e.g . Scwwa 知?かどa a n なrw バ從2^ ダa w似.
そんなことがあり得るはず (箸 ) がない “ S u c h a th in g can n o t p o s
sib ly o c c u r .” n e g a tiv e o f uru, enai, see p. 48.
-wa sfumai i/th ま V、 (n e g a tiv e te n ta tiv e ), e.g . Sonna mono wa mi
泌が • そんなものは見はしまい • “P e rh a p s h e w o n ’t look at
s u c h a th in g .”
•wa shmai は/L ナ
^\ 、 (e m p h a tic n e g a tiv e ), e.g . Sonna mono wa ari
* For a more detailed explanation on the use of な-form + directional verbs ，
see pp. 27-28.
60 -yasui V8-following Expressions
iva (arya) s h i n a i . そんなものはありはしない . “T h e r e is n ’t an y
s u c h th in g .”
■
■夕
asw/ やす（
易）い is e a s y to . . . (o p p o site o f -nikui ， p. 50) e.g .
Kono pen wa kakiyasui d e s u . このペンは書きやすいです . “T h i s
p en is e a sy to w r ite w ith •” kakiyasui pen 鲁きやす \ヽペン “a p en
w m c h is e a sy to w r ite w ith .”
づ^ よう (様 ) wa y o f . . . in g , e.g . Sonna mono wa tabeyo ga nai.
そんなものは食べようがない. “T h e r e is n o w ay to e a t s u c h a
th in g .” (cf. V 2 katay p. 48) \ 2 y 〇 is o fte n u sed w ith v e rb s aru
o r nai,
I II. E x p r e s s io n s w h ich fo llo w th e TTu’rrf 終止形〈しゅうしけい〉 ,

連体形〈れんたいけい > o f th e v e rb an d so m e a d je c tiv e s .
- 0/ゴa 間 w h ile, a ll th e tim e w h en , e.g . Hah a ga kaimono ni itte
iru aida， watakushi wa hon 0 yonde i m a s h i t a . 母が買物に行って
いる間，私は本を読んでいました • “ W h ile m y m o th e r w a s ou t sh o p
p in g , I w as re a d in g a b o o k .”
N o te : In a s e n te n c e u sin g -aida, su b je cts for th e p rin cip al c la u se and
th e su b ord in ate c la u se are u s u a lly d ifferen t. F or th e sa m e su b
ject, it is m ore c o m m o n to u s e V 2 na g a ra , s e e p. 49.
- 600/ 場合 w h en , in th e c a s e o f e . g . Nihon ni iku baai, hikoki

de i k i m a s u . 日本に行く場合，飛行機で行きます • “W h e n w e g o to
Ja p a n , w e 'll g o b y a irp la n e .5* F o r V ta baaiy s e e p. 51.
•b akari ばかり
1 . onl y, e.g. Taberu bakari de shigoto wa s h im a s e n . 食べるば
かりで仕事はしません. “ H e o n ly e a ts, and d o e sn ’t do th e
w o rk .”
2. b e a b o u t t o , e.g . Taberu bakari no tokoro e Toda-san ga
々如仏食べるばかりのところへ戸田さんが来ました . “ Mr .
i'o d a c a m e ju s t a t th e tim e w h en w e w e re ab o u t to e a t.”
For Vta bakari, p. 51.
3. to th e e x te n t t h a t , p ra c tic a lly , a lm o st, e.g . Kanashikute
mune ga sakeru bakari d e s h i t a . 悲しくて胸が裂けるばかりでした .
“I w as so sad th a t m y h e a r t a lm o s t b r o k e .”
•bakari de urn nai h孓力、りで n o t o n ly t h a t . . . , e.g . Nihon e
itta bakari de wa naku Taiwan e mo i k im a s h ita . 日本へ行った
かりではなく台湾へも行きました • “N o t o n ly did h e g o to Ja p a n ,
b u t h e also w e n t to T a iw a n .”
V3-foliowing Expressions •dokoro ka 61
•bekarazaru ベ {可）か b 客る (p reced es noun) th a t w h ich should not

be •••ed ，e.g. jywrwsw知々似ぬ^ r w 々W o ゴa • それは許すベか
らざることだ • “I t is a th in g w h ich should n o t b e p e rm itte d .”
ベ (可 )からず negative of を々“n • ( ぬ sAf)， prohibition in
bungotai (literary form) don^, m ust not, e.g. Hairu bekarazu.
入るべからず• “Don’t e n te r!”
-beki べき attributive form of beshi of bungotai (literary form)
meaning must, should, e.g. Kore wa dare mo ga yomu beki
hon d a . これは誰もが読むべき本だ . “This is a book everyone
should read.,> Beki is also used before the copula aa {desu). As hit a
iku beki d e s u . 明日行くべきです • “You should go tomorrow.”
N o t e : For th e verb su r u both s u m beki and su beki (ru is om itted) are
used. e.g. K o n n a koto wa im a subeki koto de wa n a i. こんなこと
は今すべきことではない. “T h is kind of th in g sh ould not be done
now .”
-dake 于 (丈 )
1 . as m u ch as, e.g. Taberareru dake tabete kudasai. 食べら ix る
だけ食べて下さい . “Pl e as e e a t a s m u ch a s you c a n e a t.”
2. only, ju s t, e.g. Taberu dake de shigoto wa shimasen • 食べる i t
けで仕事は b t せん •= Taberu bakari de shigoto wa shimasen.
“H e only e ats, and d oes no w o rk .”
•dake atte すあって =-dake ni
-dake de wa nai だけではない =bakari de wa nai
-dake ni すとけに =-dake atte as m ig h t be exp e cte d , e.g. Ano
otoko wa itsumo okashina koto o jiman suru dake ni doko ka tari-
n a i . あの男はいつ (何時）もおかしな事を自慢するだけにどこか足りな
い. aT h a t h e is so m ew h at w e a k in th e h ead m ig h t b e e xp e cte d
fro m th e f a c t th a t h e is alw ay s b ra g g in g about stra n g e th in gs/ '
-dard ナどb う =-deskd probably， e.g. Ima kare wa uckt m tru
d a r d . 今，彼は家にいるだろう . “ H e is pro bably h om e now .”
•deshd でしょう = -dard See p.1A for more dard (desh&).
•dokoro de wa nai どころで \Vfs5 、 =-dokovo no hcmashi de wa nai
= -dokoro no sawagi de wa nai em p h atic, f a r f r o m , e.g.
Isogashikute kaimono ni iku dokoro de wa n a k a tta . 忙しくて買物
に行くどころではなかった . “I w as so busy th a t I co u ld n ’t go shop
ping (fa r fro m h a v in g tim e to go snopp ing).”
•ゐ々on? 々a どころか f a r fro m . . . but, not at a l l ••• but, e.g. iT y J
62 -furi o suru V3-following Expressions
wa amari isogashikute hon o yomu dokoro kay gohan o taberu hima

mo arimasen deshita . 今日はあま（余）り忙しくて本を読むどころかご
はん（御飯）を食べる暇もありませんでした . “I was so busy today
tn at not only was I unable to read (far from having tim e to read),
but I didn’t even have tim e to eat.”
-furi o sum ふ（振 ')りをする pretend, e.g. Rare wa watakushi o mite
mo itsumo minai furi o shimasu. 彼は私を見てもいつも見ないふ
りをします • “He always pretends not to see me, even if he does
see me.”
-ga が conjunctive particle, but, however, e.g. Kino wa samukatta
ga kyo wa a ta ta k a i, 昨日は寒かったが今日は暖かい . “It was cold
yesterday, Dut it is w arm today.”
N o te : S o m etim es -ga m ay lo se all ad versative im p lication , in w h ich
c a se it is b e st to tra n sla te it as “and .”
•ga mono wa nai there is no need t o , e.g. Kufu

sw rw 卵 wdmo wa/. 工夫するがものはない. ‘‘There is no need
to think it out.”
-goto ni ごと（每)K こ every tim e た w ith each occurrence, progressive
increase or decrease), e.g. Otanjobi ga kuru goto ni hitotsu toshi
o to rim a su . お誕生日が来るごとに一つ年をとります . “Every tim e
a m rthday comes, we get one year older.”
ず（
害） (norm al expectation) supposed to, expected to, e.g.
Kyo iku haza d e s u . 今日行くはずです . “ He is supposed to go
today.”
•kazu ga (wa) nai iitず（
箸）が >ない it is not likely th at there is
no reason to expect that, e.g. Ano hito ga sonna uoto o iu hazu
ga n a i . あの人がそんなことを言うはずがない • “T here is no reason
to expect th at he would say such a thing.” {-nai hazu wa nai,
P. 41)
-hazumi ni はずみに = - ゐツ勿/^• m’ in the act of, e.g. TTa/ぬ w 0
oriru hazumi ni ashi 0 suberasemashita. 階段を降りるはずみに足
を滑らせました . “ He slipped in th e act of descending the stairs.”
-hi ni wa 日 KJft it， m case， e.g. A shigoto bakari shite iru hi ni
wa tsukarekitte bydki ni natte shimau d a r o . ああ仕事ばかりして
いる日には疲れきって病気になってしまうだろう . “If he works like
th at all th e time, he will probably be exhausted and become ill.”
•hd 方 literally “direction,” side, one as compared w ith or opposed
to another, e.g. Chikatetsu de iku ho ga basu de iku yori zutto
V3-following Expressions -ka 63
hayai desu y o . 地下鉄で行く方がバスで行くよりずっと早いですよ .
uIt is m uch faster to go by subway than to go by bus.n
N o t e : It is co n v en ien t to rem em ber th a t w h en ho is used , a d jectiv es
sh ould b e tran slated as com p arative, e.g. K o n o ho ga ii desu.
この方がいいです. “T h is is b etter.”
( ツが）方がいい it is b etter t o . . , , e.g. iTjyJ /々w みぎ a “

desu y o . 今日行く方がいいですよ • “It is b etter to go today.” （-似 /
ho ga ii, see p. 41)
ゐほど（程） = -kurai to the extent that, so m uch so t h a t . . . ,
e.g. Ano hito wa suteru hodo okane ga a r im a s u . あの人は捨てる
ほどお金があります . uHe has so much money th a t he can afford
to throw it away (He has money to the extent th at he throw s
it away).”
-hodo no koto wa nai ほど {程')のこ there is no need to, it’s
not w orth . . . ing, e.g. Sonna ni okoru hodo no koto wa nai desho.
そんなに怒るほどのことはないでしよう . “It’s not w orth being so
mad about, is it?”
-hoka [wa] nai =-yon hoka [wa] nai, see. p. 81.
-hydshi ni = -hazumi ni in the act of, e.g. Tachiagaru
hyoshi ni ocha o koboshimashita.立ち上がる拍子にお茶をこぼしま
した . “ In th e act of standing up, I spilled the tea.”
-f例 / ! > / ，w ;a] 以外 except th a t • • • ，e.g. ア⑽ “ 如 -似 w 砂：々狀汉な h
wa dare mo konai d e s h o . 田中さんが来る以外は誰も来ないでしよう .
“Except for Mr. T anaka (Except th a t Mr. T anaka comes), perhaps
nobody will come.”
-(/ J | > a ] 以上 so long as ••• ，e.g. Ikite iru ijd wa nani ka shinakereba
似生きている以上は何かしなければならない• “So long as we
live we have to do som ething.”
•ka
1 . interrogative particle, e.g. Ashita gakko ni ikimasu k a . 明日
学校に行きますか . ‘‘Do you go to school tom orrow ?”
N o te : T ra d ition ally th ere w a s no q u estion m ark in Japan ese, but
around 1887 it m ade its first app earance, and in contem p orary
Japan ese it is q u ite freq u en tly used.
2. rhetorical question, e.g. Ano hito ga sonna koto o suru mono

desu k a . あの人がそんなことをするものですか • “He won’t do
such a th in g !” “Do you think he would do such a thing?
64 -ka do ka V3-folio wing Expressions
No, h e w o uld n’t ! ”
3. u n c e rta in ty , e.g. Tanaka-san ga itsu kuru ka shirimasen.

田中さんがいつ (何時 ) 来るか知りません . “ I don’t know w h en
M rs. T a n a k a w ill c o m e .),
-々0 ぬ々 0 かどうか =-ka Vnat ka w h e th e r o r not, e.g. Iku ka do
ka s h ir im a s e n . 行くかどうか知りません . “I don’t kn o w w h e th e r
h e is g o in g o r n o t.”
-ka dd ka ni yotte t 、 E うt 、K• 爻って =-ka Nnai ka ni yotte
-ka mo shirenai かもしれない • = - 々0 w o 以か设衫な m ay, possibly,
lite ra lly , ca n n o t know ev e n w h e th e r, e.g. Ashita iku ka mo shire-
煎脱 w• 明日行くかもしれません • “I m ay go to m o rro w .”
-ka mo shirenu 力、もしれぬ =-ka mo shivenai
-々0 V«山々a か V ないか =~-ka dd ka Iku ka ikanai ka shirimasen.
行くか行かないか知りません. “I don’t k n o w w h e th e r h e is g o in g
or n o t.”
•々0 V «似• 々0 m•ツ0/なか V ないかによって d ep end ing on w h e th e r .
o r not, e.g. Ano hito ga iku ka ikanai ka ni yotte kimemasu.
あの人が行くか行かないかによって決めます . “ I w ill d ecid e，depend
in g on w h e th e r o r n o t h e g o e s.”
-ka shira[n~\ かしら I w o nd er if _•■，e.g. Ano hito wa Nihongo
ga yoku hanaseru ka s h ir a { n ). あの人は日本語がよく話せるかしら .
“I w ond er if h e c a n sp e ak Ja p a n e s e w e ll? ”
-ka to omou to t 、ヒ冠、ろと =-ka to omottara w h en I th o u g h t th a t
. . . , as soo n as, e.g. Kita ka to omou to mo itte shimaimashita.
来たかと思うともう行ってしま（
了）いました . “ A s soo n a s h e cam e ,
h e le ft."
-々a沿>/ かぎり as as，e.g. Watakushi no shitte iru kagiri kare
wa shojikimono d e s u . 私の知っているかぎり，彼は正直者です • “A s
fa r a s I know , he is a n h o n est m a n .n
-kankei jo 50® _h due to th e f a c t t h a t . . . , e.g. Koko wa natsu de
mo kiko ga samui kannei jo, shokubutsu ga yoku sodachimasen.
ここ（此処 ) は夏でも気候が寒い関係上植物がよく育ちません . “ D ue to
th e fa c t th a t it is cold h e re e v e n in su m m er, p la n ts do n o t grow
w ell.”
•kara t 、ら b ecau se , sin ce (p laces em p h asis on th e re su lt, c f. -no
de, p. 72) e.g. Mo sugu iku kara matte itc k u d a s a i . もうす（直）
ぐ行くから待っていて下さい . ^ P lease w ait fo r m e, b eca u se I w ill
V8-following Expressions -koto 65
co m e (go) v e ry soo n.”

-々似tz 如 so からこそ（
e m p h atic) p re cise ly b eca u se , e.g.
ga iku kara koso, kare mo iku n’ desu. 私が行くからこそ彼も行く
んです . “P re c is e ly b e ca u se I go, h e g oes to o .”
•kara ni wa 负、ら KJit now th a t, sin ce , if, e.g. Yarn kara ni wa n
s/w•どぬ？0 • やるからにはいい仕事をしなさい • “If you do it
a t all, do a good jo b .” Kimi ga iu kara ni wa honto ni chigai-
nau 君が言うからには本当に違いない • “I f you sa y so, it m u st be
tr u e .”
-kara to itte からと言って ju s t b e ca u se , e.g . Tsukareta kara to itte
nete bakari iru wake ni mo ikimasen. 疲れたからと言って寝てば
かりいるわけにもいきません . “J u s t b eca u se I am tire d , I c a n ’t v e ry
w ell sleep all th e tim e .”
-々似^ n. m• かわりに in p lace of, in e x c h a n g e fo r, e.g. 如a
gakko e iku kawari ni machi e ikimashita. 今日は学校へ行くかわ
りに町へ行きました. “I ns t e ad of g o in g to schoo l, I w en t to to w n
to d ay .”
-keredomo け h ど％ =-keredo but, h ow ever, m o re co llo q u ia l th a n
-ga, e.g. Ano hito wa okane ga aru keredomo kecm de chittomo
tsukaim asen. あの人はお金があるけれども，けちでちっとも使いませ
ん. “He h a s m o n ey, b u t he is s tin g y and d o e sn ’t spend it at
a ll.”
沿z 気がある h av e a m in d to . e.g . Anata ni sore o
sum ki ga areba shite mo ii desu. あなたにそれをする気があれば
してもいいです . “ If you h av e a m in d to do th a t, you m ay do it.”
•ki ga suru 気がする h a v e a fe e lin g t h a t . . . » fe e l l i k e . . . in g , e.g.
Kyd wa gakkd e iku ki ga sh im a se n . 今 Hk% 举校へ行く気が支せ
ん . “I don’t fe e l lik e g o in g to sch o o l to d ay .”
•ki ni naru る co m e to fe e l l i k e . . . in g , e.g. Atatakaku
natte kita no de， niwa de hataraku ki ni natte k im a sh ita . 暖力、く
なってきたので，庭で働く気になってきました. “S i n c e it’s g e ttin g
w arm , I am b e g in n in g to fe e l lik e w o rk in g m th e y a rd .”
■々かぬ•沿z きらい（
嫌）がある =-sugiru kirai ga aru，p.
-koto こと lite ra lly “th in g ” in th e a b s tra c t se n se (cf. -m ⑽ 0, p. 68)
1. c a us e s th e v e rb w h ich p re ce d e s it to b e c h a n g e d in to a noun,
e.g. Oyogu koto ga suki desu• 泳ぐことが好きです • “I like
sw im m in g .”
66 -koto ga aru V8-foll〇wing Expressions
N o te : か o ften is interp reted as “f a c t” or “a c t.” K o to is in ter

ch an geab le w ith n o , in tm s u sage, ex ce p t w h en k o to is u sed
in se t ph rases (see th e fo llo w in g several expressions).
2. e x c la m a tio n , em p h atic en d in g , e.g. Ano hito wa yoku taberu

か• あの人はよく食べること • “H ow th a t m an e a t s !”
3. w ith v e rb a l a d je c tiv e o f tim e , fo r a p eriod = -aida e.g.
Nagai koto ome ni kakarimasen d e s h ita . 長いことお目に力、
かりませんでした . “ I h a v e n ’t se e n you fo r a lon g tim e .”
•koto ga aru こヒる th e re a re o cca sio n s w h en •••，e.g. Nihon
ni iku koto ga arimasu ka. B 本 K ■行くことがあり隻すか . “D o you
h av e o cca sio n to go to Ja p a n ? ” F o r Vta koto ga aru} s e e p. 52.
-koto ga atta こと力t あった th e re w e re o c c a sio n s w h e n . e . g .
Mukashi wa yoku Nihon ni iku koto ga a r im a s h ita . 昔はよく日
本に行くことがありました . “F o r me r l y th e re w e re m a n y o cca sio n s
w h en I w en t to Ja p a n .” F o r Vta koto ga atta, see p. 52.
-koto ga dekiru こヒができ {也来）る it is p o ssible to , c a n . . . ，e.g.
Nihongo o hanasu koto ga dekimasu ka. H本語を話すことが 'でき
ますか =]Snhongo ga hanasemasu na. ^Can you sp eak Ja p a n e s e ? n
•koto ni [to) naru こ t K 卞s：る it is d ecid ed th a t •••， it is a rra n g e d

t h a t . . . , it h a s co m e about t h a t , e.g . Ototo ga Amerika ni
kuru koto ni narimashita. 弟がアメリカに来ることになりました .
“I t is a rra n g e d th a t m y b ro th e r w ill co m e to A m e r ic a .”
-koto ni [td) natte iru こと Kfs：っている th is is th e p ra c tic e , it is
c u sto m a ry t h a t ...， e.g. Mainicniyo ane no uchi ni iku koto ni
故 /mflsw• 每日曜姉の家に行くことになっています . “ I t is c u sto m
a ry th a t I go to m y s is te r ’s e v e ry S u n d ay .”
-koto ni {to') shite iru こと \こ1 ている m a k e it a p ra c tic e t o •••，e.g.
Mainichi sukoshi sanpo suru koto ni shite i m a s u . 毎日少し散歩す
ることにしています • “I m a k e it a p ra c tic e to ta k e a sh o rt w alk
e v e ry day_”
-koto ni suru こヒ \こする d ecid e, e.g. Kotoshi no natsu Nihon ni
iku koto ni s h im a s h ita . 今年の夏日本に行くことにしました • “I d e
cided to go to Ja p a n th is s u m m e r.” F o r Vta koto ni suru, se e p.
52.
-koto to omou ことと思う = -to omou I th in k th a t, e.g . Kyd
Yamada-san ga kuru koto to omoimasu. 今日山田さんが来ること
と思います • “I th in k M r. Y a m a d a co m es to d ay .”
-々o h 浓 0 V 3 ことは V 3= V 3 m’ Va re p e titio n of th e sam e v erb ,
V3-following Expressions ~mae ni 67
as far a s . . . is concerned, it is all right, b u t. . . , e.g. Taberu koto

wa tabemasu ga amari suki de wa a rim a sen . 食べることは食べま
すがあま（
余）り好きではありません • “I eat it all right, but I don’t
particularly like it.”
-kurai くらい（
位） =-gurai=-hodo to the extent th a t . . . , even, so
m uch so t h a t , e.g. Sonna hanashi mo aru kurai d e s u . そん
な話もあるくらいです . uT here is even such a story (It is to the
extent th at even such a story exists).” Ano hito wa bnnonjin
to machigaerareru kurai Nihongo ga jozu d e s u . あの人は日本人と
間違えられるくらい日本語が上手です . uHe is so good in Japanese
as to be m istaken for a Japanese person (He is good m Japanese
to th e extent th at he is m istaken for a Japanese person).’’
-々mm m• くせ（癖）に although, always followed by a negative idea
or feeling of contem pt (cf. -no ni, p. 73) e.g. Yomanakatta kuse
ni， yonda yd na koto o itte im a sh ita . 読まなかったくせに読んだよ
うなことを言っていました • “Even though he did not read it, he
talked as if he had.”
•ma wo w dw 間もなく w ithout having tim e to do e .g .汾如
nani o suru ma mo naku uchi o denakereba narimasen deshita.
今朝何をする間もなく家を出なければなりませんでした. “W ithout
having tim e to do anything, I had to leave home tm s m orning.”
-made 支で until, e.g. Anata ga kuru made matte im a s u . あなた
が来るまで待っています• “I’ll be w aiting until you come.”
-made mo nai までもす s：、、 goes without ••• ing, e.g. Sonna koto wa
iu made mo nai (koto) d e s u . そんなことは言うまでもないことです .
“It is needless to say such a thing.”
-made ni 戈で by e.g. Kare ga kuru made ni owatte iru to omoi-
w f ls w . 彼が来るまでに終っていると思います • “I think it will be
finished by th e tim e he comes.”
-w 從 m• 前に (sequence of action) before. Use of w 沉 and m
are som etim es interchangeable, but ni often pinpoints the tim e
more definitely. T hat is, w ithout ni the period before may be
more indefinite, but w ith ni emphasis is on the tim e just before,
e.g. Nihon ni iku mae ni Nihongo o naraim ashita. 日本に行く
前に日本語を習いました • “I learned Japanese before I went to
私 pan:、 Amerika ni kuru mae Nihon ni sunde im a s h ita . アメ、)
力に来る前日本に住んでいました. “Before I came to America, I
was living in Japan.”
68 -mai V3-foliowing Expressions
-me/ まい（ te n ta tiv e n eg ativ e) op posite o f te n ta tiv e fo rm s, - J , -jy<?

(see S ix th B a s e , te n ta tiv e , pp. 8 2 -8 3 )；fo llo w s th e 3rd b a se of con-
so n a n t-ste m v e rb s, -mai fo llo w s th e 1s t b a se of v o w e l-stem v e rb s
(see pp. 3 9 -40). T h e irre g u la r v e rb s sum and kuru m ay ta k e th is
en d in g w ith b o th th e 1st and 3rd b a se w ith no c h a n g e in m e a n
in g (see pp. 39-40).
1 . n e g a tiv e te n ta tiv e , e.g. Sonna hon wa y o m u m a i. そんな本は

読むまい • “P erh a p s he w o n’t read su ch a book.”
2. Konna mono wa mo kakumai to omotte

n e g a tiv e w ill, e.g.
im a s u .こんなものはもう書くまいと思っています. “I am
th in k in g I w o n’t w r ite su ch th in g s a n y m o re.”
-俯仍 s/n まいし =-nai kara (e m p h a tic; o e cau se (he) is n o t . . . , e.g.
Kodomo de wa arumai sni konna yasashu koto ga wakaranai hazu
wa arimasen. 子供ではあるまいし，こんなやさしいことがわか (分）
らないはず (害）はありません • “B e c a u s e h e is n o t a ch ild , h e should
(T h e r e is no re a so n fo r h im n o t to ) u n d e rstan d su ch an e a sy th in g .”
-m am a m• まま (儘 )に ju s t as, e.g. Omou mama ni k a k e m a se n . 思、
うままに書けません. “I c a n ’t w r ite ju s t a s I th in k (w an t).” For
Vta mama, p. 52.
•mitai みナこ\ 、 = -yd appears as i f ，e.g. Kodomotacm wa mina yoku
nete iru mitai desu. 子供たちは皆よく寝ているみたいです . “It
see m s a s if all th e ch ild re n are sle e p in g w ell.”
もの lite ra lly “th in g ” 物 o r “p erso n ” 者 in th e c o n c re te
sen se (cf. kotoy pp. 65-66).
1 . p erson , e.g. Watakushi wa Tanaka to iu mono d e s u . 私田
中という者です. “I am Tanaka (I am a p erso n called
T a n a k a ).”
2. th in g , e.g. Nam ka taberu mono ga arimasu k a . 何力、
食べる
ものがありますか “ Is th e re a n y th in g w e c a n e a t ? ”
3. ob lig atio n , e.g. Kodomo wa hayaku neru mono d e s u . 子供は
早く寝るものです • “ A ch ild shou ld go to b ed e a rly .”
4. re aso n , e.g. Mada kodomo da mono . . . まだ子供だもの •••
“B e c a u s e h e is s till only a ch ild …
5. e m p h atic, e.g. Anna hon wa yomeru mono de wa n a i . あ
んな本は読めるものではない • “Y o u c a n ’t read th a t kind of
b o o k !” F o r Vta mono, see, p. 52.
•mono de mo nan’ de mo nai ものでも何でもない n o th in g o f th a t
V3-following Expressions -nari V3 nari 69
s o rt, e.g. Taberu mono de mo nan1 de mo n a i . 食べるものでも

何でもない . “I t is n o t fo o d o r a n y th in g o f th a t s o r t .”
-mono (mon’） de wa (Ja) nai ものではない shou ld n o t, e.g. 々o h
o suru mono de wa arimasen. そんなことをするものではありませ
ん . “Y o u sh o u ld n ’t do s u c h a th in g .”
-mono no ものの a lth o u g h , e.g . Itsu mo so shiyd to omou mono no
wa々伽ぬ々 /m仍 ⑽ • いつ (何時）もそうしようと思うもののなかなか
( 中々）できません • “A lth o u g h I a lw a y s th in k I w ould lik e to do
th a t, I c a n n e v e r do it .”
-w’ ん s h o rt fo r m o f -wo, s e e pp. 7 1 -7 2 .
-似な
1. (p ro h ib itio n ) e.g . Sonna hon wa yomu na• そん 'fs:本 \1 読む卞二
“ D on ’t re a d s u c h a b o o k !” In fo r m a l n e g a tiv e im p e ra tiv e ,
u sed o n ly b y m en .
2. s e n te n c e e n d in g u sed b y m en , e.g. Sonna hon wa yomitaku
wa/ • そんな本は読みたくないな. “ I d o n ’t w a n t to read
s u c h a b o o k , y o u k n o w .”
なあ (e x c la m a tio n ) h o w ! e.g . Rare wa honto m atama ga n
n a . 彼は本当に頭がいいなあ• “ H ow b rig h t h e i s ! ”
•V«d m•外/か V ないによってゴ k jy o to d ep en d in g on
w h e th e r • e .g . Anata ga sore o suru shinai ni yotte watakushi
mo do suru ka k im e m a s u . あなたがそれをするしないによって私も
どうするか決めます • “I ’U d ecid e w h a t to do d ep en d in g on w h e th e r
y o u do it o r n o t.”
-nara (Jba)なら (co n d itio n al) if, e.g_ 砂 /々 m w ara, が a 々以
mo • あなたが行くなら，私も行きます. “I f you g o , I ’ll go
to o .” F o r m o re nara, se e pp. 3 1 -3 2 .
•wara V 3 ぬなら V 3 で (e m p h a tic co n d itio n a l) e.g . Suru nara suru
de ii shigoto o s h in a s a i. するならするで，いい仕事をしなさい • “ I f
you do it, do a goo d jo b .”
• n a r i なり
1 . a s so o n as, e .g . Asa otnru nari uchi o d e m a s h ita . 朝起きる
なり家を出ました • “ A s so o n a s I g o t up, I le ft h o m e.”
2 . ね说沾 , =-tdri Chichi no iu nari ni shite imasu. ’义の '言う十 s:

りにしています • “I a m d o in g ju s t a s m y f a t h e r s a y s .”
-wan* V 3 mzn•なり V 3 なり e it h e r . •• or, e.g. Iku nari tomaru nari
suki na yd ni s h in a s a i, 行くなり泊まるなり好きなようにしなさい .
70 -ne V3-following Expressions
“E ith e r le a v e o r s ta y , do a s y o u lik e .”
-ne (fin al p a rtic le ) im p lie s th a t th e s p e a k e r w a n ts th e h e a r e r
to a g r e e ; n ’e s t-c e p a s ? e.g . Kyo wa otenki ga ii desu ne. 今日
はお天気がいいですね . “ I t ’s a b e a u tifu l d ay, is n ’t i t ? ”
•ni atatte \こ兰って =-ni atari a t th e tim e w h en , e.g . Kono shigoto
o suru ni atatte hitokoto iitai koto ga arimasu. この仕事をするに
当って一言言いたいことがあります • “A s w e b e g in t h is w o rk , th e r e
is o n e th in g I w a n t to s a y .”
•ni chigainai tこ違I 、な I 、 th e r e is no d ou bt th a t, it is c e r t a in th a t,
e .g . Ano hito wa Amerika-jin de aru ni chigainai. あの人はア
メリカ人であるに違いない. uT h e r e is no d ou bt th a t he is an
A m e r ic a n .”
•m nagiru る is lim ite d to , is th e b e s t, e .g . Nihongo o narau
nara Nihon e iku ni kagirimasu. 日本語を習うなら日本へ行くに限
ります. uI f y o u w a n t t o stu d y Ja p a n e s e , i t is b e s t to g o to Ja p a n / '
•ni koshita koto wa nai 1(ここ（趨）し于こことは ^な\ 、 n o th in g c a n be b e t
t e r t h a n . . . , e.g . Shite miru ni koshita koto wa nai. してみるに
こしたことはない. “T h e r e is n o th in g lik e tr y in g i t .” “I t is b e s t
t o t r y d o in g it .”
-m m o にも力、
力、わ（
拘）らず m sp ite o f th e t a c t t h a t . . . ,
Isshokenmei benkyd suru m mo kakawarazu， ano gaRusei wa
e.g .
amari yoku dekinakute, kinodoku desu. 一生懸命勉強するにもかか
わらず，あの学生はあま（余）りよく出来なくて気の毒です . “I n sp ite
o f th e f a c t t h a t h e s tu d ie s h ard , th a t stu d e n t d oes n o t do to o
w ell, and I fe e l s o rr y fo r h im .”
-m• の^ か• におよ（
及）び =-ni oyonde=ni atatte
-ni shi位u wa nai 1(こ如な \ 、 n o th in g lik e , n o th in g a s good as,
e .g . F のV打 swrw m* • • 用心するに如くはない • “I t is
b e s t to b e c a u tio u s .”
-ni shinobinai に忍、
びなん、 do n o t h a v e th e h e a r t t o , c a n n o t a l
low o n e s e lf to , e.g . Miru ni sh in o b in a i. 見るに忍びない • “I
d on ’t h a v e th e h e a r t to lo o k a t i t .”
•ni shiro 'HC'Lろ e v e n if, e.g . Nihon ni iku ni shiro sonna ni sugu
ni wa ik im a s e n . 日本に行くにしろそんなにす ( 直）ぐには行きません •
“E v e n if I g o to Ja p a n , I w o n ’t g o th a t s o o n .”
-ni shiro "Vnaifii shiro hこ 'しち "V 于s:い 'KC'しろ w h e t h e r ••• o r，e.g . /々w
ni sniro ikanai ni shiro tomokaku shirasete kudasai. 行くにしそ>
行かないにしろと（
兎）もかく（
角）報 (知ら）せて下さい • “W h e th e r y o u
V3-following Expressions •no 71
g o o r n o t, p le a s e le t u s k n o w an y w ay .
•ni shita tokoro de l i d ナこところで e v e n if, e.g . Uchi o kau ni
shita tokoro de takai uchi wa kaimasen . 家を貫ろことこちで
高い家は買いません • “E v e n i f I bu y a h o u se ， I w o n ’t b u y a n e x
p e n siv e o n e.”
-ni shitagatte に従って in p ro p o rtio n to , e.g . Toshi o torn ni
shitagatte chichi wa yasashiku n a t t a . 年をとるに従って父は優しく
なった . uW i t h a g e (a s h e g re w old er), m y f a t h e r b e c a m e g e n tle.'"
-ni shite mo K l ても = -m shita tokoro de even d ，e.g. Nihon ni
iku to shite mo kotoshi wa i k i m a s e n . 日本に行くとしても今年は行
きません . “ E v e n if I g o to Ja p a n , I w o n ’t g o t h is y e a r .”
•ni suginai hこす (過 ) ぎ ' n o th in g b u t, no m o re th a n , e.g . Ichinichi
ni ichi-peji o yomu ni s u g i n a i . 一日にーページを読むにすぎない .
“ H e re a d s no m o re th a n o n e p a g e a d ay.”
-ni tsuite K ついて c o n c e rn in g , e .g . Kono shigoto o suru ni tsuite，
hajime ni iwanakereba naranai koto ga a r i m a s u . この仕事をする
にっいて，初めに言わなければならないことがあります • “ A s fo r do
in g th is jo b , I h a v e s o m e th in g th a t I m u st sa y fir s t.”
-ni tsurete 丨こつi x て in a c c o rd a n c e w ith , in p ro p o rtio n to , e.g.
Kodomo ga okiku naru ni tsurete hima ga d e k im a s u . 子供が大き
くなるにつれて暇ができ（出来）ます • “T h e o ld er o u r c h ild re n g e t,
th e m o re tim e w e c a n h a v e .”
-ni wa in o rd e r to , e.g . Daigaku ni iku ni wa okane ga
•俯a 抓 . 大学に行くにはお金がかかります • “I t t a k e s m o n ey to
g o to a u n iv e rs ity .” Kono hon o ireru ni wa ano hako wa chiisa-
似ど/俯ぬ w• この本を入れるにはあの箱は小さす (過 ) ぎます . “ T h a t b o x
is to o s m a ll to pu t t h is b o o k in .,>
•ni wa V 3 には V 3 --ko to wa V 3 re p e titio n o f th e s a m e v e rb , as
f a r a s . . . is c o n c e rn e d , e.g . Hon ga aru ni wa arimasuga， ii hon
wa a r im a s e n . 本があるにはありますがいい本はありません . “T h e r e
a re b o o k s a ll rig h t, b u t th e r e a re n o t a n y good b o o k s.”
•ni [wa] oyobanai に及 {孓ない u n n e c e s s a ry to do . . . ， e.g . As hit a
kuru ni wa o yo b im a se n . 明日来るには及びません . “ I t ’s u n n e c e s
s a r y fo r y o u t o c o m e to m o rro w .”
-no (D n o m in a liz e s th e p re c e d in g v e rb
1 . one w h o, e .g . Asoko ni iru no ga Yamada-san d e s u . あそこ
にいるのが山田さんです • “T h e one w h o is th e r e is M r.
Y a m a d a .”
72 -no da V3-following Expressions
2. fa c t th a t, e.g. Muzukashii no ga shinpai d e s u . 難しいのが心

配です “T h e fa c t th a t it is d ifficu lt w o rrie s m e.”
3. tim e w hen, e.g. Ano hito ga kita no wa gogo sanji deshita.
あの人が来たのは午後三時でした • “T h e tim e w h en he cam e
w as th r e e o’c lo c k in th e a fte rn o o n .”
S e n te n ce -e n d in g p a r t ic le :
1 . collo q u ial su b stitu te fo r ka} e.g. Iku n o . 行くの. “Ar e you
g o in g ?’’
2. w o m en 's sp eech , e.g. Iku n o . 行くの• “I am g o in g .”
-no da < 〇ヤと = -n’ da it is a ta c t t h a t . . e.g. Ashita tku no
d e s u . 明日行くのです • “ W e ’ll go tom orrow (It is a fa c t th at
w e’ll go to m o rro w ).’’
N o te : -n o d a is a sim p le sen ten ce-en d in g phrase, and often does not
h ave to b e translated.
•no de ので sin ce, b ecau se , lite ra lly “fa c t b ein g th a t” . . . (em p hasis
on th e re aso n , cf. -kara). Do n o t u se no de w h en th e re su lta n t
p art is in te rro g a tiv e , im p e rativ e , o r te n ta tiv e . In th e s e c a s e s use
kara (S ee p. 64). e.g. Ashita shiken ga aru no de kyd isogashn
d e s u . 明日試験があるので今日忙しいです . “B e c a u s e I hav e an
e x a m to m orrow , I am busy to d ay .”
•no de u のでいい it is all rig h t w ith th e one t h a t . . . , e.g. Soko
tz r w 似ぬ “ ぬ sw• そこにあるのでいいです • “I t is all rig h t
w ith th e one th a t is th e re .”
-no de mo nan’ de mo nai のでも何でもな V、 n o t d oing a n y th in g of
th a t so rt, e.g. Benkyo shite iru no de mo nan'de mo n a i . 勉強し
ているのでも何でもない . “ I am n o t stu d y in g or d oing a n y th in g
lik e th a t.”
-no de wa nai O で it is not th e fa c t t h a t . . . , n e g a tiv e of
-ho da，e.g. Rare wa seijika ni naru no de wa arimasen. 彼は
政治家になるのではありません . “He w o n’t b eco m e a p o litician (It
is not th e fa c t th a t h e w ill b eco m e a p o litician ).”
-no de wa nai dard ka (Dでぬナs:'い 'i t ろう I w ond er if . . . not, e.g.
Ano koto o shitte iru no de wa nai daro k a . あの事を知っている
のではないだろうか . “ I w o nd er if he d oesn’t kn o w th a t.”
•no de wa nakuife) O ではなく it is not th e fa c t th a t •••, but, e.g.
Ano hito wa seijika ni naru no de wa nakuy gakusha ni naru so
desu. あの人は政治家になるのではなく，学者になるそうです . “I
V3-following Expressions -rashii 73
un derstand th a t he w on’t b eco m e a p o litician , but w ill be a

sch o la r•”
•no ni (Dに
Tegami o kaku
1 . i n ord er to , in th e p ro ce ss of d o i n g . . . , e.g.
no ni kami ga ir im a s u . 手紙を書くのに紙がい（要）ります.
**We need paper in ord er to w rite letters.**
2. alth o u g h , e.g. Kono kodomo wa atama wa ii no ni chittomo
知仍 ⑽ •この子供は頭はいいのにちっとも勉強しませ
ん. “Al t ho ugh th is ch ild is b rig h t, he d oesn’t stud y at a ll.”
3. (a t th e end of a se n te n ce ) e x p resse s r e g re t o r im p atien ce,

e.g. Koko ni ireba aeru no n i… ここにいれば会えるのに
… uW e could see h im if only he w ere h e re (too bad he
isn ，
t).”
•no ni taishite のに対して as opposed to, in c o n tra s t to, e.g. Ototo

ga yoku benkyo sum no ni taishite ani wa zenzen sh im a sen . 弟が
よく勉強するのに対して兄は全然しません. “I n c o n tra s t to th e
you n ger b ro th e r w ho stu d ies hard , th e eld er b ro th e r d oesn’t study
at a ll.”
知/s m 如 s/n•かのは別として = - 加切 0 如 to say noth-
in g of
如0 如 [/〇 s/z/な] のはと（兎）もかく（角） --no wa
tonikaku
[to sh ite] Senshu
to say n o th in g of •••， se ttin g asid e •••， e.g.
no shiken no warukatta no wa tomokaku， konshn no wa motto
yoku benkyd shite ii oten o totte ktcdasai. 失 :週の試験の悪かっ于この
はともかく，今週のはもっとよく勉強していいお点をとって下さい.
“Y o u r t e s t la st w eek w as bad, but se ttin g th a t aside, you should
study h a rd e r and do w ell on th is w e e k ’s te s t.”
•nomi narazu のみナニらず not only ••• but, e.g. Ano hito wa yoku
benkyd suru nomi narazu atama mo ii• あの尺は X く勉強するのみ
ならず頭もいい • “N ot only does he study hard, but h e is v e ry in-
te llig e n t.”
•osor谷â 恐れがある th e re is th e ris k th a t •••， be in d ag g er
oi ••• ，e.g. Ano hdhd wa shippai suru osore ga a r u . あの方法は
失敗する恐れがある • “T h a t m etho d is in d an g er of fa ilin g .”
-r 似 / ^ • らしい = 外ゴ a it s e e m s th a t, g iv e s e v e ry ap p earan ce of
{rashii rashit a u x ilia ry v erb m ean in g
co m es fro m th e c la ssic a l
，
*. to c o n je c tu re .，） e.g. Ano hito wa Nihongo ga yomeru rashii
74 -sa V8-following Expressions
d e s u .あの人は日本語が読めるらしいです• “I t se e m s th a t he c a n
read Ja p a n e s e .”
-似さ（
se n te n c e -e n d in g p a rtic le ) indeed, you know , e.g . Sonna
koto wa shitte iru sa. そんなことは知っているさ . “I c e rta in ly
kn o w su ch a th in g .” U sed by m en.
-sai ^ w h en, e.g. Sono shigoto o suru sai [wa] watakushi ni mo
mae motte sodan shite kudasai. その仕事をする際私にも前もっ (以）
て相談して下さい. “Wh e n you do th a t w o rk , p lea se also co n su lt
m e an ead o f tim e .”
-saichu ni in th e m id st of, e.g. Niwa de shokuji o shite iru
saichu ni ame ga futte kimaskita. 庭で食事をしている最中に雨が
降って来ました . “I n th e m id st o f e a tin g d in n e r in th e g ard en , it
s ta r te d ra m m g .”
所為）だ it is b e c a u s e •••，e.g. Ano hito no seiseki no
•J a せい（
warui no wa chittomo benkyd shinai sei d e s u . あの人の成績の悪い
のはちっとも勉強しないせいです . “ I t is b e ca u se h e d o esn ’t study
a t a ll th a t h is g ra d e s a re bad.”
-sの•如せい (所為）か p erh ap s b e ca u se =-karaka e.g. Kyo ichinichi-
ju isogashikatta sei ka totemo tsukarem ashita. 今日一日中 ,丨亡しかっ
たせいかとても疲れました • “P e rh a p s b e ca u se I w as b u sy all d ay，
I g o t v e ry tir e d .”
-shiL not only, b u t also , and, e.g. Nihongo mo yomeru shi，
Fwrawsw抑 w o 外；^ w 仍《• 日本語も読めるしフランス語も読めます .
“N ot o n ly c a n h e re a d Ja p a n e s e , b u t h e c a n also read F r e n c h .”
-sd da セう t i I u n d erstan d t h a t . . . , e.g . Tanaka-san wa Furansu-
go ga hanaseru so d e s u . 田中さんはフランス語が話せるそうです .
“I u n d e rstan d th a t M r. T a n a k a c a n sp e a k F r e n c h .”
-/ぬ / m• たび（
度）に e a c h tim e , e.g. Haha ga uchi ni kuru tabi niy
okashi o motte kite kuremasu. 母が家 K来る于こびにお英子を持って
来てくれます. aE v e r y tim e m y m o th e r co m e s to ou r hou se, sh e
b r in g s u s c a k e s .”
•tame ni ヤこめ{為 ')}ic
1 . p u rp ose, in o rd e r to , e.g. Hon o yomu tame ni toshokan ni
桃似本を読むために図書館に行きます • “In o rd er to read
b o oks, I g o to th e lib ra ry .”
2. re aso n , b e ca u se , e.g. Ame ga futte iru tame ni uchi ni imasu.
雨が降っているために家にいます . “I am s ta y in g h o m e b e ca u se
it is r a in in g .”
V3-following Expressions -to iu koto da 75
•to k
1 . (co n d itio n al) if, w h en, e.g. Miru to w akarim asu. 見るとわか
(分）ります. ‘‘If you se e it, yo u ’ll u n d e rstan d .”
2. W h e n e v e r, if a c e r ta in co n d itio n o ccu rs, s o m e th in g happens,
e.g. Haru ga kuru to atatakaku n a rim a su . 春が来ると暖か
くなります . “Wh e n e v e r sp rin g co m es, it g e ts w a rm .”
3. (tim e seq u en ce ) e.g. Uchi e kaeru to haha ga kite imashita.
家へ帰ると母が来ていました. “W h e n I re tu rn e d h om e, m y
m o th e r w as th e r e .” (T h e p a rt a fte r to co n d itio n al w as not
ex p e cte d .)
F o r a m o re d etailed e x p la n a tio n on co n d itio n al fo rm s , se e pp.
2 9 -3 2 .
4. (sig n o f c lo sin g q u o tatio n ) no c le a r d is tin c tio n is m ad e in
Ja p a n e s e b e tw e e n in d ire c t and d ir e c t q u o tatio n , -to m ay
b e sep a ra te d b y s e v e r a l o th e r w o rd s fro m th e v erb of
s p e a k in g o r h e a rin g , o r th in k in g (e x a m p le s below ).
-如 /め 0 k m と言えば言える if y o u w an t, yo u c a n s a y … ，e.g.
hito wa benkyoka da to ieba ieru d e s h d . あの人は勉強家だと言え
ば言えるでしょう. “If you w an t, perhaps you c a n sa y th a t h e is
a hard w o rk e r.”
•か m と言う
1 . sa y t h a t . . . , e.g. Sumisu-san ga Tokyo ni iku to umashita.
スミスさんが東京に行くと言いました. “He said th a t M r.
S m ith w ould go to T o k y o ,” o r “M r. S m ith said th a t he
w ould g o to T o k y o .”
2. e.g. Yamamoto-san to iu
w h ich is ca lle d , w ho is calle d ,
hito o shitte imasu k a . 山本さんという人を知っていますか .
a D o y o u kn o w M r. Y a m a m o to (a m a n w ho is calle d M r.
Y a m a m o to )? ”
3. defined as, e.g . 'Hoken-jidaV to iu kotoba o shitte imasu ka?
「封建時代」という言葉を知っていますか • “D o y 〇 u know th e
w ord d efined a s ‘fe u d a lism ’ ？ ”
-to iu hanashi da とい (言）う話 f i =-to iu koto da
•to iu koto da ヒ \ ヽうこと i t I h e a r th a t • " ， I u n d erstan d th a t •••，
e.g. Ano hito wa mukashi gakko no sensei datta to iu koto desu.
あの人は昔学校の先生だったということです• u n d erstan d th a t he
w as a sch o o l te a c h e r befo re.'*
76 -to iu koto dake de wa V8-following Expressions
•to iu koto dake de wa ヒいうことすでは =-to iu dake no

koto de wa if it is on ly b e ca u se •••，e.g . Atama ga ii to iu koto
dake dewa nakanaka shusse wa • 頭力 t し、
l、とし、うこと
たけではなかなか（中々）出世は難しい . uI f it is on ly b e ca u se one
h a s (one h a s n o th in g bu t) a good b ra in , one c a n 't su cce e d in life
e a sily .”
m 夕 m というように in su ch a m a n n e r th a t •••, e.g. メLw/ 辦

ikeba ototo mo iku to iu yd ni ano kyodai wa naka ga ii desu.
兄が行けば弟も行くとぃうようにあの兄弟は仲がぃぃです. “T h o s e
b ro th e rs a re c lo s e in su ch a m a n n e r th a t if th e o ld er b ro th e r
g o es, th e y o u n g e r one g o es, to o .”
•如如 ⑽ （
m ') といわんばかり（
に） a s if to say , e . g . 飾如 n ，-
gon {da) to iwan bakan ni atama o futte i t a . もうこりごり（だ）
と言わんばかりに頭を振っていた . “ H e w as s h a k in g h is head a s i f
to sa y th a t h e had had en o u g h .”
-to ka ヒ t 、 fo llo w ed by v e rb s su ch a s iuy kiku
1 . so m e th in g to th e e ffe ct, e.g. Sumisu-san ga Nihon ni iku to
ka k ik im a sh ita . スミスさんが日本に行くとか聞きました . “I
neard M r. b m ith is g o in g to Ja p a n , o r so m e th in g lik e th a t.n
2. . . . o r . " , e.g . Ko suru to ka a suru to ka nam o itte iru no
ka w akarim asen. こうするとかああするとか何を言っているのかわか
(分）りません. “ Do i ng th is , d oing th a t— I don’t u n d erstan d w h at
h e is say in g . (H e had b e tte r m a k e up h is m in a w h a t h e is g o
in g to do.)n
-か々/々m と聞く I h e a r th a t •••, e.g_ Yamamoto-san wa kyo bydki da

to kikim a sh ita . 山本さんは今日病気だと聞きました . “I h eard th a t
M r. \ a m a m o to is sic k to d ay .”
-to m 比rw と見える it looks a s if, e.g. Yamada-san wa totemo

tsukarete iru to miete kaoiro ga amari yoku arimasen d e s h ita . 山
田さんはとても疲れていると見え : C顔色が余りよくありませんでした .
c<I t looked a s i f M r. Y a m a d a w as v e ry tire d , and h is co m p le x io n
w as n o t v e ry good.”
-/〇 m o とも
1. Inani takusan hon o yomu to

( conj unct i on) e v e n i f . . . , e.g.
mo, sore o konasu koto ga dekinakereba yaku ni tatanai.
ぃか (如何 ) に沢山本を読むともそれをこなすことができ（出来)な
ければ役に立たない . “ E v e n if you read lo ts o f books, u n less
V8-following Expressions -toki InQ 77
you can digest them, it won’t be useful.”

2. (sentence-ending phrase) of course, e.g. Benkyd suru to mo.
勉強するとも• “Of course I will study!” Used by men.
•to mo nashi ni t もす = - 幻 mo does not mean to do
something, e.g. Miru to mo nashi ni m im a sh ita . 兄 ^) ともなし
に見ました • “I didn’t mean to look, but I just happened to see
it•”
•to no koto da ヒのこヒすと =4 〇 iu koto da I am told t h a t . . . , e.g.
Ano hito wa Nihon e iku to no koto desu. あの人は日本へ行くと
のことです . “I am told that he is going to Japan.”
-to shite として granted t h a t . d e c i d i n g to, e.g. Kono uchi o
kau to shite, ikura kurai dasu tsumori desu ka ? この家を買うと
していく（幾）らくらい出すつも（
積）りですか. aIf you decide to buy
this house, how much do you intend to payr*
•to (-ni) shite mo としても =to shita tokoro de even ii, e.g. Asfnta
iku to shite mo gozenchu ni wa ikimasen, 明日行くとしても午前
中には行きません • “Even if we go tomorrow， we won’t go in the
morning.”
(hyp othesis) if, e.g. Moshi Nihon ni iku to
•to shitara t しすこら snitara {-to sureba, -to suru to), taitei rainen
•to sureba とすれば > ぬ s / ^ . もし日本に行くとしたらたいてい (大抵 )
-to suru t o とすると来年でしょう . “If w e ev e r go to Jap an ,
perhaps it w ill be n e x t y e a r.”
-か泌 0 とは言え =-to wa itt€ mo even i f , e.g. [Ikura] iso-

gashii to wa iet sono kurai no koto wa shite kurete mo ii no ni
. . . 忙しいとは言え，そのくらい（位）のことはしてくれてもいいのに
. . . aE v en if h e is busy, I w ish h e would do th a t m u ch fo r me,
b u t (he w on’t ).”
• 幻 [wa：] 如沿似 • と限らない it does not necessarily mean that
• e.g. Nihonjin dakara n Nihongo ga nanaseru to wa kagira-
n a L 日本人だからいい日本語が話せるとは限らない . “Just because
a t>erson is Japanese, it doesn’t necessarily mean that he can
speak good Japanese.’’ {-nai to wa kagiranai, see pp. 41-42)
•to wa nashi ni 卞こ =-to mo nashi ni
•如々/ [w /] 時に See pp. 32-33 for the use of 如々/• See also p. 67
mae ni, for the difference between toki and toki ni.
78 -tokoro \_da] V8-following Expressions
-か知?r c ? [ぬ ] ところ
Koko wa gohan o taberu tokoro
1 . l ocat i on, th e p la c e w h e re , e.g.
d e s u . ここはごはん（御飯）を食べる所です • “T h is is th e p la c e
w h e re w e e a t o u r m e a ls .”
2. p o in t o f tim e , th e tim e w h en , e .g . Ima uchi o deru tokoro

desu. 今，家を出るところです. “W e a re ab o u t to le a v e
h o m e .” F o r tokorof se e p. 52.
3. s itu a tio n , in th e situ a tio n , e .g . Ima benkyd shite iru tokoro
desu. 今，勉強しているところです. “I a m stu d y in g now
(N ow I am in th e s itu a tio n o f studying).**
4. = -kagin e.g .
e x te n t, so f a r a s Watakushi no shitte iru
tokoro de wa ano hito wa kekkon shite fw csew • 私の知って
いるところではあの人は結婚していません . “ A s f a r a s I kn ow ,
h e is n o t m a rrie d .”
5. th in g , e .g . Anata no iu tokoro wa mottomo desu. あなたの

言うところはもっと（
尤）もです • “W h a t you s a y is re a s o n a b le .”
•tokoro no ところの（ re la tiv e p ro n ou n ) u sed m a in ly to tr a n s la te
r e la tiv e p ro n o u n s in fo r e ig n la n g u a g e s in to Ja p a n e s e , it o fte n
sou nd s a w k w ard , e.g . Kore wa ima jibun ga yonde iru tokoro no
hon de a r u . これは今自分が読んでいるところの本である . “T h i s is
th e b ook w h ic h I am n ow re a d in g .” S e e a lso p . 189.
-仿バ通り =-nari ]\ist zs ， e.g. Sensei no iu tori ni s h in a s a i. 失i

生の言うとおりにしなさい • “D o a s y o u r te a c h e r s a y s .”
•か/aw m• とたん（
途端）に no so o n e r th a n , e.g . Ano hito wa toko ni
tsuku (tsuita) totan ni nete shimaimasu. あの人は床に就くとたん
に寝てしまいます • “N o so o n e r d oes h e g o to b ed th a n h e fa lls
a sle e p .”
-/sw/ゐ w/ っいで (序）に w h ile d o in g A , [w e] w ill a lso do B . e.g.

Toshokan de rekishi no hon o yomu tsuide ni chiri no hon mo
卯似 /â• 図書館で歴史の本を読むついでに地理の本も読みました.
<{W h ile a t th e lib r a r y to re a d a h is to ry b o o k , I a lso re a d a g e o g
ra p h y b o o k .,>
•な [ふ ] つも（
積）り sh o w s in te n tio n , e.g . Ashita iku tsumori
desu. 明日行くつもりです . “I in te n d to g o to m o rro w .” F o r Vta
tsumori, s e e p. 53.
•ucni ni うち 1C w h ile, w h ile A is in p ro g re ss, B w ill o c c u r, e.g .
V8-following Expressions -ya [ina yd] 79
Hah a ga kaimono ni itte iru uchi ni, okas hi o tsukurimashita.

母が買物に行っているうちにお菓子を作りました • “W h ile m y m o th e r
w as g o n e sh o p p in g I m ad e a c a k e .,> -nai uchi ni, p. 42.
•從似 • 上に
1. Ano hito wa Nihongo ga dekiru ue ni
in ad d itio n to , e.g .
Chugokugo mo d e k i r u . あの人は日本語ができ（出来）る上に中
国語もできる • “In ad d itio n to b e in g a b le to s p e a k Ja p a n e se ,
h e c a n s p e a k C h in e s e , to o .”
2. w h en , e.g . Shobai o itonamu ue ni taihen taisetsu d a . 商売
を営む上に大変大切だ . “ W h e n you m a n a g e b u sin e ss it is v e ry
im p o rta n t.”
如 [ぬ ] わけ
1. it m e a n s t h a t . . . , e .g . Rare ga shita to iu wake desu ne.
彼がしたと言うわけですね • “I t m e a n s th a t h e did it, r i g h t ? ”
2. re a s o n w h y, e.g .Nihon ni it a kara Nihongo ga yoku hana-
seru wake d e s u . 日本にいたから日本語がよく話せるわけです .
“B e c a u s e he w as in Ja p a n , th a t is w h y h e c a n sp e a k
Ja p a n e s e w e ll.”
N o t e : -w ake da is a se n te n c e-e n d in g form , w h ic h o ften d o es not

h a v e a d istin ct m ean in g, and th u s ca n n o t b e tra n sla ted into
E n glish .
如ぬ如 0 わけではない it d o esn ’t m e a n t h a t . . ” e.g .

de suru wake de wa a r im a s e n . 悪意でするわけではありません .
“I t d o e sn ，t m e a n th a t I do it ou t o f sp ite .” -nai wake de wa naif
s e e p. 42.
如 m’ [如0] /々flw似 •わけにいかない c a n ’t v e r y w ell do so m e th in g ,
th is w o n ’t pass, e.g . Sonna koto o suru wake ni wa ikimasen.
そんなことをするわけにはいきません• c a n ’t v e ry w e ll do su ch a
th in g .5' -nai wake ni ikanai, s e e p. 42.
-wari ni in p ro p o rtio n to , c o n sid e rin g , e.g . Sugaku ga kirai
da to iu wari ni yoku dekimasu• 数学が嫌い于 1 という柳に X くでき
( 出来）ます • “C o n sid e rin g th a t h e s a y s h e d o e sn ’t lik e m a th e m a t
Kare wa toshi ga ikanai wari ni monowa-
ic s, h e is goo d in it.”
kari ga i i . 彼は年がいかない割に物わかりがいい • “H e u n d e rsta n d s
th in g s w e ll fo r h is y o u n g a g e .”
-ya [ina y 〇] ^ a s so o n as, e.g . Uchi e kaeru ya toko ni tsukima-
s/z/M• 家へ帰るや床に就きました . “ A s so o n a s I g o t h o m e, I w e n t
80 -yara V8-following Expressions
to b ed .”
•夕a r a やら e x p r e s s e s u n c e rta in ty , e.g . •桃/ 災0 々sw

ni kaeru yara wakaranai. 清水さんはいつ (何時）日本に帰るやらわ
か (分）らない . “W e d on ’t k n o w w h e n M r. S h im iz u w ill go b a c k
to Ja p a n .”
-ッ似77. . . 3^72：やら . • . やら
w h a t w ith •••，e .g . Benkyd suru yara ，
uchi o kirei ni suru yara， anata wa zuibun isogashii desu n e . 勉
強するやら家をきれい (綺麗 ) にするやらあなたは随分忙しいですね .
uW h a t w ith stu d y in g and c le a n in g th e h o u se to o , you a re pretty-
b u sy , a r e n ^ y o u ?
-外ぬよう（様）だ， -ツJ W0 よう（様）な fo r a ttr ib u tiv e fo r m ; it lo o k s

lik e , as i f (b u t is n o t n e c e s s a rily ) ；yd m e a n s ap p e a ra n ce , e.g.
Ame ga fu tte iru yd d e s u . 雨が降っているようです • “I t lo o k s lik e
Dare demo dekiru yd na yasashii shiken deshita. 誰でも
r a in .”
でき（出来）るような易しい試験でした • “I t w as an e a sy e x a m in a tio n
w h ich it se e m s, e v e ry o n e co u ld p a ss.”
J m• ように
1 . j us t as, e.g . Amerika ni Nihongo o hanaseru hito ga takusan
iru yd ni， Nihon ni mo Eigo o hanaseru hito ga takusan
/m仍 w• ァメリカに日本語を話せる人が沢山いるように日本にも
英語を話せる人が沢山います . “ Ju s t a s th e r e a re m a n y people
w h o c a n sp e a k Ja p a n e s e in th e U n ite d S ta te s , th e r e a re
lo ts o f people in Ja p a n w h o c a n s p e a k E n g lis h .”
Snujin ga benkyd dekiru yd ni ashita wa
2 . i n o rd e r t h a t . . . ,
kodomo to ichinichi-ju gaishutsu suru tsumori d e s u . 主人力こ
勉強できるように明日は子供と一日中外出するつもりです. “I n
o rd e r th a t m y h u sb an d c a n stu d y to m o rro w , I in te n d to
g o ou t a ll d ay w ith m y c h ild .”
3. s o m e th in g lik e , e.g .N ani ka sonna koto o itte ita yd ni obo-
ete i m a s u . 何かそんなことを言っていたように覚えています .
“I re m e m b e r h e sa id s o m e th in g lik e t h a t•”
4. w ish fo r o th e rs, e.g . Ii kurisumasu o sugosaremasu yd ni. • •
いいクリスマスを過ごされますように •• • “I w ish you (w ill
h av e) a n ic e C h r is tm a s .”
Gakusei ni sono hon

-ツJ m ' かように言う（ in d ire c t co m m an d ) e .g .
o yomu yd ni iim a s h ita . 学生にその本を読むように言いました . “I
to ld th e stu d e n ts to re a d th a t b o o k .n
V4-following Expressions •ba ii no ka 81
•yd ni naru ようをこなる c o m e s ab o u t so th a t th e s ta te m e n t b e c o m e s

tru e , e.g. Konogoro Nihongo ga yomeru yd ni n a r im a s h ita . こ
( 此）の頃日本語が読めるようになりました . “ L a t e l y I h a v e b e c o m e
a b le to re a d Ja p a n e s e .”
-夕J swrw ようにする m a k e s it so th a t th e s ta te m e n t b e c o m e s
tru e , e.g . Heya o katazukete mina ga koko de asoberu yo ni shi-
w 似みJ • 室を片付けて皆がここ（此処) で遊べるようにしましよう.
“L e t ’s c le a n up th is ro o m so th a t e v e ry b o d y c a n p lay h e re .”
•ツ • より th a n , e.g . So suru yori kd suru ho ga n d e s u . そうす
るよりこうする方がいいです • “I t is b e t t e r to do t h is th a n th a t .”
づ^ n . ゐ0々0 [m.,切刎 w似 •より他ない th e re is n o th in g e lse to do b u t
. . . , e.g. Kyd wa jiddsha ga nai kara aruku yori hoka arimasen.
今日は自動車がないから歩くより他ありません . “S i n c e I d on ’t h av e
a c a r to d a y , th e r e is n o th in g e ls e to do b u t w a lk .”
•抑 W 如々0 [m ] k 辦 w似 •より他手がない = -yori hoka [wa] nai
•yori shikata ga nai 欠り i±'方が ts:い = -y〇ri [wd\ nai
-v〇shi [da] S I am to ld th a t •••, e.g. Raisnu ni wa sore ga wakaru
yoshi d a . 来週にはそれがわか (分）る由だ . “I a m to ld th a t w e ’ll
find o u t n e x t w eeK .”
-yotei \_da] p lan to , e.g . Ashita kara gakko e iku yotei d a . 明
日から学校へ行く予定だ •“I p la n to go to sch o o l s t a r t in g to m o rro w .”
•2 0 ぞ (s e n te n c e -e n d in g p a rtic le ) e m p h a tic , e.g . Kore wa muzuka-
shii z o . これは難しいぞ . “T h i s is d ifficu lt， I te ll y o u .” U sed by
m en .
IV . Expressions which follow the Fourth Base 仮定形〈かていけ

い〉 of the verb.
-ba ii s e e c o n d itio n a ls, pp. 6 -1 2 .
•み0 V 3 み(?ゐば V 3 ほど =-ba 义 dake th e m o re . . . t h e m o re, e.g.
Takusan tabereba taberu hodo dkiku n a r im a s u . 沢山食べれば食べ
るほど大きくなります ■ “T h e m o re y o u e a t, th e b ig g e r you g e t.”
•ba ii n， desu ga ヽんですが U れ’ desu ga • • • w ish ,
e .g . Ashita tomodachi ga kureba ii n’ desu ga • • • 明日友逢が来
ればいいんですが ••• “ I w ish m y frie n d w ould c o m e to m o rro w .”
F o r a m o re d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n o f th e su b ju n c tiv e , se e pp. 3 3 -3 4 .
(in te rro g a tiv e w o r d ) -ゐ0 // ⑽ 々0 ばいいのか = ( i .w .) + V ^ r fl n ka
how (w h a t, e tc .) to do , e .g . Do shite kono kanji o shiraoereba
82 -ba ii no ni V5-, V6-following Expressions
ii no ka wakarimasen. どうしてこの漢字を調べればいいのかわか
( 分）りません . “I don’t kn o w how to look up th is C hinese c h a ra c
te r .”
u wo m ものいいのに w ish, e.g. Haha ga ireoa n no m . .. f M
がいればいいのに . • • “I w ish m y m o th e r w ere h e re .” F o r a m o re
detailed ex p lan atio n of th e su b ju n ctiv e, see pp. 33-34.
-ba koso {文こそ = V 3 kara koso em p h atic, e.g. Anata o shinjireba
koso ikasete a g em a sh ita . あなたを信じればこそ行かせてあ（上）げま
した . “P recisely becau se I tr u s te d you, I let y o u go .”
V. Expressions which follow the FiTtt 忍ase 命令形〈めいれいけい〉

of the verb.
-to iu ど言う (in d irect com m an d ) to te ll som eone to do so m eth in g ,
e.g. Otdto ni kore o shiro to iim a sh ita . 弟！ (ここを ]^ろヒ'言いま
した . <CI to ld m y y o u n g e r b ro th e r to do th is .” Sensei ni kono
hon o yome to iw arem ashita. 先生にこの本を読めと言われました .
“I w as to ld by m y te a c h e r to re a d tm s book.”
VI. Expressions which follow the Sixth Base 推量形〈すいりょう

けい〉 of the verb.
ようい ) ( お）う - ッ w ith vow el-stem verb , w ith co n so n an t-
ste m verb.
F u n c t i o n s : 1 . p ro b ab ility 2. o ne’s w ill
(in te rro g a tiv e w o r d ) -夕J ( - J ) ぎa ( か）ようが = (i.w .) + /^ (de) mo no
m a tte r how (w hat, etc.), e.g. Ika ni benkyd shiyd to, sonna muzu-
kasnu shiken ni wa ukaru hazu ga a r im a s e n . いか ( 如何 )に勉強し
ようと，そんな難しい試験には受かるはず ( 箸 ) がありません • “N o m a t
te r how h a rd he studies, h e c a n ’t possibly p ass th a t k in d of dif-
ficult e x a m in a tio n .”
•y石（•的 ga (to) kamawanai X うがかま (構 )わない it does n o t m a tte r
it so m e th in g happens, e.g. Ano hito ga shind to ka m a w a n a i. あ
の人が死のうとかまわない， “ It d o esn ’t m a tte r if sh e d ies.”
-yd {-〇) ga (to) V m a i ga ( t o ) ようが V まいが w h e th e r ••• or not,
e.g. Ano hito ga iko ga ikumai ga watakushi no shitta koto de
wa n a i . あの人が行こうが行くまいが私の知ったことではない .
“W h e th e r he goes or not, I d o n ’t c a re (it’s n o t m y b u sin ess).”
•外（ -めぎ a ( 如) • • • タタ（
-め辦（
t o ) ようがようが ev en i f … o r . . . ，e.g.
/i)ne ga juro ga yum ga jurd ga iku tsumon d e s u . 雨 }^ 降ろう；^ 雪
Adjstem-following Expressions -ge 83
が降ろうが行くつも（
積）りです . “ Even if it rains or snows, I intend
to go.”
-ツヴ（
■め w o ようにも even if you w ant to •••, e.g. Nagusameyd
ni mo nagusameru sube o s h ir a n a i. 慰めようにも慰める術を知らな
い. “Even if I w ant to com fort her, I don’t know how to.”
•yd {-d、to omou {kangaeru') X う}!思、う I am thinking oi d o in g ...，
e.g. Motto benkyd shiyd to omotte i m a s u . もっと勉強しようと思っ
ています• “I am th in k in g of studying m ore.”
-外（
- め幻 s w r w ようとする
1 . is about to do som ething (but not accom plishing it), e.g.
Dekakeyd to shite iru tokoro e tomodachi ga kimashita. 出
か (掛 ) けようとしているところへ友達が来ました . “My friend
cam e ju st as I w as about to go out.n
2. try in g (unsuccesstully) to do som ething, e.g. Okiyd to shima-
shita ga amari nemukute okiraremasen d e s h ita . 起きようと
しましたがあま（余）り眠くて起きられませんでした • “I tried to
get up, but I was too sleepy and w as unable to get up.n
VII. Expressions which follow the 〇/* 认 e 4心形容

詞〈けいようし >•
Since Japanese adjectives are a form of verb, m any of the suf
fixes w hich attach to th e dictionary form of th e verbs also attach
to adjective dictionary form s as show n earlier. T herefore, some
of the special suffixes w hich only attach to adjectives are given
here.
T he following suffixes attach to th e stem s of adjectives. To make
th e stem of an adjective, delete th e last i from th e dictionary form ,
e.g• 仍が遅い “to be late” is a dictionary form , w hile 仍 0 is a stem.
-gavi が 10 a person exceedingly sensitive to th e quality described
by th e adjective, e.g. 卵 :r / 寒がり “ a person sensitive to the
cold,” kowagari 怖がり “tim id person, cow ard”
-g a ru が无>
1 . conjecture about th e feelings or em otions of someone else
other th a n th e speaker, e.g. Kodomo ga terebi o mite omo-
shirogatte i m a s u . 子供がテレビを見て面白がっています . “A
child is am used w atching TV .,>
-ge Yf =-sd seem ing condition of others, e.g. Totemo ureshige
ni hanashite i m a s u . とても嬉しげに話しています . “He is talking
84 -kard Adjstem -f 〇U〇wing Expressions
v e ry h appily (looking v e ry happy).’’

-karo t 、ろ ^) = A d j3 （te n ta tiv e ), -karo-iorm is not as co m
m only used as A.d]z-\-dard (desho).
(In te rro g a tiv e w ord) -kard ga {to ) かろうが = ( i . w . ) + mo
no m a tte r h o w (w hat, etc.), e.g. Donna ni takakard ga kau tsu-
mori d e s u . どんなに高かろうが買うつもりです . “No m a tte r how
ex p en siv e it is, I in te n d to bu y it.”
-kattara かっ于こら (conditional) if, e.g. Takakattara n a im a se n . 局
かったら買いません • “If it is ex p en siv e, I w o n ’t b u y it.”
-ke % m a k e s a n ad jectiv e in to a n a b s tra c t n o u n of th e q u ality
d escrib ed b y th e adjective, e.g. nemuke “sleep in ess.”
Hanashite iru uchi ni nemuke ga sashimashita• 話 ]^ て \ 、る中
気がさしました• 心從
“W hile I w as ta lk in g , I becam e sleepy.”
o hiita no ka samuke ga shimasu. 風邪をひいたのか寒気がします.
“P ro b ab ly b ecau se I c a u g h t cold, I feel ch illy .”
-kereba (conditional) if, e.g. Ikitakereba itte mo ii desu yo.
行きたければ行ってもいいですよ . “Yo u m a y go if you w a n t.”
-ku く
1 . m a k e s a n adjective in to a n ad v erb , e.g. Takaku narimashita.
高くなりました • “I t b ecam e ex p en siv e.” “H e b ecam e ta ll.”
2. also m a k e s a few ad jectiv es in to nouns, e.g. Chikaku 近く
“n eighborhood,” tdku 遠く “d ista n c e ,” etc. F o r m o re ku-
fo rm , see pp. 88-89.
- 々w mo A dj 々M mo w似 •くも Adj くもない n e ith e r . . . nor, e.g. Taka-
知 m o以 mo 仍 ⑽ • 高くも低くもありません . “ It is n e ith e r
h ig h n o r lo w .”
-ku mo nashi Adhu mo nai くもなし Adi くもナs：\ 、 =-ku mo Ad、ku
mo nai
•kunai く卞こ、、 (negative), e.g. Kitanakunai d e s u . 汚くないです .
“It is n o t d irty .”
-々從紿くてな -fo rm of a d jectiv es; th e fu n c tio n of 々^ ? -fo rm is sim ila r
to Vte
1 . (conjunction) and, e.g. Atarashikute ii uchi d e s u . 新しくて
いい家です • “It is a new an d n ice h o u se.”
2. (cause) because . . . , e.g. Furukute tsukaimono ni narimasen.
古くて使いものになりません. “Because it is old, w e c a n ’t
use it. Use nute-iorm only w h e n th e re s u lta n t p a rt is a n
Adjstem-following Expressions -sugiru kirai ga aru 85
objective sta te m e n t w ith no im plication of one’s w ill or

desire, e.g. Takakute kaemasen. 高くて貢え戈せん .
“B ecause it is ex p en siv e， I can n o t buy it.” If one’s w ill or
desire is im plied, use kara (p. 64) or no de (p. 72). e.g.
Takai kara k a im a sen . 高いから買いません • “B ecause it is
expensive, I am not going to buy it.，’
-kute mo くて％ mo a t Adjs叩eriatiVe, e.g. mo
少くても “a t least,” な肢？小さくても “a t th e sm allest,” etc.
-kute sumu くて済む g e t by . . . ，e.g. Inaka ni sumu to yasukute
s u m im a s u . 田舎に住むと安くて済みます . “If w e live in th e coun
try , w e can g et by cheaply.”
-如な k w 似くてたま（
堪）らない is so • • • th a t it is unbearable,
e.g. Ano eiga ga mitakute tam arim asen. あの映画が見たくてたま
りません . “I really w a n t to see th a t m ovie.” UI w an t to see th a t
m ovie so m uch th a t I c a n ’t stan d it.”
-me め a tta c h e d to th e ste m of adjectives of q u ality or d e g re e ; it
ex p resses th e possession of th is ch a ra c ter, e.g. Sukoshi hayame
m ' 々/か々mゴ似似• • 少し早めに来て下さい • “P lease com e a little e a rly .”
-so さ m akes an ad jective into an a b stra c t noun, e.g. atarashisa
新しさ “new ness.”
-sd da そう f i ， sd na そうすs: fo r a ttrib u tiv e fo rm ；it appears, e.g.
Are wa takaso d e s u . あれは高そうです • “T h a t looks expensive.”
0む/ ^ 似ゆ？ぬ似 • あれはおい（美味）しそうなリンゴ（林
檎）です • “T h a t is a delicious-looking apple.” E xception: W hen
th e stem is one syllable, in se rt sa b etw een stem and soy e.g.
(n a /sa /s5 ), mo w ascsJ ぬ似 • 何もなさそうです • “It
seem s th e re is n o th in g •” yosaso (y o /sa/so ), yosaso na hito よさ
そうな人 “m a n w ho seem s nice.”
-sugi mo sezu {shinai shi) A dj-stem (copular noun) sugi mo shinai
す (過）ぎもせず A d j- s te m す ( 過）ぎもしない n e ith e r … nor, e.g.
Nihon wa Ajia rairinu nara tosugi mo sezu {shinai shi) chikasugi
mo s h i n a i . 日本はァジァ大陸から遠すぎもせず近すぎもしない .
‘‘Jap an is n e ith e r too fa r fro m n or too close to th e A sian C o n tin en t.”
•sugim す (過')ぎる too. • • ，e.g. Ano uchi wa dkisugimasu• あの家
は大きすぎます . ‘‘T h a t house is too big•”
-sugiru kirai ga aru す (過）ぎる嫌いがある th e re is a ten d en cy to
be too • • •, e.g. Ano hito wa urusasugiru kirai ga a r im a s u . あ
の人はうるさすぎる嫌いがあります. “He h as a ten d en cy to be too
86 -yagu Cop. Noun-following Expressions
noisy.”
•yagu や <： becom e, e.g. Ano hito wa konogoro hidoku wakayaide
kimashita. あの人はこ（此）の頃ひどく若やいできました . “She is
g e ttin g to look v e ry yo u n g lately .”
V III. E xpressions w hich follow th e Coipw/ar iVoM/is 形容名詞〈けい

ようめいし〉
がる See A aj-stem + ^ ttrw , p. 83.
-na fs： m akes a copular noun into a m odifier of a n o th e r noun, e.g.
Kirei na hito きれい (綺麗 )な人 “a p re tty p erso n .” F o r m o re
about co p u lar nouns, see p p . 152-53. F o r m ore nay see p p .117-18.
na is o ften used a fte r fo reig n adjectives, e.g. Ano hito wa tote-
mo chamingu na hito desu. あの人はとてもチャーミングな人です .
“She is a v e ry c h a rm in g p erso n .”
•m • に m ak es a copular noun into an adverb, e.g. Genki ni nari-
m a s h i ta . 元気になりました .
“I becam e w ell.” Kirei ni shite
• きれい ( 綺麗）にして下さい • “P lease clean it (Please m ak e
it clean).”
-sa $ m ak es a copular noun in to a n a b stra c t noun, e.g. Kireisa
きれい ( 綺麗）さ “quality of bein g p re tty , or clean 广
-がぬそうだ， -sJ we そうな fo r a ttrib u tiv e fo rm , it appears, e.g.
Ano hito wa totemo genki so desu. あの人はとても元気そうです.
“H e looks v e ry h ealth y .” 欲妨似み办？元気そうな人 “ a person
w ho looks h e a lth y .”
-sugi mo [sezu] C opular noun (A dj-stem ) sugi mo shinai す ( 過）ぎ
もせず Cop. n . す ( 過）ぎもしない n e ith e r … nor, e.g. Jozu sugi
mo heta sugi mo s h in a i. 上手すぎも下手すぎもしない • “H e is nei
th e r too sk illfu l no r too u n sk illfu l.”
-sugiru す [過）ぎる too … ， e.g. Ano hito wa otoko ni shite wa
kirei su g im a s u . あの人は男にしてはきれい (綺麗 ) すぎます . “For a
m an he is too p re tty .”
-似沿々/ r a / 取 : 似^ す ( 過）ぎるきらい（嫌）がある th e re is a ten d en cy
to be too . . . , e.g. Jozu sugiru kirai ga a r im a s u . 上手すぎるきら
いがあります • “H e h a s a ten d en cy to be too sk illfu l.”
-zuki 好き perso n w ho lik e s . . . , e.g. Ano hito wa totemo kireizuki
d e s u . あの人はとてもきれい (綺麗 ) 好きです . “He is a perso n w ho
likes to keep th in g s v ery n e a t.J, kireizuki na hito きれい好きな人
“a tid y p erso n ”
ADJECTIVES (V E R B A L A D JE C T IV E S )
形容詞くけいようし>
A s a ttrib u tiv e adjectives, Japanese adjectives fu n ctio n like th e ir

E nglish c o u n te rp a rts—th a t is, by p reced in g th e nou n s th e y m odify.
B ut as p red icate adjectives th e y differ fro m E n g lish in th a t th e y
fu n ctio n as verbs. F o r exam ple, akai in th e sen ten ce Kono hana
wa a k a i . この花は赤い . “ T h is flower is re d ,” m e a n s n ot ju st “red ,”
b u t “is red .” In th e sentence, Kono hana wa akai desu, desu does
n ot have a copulative verb fu n ctio n , b u t r a th e r is used to m ak e
th e ending level m ore polite (See Copulas, pp. 13-14). B ecause
Japanese adjectives a re th u s a special class of verbs, th e y conjugate.
T h e conjugation p a rtia lly parallels th a t of o rd in ary verbs, b u t is
m u ch sim pler. D ictionary fo rm s of adjectives end in -n, -uiy or
-oiy b u t never -ei. {Kirei is n o t a n adjective, b u t is a co p u lar noun.
It is, th erefo re, possible to say, Kono hana wa kirei day see p . 14.;
T h e ste m s of adjectives a re th e fo rm w ith o u t th e final /. T h e
fu n ctio n of th e adjective stem s is v ery sim ila r to th e second base
of th e v erb (See pp. 5-6). T h a t is, th e stem can be used to c re a te
com pound w ords, such as chikamichi g ® “sh o rtc u t,” or naga-
gutsu ftKfc “boots.” M any suffixes a re also a tta c h e d to th e stem .
T h e y a re found in th e E xpressions w hich follow th e S tem s of
A djectives (pp. 83-86). T h e adjective ste m s of som e colors becom e
nouns. T h a t is, aka fro m akai is th e noun “red,” and ao fro m
aoi 青い is th e noun “blue.”
88 Conjugation of Adjectives
CO N JU G A TIO N O F A D JECTIV ES
1. t akai 高い “(is) h ig h ” ______
formative for base
1. taka ku* -nai Negative
2. taka ku -te, takakatta (con Continuative

traction of takaku
atta)
3. taka i 1. Conclusive
—(desu，deshita,
desh5) (Dictionary Form)
2. Noun Attributive
4. taka kere -ba Conditional
5. —
6. taka karo (contraction of takaku aro) Tentative
2. a ta ra sh ii 新しい “(is) new ”
1. atarasm ku -nai Negative
2. atarasm ku -te, atarashi katta Continuative
3. atarashi 1. —(desu, deshita,
Conclusive
desh5) (Dictionary Form)
2. Noun Attributive
4. atarashi kere -ba Conditional
5.
6. atarashi karo Tentative
3. h ik u i 低い “(is) low ’
，
1. hiku ku ■nai Negative
2. hiku ku -te, hikukatta Continuative
3. hiku i 1. —(.desu, deshita,
Conclusive
desho) (Dictionary Form)
2. Noun Attributive
4. hiku kere -ba Conditional
5. —
6. hiku kar5 Tentative

Êxplanation of 々w-form， see p. 89.
Ku-iorm of Adjectives 89
4. aoi 青い “(is) blue, g re e n ”

1. ao ku -nai Negative
2. ao ku -te, aokatta Continuative
3. ao i 1. Conclusive
—(desu, deshita,
desho) (Dictionary Form)
2. Noun Attributive
4. ao kere -ba Conditional
5. 一
6. ao karo Tentative
Note: Both i i and y o i ugood>, are used in the attributive form, but
in all other conjugated forms, only y o t is used, i.e. y o k u y
y o k a tta ，yokereb a ，yokard，e tc .
K U -FO R M O F A D JE C T IV E S (See also p. 84)

Ku-iorm (identical in b o th 1st an d 2nd base) of a d jectiv es h as
a n ad v erb ial fu n ctio n . It m odifies verbs. Som e ad jectiv e 々w-forms
m o d ify o th e r ad je c tiv e s an d c o p u la r n ouns p lu s na o r ni.
e.g. K ono u c h i w a furuku n a r i m a s h i t a . この家は古くなりました .
uT h is h o u se has b ecom e old.n {furuku m odifies th e verb
narimashita)
K ono u ch i w a sugoku fu ru i d e s u . この家はすごく古いです .
uT h is h o u se is e x tre m e ly old.n {sugoku m odifies th e adjec
tiv e furui)
Sugoku k ire i n a h ito desu. すごくきれい (綺麗）な人です .
“She is a n e x tre m e ly p re tty p erso n .” {sugoku m odifies
th e c o p u lar n o u n p lu s nay kirei na)
Kono kozutsumi wa hidoku ranbo ni toriatsukawareta rashii.
この小钽はひどく乱暴に取扱かわれたらしい . “T h i s p ack ag e
seem s to h a v e been tre a te d v ery ro u g h ly .,> {hidonu m odines
th e c o p u lar n o u n p lu s m, ranbo ni)
F o r som e ad jectives, th e ku-iorm has th e fu n c tio n or a noun
as w ell as a n adverb.
e.g. A no h ito w a kono chikaku ni sunde im a su . あの人はこの近
くに住んでいます . “He lives in th is n eig h b o rh o o d .”
D aigaku w a ek i k a ra toku n i a rim a su . 大学は駅から遠くに
あります • “T h e u n iv e rsity is located f a r fro m th e sta tio n .”
O ku no h ito w a so re o sh irim a se n . 多くの人はそれを知りま
90 Kute-iorm of Adjectives
せん . “ M any people do n o t know it.”
K U T E -F O R M O F A D JE C T IV E S
Kute-iorm is th e ^ - fo rm of adjectives. L ike th e verb お-fo rm , it

fu n c tio n s as th e c o n ju n ctio n “and.” （F o r m o re 々wお-fo rm , see pp. 84-85)
CO M M O N A D JE C T IV A L T E N SE S
/ a t e . 高い “high, ta ll”
P o sitiv e
tense
present perfective Present
tentative perfective
formality '''\
polite Takai desu Takai deshita Takai desho
Takakatta desu Takakatta desho
informal Takai Takakatta Takai daro

Takakatta dar5
formal* (O)tako gozaimasu (Otako) (O)tako gozaimasho
gozaimasnita
(O)tako gozai-
mashita desho
N egative
tense
present perfective tentative perfective
tentative Present
formality
polite Takakunai desu Takakunai deshita Takakunai desho
Takaku arimasen Takaku arimasen Takakunakatta
deshita desho
Takaku nakatta
desu
informal Takakunai T akakunakatta Takakunai dar5

Takakunakatta
daro
formal* (0) takaku (0) takaku gozai (0) takaku gozai

gozaimasen masen deshita masen desho
(O)takaku gozaima
sen deshita desho
* Formal level of adjectives, see pp. 224-25.
Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives 91
C O M PA R A T IV E AND SU PE R L A T IV E DEGREES O F A D JECTIV ES
T h e w ord ho is used to express com paratives (See pp. 62-63 for

m ore details)
e.g. Kono jidosha no ho ga {ano jidosha yori motto) okii desu.
この自動車の方が（あの自動車よりもっと）大きいです . “Thi s
c ar is bigger (th a n tn a t car).’’
T h e w ord k み功 is used to express superlatives.
e. 〇- Korrn ndosha ga {kono naka de) ichiban okii desu. この自動
車が（この中で ) 一番大きいです . “T h i s c a r is th e biggest
(am ong these).”
NON-CONJUGATIVE ADJECTIVES 連体詞くれんたいし〉
As stated in th e previous chapter, Japanese adjectives are a

special class of verbs and th u s conjugate. T h ey are, therefore,
m ore appropriately called verbal adjectives. Japanese also has an
o th er kind of adjective w hich does not conjugate. T h e n um ber of
these non-conjugative adjectives is lim ited. Some of th em cor
respond to E nglish pronom inal adjectives.
Follow ing a re som e exam ples:
iT<9W6>-type w ords Konna-type w ords
kono この “th is” k o n n a こんな “th is k ind of”
sono その “th a t” s o n n a そんな “such”
ano あの “th a t” anna あんな “th a t kind of”
dono どの “w hich” d o n n a どんな “w h at kind of”
Differences of kot sof at and do
Ko indicates th a t th e object re fe rred to is close to th e speaker.
So indicates th a t th e object is close to th e listener, or w as p re
viously re fe rred to.
A indicates th a t th e object is reasonably d istan t from both.
Initial do often show s th a t th e w ord is interrogative.
T h ere are m any m ore sets of w ords th a t s ta rt w ith ko, so, a, and
do (See Pronouns, p . 192), b u t in each case th e initial syllables
c a rry th e sam e basic m eaning.
Besides th e above types of w ords, th e re are sev eral m ore non-con
jugative adjectives.
Some of th e very com m on ones are listed below :
aray u ru あらゆる “every” naki 亡き “deceased”
aru あ（或）る “a c e rta in ” saru さる “a c e rta in ”
kano かの “th a t” (m ore literary th a n aru)
(m ore lite ra ry th a n ano) taish ita たいした “g re a t”
kak aru かかる “ th is kind o f” tonda とんだ “outrageous”
“ such” “aw ful”
(m ore literary th a n konna)
Such w ords as 於 m o 大きな “large,’’ cみ// ⑽ ■ 小さな “sm all ,”ぬか

skina おかしな afunny,,> are also considered non-conjugative adjec
tives. T h ey cannot be classified as copular nouns (pp. 152-53),
even though th ey end w ith naf because okit chiisaf and okashi
w ithout na can n eith er be used as noun form s nor b e followed by
th e copula da {desu).
P A R T I C L E S 助詞くじょし〉
Japanese p a rticles a re non-conjugative w o ras w hich a tta c h to

w ords, phrases, or clauses, and indicate th e relatio n sh ip of th e
p reced in g w ord(s) to th e follow ing w ord or to th e re s t of th e sen
tence.
Som e Jap an ese p a rtic le s have fu n ctio n s sim ila r to E nglish eq u iv a
lents.
e.g. Y am ada-san 助 b6shi 山田さんの帽子 “M r. Y am ad a’s h a t.”
(possessive) is sim ila r to E nglish “ ’s.”
T a n a k a -sa n か Shim izu-san 田中さんと清水さん “M r. T a n a k a
M r. Shim izu.” か（conjunction), “and,” co n n ects tw o
nouns.
O th e r Jap an ese p a rtic le s have fu nctions sim ilar to E n g lish p re
positions, b u t differ in th a t th e Japanese p a rtic le s are post-positional,
ra th e r th a n pre-positional.
e.g. T okyo e i k i m a s u . 東京へ行きます • “I go か T ok y o .”
e (m otion tow ards), “to ,” indicates th e d irectio n of a m otion.
T okyo k im a sh ita • 東京から来ました . ill cam e from
T okyo.” 々a rc (m otion aw ay from ), “fro m .”
Still o th e rs have a p e c u lia r usage w nich is n o t fo u n d in E nglish.
T h ese p articles indicate th e relationship betw een th e p reced in g
w ord(s) an d th e re s t of th e sentence.
e.g. W atak u sh i g ak u sei desu• 私は学生です • “I am a stu d en t.”
wa (topical) indicates th a t th e p reced in g w ord is th e topic
of th e sentence.
E iga o m i m a s h i t a . 映画を見ました • “I saw a m ovie.”
o (accusatival) in d icates th a t th e p reced in g w o ra is th e
d ire c t object of th e verb.
M ost of th e particles, how ever, a re jn u lti-fu n c tio n a l. T h is sec
tio n is in ten d ed to a ssist re a d e rs in becom ing fa m ilia r w ith as m any
of th e se fu n ctio n s as possible, and also fo r use as a refe re n ce
m an u al in reading.
In th e follow ing pages, corresponding E n g lish tra n sla tio n s are
su g gested in th e paren th eses, w hile brief explanations, w h en ev er
needed, a re giv en w ith o u t parentheses. Also, th e follow ing ab b re
v iations a re used:
94 bakari Particles
^nai-nai-iorm of th e verb
V 2一 2 nd base of th e verb
V 3—3 rd b ase of th e verb
V^fl—^ -c o n d itio n a l of th e verb
Vtentative—te n ta tiv e of th e verb
如 -fo rm of th e verb
な-fo rm of th e verb
Adj.—adjective
Cop. n —co p u lar noun
A L P H A B E T IC A L L IS T O F PA R T IC L E S AND
T H E IR FU N C TIO N S
BAKARI 力、り (bakkari，bakaski， and bakkasfn， are more coUoqai^d

form s)
I. (only; m e re ly ; just)=dake
Noun+bakari Jibun no koto bakari k a n g a e te im asu . 自分の
ことばかり考えています. “He is th in k in g only about
him self.”
Yerb-\-bakari
(y z-ôanan) B enky5 suru bakari de hoka w a n am m o
sh im a se n • 勉強するばかりで他は何もしません . “ H e only
stu d ie s， and does n o tn in g else.”
(Vt〇+bakari) Kangaeta bakari de m o zotto sh im asu . 考
えたばかりでもぞっとします . “I sh u d d er a t th e m ere
th o u g h t of it.”
Ad].bakari fakai bakari de y o k u a rim a se n . 高いばかりで
よくありません . ‘‘I t ’s ju st expensive, n o t good.”
Cop. n. + na+bakari Kirei na bakari de y a k u n i tach im asen .
きれい (綺麗）なばかりで役に立ちません • “I t ’s ju st p retty ,
n o t u seful.”
II. (alw ays)
bakari Byoki bakari sh ite im a su . 病気ばかりしてい
ます . “ H e is alw ay s ill.”
Verb + bakari
(Vte-^rbakari) B yoki shite bakari im a su . 病気してばかりい
ます . “ H e is alw ay s ill.”
( S t o bakari omou) K ek k o n suru to bakari omotte im a-
sh ita . 結婚するとばかり思っていました. “I alw ays
th o u g h t th e y w ere going to m a rry .”
(yta+to bakari omou) S hinda to bakari omotte im ash ita.
Particles bakari 95
死んだとばかり思っていました. “I alw ays th o u g h t he

had died.”
Adj. + ifo bakari omou Ano uchi w a m otto okn to bakari
omotte i m a s h i t a . あの家はもっと大きいとばかり思ってい
ました . “I alw ays th o u g h t th a t house w as b ig g er.”
III. (about; approximately)
N u m b e r Sanju-nen bakari m ae ni N ihon ni ikim a-
s h i t a . 三十年ばかり前に日本に行きました • “I w en t to
Jap an about th ir ty y ears ago.”
Gojii-en bakari h araim ash ita. 五十円ばかり払いました .
“I paid about fifty yen.”
IV. (w ith only th is little bit of . . . ) —little sum , little q u an tity
Kore-tyê wovd+bakari Kore bakari no okane de w a nani
mo k a e m a s e n .こればかりのお金では何も買えません.
“W ith only th is little b it of m oney, w e c a n ’t buy
a n y th in g .”
Sore bakari de w a kodom o no yofu k u m o tsu k u rem asen .
そればかりでは子供の洋服も作れません • “W ith only th a t
little bit of m aterial, w e can h a rd ly ev en m ak e a dress
fo r a child.”
V. (to th e e x te n t t h a t " . ; v irtu a lly ; p ra c tic a lly ; a lm o s t) = 々wr似’
Y z-\-bakari Naku bakari ni ta n o m im a sh ita ga, k n te kure-
m asen deshita. 泣くばかりに頼みましたが，聞いてくれ
ませんでした. “She p ractically cried ask in g it of him ,
b u t he did not listen to her.”
K a n a sh ik u te m u n e g a sakeru bakari d e s h i t a . 悲しくて胸
が裂けるばかりでした. “I w as so sad ， th a t m y h e a rt
alm o st b u rs t.”
VI. (be ab o u t to .. .) = tokoro (see p. 52 fo r th e difference)
bakari M o h ik k o sh i suru bakari da k a ra u ch i no n ak a
ni w a n an i m o a r i m a s e n . もう引越しするばかりだから
家の中には何もありません. “Si nce w e a re ab o u t to
m ove, th e re is n o th in g in th e house.”
VII. (have ju st done)—action ju st co m p leted = ⑽ 卿
Vta+bakari Im a gohan o tabeta bakari d e s u . 今ごはん（御
飯）を食べたばかりです • “I hav e ju st eaten d in n er.”
VIII. (just because •••)

Verb+bakari ni
( V ^ bakari ni) A no hito w a okane ga aru bakari ni itsu
96 bakari Particles
m o h ito ni d am asarem asu . あの人はお金があるばかりに

いつ (何時）も人にだまされます . “Just because h e has
m oney， ne is alw ay s ch eated by people.”
(Vta+bakan ni) ip-pun osokatta oakari ni aem asen deshita.
一分遅かったばかりに会えませんでした. “J us t b ecau se I
w as one m in u te la te ， I co uldn’t see h im .”
Ad].+bakari ni U chi ga dm bakari ni itsu m o o k y ak u ga
ta k u sa n arim asu . 家が大きいばかりにいつもお客が沢山あ
ります . ^Just because th e ir house is big, th e y alw ays
have m an y g u ests.”
Cop. n. + na+baKan ni Bmbo na oakari ni itsu m o k u ro
s h im a s u .貧乏なばかりにいつも苦労します. “Just b e
cause she is poor, she alw ays h a s tro u b le.”
IX. (on th e point o r ; ju s t sh o rt o f . . . )
Oakari ni Nakan bakari ni yoro k o n d a . 泣かんばかりに
喜んだ . “She w as so happy th a t she w as on th e v erg e
of c ry in g .”
X. (th in k in g th a t it is th e b est tim e t o . . . ) —b est chance
N o u n + ^ bakari {omotte <cth in k in g n is o m itted a fte r bakari)
K ono toki to bakari kanojo n i h a n a sh ik a k e ta . この時
とばかり彼女に話しかけた . “T h i n k i n g th a t th is is th e
tim e (the chance I had been w aitin g a long tim e fo r
h a d finally come), I ta lk e d to h er.”
N o u n +^<2 to bakari ômotte is om itted a fte r bakari)
Ima ka to bakari m ach ik am aeta. 今かとばかり待ちかまえ
た . “I w aited, th in k in g th a t th e ch an ce w ould com e
up a t an y m in u te.”
XI. (th in k in g th a t it w as only . . . )
N o u n + ^ fl to bakari {omotte is o m itted a fte r bakari)
Yume ka to bakari yorokonda. 夢かとばかり喜んだ .
“H a v in g th o u g h t th a t it w as only a dream , I rejoiced
to find it w as real.”
XII. (not only, b u t a ls o . . . )=dake
Verb+bakari de wa nakuy ...m o
bakari de wa nakuf ...m o) G akko e itte iru bakari
de wa naku， niju-jikan mo h a ta ra ite im asu. 学校へ *
* « is a short form of n a i. The effect of this expression is very similar
to the positive verb form, V z -\-b a k a r i, see BAKARI, V, p. 95.
Particles dake 97
行っているばかりではなく二十時間も働いています • “H e
n o t only goes to school, b u t also w o rk s as m an y as
tw e n ty h o u rs.”
(Vta-^bakari de wa nakuy . . . mo) N ihon e itta bakari de
wa naku C hugoku e mo i k i m a s h i t a . 日本へ行ったば
かりではなく中国へも行きました • “H e n o t only w en t
to Japan, b u t also w en t to C hina.”
D A K E だけ (丈）
(only)
N oun+ ぬ如
a. dake in th is u sag e is p receded b y a no u n and follow ed
b y b o th p o sitiv e and n eg ativ e v e rb s (cf. shika, pp.
132-33, dake shika, pp. 98-99).
b. dake u su ally rep laces of gaf wa, ex cep t fo r special e m
phasis, in w h ic h case dake is u sed w ith th e m (See th e
fo llow ing exam ples).
c. dake n e v e r o c c u rs w ith th e p a rtic le mo.
d. dake a p p e a rs w ith o th e r p a rtic le s su ch as ni，de，no,
e，made，kara，to, etc.
e. dake e ith e r p re c e d e s or follow s th e o th e r p articles,
ex cep t e m p h atic ot ga, waf w h ich dake alw ay s precedes.
ni dake'
e.g. Y am am o to -san m i s e m a s h i t a . 山本さ
dake nil
にだけ’
ん見せました • “I show ed it o n ly to
だけに.
M r. Y am am oto.”
de aake でだけ’
T okyo m im a sh ita . 東京見
dake ae だけで.
ました. I saw it only in T okyo.
[to dake
T a n a k a -sa n h a n a s h im a s h ita .田中さん
[dake to
“I ta lk e d o nly to M r.
益話しました.
T a n a k a .”
Y am ad a-san dake [ga] k im a s h ita . 山田さんだけ
[ が ] 来ました • “O nly M r. Y am ad a cam e.”
O k a s h i ぬ知 M k a im a s h ita • お菓子だけ [ を]買
いました • “I bo u g h t only a c a k e .”
S o r e ぬ知〇 fl]k ira i d e s u . それだけ [ は ] 嫌いです .
98 dake shika Particles
“I dislike only th a t (••• b u t I d o n ’t d islik e o th e r

th in g s).
II. (as m u ch a s ; as m an y as)
V 3+ ゴa 如ぬ知 m o tte itte k u d a sa i • 持てるだけ持っ
て行って下さい. “P lease ta k e as m an y a s you c a n
c a rry .”
V 如.+ ぬ /祕ア似々似 Y a / * ゴa 知 tsu k a im a s h ita • 使いたいだけ使
いました • “I used as m u ch as I w a n te d to u se.”
III. (ju st; on\y)=bakari
Yerb-\-dake
(V3+ d a k e ) Taberu dake de sh ig o to w a s h i m a s e n . 食べる
だけで仕事はしません • “H e only eats, an d d o esn ’t w o rk .”
(Vta+dake) O kane o karita dake d e orei m o iw azu ni
k a e rim a sh ita . お金を借りただけでお礼も言わずに帰りま
した . “He (just) b o rro w ed th e m oney and w e n t hom e
w ith o u t ev en sa y in g ‘T h a n k y o u .’’’
A d j.4- dake Takai dake de y o k u a rim a se n . 高いだけでよく
ありません . “I t ’s ju s t expensive, n o t good.”
IV. (th e m o re . . . th e m ore) = hodo
^ba Yz^-dake (re p e titio n of th e sam e verb) Tabereba taberu
ぬ知 su k i n i n a r i m a s u . 食べれば食べるだけ好きになりま
す . “T h e m o re I eat, th e m o re I g e t to lik e it•”
N ihongo w a oenkyo sureba suru dane o m o sh iro k u
n a r im a s u .日本語は勉強すればするだけ面白くなります.
<(T h e m ore I stu d y Jap an ese, th e m o re in te re s tin g it
becom es.”
DAKE S H I K A だけしか
(o n ly ; n o th in g but)
N o u n + ぬ々衫 sAzだa + n e g a tiv e verb
a. dake shika is th e sam e as shika, b u t m o re em p h atic.
b. dake shika is only follow ed by n eg ativ e verbs.
c. dake shika alw ay s rep laces p a rtic le s ot gaf wa.
* When the final verb is in the perfective form (V^), the first part can
be in the perfective form also, but it is more common to use the present-
form (V8).
e.g. •ぬ加 tsukaimashita.使いたいだけ使いました . is more com
mon than 々似ぬ々 e tsukaimashita. 使ぃたかっただけ使ぃま
した .
Particles dano 99
d. dake shika ap p ears w ith all th e o th e r p a rticles, su ch as

nif def no, ef made, kara, toy etc.
f. dake shika follow s th e above p articles, o r so m etim es
th e se p a rtic le s can be placed b etw een dake and shika.
e.g. O cha dake shika n o m i m a s e n . お茶だけしか飲み
ません . “ H e d rin k s n o th in g else b u t te a .”
\ni dake shika)
i am am oto-san te g a m i o kaki-
[dake ni shika \
にだけしか’
m asen d e s h i t a . 山本さん手紙を書
だけにしか
きませんでした. ill w ro te a le tte r only to M r.
Y am am o to .”
’e dake sh
shika)
Tokyo ik im a se n d e sh ita • 東示
dake e shika) だけ
たブとか丨行きませんでした• w e n t only to
へしか J
T o k y o .”
Yerb-\-dake 5/2//? ^ + n e g a tiv e verb
(y^-\-dake n eg ativ e v.) A no Kodomo w a taoeru dake
似 2• • あの子供は食べるだけしか能がない . “ T h a t
child h a s no o th e r ta le n t b u t e a tin g .”
(Sta-\-dake n e g ativ e v.) Tsukatta dake shika Viaieshi-
m a se n d e s h i t a . 使っただけしか返しませんでした . “I re-
tu rn e d only w h a t I used.”
D A N O だの
(an d ; o r; an d th e lik e ; and so f o r th ; an d w h a t n ot)—o ften
u sed in pairs.
N o u n + dano+ N o u n + dano A no u ch i ni w a inu dano neko
dano g a i m a s u . あの家には犬だの猫だのがいます . “T h e r e
a re dogs, c a ts a n a m ore in th a t h ouse.”
A -tvpe w o rd + d /cw o + k o -ty p e wora+dano /i dano no dano
to h o n to ni u ru sa i h ito desu n e . ああだのこうだのと本当
にうるさい人ですね . “He is alw ay s sa y in g th is and th a t,
an d is su ch a n uisance, ls n ^ n e ? ,>
V e rb + ぬ ⑽ + Y trh+ aano
(V 3+ dano H- V 34- dano) K ore 0 suru dano a re 0 suru dano
to iin a g a ra s h i m a s e n . これをするだのあれをするだのと言
いながらしません • “A lthough he say s h e w ill do th is and
100 de Particles
he w ill do th a t, he does n ot do it.”

(V ta+ dano+ + dano) Asoko e itta dano koko e itta da-
no to itsu m o ib atte im asu. あそこへ行っただのここへ行
っただのといつ (何時）もいばっています . “He is alw ays
b ra g g in g th a t he has gone h ere and th e re .5*
Adj. + dano+ Adj. + dano
(A dj3+ dano+ Adj3+ dano) A re mo hoshn dano kore mo
hoshu dano to itte honto n i yok u b ari d esu . あれも欲し
いだのこれも欲しいだのと言って本当に愁ばりです. “H e
says he w an ts th is and w an ts th a t, and is tru ly g re e d y /'
(Ad]ta+dano+ A d j^ + dano) A su reb a yokatta dano ko
su reb a yokatta dano itsu mo k o kai b a k a ri sh ite im asu.
ああすればよかっただのこうすればよかっただのいつも後悔
ばかりしています. aShe is alw ays re g re ttin g th a t sh e
did not do th is o r she did n ot do th a t.”
D E で
Som e de a re particles, w hile o th ers a re th e second base as w ell
as th e te-iorm of th e copula da (See p . 15). De as a p article h as th e
m eaning, “in th e sta te of ••• ” W ith th is m ean in g in m ind, p e r
haps w e can analyze som e sentences as follow s:
Kore wa hon d e s u . これは本です . “ T h is is a book.”
desu—sh o rt fo rm of de arimasu
T h e n : “T h is exists in th e sta te of a book.”
T h u s: “T h is is a book.”
Dozo ogenki de (ite k u d a s a i). どうぞお (御 ) 元気で • （/か々 mぬ犯 / is
often om itted)
“P lease e x ist in th e sta te of good h ealth .”
T h e n : “P lease sta y in good h ealth .，*
A s show n below, one should choose a n appropriate E nglish equi
valent in each case.
I. N oun+ ゐ（occasionally N o u n + o th er p a rtic le + ぬ）

1. (by m eans of)—in stru m e n ta l
Enpitsu de k a k i m a s h i t a . 鉛筆で書きました . “I w rote
w ith a pencil.”
Kami dake de t s u k u r i m a s u . 紙だけで作ります . “W e
m ake it only w ith paper.”
Eigo de h a n a s h i m a s u . 英語で話します . “We speak in
E nglish•”
Particles de 101
Fune de i k i m a s u . 船で行きます • “W e go by boat.”
Rajio de kikim ashita . ラジオで聞きました • “We heard it
on th e radio.”
(according to ; by)
Jikan de h a r a i m a s u . 時間で払います . “W e pay you by
th e hour.”
(in exchange for; for)
Sanbyaku-en de k a i m a s h i t a . 三百円で買いました . “W e
bought it for th ree hundred yen.”
(a t; in)
a. location of action (cf. ni, location of existence)
Kyo toshokan de benkyo s h i m a s h i t a . 今日図書館で
勉強しました . “ I studied at th e library today.”
Kodomo ga niwa de asonde i m a s u . 子供が庭で遊ん
でいます • “Children are playing in th e yard.”
b. tim e consum ed for a certain action
Ichi-jikan de i k e m a s u . 一時間で行けます • “W e can
g et th ere in an hour.”
Ikka-getsu de d e k i m a s u . ーヶ月で出来ます . “I can
do it in a m onth.”
(am ong; betw een; w ith in ; in)—lim iting the condition
ぬ ichiban 6kii d e s u . 世界で一番大きいです • “It is
th e biggest in th e world.”
Kyo hitori de i k i m a s u . 今日一人で行きます . “I will go
alone today.”
ぬ kore o shim ashita • 三人でこれをしました .
“T h e th re e of u s did this.”
Kore to sore {to) de dochira ga suki desu k a ? これとそ
れでどちらが好きですか . “W hich do you like better,
th is or th a t? ”
(at th e age of)
iWフ •奶 -s似• ぬ shinim ashita • 二十才で死にました • “He died
at th e age of tw enty.”
(with)
Ano hito w a hadashi de gakko ni k i m a s u . あの人はは
だしで学校に ■来ます . “ He com es to school b are fo o t”
(so)
B eginning of a sentence: d6shita n ’ desu k a ? でどう
102 de Particles
したんですか • ‘‘So, w h a t did you d o ? ”
D E m ay be considered e ith e r as th e second base of th e co p u la

o r as a p article.
(because)—cau sal
Byoki de n e te i m a s h i t a . 病気で寝ていました . “Because I
wa s i l l , I w as in bed,” or “I w as ill, and w as in b ed .”
K ono u ch i w a kirei de ho n to n i ii d esu n e . この家はきれ
い (綺麗 ) で本当にいいですね . “T h i s h o u se is p re tty , and
it is v e ry nice, isn ’t it ?’’ o r “B ecau se th is h o u se is p re ttv ,
it is v e ry nice, isn ’t it? ”
Note: d e meaninc; <<because>, is used only when clause is
an objective statement. If one^ will is implied, use k a r a .
e.g. Kono uchi wa k i r e i d e ii desu ne. この家はきれいでいいで
すね . “Because this house is pretty, it is nice, isn’t it ?’’
Kono ucm wa o k is u g ir u k a r a kaimasen. この家は大きす
ぎるから買いません • “Because this house is too big, we
are not going to buy it.w
K ore de ii desu k a ? これでいいですか “ Is th is O K ? ’’
D E M O でも
(••• o r som ething)
N o u n + (particle) + demo
a. demo rep laces th e p a rtic le s of gaf wa.
b. demo ap p e a rs w ith su ch p a rtic le s as ni, det no, er
made，kara，to, etc.
c. demo follow s th e above p articles.
Ocha demo ip-pai ik a g a desu k a ? お茶でも一杯 1/、力>カミ（如何）
ですか • “H ow w ould you like to h av e a cup of te a o r
so m e tm n g ?’’
m • ぬ mo y a rim a sh 6 • 犬にでもやりましょう • “L e t’s g iv e
it to th e dogs o r so m e th in g .”
V 2 demo suru to {shitara) O tto n i shinare demo shitara
h o n t6 n i ta ih e n d e su • 夫に死なれでもしたら本当に大変です .
<(It w ould be re a lly aw fu l if m y h u sb an d sh o u ld die or
so m e th in g like th a t.”
DO ( M O ) ど
(but, th o u g h , an d yet)
Verb-h do Utedo(mo) tatakedo{mo) zen zen h en ji g a n a k a tta .
Particles ga 103
打てどたたけど全然返事がなかった. “H e kn o ck ed and
k nocked, b u t no one an sw ered .”
(to)—m o tio n to w a rd s
N o u n + e W a ta k u sh i w a 0 ik im a s u .私は日本へ行き
ます • “I’ll go to Jap an .”
K ore w a chichi e no te g a m i d e s u . これは父への手
紙です • “T h is is a le tte r to m y fa th e r.”
Note: e is often interchangeable with n i.
e.g. Nihon { ^ j ikimasu• 日本 ⑵ 行きます . “ I’ll go
to Japan.”
(Strictly speaking, however, n i emphasizes arrival,
while e emphasizes action of going.)
Correct Incorrect
e.g. chichi e no tegami chichi n i no tegami
父への手紙父にの手紙
“ the letter to my father”
Note: n i + n o is never possible.
I. T h e w ord w h ich p reced es ga is th e su b ject of th e sen ten ce

(cf. wa)
N oun+ 卵
1. W h en th e su b ject is em phasized in a sen ten ce (or clause)
Kono kata ga T a n a k a -sa n d e s u . この方が田中さんです •
uThis is M r. T a n a k a (w hom I told you about)/*
C om pare w ith :
Kono kata wa T a n a k a -sa n d e s u . この方这田中さんです.
“T h is is M r. T a n a k a .” (no im plication)
々似み/ ^ k a k im a sh ita • 私运書きました • “/ w ro te it.”
2. W h e n no c o n tra s t is involved.
K oko ni h on ga a r i m a s u . ここに本があります . “Th e r e
is a book h e re .” (no im plication)
C om pare w ith :
K oko ni hon wa arim asu ここに本 ]J あります • “T h e re is
a book h e re (••• b u t th e re is p e rh a p s no notebook, or
pencil, etc.).”
Soko ni Y am ada-san ga i m a s u . そこに山田さん纪います .
104 ga Particles
“M r. Y am ad a is th e re .” (no im plication)
Soko ni Y am ada-san wa im asu. そこに山田さんはいます .
“M r. Y am ada is th e re ( " . b u t p e rh a p s M r. S h im izu is
n o t th e re ).’’
Note: In a positive sentence in which no contrasting element is in

volved, g a usually precedes the verbs a r u and i r u f instead of
wa.
3. W h en a n in te rro g a tiv e p ro n o u n is th e su b ject of th e

sen ten ce, it is a lw a y s follow ed by ga, n e v e r by wa.
Dare ga k o re o k a k im a sh ita ka. 誰がこれを書きました
か • “W ho w ro te th is ? ”
Dore ga Y am am oto-san desu ka. どれが山本さんですか .
“W h ich one is M r. Y a m a m o to ? ”
4. T h e su b ject of a re la tiv e clau se ta k e s ga (or no) ; it n ev er
ta k e s wa.
W a ta k u sh i ga (or no) k y o n en k a tta jidosha w a T o y o ta
desu. 私が去年買った自動車はトヨタです. “T h e c a r
w h ich I b o u g h t la st y e a r is a Toyota.**
A n a ta ga (or no) y o n d a h o n w a d a re g a k a k im a sh ita ka.
あなたが読んだ本は誰が書きましたか. “Wh o w ro te th e
book w h ich you re a d (A s fo r th e book w h ich you read ,
w ho w ro te it)? ”
5. T h e su b ject of a su b o rd in a te clau se n o rm a lly ta k e s ga,
provided th e su b jects of th e su b o rd in a te and p rin cip al
clau ses a re different.
W a ta k u sh i ga itta to k i, ano h ito w a m ad a n e te im ash ita.
私が行った時あの人はまだ寝ていました . “W h e n I w en t
th e re , he w as still asleep.”
B u t:
W a ta k u sh i wa N ihon e ik u to k i, itsu m o h ik o k i de iki-
m a su • 私は日本へ行く時いつ (何時）も飛行機で行きます .
“W h en I go to Japan, I alw ay s go by a irp la n e .”
6. T h e su b ject of a condition al clau se n o rm ally ta k e s gat
provided th e su b jects of th e su b o rd in ate and p rin cip al
clau ses a re different.
A n a ta ga by5ki ni n a tta ra , w a ta k u sh i w a om im ai ni
ik im asu . あなたが病気になったら，私はお見舞に行きま
Particles ga 105
す • “If y ou becom e ill, I’ll com e an d v isit y ou.”
But:
W a ta k u sh i wa byoki ni n a tta ra u ch i n i i m a s u . 私は病
気になったら家にいます • “If I becom e sick, I ’ll sta y
hom e (A s fo r m e, if I becom e sick, I’ll s ta y hom e).”
Or:
B y6ki ni n a tta ra , w a ta k u sh i w a u ch i n i i m a s u . 病気に
なったら，私は家にいます • “If I becom e sick, I ’ll sta y
ho m e•”
B y5ki ni n a tta ra , uchi ni im a su • 病気になったら家にい
ます . “ If I becom e sick, I’ll sta y hom e.”
Note: The last sentence omits the subject completely. As long as
the subject is clear to both the speaker and the listener, this
type of sentence is most common among native speakers.
II. C onjunction
1. (but)—a d v e rsa tiv e
Verb+ga
(V3-bga) T o d a -sa n w a koko ni imasu ga, N iki-san w a
im a se n • 戸田さんはここにいますが，仁木さんはいませ
ん . “Mi ss T o d a is here, b u t M iss N iki is n o t h e re .”
(Vto+ 辦） W a ta k u sh i w a 客の T a k a h a sh i-sa n
w a ik im a se n d e s h i t a . 私は行きましたが，高橋さんは
行身ませんでした • “I w ent, b u t M r. T a k a h a sh i did
n o t go.”
Adj.-\-ga
(A dj3+ g a ) K yo w a isogahii \aesu\ ga, a sh ita w a n im a
d e su • 今日は忙しいが，明日は暇です . “I am bu sy
today, b u t I w ill be fre e to m o rro w .”
(A djto+^fl) A no uchi w a m ae w a shirokatta g a , im a
wa a o i . あの家は前は白かったが，今は青い. “Th a t
house w as w h ite before, b u t it is b lu e now .”
N ote: Often the clause after g a is omitted.

e.g. Watakushi mo ashita ikitai to omotte imasu g a ...
私も明日行きたいと思っていますが ... “I too want to
go tomorrow, out (… I don’t know if i can).”
2. (and)—no a d v e rsa tiv e im plication

Yevb+ga
(V3+ga) W a ta k u sh i m o yoku ikimasu ga, ii to k o ro
106 ga Particles
d e s u . 私もよく行きますが，いい所です. “I too go

th e re often, an d it is a nice p lace.”
(yta+ga) W a ta k u sn i m o y o n ae mimashita ga, to te m o
o m o s h ir o ih o n d e sh ita • 私も読んでみ (見）ましたが，
とても面白い本でした. “I re a d it too, an d it w as a
v e ry in te re s tin g book.”
III. (w h e th e r ••• o r n o t ...)— 辦 a fte r Vtentative is in te rc h a n g e ab le

w ith to
"^tentative j a . . . Vtentative どa . . . (c o n tra stin g idea)
Kato ga makeyo ga k a m a w a n a i k a ra to m o k a k u g an b ari-
m ash o . 勝とうが負けようが構わないからともかく頑張りま
しょう • “It d o e sn ’t m a tte r if w e w in or lose. L e t’s do
o u r b e st.”
Adjtentative g a . .. Adjtentative g a , .. Takakaro ga yasukard ga
k a u tsu m o ri d e s u . 高かろうが安かろうが買うつもりです .
“W h e th e r it ’s exp en siv e o r in ex p en siv e， I in te n d to buy
it.”
Vtentative g a . .. mai g a . . . A no h ito g a iko ga ikumai ga
w a ta k u sh i w a ik im a se n . あの人が行こうが行くまいが私は行
きません • “W h e th e r h e g o es o r not, I am n o t g o ing.”
Som e verbs, ad jectives, an d c o p u lar n o u n s n o rm ally ta k e th e p a r
ticle ga in ste a d of o fo r a d ire c t object m a rk e r, ex cep t th o se in v o lv
in g c o n tra stin g elem en ts in w h ich case wa rep laces ga.
1 . like, d islike
W a ta k u sh i w a k o re ga suki d e s u . 私 ^ : これ ; ^ 好きです . “I like
th is (T h is is likeable to m e).”
C om pare w ith :
W a ta k u sh i w a k o re su k i d e su • 私はこれは好きです . “ I
like th is (••• b u t I d o n ’t lik e th a t, etc.).”
W a ta k u sh i w a k o r e 卵々 /r a / d e su • 私はこれが嫌いです . “I
dislik e th is (T h is is d islikeab le to m e).”
2. n e cessity
W a ta k u sh i w a yoi jib ik i ga ir im a s u . 私はよい字引がい（要）り
ます • “I need a good d ic tio n a ry .” cf. W a ta k u sh i w a yoi
j i b i k i 泌0 irim a su • 私はよい字引はいります . “I n eed a good
d ic tio n a ry (••• b u t I do n ’t n eed a b ad o ne ，e tc .).，
，
Particles ga 107
G aik ok u go o y o m u to k i, jibiki g a h itsu y o d e s u . 外国語を読

む時，宇引が必要です . “ W h en w e read a fo r e ig n la n g u a g e , a
d ictio n a ry is n e c e ssa r y .”
p o ten tia l
N ih o n g o 卵 / ^ m• 日本語が話せます . “I ca n sp eak
Jap anese.” cf. N ih o n g o w a h a n a s e m a s u . 日本語は話せます .
“I sp eak Jap anese (… but no o th e r la n g u a g e , etc.).”
N ih o n g o 如 w a k a r im a su • 日本語がわか (分）ります • “I u n d er
sta n d Jap an ese.”
Note: 分る means “ [something] is divisible,” that is, “ [some

thin!?"! is clear，，’ hence one ûnderstands [something].MSome
times it can also be translated as ato know.^ cf. s m r u , which
means “to know a fact” or “to get acquainted with.”
e. g. Ashita iku ka d6 ka mada .明日行くかど
うかまだわかりません • “I don’t know (It is not clear
to me) yet, if I will go tomorrow or notw
Ashita iku ka d5 ka s加 • 明日行くかどうか知り
ません. “I don’t know (for a fact) if 如 will go
tomorrow or not.”
Ano hito ga あの人がわかりません •“I don’t
understand him; I have no understanding of him.”
cf. Ano hito o 從 w . あの人を知りません . “I don’t
know him; I am not acquainted with him.”
d esid era tiv e

N ih o n s h o k u 职 /a をto* d e su • 日本食が食べたいです • “I w a n t
to ea t Jap an ese fo o d .” cf. N ih o n sh o k u w a ta b e ta i d e s u . 日
本食は食べたいです . “I w a n t to e a t Jap anese fo o d (••• but
n ot Italian food , etc.).”
M otto o k a n e 卵 / de s u • もっとお金が欲しいです • “I w an t
m ore m o n e y .5* cf. M o tto ok ane w a h o sh n d e s u . もつとお
金は欲しいです. “I w a n t m ore m o n e y ( • • • b u t I d on ’t w an t
a n y trou ble w h ic h c o m e s w itn m o n e y ，etc.).”
B u t: b efo re -tagaru (th e 3rd p erson d esid era tiv e), le a v e th e
p a rticle o. A n o h ito w a N ih o n no k am era o k a ita g a tte
im a su • あの人は日本のカメラを買いたがっています . “ H e
w a n ts to b u y a Jap anese ca m e ra .”
fea r
O b a k e 卵々 ⑽ 似 • d e s u . お化けが怖いです • “I am afraid of
m o n ster s.” cf. O bake m/0 k o w a i d esu お化けは怖いです .
108 giri Particles
UI am a fra id of m o n ste rs ( . . . b u t I am n ot a fra id of a n y

th in g else, etc.).n
6. envy
A no h ito ga urayamashii d e s u . あの人が羨ましいです • “I en v y
him .”
B u t: M inna g a ano h ito o u ra y a m a sh ig a tte im a su . 皆があの
人を羨ましがっています • “E v ery o n e is en v io u s of h im .”
G IR I ぎり（ see hW )
G U R A I ぐら V、（see
H O D O ほど (程）
I. (to th e e x te n t o f , to th e d eg ree of . . . ) —co m p arativ e
1 . N o u n + A o ぬ + p o sitiv e v erb (as … as)—T h is fo rm is n o t

used as o fte n as N o u n n e g a t i v e v e rb (see 2,
below ).
Y am ag u ch i-san w a Takada-san hodo takai d e su . 山口
さんは高田さんほど高いです. “Mr . Y a m a g u c h i is as
ta ll as M r. T a k a d a .”
2. N o u n + /w ゐ + n eg ativ e v e rb (not so . . . as)
K otosm w a kyonen hodo sa m u k u a rim a se n . 今年は去
年ほど寒くありません . “T h i s y e a r is n o t so cold as
la st y e a r.”
N oun 4- hodo+ n e g ativ e v e rb (n o th in g is m o re . . . th an )
一 T h is hodo is in te rc h a n g e ab le w ith kurai.
Nihongo hodo m u z u k a sn u m ono w a a r im a s e n . 日本語
ほど難しいものはありません . “No t h i n g is m o re d if
ficult th a n Ja p an ese.”
"V erb+Z^ ゐ + n e g a tiv e verb
N ihongo o h a n a su no w a yomu (no) hodo m u z u k a sh ik u
n ai d e s u . 日本語を話すのは読むほど難しくないです .
uT o speak Jap an ese is n o t as difficult as to re a d it.J,
3. V e r b + /z o ^ da (so . . . th a t)
A no h ito w a a ta m a g a y o k u te m itts u no to k i n i mo
h o n g a yometa hodo desu. あの人は頭がよくて三つの
時にもう本が読めたほどです. “He is so b rig h t th a t
h e could re a d a book w h e n h e w as th re e (H e is
b rig h t to th e e x te n t h e could re a d a book w h e n he
w as th ree).”
Particles ka 109
Vnai+hodo (so . . . t h a t . . . negative)

Ichi-gyo m o yomenai hodo n em u i d e su . 一行も読めな
いほど眠いです . * * 1 a m so sleepy th a t I can h a rd ly
re a d a line.”
(ab o u t)= kurai= bakan

N u m b e r M a d a mittsu hodo n o k o tte im a su . まだ二
つほどのこっています. “T h e r e a re still ab out th re e
le ft.”
如ゐ k ite i m a s h i t a . 五人ほど来ていました .
‘‘A bout five people w e re tn e re .”
(th e m o re . . . th e more)=dake
V 6fl+V3+ ô ゐ Ybm ぬ 0 ツひ所びみ0ぬ om osh iro k u n a rim a su .
読めば読むほど面白くなります . “T h e m ore I read, th e
m o re in te re s tin g it becom es.”
N ihongo o hanaseba hanasu hodo jozu n i n a rim a su . 日
本語を話せば話すほど上手になります . “T h e m o re you
sp eak Japanese, th e b e tte r you become.*'
S ign of in te rro g a tiv e

a. alw ay s placed a t th e en d of th e senten ce.
b. n e v e r placed a fte r th e copula da.
V e rb + 々a A sh ita g a k k 6 n i 漁似 " 々a . 明日学校に行きま
すか “A re you g oing to school to m o rro w ? ”
A s h i t a / 々《ぬ • 明日行くか • “A r e y o u g o i n g ? ” （n o t a s
polite as th e a b o v e ; w om en shou ld n o t use th is
form )
A no h ito w a g a k u se i desu k a . あの人は学生ですか .
(n e v e r: A no h ito w a g ak u sei da ka.) uIs h e a s tu d e n t Ty
A no hito w a g a k u se i deshita k a , あの人は学生でしたか .
“W as he a stu d e n t? ” A no h ito w a g a k u se i datta ka.
—perm issable, b u t not as polite as th e above.
R h eto rical qu estio n —em p h atic, alw ays a t th e end of a se n
tence.
V 3+ 如 S onna k o to g a dek im asu k a . そんな事ができ（出来）
ますか • “I c a n ’t possibly do su ch a th in g , can I? ”
U n c e rta in ty
Vtentative+ 如 S 6 ゴぬみJ 如 • そうでしょうか • “I w o n d er if
110 ka Particles
th a t’s so.” I k u ぬ/で々 a . 行くだろうか • “I w o n d er if

h e is going.”
N oun+^ B yoki d a tta no [d aro ] ka y a se te m iem ash ita.
病気だったのか瘦せて見えました. “ I w o n d er if sh e h as
b een sic k ; sh e looked skinny.^
Verb-\-ka+wakaranai (shiranai)
( V3+ + wakaranai)—fo r th e 1st perso n
Itsu k e k k o n suru ka w akarim asen. いつ（
何時）結婚す
るかわか (分）りません . “I d o n ’t k now w h en / am
g e ttin g m a rrie d .”
(V 3+^<2+ shiranai)—fo r o th e r th a n th e 1st perso n
K yonen doko ni ita ka sh irim asen. 去年どこ（何処）に
いたか知りません • “I d o n ’t know w h e r e 如 w as last
y e a r.”
IV. (or)
V 3+ k a . . . V 3+ k a
A n a ta ga iku n ' desu ka, [soretom o] a n a ta no o niisan ga
iku n ’ ゴ⑵w 々a . あなたが行くんですか，あなたのお兄さ
ん行くんです力、 uA re you going, or is y o u r b ro th e r
going?"
V. ( e ith e r . . . or)
N o u n + 々a + N o u n A re w a Shimizu-san ka Yamamoto-san
d e su • あれは清水さんか山本さんです . “Th a t is e ith e r
M r. Snim izu or M r. Y am am o to .”
A m ka watakushi ga i k i m a s u . 兄力、私； ^ 行きます.
“E ith e r m y older b ro th e r or I w ill go.”
V I. (w h e th e r . . . or not)
N o u n + /^ do ka K are g a gakusha ka do ka sh irim asen .
彼が学者かどうか知りません. “I don’t k n o w w h e th e r
h e is a sch o lar or no t.”
N o u n + ^ + N o u n + J ^ nai ka ivare g a gakusna ka gakusha
de nai ka s h irim a se n . 彼が学者か学者でないか知りませ
ん . “I d on’t kn o w if h e is a sch o lar or n o t.”
K a re g a gakusha ka gakusna de nanatta ka sh irim asen .
彼が学者か学者でなかったか知りません . “I don’t know
if h e w a s a sc h o la r o r n o t.”
V e rb + ^ fl do ka
(V3+ ^ do ka) Iku ka do ka m ad a w a k a rim a se n . 打く
かどうかまだわか（分）りません . “I d o n ’t k now w h e th e r
Particles kara 111
we w ill go or not.”
(Vta+ka do ka) Itta ka do ka k iite k u d asai . 行ったか
どうか聞いて下さい. “Pl ease ask him if he w ent or
not.”
V erb + ^<2 Vnai ka
(V3+ ^ Vnai ka) Ano eiga o miru ka minai ka k n te
mimashO• あの映画を見るか見ないか聞いてみましょう .
“L et’s ask him if he is going to see th a t m ovie or
not.”
(Sta^ka Ynakatta ka Ano eiga o mita ka minakatta ka
k iite m im ash ita • あの映画を見たか見なかったか聞いて
みました • “I asked him if he saw th a t m ovie or not.”
VII. (som ething to th e effect)

N oun+ ô ka Yamada-san to ka iu hito g a k im ash ita . 山
田さんとか言う人が来ました • “A person called som e
th in g like M r. Y am ada cam e.”
Verb+ô ka kiku {iu)
(V3+ ^ ka kiku) T oda-san ga ashita kuru to ka kikim a-
shita. 戸田さんが明日来るとか聞きました . “I h eard
som ething to th e effect th a t M r. T o a a will com e
tom orrow .”
(Vta+to ka kiku) Mo Nihon ni itta to ka kikimashita.
もう日本に行ったとか聞きました. “I h eard som ething
to th e effect th a t he had gone to Jap an already
KA t 、 C olloquial fo rm of shika
Go-nin ゐa k o n a k a t t a . 五人か来なかった • “O n ly fiv e p e o p le c a m e .”
K A R A 力、ら
I. (from)
N o u n + 々a ra
1 . spatial W atakushi w a Nihon kara k im ash ita . 私
は日本から来ました • “I cam e from Japan.”
2. tem poral Kyo kara koko de hatarak ih ajim em ash ita.
今日からここで働きはじめました.
“I sta rte d w orking here today.”
II. (after doing … ）

Yte+kara G ohan o k をか々瓜 ^ benky5 sh im asu • ごはん
( 御飯）を食べてから勉強します . “Af t er eatin g
112 keredo {mo) Particles
d in n er, I am g oing to stu d y .”

III. (since … ， because … ）
Yerb+kara
(Sfz-\-kara) S higoto g a ta k u s a n aru kara， kyo w a iki-
m asen. 仕事が沢山あるから今日は行きません . “Si nce
I h av e lo ts of w o rk to do, I w o n ’t go to d ay .”
(Vta+kara) K ino am e g a futta kara, lk im a se n d esh ita.
昨日雨が降ったから行きませんでした. “B ecause it
ra in e d y e ste rd a y , I d id n ’t go.”
(A dj3+ ^ m ) K ono u ch i w a oka kara ta k a i d e s u . この

家は大きいから高いです. “Becaus e th is h o u se is big,
it is expensive.”
{AdUa-^kara) A no uch i w a kitanakatta kara k a im a se n
d e sh ita • あの家は汚かったから買いませんでした .
“B ecause th a t house w as d irty , w e d id n ’t b u y it.”
V n a i キ kara
(Vnai-^-kara) N ihongo g a hanasenai kara k o m arim asu .
日本語が話せないから困ります. “I am h a v in g tro u b le
becau se I c a n ’t sp e a k Jap an ese.”
(ynakatta+kard) K yonen inanatzatta tzara k o to sm w a lki-
m a s u . 去年行かなかったから今年は行きます . “Because
I d id n ’t go la st y ear, I’ll go th is y e a r.”
K ERED O ( M O ) けれど
(but)—fu n c tio n s like th e co n ju n ctio n ga, b u t is m ore col
loquial.
V erb + keredo{mo)
(ykeredo{mo)) K yoto e w a iku keredo O sak a e w a
ik im a se n • 京都へは行くけれど大阪へは行きません .
“I am going to K yoto, b u t I w o n ’t go to O saka.”
(V ta+ keredo{mo)) Y am ad a-san w a 々 / むゐ T o d a-san
w a k im asen d e s h i t a . 山田さんは来たけれど戸田さんは
来ませんでした. “Mr . Y am ad a cam e, b u t M r. T o d a
d id n ’t com e.”
A dj.+ keredoirno)
(i\a]3+keredo) K yo w a samui keredo a sh ita w a atata-
k a k u n a ru d e s h o . 今日は寒いけれど明日は暖くなるでし
よう . “It is cold today, b u t p e rh a p s to m o rro w it will
Particles kurai 113
becom e w a rm .”
(A d j^ + keredo) A no uchi w a aokatta keredo im a w a
shiroi d e s u . あの家は青かったけれど今は白いです .
“T h a t house w as blue, b u t now it is w h ite .”
K I R I きり
(only)
N u m b e r i c h m i c h i - j u niton kin de su g o sh im ash ita.
一日中一人きりで過ごしました • “I sp en t th e w hole day
all alone.”
K o r w o r d + ^ /n
1 . q u a n tity = ぬ知 Kore kiri d e s u . これきりです .
“T h a t，s all.”
2. tim e Sore kiri k i m a s e n . それきり来ません . “He
h a sn ’t com e since th e n .”
K O S O こそ
I. em phatic
N o u n Z 如な：知^ oj6zu d e su • あなたこそお上手です .
“Y ou a re th e one w ho is sk illfu l.”
N o u n + p a r t i c l e Tokyo ni koso su n d e iru g a n a n i m o
om oshiroi ko to w a shim asen. 東京にこそ住んでいるが
何も面白いことはしません • “I do live in T o k y o all r ig h t ，
b u t I do n o th in g p a rtic u la rly in te re stin g .”
II. (ju st because … ）
Vba+koso O kane g a ireba koso issnoken m ei h a ta ra k u n*
desu. お金がい (要 ) ればこそ一生懸命働くんです . “Just
becau se I need m oney， I w o rk h a rd .”
KURAI くらぃ (位）（
ざw ra/ is m ore colloquial)
I. (to th e e x te n t th a t, so m u ch so th a t, alm ost, even)—d eg ree
—hodo
Verbkurai
(V 2+ kurai) O n ak a ga ita k u naru kurai ta b e m a sh ita .
お腹が痛くなるくらい食べました. “I a te so m u ch th a t
m y sto m ach h u r t (I ate to th e e x te n t th a t m y sto m ach
h u rt).”
(Vta+kurai) Sonna h a n a sh i m o atta kurai d e s u . そんな
話もあったくらいです . “T h e r e w as ev en su ch a sto ry ，
too.”
114 made Particles
A d ]2-{-kurai Mada jugatsu na no n i mo sa m u i ku ra i desu.

ま（未 ) だ十月なのにもう寒いくらいです • “ A lthough it is
s till October, it is almost cold.”
々wra/ deshita• 泣きたいくらいでした • “ I fe lt like
cryin g .” “ I was on the verge of cryin g .”
N ou n + ^w m f A n o h ito k u ra i atama ga yokereba iikeredo
. • • あの人くらい頭がよければいいけれど . . . “ I t would be
nice if I were as b rig h t as th a t person.”
II. (as much as, th a t much)
k u ra i [wa] H irag a n a k u ra i kakemasu . 平仮名く
らい書けます. t(l can w rite as much as m ragan a (...
but no more).
K o n o -ty p e w o r d + k u r a i Son o k u ra i nara dekimasu . その
くらいならできます • “ I can do th a t much.”
Korword-{-kurai Sore k u ra i nara dekimasu . それ
くらいならできます . ‘‘I can do th a t much.”
III. (about)—approximate quantity, approximate number
Interrog. w o rd + 々wra/ D on o k u ra i koko de m atte imashita
ka. どのくらいここで待っていましたか. “ Ho w long
have you been w a itin g here?”
D o re k u ra i benkyo shimashita ka . どれくらい勉強しまし
たか . “ How long (How much) did you study?”
'N u m b e r k u r a i M itts u k u r a i tabemashita . 三つくらい食
ベました . “ I ate about three.”
M ainich i sa n -jik a n ku ra i benkyo shimasu . 毎日三時間く
らい勉強します . “ I study about three hours a day.”
M A D E まで
I. (as fa r as)
ônn+m ade Tokyo m ade ik im a s u . 東京まで行きます .
“ I w ill go as fa r as Tokyo.”
S a n ju p - p e ji m ade y o m im a s h ita . 三十頁まで読みました .
“ I read as fa r as Page 30.”
II. (un til)
Noun of t im e -\-m ade A s h ita m ade koko n i imasu . 明日
までここにいます • “ I w ill be here u n til tom orrow .”
III. (even) a. m ade is always follow ed by positive verbs (cf.
saef w hich is used w ith both positive and nega
tive verbs).
Particles mo 115
b. m ade in th is usage replaces the particles wat

gaf o.
c. m ade generally follow s other particles such as
n i ， de ， no, e ， kara ， to, etc.
^ o\in ^ -m ade M atsum oto-san m ade k im a s h ita . 松本さんま
で来ました • “ Even Miss M atsum oto came.”
N oun+ p a r t i c l e F u jita -s a n n i m ade misemashita.
藤田さんにまで見せました • “ I even showed it to Mrs.
F ujita .”
In a k a de m ade utte i m a s u . 田舎でまで売っています .
“ They even sell it in the country.”
Yte-^-made Ano gakusei wa gakko o yasu n d e m ade hon o
yomimasu. あの学生は学校を休んでまで本を読みます .
<{T h a t student reads so much th a t he even skips
school to do so.”
Okane o karite m ade Nihon m lk ita i desu k a . お金を
借りてまで日本に行きたいですか. “ Do you w ant to go
to Japan, even if you must borrow money.〆”
MO も a. m o replaces the particles wa, g a t o.

b. m o is used w ith other particles such as n i, de, no, et
m ade ， kara ， to, e tc .
c. when used w ith the above particles, mo follow s
these particles.
I. (also, too)
N oun+ mo A n a ta m o m im ashita ka. あなたも見ましたか.
“ Did you see it, too?”
II. (as many as, as much as)
N um ber+ 旅？ M ittsu mo k a im a s h ita . 三つも買いました .
“ I bought as many as three.”
jQ-nin mo kim ashita • 十人も来ました • “ As many as ten
people came.”
III. (even)= 5 ^
N oun -\-mo-\- negative verb A isa tsu mo s h in a i de itte
shimaimashita. あいさつ ( 挨接）もしないで行ってしまい
ました . <$He w ent away w itho ut even greeting me.5>
IV . (do not even d o . " )
V 2+ w o s h in a i— m o re emphatic than
By6ki de m ikka-kan gohan o mo s/z/w 仍 ⑽ • 病気で
116 mo Particles
三日間ごはん (御飯）を食べもしません . “ He hasn’t even
eaten to r tnree days because of his illness.**
W atakushi no koto o m i m o sh im a sen d e s h it a . 私の事
を見もしませんでした . “ He didn’t even look at me.”
V. (both … and)
N o u n + w o + N oun+ mo+ positive verb H on mo za ssh i m o
koko n i arim asu• 本も雑誌もここにあります . “ There are
both books and magazines here.”
V 2+ w o [shi] V 2 - ^ m 〇 su r u Ano ko wa yoku tabe m o n o m i
m o s h im a s u . あの子はよく食べも飲みもします . “ T hat
child both eats and drinks w ell.”
V i. (.neither... nor)
Noun + mo+ N o u n n e g a t i v e verb
H on m o za ssh i m o yomimasen. 本も雑誌も読みません .
“ He reads neither books nor magazines.”
V 24- ^ o [sezUy s n in a i sh i] Y 2-\-mo s h in a i
H a ta ra ki mo asobi mo s h i n a i . 働きも遊びもしない • “ He
neither works nor plays.”
V II. (w h e th e r. . . or)
V t e + ^ 〇-\-^nakute+î 〇 Itte mo ika n a ku te mo ii desu. 订っ
ても行かなくてもいいです • “ I t is a ll rig h t whether you
go or not.”
A d m o な+m(?—I f the second adjective is not
a negative form , it is an adjective of contrast to the
first.
Y o k u te m o y ok u n a ku te mo {w arukute mo) kaimasu . 良
くても良くなくても買います • “ W hether i t ’s good or not
good (bad), I ’ll buy it.”
V III. (even if)
Kore 0 か mo ii desu ka •これを食べてもいい
ですか. “ Is it all rig h t even if I eat this?” “ May
I eat th is? ”
Kyo itte m o ano h ito wa uchi n i imasen y o . 今日仃って
もあの人は家にいませんよ . “ Even if you go today, he
won’t be home.”
IX . Double particles
N oun+ p a rticle + mo Tokyo n i m o ik im a s h ita . 東京にも行
きました . “ I went to Tokyo, too.”
Particles na 117
Tanaka-san to mo hanashimashita . 田中さんとも話しま
した . “ I talked w ith Mrs. Tanaka, too.”
N A な
End of a sentence
1. (don’t)—prohibition
V 3+W 0 (mostly used by men) O ko ru n a ! 怒るな . “Don’t
get m ad!”
2. (you know, you see, don’t you th in k so?)
V erb-\-n a (mostly used by men)
(V 3+wfl) Ano onna wa k i r e i ぬ wfl• あの女はきれい
( 綺麗 ) だな . “ That woman is pretty, isn’t she?”
(V/a+ « fl) Yoku yatta n a . よくやったな • “ He did well,
didn’t he?”
Adj. + W0
(A d j 3+wfl) Kono uchi wa o k ii n a . この家は大きいな .
“ T his house is big, isn’t it? ”
(A dj/a+wa) T okyo wa atsukatta n a . 東京は暑かったな .
“ Tokyo was hot, wasn’t it? ”
3. (I wonder)
V e r b + ^ na
( y z+ k a na) Ano h ito wa ik u ka n a . あの人は行くかな .
“ I wonder if he would go.”
(V ta + k a na) Mo kita ka n a . もう来たかな • “ I wonder
if he has come already.”
Interrog. w o rd + ^ « na Are wa dare ka n a . あれは誰か
な . “ I wonder who he is.”
价 -type w o r d k mz• そうかな • “ I wonder if
i t ’s so.”
4. Im perative—vu lg ar speech only
V 2+w fl • 脱行きな “ Go!” ：
Tfl如似 • 食べな “ Eat!”
N A な
T his n a is not a particle, but the a ttrib u tive fo rm of the copula
da. I t comes fro m the classical copula fo rm nari.
Cop. n .+ n a (a ttrib u tive phrase)
Ano h ito w a w e h ito desu• あの人はきれい (綺麗）な人です .
“ She is a p re tty person.”
Koko n i wa s u k i na h ito ga takusan imasu . ここには好きな人
118 na Particles
が沢山います • “ There are many people whom I like here.”

Foreign lang. adj. + w« (attrib utive phrase)
Ano hansamu na h ito wa dare desu ka. あのハンサムな人は誰
ですか • “ W ho is th a t handsome man?”
N A なぁ
I. Exclam ation (used by men)
V e rb + n a
(V 3+ n さ） Yoku ame g a ル rw wd• よく雨が降るなあ .
“ How hard th is rain p ours!”
(V/a+ n a ) Yoku sonna koto ga ieta na . よくそんなこと
が言えたなあ • “ How could he have said such a th in g !”
A d j.+ n a
(A d j3+ n a ) 沿 / ⑽ 似 • 故 . 汚いなあ • “ How d ir ty !”
(Adj/a+na) Ano ko w a 々似;似 «泛 . あの子は可愛い
かったなあ • “ H ow cute that child was!”
II. W ish
'Vba+H na Ano h ito ga ky5 kureba “ •あの人が今日
来ればいいなあ • “ I wish he would come today.”
V 3+/(? // Ano h ito ga ky6 ku ru to ii n 豆 • あの人が今
日来るといいなあ • “ I wish he would come today.”
III. In fo rm a l salutation
Beginning of a sentence (used by men)
施 kim i, s6 dar6• なあ君，そうだろう . “ Say you, is n ，
t
it so?”
N A D O など
(such th ing s as, fo r example, and the like, something like)
N oun + 而ぬ
a. nado usually replaces way ga, ot except fo r emphasis.
b. nado appears w ith other particles such as nit def
no, e，made, kara，to, etc.
c. nado precedes the above particles.
U chi de wa inu nado katte imasu. 家では犬など飼って
います • “ A t our house we raise such animals as dogs.”
Haha nado sonna koto o itte im ashita . 母などそんなこ
とを言っていました • “ M other, fo r example, said such
a th in g .”
Tokyo nado e ikim ashita. 東京などへ行きました. “ We
Particles nagara 119
w ent to such places as Tokyo.”

W atakushi w a wa：ぬ [ga] suki desu • 私は猫など好
きです . “ I like such things as cats.”
Yerb-\-nado
(V 3+ nado) Rainen Nihon ni iku nado to itte im ashita.
来年日本に行くなどと言っていました. “He said som e
th in g to th e effect th a t he was going to Japan next
year.”
QJta-{-nado) Kino ichinichi-ju benkyo shita nado to itte
im ashita • 昨日一日中勉強したなどと言っていました .
**He said som ething to th e effect th a t he studied all
day yesterday.”
A6].^-nado
{Adh+nado) Ikitakunai 加:而 to iw anai de kudasai • 行
きたくないなどと言わないで下さい. “Please don’t say
such th in g s as not w anting to go.”
Tsumaranakatta nado to itte im asnita.
つまらなかったなどと言っていました • “ He said some
th in g to th e effect th a t it was uninteresting.”
N A G A R A ながら
I. Sim ultaneous action of one subject
1 . (while)
Y 2+nagara Rajio o 卵 ra benky6 shimasu.
ラジオを聞きながら勉強します . “ W hile listening to
th e radio, he studies.”
Note: If two different subjects are involved, the expression
Ws + a i d a should be used.
e.g. Kare ga hon o yonde i r u a id a , watakushi wa
tegami o kakimashita• 彼が本を読んでいる間，私
は手紙を書きました • “While he was reading a
book, I wrote a letter.”
2. (although)
Y ^ n a sa r aS hitte inagara oshiete kurem asen.
知っていながら教えてくれません. “A lthough he
knows it, he won’t tell me.”
Note: If two different subjects are involved, the expression

V8 n o n i should be used.
e.g. Kare ga shitte i r u n o n i, kanojo wa shirimasen.
120 nari Particles
彼が知っているのに彼女は知りません• “Although
he knows it, she doesn’t know it.”
^ onn+nagara J ib u n nagara iya n i narimashita.
自分ながらいやになりました . “ A lthough it is
about myself, I became fed up.” “ I hate
m yself.”
F u y u nagarat koko wa m inam i na no de, te nki
sae yokereba atatakai. 冬ながらここは南なの
で天気さえよければ暖ぃ. “ A lthough it is
w inter, this place, because it is located in
the south, is w arm when the weather good.”
II. (all)
^ nm ber-\-nagara Kodomo wa g o-n in nagara m ina deki ga
ii desu• 子供は五人ながら皆出来がぃぃです . “ Al l five
children are doing w ell (academically).”
III. Before and now
ôme nouns of tim e + nagara M u k a s h i nagara no oshaberi
desu• 昔ながらのおしゃべりです • “ She is just as talka
tive as she was before.”
Y 2 + nagara U m are nagara no geijutsuka d e s u . 生れなが
らの芸術家です • “ He is a born a rtist.”
N A R I なり
I. (w h e th e r. . . or, e ith e r... or)— n a ri can be used alone, but
more often it is used in duplication.
V 3+ n a r i + V 3+ n a ri Ik u na ri y am eru n a ri hayaku okime-
n a s a i . 行くなりやめるなり早くお決めなさい . “ W hether
you go or not, decide q uickly.”
N oun+ n a r i + N oun+ n a ri M atsuda-san n a ri Yam ada-san
n a ri ni kikinasai. 松田さんなり山田さんなりに聞きなさ
い . “ Ask Miss Matsuda or Miss Yamada.”
II. (as soon as)

Yz-\-nari Asa o kiru n a ri uchi o d e m a s h ita . 朝起きるなり
家を出ました • “ As soon as I got up, I le ft home.”
III. Conditions unchanged = de
^ ta + ^ ciri de Uchi o kitanaku sh ita n a ri de dete kimashita.
家を汚くしたなりで出て来ました. “ I le ft home, leaving
it as d irty as it was.
Particles ni 121
IV. (no m atter what [how, etc.])

Interrog. word+nari to Nan nari to kaite misete kudasai.
何なりと書いて見せて下さい. “ Please w rite anything
and show it to me.” 4<No m atter what it is, just w rite
and show it to me.”
N E ね
I. (n’est-ce pas?)—seeks confirm ation of the statement.
End of a sentence
Kyo wa ii otenki desu n e . 今日はいいお天気ですね .
“ I t ’s a beautiful day today, isn’t it? ”
II. Shows speaker’s fa m ilia rity to listener.
Between clauses or at end of sentence
Mo kaero n e . もう帰ろうね . “ L et’s go home, OK?”
Koko wa ne, ko shiyo n e . ここはね，こうしようね • “ Le ビs
do (it) this way here, OK?”
N Iに
I. Noun + m.
1 . (in, at)—location of existence (cf. de, location of action)
Shimizu-san wa ima heya no naka ni im a s u . 清水
さんは今部屋の中にいます • “ Miss Shimizu is in the
room now.”
Matsumoto-san wa ima Tokyo ni sunde imasu . 松
本さんは今東京に住んでいます. “ M r. Matsumoto
is liv in g in Tokyo now.”
2. Point of a rrival
Tokyo ni ts u k im a s h ita . 東京に着きました • “ We ar
rived in Tokyo.”
3. (at)—designates time
介み/-フ7 m’ kimasu • — 時に来ます • “ He w ill come at
one o’clock.”
Note: When 职 ⑺ is used, either take out, or place m’ after
goro. e.g. Ichi-ji g o ro k im a s u . 一時頃来ます • or Ichiji
goro n i k im a s u . 一時頃に来ます . “He will come around
one o’clock.”
4. (per)
Ichi-jikan ni san-doru haratte k u re m a s u .一時間に
三ドル（
弗）払ってくれます • “ They Pay us three do1-
122 ni Particles
lars per hour.”

5. (in, into)—entering motion
H eya n i h a ir im a s u . 部屋に入ります • “ I go into the
room.”
6. (into)—change of situation, status
m’ n a rim a sh ita . 先生になりました . “ He became
a teacher.”
Kono k i o hako n i shimasu. この木を箱にします • “ I
w ill make this wood into a box.”
7. (against)
C h ic h i n i hantai s h im a s h ita . 父に反対しました . “I
opposed m y father.”
Watakushi ga iku no ni, ano hito wa ikimasen . 私
が行くのにあの人は行きません. “ I n spite of the
fact that I am going, he is not going.”
8. (to)—indirect object
Yam am oto-san n i hon o agemashita . 山本さんに本
を上げました . “ I gave Mrs. Yamamoto a book.”
sensei ga w atakusm m hon o kudasaimashita. 先
生が私に本を下さいました . “ The teacher gave me
a book.”
Note: Usually an indirect object precedes a direct object.
9. (as)= 幻 sみ/ な一 purpose
Ano hon o ky okas ho n i tsukatte i m a s u . あの本を教
科書に使っています . “ We use that book as a text-
book.”
10. (and) = / 〇—connects tw o nouns
Yam ada-san n i Tanaka-san n i M atsum oto-san o eran-
dara do desho k a . 山田さんに田中さんに松本さんを
選んだらどうでしょうか . “ What would you th in k
if we chose Mrs. Yamada, Mrs. Tanaka, and
M rs. Matsumoto?”
11. a. agent of passive verb (by)—the one who actually
performs the action of the passive verb
H a ha n i shikararemashita. 母に叱られました .
“ I was scolded by m y m other.”
b. agent of causative verb—agent who is caused to
perform the action of the causative verb
Im oto n i yo m a s e m a s h ita . 妹に読ませました . “ I
Particles ni 123
made m y sister read.”

c. agent of causative-passive verb (by)—agent who
forces the subject to p erform the action of the
causative-passive verb
S e n s e i n i m uzukashii k a n ji o kakaseraremashita.
先生に難しい漢字を書かせられました. “ I was
made to w rite d iffic u lt しhinese characters by
m y teacher.”
d. w ith the verb, itadaku (m orau)— one who is giving;
the one who receives is the subject; th is n i is
interchangeable w ith kara.
A n e n i {kara) hon o m oraim ashita . 姉に本をも
ら（貰）いました . “ I received a book from m y
elder sister•”
w ith Y te-\-itaaaku (m orau) —one wno perform s
the act of V/g ；the one who receives the act of
Vte is the subject.
S e n s e i n i tegam i o kaite itadakim ashita . 先生 1C
手紙を書いていただきました • “ M y teacher was
nice enough to w rite a letter fo r me.” (I
asked her to do it first.)
Note: For the particle used with the other directional verbs,
a g e r u { y a r u ) t k u d a s a r u { k u r e r u ) t see 8 of the particle
n i f p .122, for the indirect object.
e. w ith Vcausative-fe+^^^ {yaru)t kud asaru (kureru)

—the one who is perm itted to perform the action
of the Y te
W atakushi wa H anako n i eigo no benkyo o
tsuzukesasete yarim ashita . 私は花子に英語の
勉強を続けさせてやりました • “ I allowed Hanako
to continue her study of English.”
Sensei ga w atakusm n i sono hon o yomasete
kudasaimashita . 先生が私にその本を読ませて下
さいました • “ The teacher allowed me to read
th a t book.”
f. w ith V causative-fe+“ aぬ々w (m orau)— t h e one who
perm its the subject to p erform the action of Y te
W atakushi wa haha n i suki na yofuku o eraba-
sete moraim ashita . 私は母に好きな洋服を選ば
124 ni Particles
せてもら（貰）いました . “ I was perm itted by

m y m other to select the dress 丄 like.”
I i . V 2+ ^ + m o t io n verb order to . . . ) —purpose
Nihonshoku o tabe n i Nihon no ry o riy a n i ikim a sh ita .
日本食を食べに日本の料理屋に行きました. “ I w ent to a
Japanese restaurant in order to eat Japanese food.”
III. <N2キ n i na ru —maxes an honorific verb
Mo ocha o onom i n i n a rim a sh ita ka . もうお茶をお飲みに
なりましたか • “ Have you drunk tea already?”
IV . V 2+ w /+ V e rb —emphasis, duplication of the same verb

H a s h iri n i h a s n in m a s h ita ga oitsukimasen deshita . 走り
に走りましたが追いつきませんでした • “ I ran and ran, but
I couldn’t catch up.”
V. duplication of the same verb (can
V 3 + w / + V negative-p 〇ten tiai—
not do even if we w ant to)
I u n i iw a ren u ii keshiki desu. 言うに言われぬいい景色で
す . “ I t is an indescribably good view .” “ I t is a good
view w hich we cannot describe even if we w ant to.”
Verbs and adjectives which should be remembered w ith the par

ticle ni.
N I A U に会う meet, e.g. Ky6 Tanaka-san a/m 似 / ^ a • 今日田
中さんに会いました. “ I met M r. Tanaka today,” or “ I saw M r.
Tanaka today.”
Note: ni au is used for meeting a new friend or seeing an old acquaint
ance. In Japanese the verb m i r u is not used in this context.
M i r u means uto look at,J and takes a direct object particle o m ir u .
e.g. Tanaka-san n i a im a s h ita . “I saw Mr. Tanaka.” 一 actually
exchanged greetings with Mr. Tanaka, cf. Tanaka-san o
田中さんを見ました • “I saw Mr. Tanaka.” 一 The
subject saw Mr. Tanaka， but Mr. Tanaka did not see him.
N I ( = 々ara) C H IK A I に近い be close to, e.g. W atakushi no uchi
wa gakk6 desu• 私の家は学校に近いです . “ M y house is
near the school.”
N I HANSURU に反する be against, oppose，e.g. Oya no iken m*
みawsAぬ kanojo to kekkon shim ashita • 親の意見に反して彼女と
結婚しました . “ Opposing m y parents’ opinion, I m arried her.”
N I H A N T A I SURU に反対する = n i ha n su ru
Particles ni 125
N I (to) H IT O S H II に等しい be equal to, e.g. Nihon no menseki

wa Kariforunia-shu no menseki ni hitoshii. 日本の面積はカリフ
ォルニア州の面積に等しい . <lThe size of Japan is equal to the
size of California.”
N I K A G IR U に限る is the best (literally, lim ited to), e.g. Nihon
shoku nara ano rySriya 々<2が • 日本食ならあの料理屋に
限ります . “ I f i t ’s Japanese food (you mean), that restaurant is
the best.”
N I K A K A R U にかかる start, e.g. Shigoto m• 如 ^ ^ m 似 / ^ . 仕
事にかかりましよう. “ L et’s start our w ork.”
N I K A K E R U にかける hang, e.g. Uwagi o kugi m• 如加 w 似 / ^ ふ
上着を釘にかけました • “ I hung my jacket on a nail.”
N I KANSURU に関する concerning (attributive) e.g. Nihon m.
々⑽似 rw hon o kaimashita• 日本に関する本を買いました . “I
bought a book concerning Japan.” ct. m kanshite âdverbial)
Nihon m * 々flws/z加 benky6 shite imasu • 日本に関して勉強してい
ます . “ We are studying about Japan.”
N I K A T S U に勝つ w in, e.g. Oregon Daigaku ga Washinton
Daigaku ni kachimashita. オレゴン大学がワシントン大学に勝ち
ました • “ The U niversity of Oregon won over the U niversity of
Washington.”
N I KI K U に聞く ask som eon e, e.g. Y am ada-san ni kiitara
osh iete k u r e m a s h i t a . 山田さんに聞いたら教えてくれました .
“W h en I asked Mr. Y am ada, he ta u g h t (told) m e.”
N I K IM E R U に決める decide on, e.g. Kore 似 / ^ ka.
これに決めましょうか . “ Shall we decide on this?”
N I K U R U SH IM U に苦しむbe puzzled at, e.g. R ikai ni kuru-
shimimasu. 理解に苦しみます • “I find it hard to und erstan d.”
cf. Byoki de kurushinde i m a s u . 病気で苦しんでいます . “ H e is
su fferin g from illn e ss.”
N I M AKA SE R U に任せる entrust, e.g.
Jimu o subete musuko
ni makasemashita. 事務をすべ (総）て息子に任せま！:；
た. “ I en
trusted m y business entirely to m y son.”
N I M A K E R U に負ける lose, e.g. Ano h ito 如か shimaima-
s h i t a . あの人に負けてしまいました • “ I lost to him .”
N I N AR U
1 . become, e.g. S en sei m • 似仍ゐぬ • 先生になりました.
126 ni Particles
*‘He became a teacher•”

2. be ( = n i ataru)y e.g. Ano hito wa watakushi no itoko n i
narim asu. あの人は私のいとこになります. “ He is m y
cousin.”
N I ( か）N IR U に似る resemble, e.g. Yoshio-san wa ot5-san m’
m•な / 携仍汉 •良雄さんはお父さんに似ています • “ Yoshio resembles
his father.”
N I NORU に乗る get into a vehicle, ride in a vehicle, e.g. Kin5
densha n i notte Shibuya made ik im a s h ita . 昨日電車に乗って渋
谷まで行きました • “ Yesterday I went to Shibuya by tra in .”
N I ODOROKU に驚く be surprised at, e.g. T o ri no naku koe
n i o d o r o k a s a r e m a s h ita .鳥の鳴く声に驚かされました • “ I was sur
prised at the song of the birds.”
N I ⑼ ）ONAJI に同じ same as—perhaps か is more common, but
sometimes ni is used, e.g. Kodomo o omou no wa watakushi
mo anata n i o n a ji d e s u . 子供を思うのは私もあなたに同じです .
lil th in k of m y children just as you th in k of yours.J,
N I OYOBU に及ぶ reach, amount to, match, e.g. H iy 6 g a jiim a n -
en n i o y o n d a . 費用が十万円に及んだ • “ The expenses amounted
to ¥100,000•” Saino no ten de kare n i wa o y o b a n a i . 才能の点
で彼には及ばない . ‘‘I can’t match h im in talent.”
N I T O M O N AU に伴う keep step w ith, e.g. Shunyu n i tomo-
naw anai zeitaku na seikatsu o shite wa ik e m a s e n . 収人に伴わ
ない贅沢な生活をしてはいけません . “ Don’t lead a lif e of lu xu ry
out of proportion to your income.”
N I TSU KA ER U に仕える serve someone, e.g. W atakushi wa
moto yumei na kazoku n i t s u k a e m a s h i t a .私はもと有名な華族に
仕えました . “ I served a famous nobleman of old.”
N I TSU ZU KU に続く
1 . follow , e.g. Chichi no shi ga naha no shi ni tsuzukim ashi-
ta. 父の死が母の死に続きました. “ Fat her’s death fo l
lowed m other’s death.”
2. be connected to, e.g. Kono m ichi wa daigaku no seimon
n i tsu zu ite i m a s u . この道は大学の正門に続いています .
“ T his road leads to the fro n t gate of the university.”
N I YORU によ（因，依）る depend on, e.g. Ashita iku ka ikanai
ka wa te nki n i y o r i m a s u . 明日行くか行かないかは天気によりま
す • “ W hether we go tom orrow or not w ill depend on the weather.”
Particles no 127
NOの
I. a. ( o f , ，
s)—possessive (or the noun before no modifies the
noun a fte r no)
Noun+ wo W atakushi no uchi wa Tokyo n i arimasu . 私の
家は東京にあります . “ My house is in Tokyo.”
Yam am oto-san no heya no rajio wa okn desu. 山本
さんの室のラジオは大きいです. “ The radio in M r.
Yamamoto’s room is big.”
Note: The final noun can be omitted, if it is clear to both speaker
and listener.
e.g. Are wa Tamura-san no d e s u . あれは田村さんのです .
“That is Mr. Tamura’s.”
b. The noun before no modifies the noun after noy e.g. Kono
如 w w o ゐ夕お/^ wo f n ? . この本の表紙の色 . “ the color of the
cover of this book.”
Note: In Japanese no may be used many times in one sentence.
e.g. watakushi no uchi no daidokoro no todana no naka no
chawan 私の家の台所の戸棚の中の茶わん (碗 ) • “the bowl
inside the cupboard of the kitchen of our house”
Though this is a bit exaggerated, it is not uncommon to see
no used many times in one sentence. In this usage normal
Japanese order is from large to small, or general to specific；
thus, watakushi no ucm is bigger than daidokoro， daidokoro
is bigger than todanay etc.
II. Apposition
N oun + no-{- Noun A n o kata wa ish a no Tanaka-san de,
kono kata wa sen sei no Tanaka-san desu. あの方は
医者の田中さんで，この方は先生の田中さんです • “ T ha t
is M r. Tanaka, who is a doctor, and this is M r. T a
naka, who is a teacher.7,
III. The noun which precedes no is the subject of the relative
clause. (This no is interchangeable w ith the particle ga.)
Noun+ 節 + V erb+ Noun W atakushi no (ga) katta noto wa
6 kii desu• 私の買ったノートは大きいです . “ The note
book which I bought is big.”
W atakushi no {ga) itte ita gakko w a y am a no ue ni
a r im a s h it a .私の行っていた学校は山の上にありました.
“T h e school I w en t to w as on th e top of th e h ill.”
IV . Double particles— always follows the other particle, the
noun plus some particle before no modifies the noun after no.
Noun+ p article+ no Kore ga ch ich i e no tegami desu. こ
れが父への手紙です • “ This is the letter to m y father.”
Sore wa Tokyo kara no kisha desu. それは東京からの汽
128 no Particles
車です • “ T hat is the tra in from Tokyo.”
V. Nom inalizing verbs

Yz-\-no=Yz+koto Asobu no ga suki desu. 遊ぶのが好きで
す . “ I like to play.”
— In some cases this no is contracted to n\
V I. As a noun—
V erb + ⑽
1 . fact W atakushi wa iku rC d e s u . 私は行くんです .
“ I ’ll go.” “ I t is a fact that I ’ll go.”
Kyo tsukareta no de uchi n i imashita . 今日疲れ
たので家にいました . “ Because (the fact being
that) I was tired, I was at home today.”
2. th ing Koko n i aru no ga watakushi no hon desu.
ここにあるのが私の本です • “ The one w hich is
here is m y book.”
3. tim e Kono mae Jsihon e itta no wa san-nen mae
d e s h it a . この前日本へ行ったのは三年前でした.
“ The last tim e I went to Japan was three
years ago.”
4. person Asoko ni suwatte iru no ga Tanaka-san desu.
あそこに坐っているのが田中さんです. “ The
one who is s ittin g there is Miss Tanaka.”
Note: As shown m the above examples, 2, 3, and 4 , in a sentence

enaing with the copula {d e su t d a t d e s h ita y etc.), the noun which
directly precedes the copula tells what the subject n o represents,
e.g. Ichiban sei no takai wo ga Matsuda_san desu• 一番背の
高いのが松田さんです . “/1'116セ&1163セ 0618〇11丨 8]^1>.1^3-
tsuda.w (Matsuda-san is a person, so n o refers to a
person, too.)
Nihon ni itta n o wa sakura ga saite ita toki deshita.
日本に行ったのは桜が咲いていた時でした . “When we
went to Japan it was the time when ttie cnerry blos
soms were blooming. ( T o k i is a time, so n o refers to
a time also.)
Cop. n.+na+no
one Kirei na no ga suki d e s u . きれい（綺麗）なのが好
きです • “ I like pre tty ones.”
Adj. + wo
Particles o 129
one Okii no o k u d a s a i. 大きいのを下さい . “ Please

give me a big one.”
V II. Sentence-ending—colloquial, used more often by women
1 . interrogative—takes the place of ka
A shita ik u no. 明日行くの . “ A re you going tomor-
row?”
2. softens the tone
Ee, ashita iku n o . ええ .明日行くの . “ Yes, I ’ll go
tom orrow .”
V III. (w h e th e r. . . or)
V e rb + w o + V n ^ no to [itte\ Iku no ikanai no to nakanaka
kesshin shimasen. 行くの行かないのと中々決心しませ
ん . “ Saying th a t he w ill go, and then th a t he won’t
go, he does not easily make up his mmd.*'
NQMI のみ = dake， bakarL (only, merely)

N oun+ worn/ Sonna shigoto o nashiuru no wa kare nomi da . そ
んな仕事をなし得るのは彼のみだ. “ He is the only one
who can do such w ork.”
0 を
N oun+o
I. The preceding noun is the direct object of the verb, except
when contrast is involved, in w hich case th is o is replaced
by wa,
Sono hon o y o m im a s h ita . その本を読みました • “ I read that
book.” cf. Sono hon 切0 yom im ashita . その本は読みま
した • “ I read th a t book (… but I didn’t read th is book).’’
•S/n•卵幻 c? shimasu• 仕事をします • “ W e’ll do our w ork.”
cf. Shigoto 如0 shimasu• 仕事はします . “ We ’ll do the
w o rk (••• but we w on’t do anything else, etc.).’’
D irect object of a passive sentence
Okane o ゐ roM W torarem ashita • お金を泥棒にとられまし
た • “ M y money was stolen by a th ie f.”
D irect object of a causative sentence (used p a rticu la rly when
the verb is intransitive)
Takeo o tsukai n i ik a s e m a s h ita . 武雄を使いに行かせました .
“ I made Takeo go on an errand.”
D irect object of a causative-passive sentence
130 〇 Particles
N igai 々wswr/ 0 nomasaremashita• 苦い薬を飲まされました .

“ I was made to take b itte r medicine.”
II. Route of motion
H ik6 ki ga sora o tobimasu• 飛行機が空を飛びます . “ The
airplane flies through the air."
M ic h i 0 a r u k im a s u . 道を歩きます • “ I w alk along the
street.”
III. Point of departure
U ch i o d e m a s u . 家を出ます . “ I leave home.”
H eya o d e m a s u . 部屋を出ます • “ I go out of the room.”
Kyonen gakko o sotsugyo shim ashita . 去年学校を卒業し
ました . “ I graduated fro m school last year.”
Some verbs which should be remembered w ith the p article o

O DERU を出る start, leave ，e.g. U chi o d e m a s u . 家を出ます .
“ I am leaving home.”
O G A M A N SURU を我慢する bear， suppress, e.g. K u ru s h ii no
o g am an s h i m a s h i t a . 苦しいのを我慢しました . “ I suppressed m y
pain.”
0 K IK U を聞く hear sometnmg ， e.g. K ino sono nyusu o kiî-
m ashita. 昨日そのニュースを聞きました. “ I heard th a t news
yesterday.”
0 M ATSU を待つ w a it for, e.g. Suda-san o m atte imasu . 須田
さんを待っています • “ I am w a itin g fo r M r. Suda.”
0 SOTSUGYO SURU を卒業する graduate from , e.g. Daigaku
o sotsugyo s h i m a s h i t a . 大学を卒業しました • “ I graduated from
the university.”
0 SURU をする See the verb 似 ; ^ ，p p . 10-11.
0 T A S U K E R U を助ける help someone, e.g. K yo kawaiso na
r6 jin o to w 々你 agemashita ■ 今日可哀そうな老人を助けて上げま
した . “ I helped a p itifu l old man today.”
O T A T S U を発 ( 立 ) つ leave, start, e.g. K in6 Tokyo no h ik 勿’6 o
A m erika n i kim ashita . 昨日東京の飛行場を発ってアメリカ
に来ました. “ I le ft Tokyo A irp o rt yesterday and came to
Am erica.”
0 W A R A U を笑う laugh at, e.g. H ito no koto 0 wa
ik e m a s e n . 人の事を笑ってはいけません . “ You must not laugh
at others.”
Particles sae 131
0 W A T A R U を渡る cross over, e.g. Ig irisu Kaiky5 0

m a s h ita . イギリス海峡を渡りました . “ I crossed over the English
Channel.”
SA さ
I. sentence-ending or phrase-ending p article—slight emphasis,
sometimes a slig h tly boastful feeling.
N oun+sfl ： Kore ga Aow 似 • これが本さ • “T his is the book
(… w hich I told you about).”
Verb+5«
(V 3+ s め A s h ita / 々w sc. 明日行くさ • “ I ’ll go tom orrow
( " .n a tu r a lly ).”
(Vte+s«) K ino itta s a . 昨日行ったさ “ I w ent yesterday
( • • • of course)•”
A d j.+ sc
(Adj3+ 5^) Okii s a . 大きいさ • “It’s big ( " .y o u should
see it yourself).”
(A d j ，
a+sa) 如々 s仏高かったさ • “ I t was expensive
(••• of course)•”
Cop. n.+sa Z)似從 • 大好きさ • “ I just love it.”
II. makes an adjective or a copular noun into an abstract noun.
Adjstem+5« 减む 0 大きさ “ bigness, size.”
Cop. n.+sa 静かさ “ quietness.”
S A E さぇ
a. sae always replaces the particles gaf tuat o.
b. sae appears w ith a ll the other particles such as nif de, no,
e，made，kara，to, etc.
c. sae always follow s the above particles.
d. sae is sometimes used w ith mo; when used w ith it, sae
precedes mo, and is more emphatic than sae alone.
e. sae is used w ith both positive verbs and negative verbs.
I. (even)
"Noun-{-sae Ugoku koto sae d e k im a s e n . 動くことさえでき
( 出来）ません • “ I can’t even move.”
Yamaguchi-san ni sae m is e m a s h ita . 山口さんにさえ見せ
ました . “ I showed it even to Miss Y am aguchi/’
Senji-chu tabemono ga nakute m wa no kusa sae mo
tabeta s6 d e s u . 戦時中食物がなくて庭の草さえも食べた
132 shi Particles
そうです . “ I understand th a t during the war, because

there wasn’t enough food, people ate even the grass
in the yard.”
II. (only if)
N o u n A n o h ito wa osake sae nomeba manzoku
shite imasu• あの人はお酒さえ飲めば満足しています .
uHe is satisfied only i f he drinks sake."
V2+sae sureba Ano hito wa osake o nomi sae sureba
manzoku shite imasu • あの人はお酒を飲みさえすれば満
足しています • “ He is satisfied only if he drinks ⑽々ど’
V te+ sae ireba Ano h ito wa osake o nonde sae ireba
manzoku shite imasu. あの人はお酒を飲んでさえいれ
ば満足しています • “ He is satisfied only if he drinks
sake.、
、
SHI し V 2 of swrw)
（ V 2 has a conjunctive function, see pp. 5-6.
(and, not o n ly ... but also)—connects tw o clauses (cf. to w hich
connects tw o nouns)
V3+W
(V^+shi) Ano h ito wa e mo kaku sm} uta mo utaimasu.
あの人は絵もかくし歌も歌います. “ He paints as w ell
as sings.5*
ta+shi) Uchi mo natta shif jidosha mo kaimashita.
家も買ったし自動車も買いました • “ He bought not only
a house, but also a car.”
PA] . s hi
(A d j3+5/z/) Ano uchi wa o kii shi k ire i desu. あの家は
大きいしきれい (綺麗）です . “ That house is big and
p re tty.”
(A djto+ s ^〇 Kare wa yasasmkatta smf om oiyari mo atta.
彼は優しかったし，思いやりもあった • “ He was not only
gentle, but was also th oughtful.”
S H IK A しか（
cf • ぬ㈣
a. shika always replaces of gay wa.
b. shika never occurs w ith the particle mo.
c. shika appears w ith a ll other particles such as ni, det
no, e，made，kara, to, etc.
d. shika always follows the above particles.
Particles tari 133
e. shika is always used w ith negative verbs.

(only, nothing hut)=dake shika
N oun+ p article + shika + negative verb
Ocha shika nom im asen. お茶しか飲みません . “ I d rin k
nothing but tea.”
Zasshi shika yomimasen, 雑誌しか読みません. “ He
reads nothing but magazines.”
Tokyo ni shika ikimasen deshita . 東京にしか行きません
でした . “ I w ent only to Tokyo.”
Tokyo de shika mimasen deshita . 東京でしか見ませんで
した • “ I saw it only in Tokyo.”
Miura-san to shika hanashim asen. 三滴さんと ]^力、
話し
ません • “ I ’ll ta lk only to M r. M iura.”
SURA すら（=sae)
(even)—emphatic
Noun+swm Sonna koto sura shimasu . そんな事すらしま
す . “ He even does that sort of thing.”
S o n n a 如如似 nz sみ/ 桃仍 ⑽ • そんな事すらしません . “ He
doesn’t even do that sort of thing.”
T A R I たり一 Contrary to the way most particles are used, this

particle never follows a noun. See pp. 53-D4.
I. (sometimes do this, sometimes do that)—action in alternation
(duplication of the same verb)
V tari 七N tari {surtt) Itsumo tattari suw attari ochitsukanai
hito desu n e . いつ (何時）も立ったり坐ったり落着かない
人ですね. “ He is a restless person, always standing
up and sittin g down, isn’t he?”
A djton•+ A d i；an- {suru) S a m u k a tta n atatakakattan sm m asu.
寒かったり暖かかったりします . “ Sometimes it is cold,
and sometimes it is w arm .”
II. (do such things as)—representative action

Y tari suru Natsu yama n i ittari s h im a s u . 夏山に行ったり
し幸す . “ D uring the summer we do such things as go
to the mountains.”
Note: t a r i is often followed by the verb s u r u , wmch itself has no

specinc meaning.
134 te Particles
TE て
In traditional grammar, te is considered a particle, but i t is bet
te r thought of as a verb ending (see p p . 16-18, 54-59).
TO と
I. (and)—connects only nouns and pronouns, never connects
clauses
N oun+ 幻 + Noun Pen to enpitsu ga arimasu . ペンと鉛筆
があります • “ There are pens and pencils.”
Dore to dore ga anata no desu ka. どれとどれがあなた
のですか . “ Whi ch ones are yours (which one and
wmch one are yours) ご’’
II. (together w ith ) = ^ issho ni
N oun+ か Suzuki-san to ik im a s u . 鈴木さんと行きます .
“ I ’ll go w ith M r. Suzuki.”
III. Comparative
Noun -\-to-\- Noun + to Kono hon to sono hon to dochira ga
o kii desu k a . この本とその本とどちらが大きいですか .
“Which one is bigger, this book or that book?”
IV . Quotative_ use before such words as iuy kiku, omou, etc.
Verb + to tu (kiku, etc.) Yamada-san ga ashita kuru to
iimashita. 山田さんが明日来ると言いました . “ Miss
Yamada said that she would come tom orrow.”
N oun+ /o iu (kiku, etc.) Ano kata ga byoki [da] to kiki-
m a s h ita . あの方が病気と聞きました . ‘‘I heard he is ill.”
V. (if, when)—conditional (see pp. 29-30 fo r more details)
V 3+ /o Natsu Nihon ni iku to totemo atsui d e s u . 夏日本
に行くととても暑いです . lil f you go to Japan during
the summer, it is very hot.”
A d j3+ 幻 Atsui to um i n i ik im a s u . 暑いと海に行きます .
“ When i t ’s hot, we go to the beach.”
V I. (is about to do something)
V tentative + ^ + suru Dekakeyo to shite iru tokoro e tomo-
dachi ga kim ashita . 出かけようとしている所へ友達が来
ました . “ M y friend came just as I was about to go
out.”
V II. (try in g [unsuccessfully] to do something)
V ten ta tiv e +to+suru Okiyo to shimashita ga, okiraremasen
Particles tomo 135
deshita •起きようとしましたが起きられませんでした • “ I
tried to get up, but I couldn’t.”
V III. (w hether... or, even if)
V tentative ^tO-^r ^ ten tativ e t〇
Y u ki ga f u r 6 to arare ga f u r 6 to iku tsum ori desu.
雪が降ろうと霰が降ろうと行くつもりです . “ I intend to
go even i f i t snows or hails.**
V te n t a t i v e + ^ + V Wfl/ + ^ {mat is a negative tentative form ,
see pp. 39-40, 68)
Kare ga iko to ik u m a i to k a m a im a s e n . 彼が行こうと行
くまいと構いません. “ I don’t care whether he goes
or not.”
IX . (in the manner of)—adverbial
A tto o d o ro k im a s h ita . あっと驚きました . “ I was taken
aback•” (Oh! was I surprised!)
M 々がかw a ra im a s h ita . にこっと笑いました • “ He smiled.”
Verbs, adjectives, copular nouns which should be remembered

with to .
TO C H IG AU と違う be different from , e.g. Watakushi no iken
wa anata n o かぐゐ/职 / 桃仍私の意見はあなたのと違います • “ M y
opinion is different from yours.”
T O H IT O S H II と等しい — n i h ito sh ii be equal to, see p . 125.
TO N AR U となる = n i naru to naru is more literary, see pp.
125-26.
TO ONAJI と同じ same as, e.g. Anata no to o n a ji yofuku o
k a im a s h it a . あなたのと同じ洋服を買いました . “ I bought the
same dress as yours.”
T O K A と力、
(and, or, su ch as)— used in duplication
N oun+ toka + Noun+ toka Hon toka zasshi toka takusan
k a im a s h ita . 本とか雑誌とか沢山買いました .
“I b ou gh t lots of th in gs, su ch as books and m agazin es.”
T O M O とも
I. (e ith e r. . . or, between)
N oun+ tom o + Noun+ tomo Y am a tomo u m i tomo miwake
gatsukim asen• 山とも海とも見分けがっきません . “ We
136 tomo Particles
can’t distinguish between the mountains and the

ocean.”
II. (of course)—emphatic
End of a sentence Kino benkyo shimashita ka. Shimashita
か； m 昨日勉強しましたか •しましたとも • “ Did you study
yesterday?” “ Of course I did.”
III. (at + A d js u p e rla tiv e )
P^]ku-\-tomo S u k u n a k u tomo kyo wa kore dake shinakere-
ba narimasen •少くとも今日はこれ丈しなければなりませ
ん . “ A t least I have to do this much today.”
O soku tomo go-ji made n i wa kite k u d a s a i. 遅くとも五
時までには来て下さい . “ Please come by five at the
latest.”
IV. Of his status
N oun+/ow o Daigaku no sen sei tom o aro hito ga sonna
koto o itta n’ desu ka. 大学の先生ともあろう人がそん
なことを言ったんですか. “ Did a person who is a
university professor say such a thing?”
V. Uncertain number
N um ber + か wo N anbyaku-nin tom o kazoerarenai hodo hito
ga 5zei i t a . 何百人とも数えられないほど (程 )人が大勢い
た . “T here were several hundred people there—so
m any th at i could hardly count them .”
V I. (all)
N um ber+ かmo Sa n -n in tomo kyo wa kesseki deshita. H
人とも今日は欠席でした. “ Al l three of them were ab
sent today.”
V Ii. (no m a tte r.. . ) emphatic
Noun + ^ m o Z e h i tom o goissho shitai d e s u . 是非とも御一
緒したいです • “ No m atter what happens, I w ant to
accompany you.”
Interrog. or 6. + tomo ( = t e mo) D on n a ni isogashiku tomo
suru koto wa shinakereba n a r a n a i. どんなに忙しくと
もする事はしなければならない . “ No m atter how busy
we are, we have to do w hat should be done.”
V III. (even though n o t . . . ) = ^ mo
'^naku+tomo K o n a k u tomo yoi desu y o . 来なくともよいで
すよ • “ You don’t have to come, you know.”
Particles wa 137
W Aは
I. Topic 一 The word w hich precedes wa is the topic of the
sentence.
a. wa isolates the noun w hich precedes it fro m other
words.
b. wa in this sense functions sim ila rly to the English
expression, “ as fo r‘”
1 . The w ord w hich precedes wa can be treated as a
subject.
W atakushi wa gakusei d e s u . 私は学生です . “ I am
a student.”
Kore wa hon d e s u . これは本です • “ T h is is a book.”
Note: In this sentence structure with the copula at the end, the
word preceding w a is neither emphasized nor contrasted with
any other element, (cf. g a , pp.103-105).
2. C ontrasting element
a. Single particle wa
W atakushi wa gakusei desu ga, anata wa sen-
sei desu• 私は学生ですが，あなたは先生です .
“ I am a student, but you are a teacher.”
Kono hon wa yom im ashita ga, ano hon wa
yomimasen d e s h it a . この本は読みましたが，
あの本は読みませんでした • “ I read th is book,
but I didn’t read th a t book.”
Note: In the second sentence, both w a replace the direct object
marker, o.
b. Double particles
Tokyo n i wa ikim ashita ga, Osaka n i wa iki-
masen deshita• 東京には行きましたが，大阪
には行きませんでした. “ I w ent to Tokyo,
b ut I didn’t go to Osaka.”
H iko ki n i wa norim ashita ga, densha n i wa
norimasen d e s h it a . 飛行機には乗りましたが，
電車には乗りませんでした. “ I rode in the
airplane, but I didn’t ride in the trolley.”
Note: The second clause is often omitted. That is, the contrast
ing element is often implicit.
138 wa Particles
Kono hon yomimashita• この本は読みました . “I read

this book (•.. but I didn’t read some other book, etc.).’’
In the case of double particles, w a always signifies a con
trasting element.
Tokyo m- ikimashita• 東京に行きました . “I went to
Tokyo.” cf. Tokyo m•⑽ z ikimashita. 東京には行き
ました . “I went to Tokyo (•.. but I didn’t go to some
other place, etc.).’’
A shita 知 shigoto o shimasu• 明日から仕事をします .
“1，11 work from tomorrow.” cf. Ashita k a r a w a
shigoto o shimasu.明日からは仕事をします • “I’ll work
from tomorrow (...b u t perhaps not from today,
etc.).”
Frequently w a is used with negative verbs. Here too,

the negative idea is in contrast to the positive idea.
II. (as fa r as . . . is concerned, it is a ll rig h t, b u t . . . )

N o u n + m;« + N oun da Hon wa hon desu ga, am ari ii hon
de wa a r im a s e n . 本は本ですがあま（余）りいい本ではあり
ません. “ I t ’s a book all rig h t, but i t is not a good
book.”
V 3+w^ {=noto) wa+Yerb Yomu m wa yomimashita ga
am ari omoshiroku arimasen deshita . 読むには読みまし
たがあま（余）り面白くありませんでした . “ I read it all
rig h t, but it wasn’t too interesting.”
III. emphasis
~Si-\-wa suru Nomi wa shimashita ga, tabe wa shimasen
d e s h it a . 飲みはしましたが食べはしませんでした • “ I did
d rink, but I didn’t eat.”
W A わ Colloquial sentence-ending particle fo r women

Verb+w ；0 Ashita kore 似 rw 明日これするわ . ‘‘I ’ll do this
tom orrow .”
Y A ゃ
I. (such things as, and so fo rth )—inexhaustive conjunction
N o u n N o u n Tsukue ya isu ga a r im a s u . 勒Lや椅子力 t
あります • “ There are such things as desks and chairs.”
II. (as soon as)
Nz-\-ya-V{ina ya) Tsuku ya {ina ya) sugu kare n i denwa
o k a k e m a s h ita . 着くやす / 直）ぐ& に電話をかけました .
Particles yori 139
“ As soon as I arrived, I telephoned him .”

III. End of a sentence
Person’s n am e+ ： Vfi! % 友子や “ Tomoko.” (ad
dressing lo m o k o )
V t e n t a t i v e Mo tsumaranai kenka wa yameyo y a . もう
つまらないけんか (喧唾）はやめようや . “ Let ’s q uit our
tr iv ia l fig htin g.” （ tone of lig h t urging) Used by men.
Y A R A やら
I. îgn of uncertainty
Interrog. w o rd + ツ似tz Nani yara kaite imasu . 何やら書い
ています . “ He is w ritin g something.”
Nan* no koto yara zenzen wakarimasen deshita . 何のこ
とやら全然わか (分）りませんでした • “ I didn’t understand
at all w hat th a t was about.”
II. Conjunction
N oun+ yara + N oun+ yara Are yara kore yara suru koto
ga takusan arimasu . あれやらこれやらすることが沢山あ
ります . uWhat w ith this and that, we have so many
th ing s to do.’’
YO ょ
End of a sentence
Yerb-\-yo Mado ga aite imasu y o . 窓があ（開）いていますよ .
“ The window is open, you know.,>—g iv in g inform a
tion to others, m ild emphasis.
Ashita iku yo. (used by men ) 明日行くよ. “ I ’ll go
tom orrow .”
Ashita iku wa yo. (used by women— wa is inserted
between the verb and y o ) 明日行くわよ . “ I ’ll go
tom orrow .”
N oun+ ô (addressing) Yama y o . 山よ . “ You, mountain.”
Used m ainly in poetry or lite ra ry w ritin g .
Y O R I ょり
I. (than)
N oun+ yo ri Kono hito wa ano hito yori sei ga takai desu.
この人はあの人より背が高いです. “ Thi s man is taller
than th a t man.”
140 ze Particles
II. (from )—more lite ra ry than kara

N o u n + ô n Taro yori—commonly used at the end of a
le tte r• 太郎より .
III. (more)
3W /+ A d j. Kono ho ga yori takai desu. この方がより高い
です • “ T his is more expensive.”
ZEぜ
(you know)
End of a sentence Kyo iku ze. (used by men ) 今日行く
ぜ • “ I ’ll go today, you know •”
ZOぞ
Emphasis
End of a sentence M uzukashii 20. (used by men ) 難し
いぞ • “ I t ’s difficult.”
INTERROGATIVE W O R D S 疑問詞くぎもんし〉
PLUS P A R T IC L E S 助詞くじょし〉
The follow ing interrogative words are sometimes followed by the

particles ka and mo, and the resulting combination produces entire
ly new meanings. These interrogative words also may be followed
by the verb or adjective ^ -fo rm plus mo (Vte mo, A6]kute y^〇\ or
by de mo (copular te-iorm + mo), again producing a new meaning.
L i s t o f I n t e r r o g a t i v e W o rd s
dare fg who
dochira どちら wmch of the tw o—more polite than dotchi
doko どこ（何如i) where
donata Hts:于こ who—more polite than dare
donna+ noun どんな what kind of (noun)
donna ni どん ' to what extent
ゐ ⑽ + n o u n どの which (noun) among many (three or more)
do どう how
d o r e どれ which among many (three or more)
d o tc h i どっち which of the two
/ 々汉 + counter 幾（人）=W0W’ +counter how many (noun)
/ 々Mm いく（幾）ら how much
/左 1/、く ( 幾 )'o how many
itsu いつ (何時） when
mm’ + counter 何（人）= / 々《+ counter how many (noun)
nani = nan , 何 how m any (noun) (n’ is used before the
consonants b, p, d, t, n, r, z)
なぜ (何故） why
I n t e r r o g a t i v e w o r d + k a “som e...”
dare ka 魏 t 、 someone, e.g. Kyo dare ka kimashita . 今日誰か来
ました . “ Someone came today.”
ぬ如どちらか either one, e.g. み [o] o to rin in a tte
kudasai• どちらかおとりになって下さい • “ Please choose either
one of the two.”
doko ka どこ（何処 )か somewhere, e.g. Haha wa kyo doko ka e
ikimashita. 母は今日どこかへ行きました . “ My mother went
somewhere today.”
142 Interrogative Words plus Particles
donata ka こか someone, e.g. Donata ka irasshaimashita.

どなたかいらっしゃいました . “ Someone came.”
donna+ noun + ka (non-existent, except fo r case 1 , p p . 147-48)
donna ni ka ヒ A yfsH t 、 how very much, e.g. Oka-sama mo donna
ni ka oyorokobi d e s h o . お母様もどんなにかお喜びでしょう .
“ How happy yo ur m other m ust be!”
dono-{-noun ^-ka (non-existent, except fo r case 1 , pp. 147-48)
do ka=dd ni ka }£ う负、 somehow, e.g. Do ka nareba ii desu ga
. . . どうかなればいいですが… “ I t would be nice if it works
out somehow, but …
dore ka どれか one of many, e.g. Dore ka k u d a s a i. どれ力、下さ
い • “ Give me one.”
dotchi ka どっ h t 、 either one, e.g. Dotchi ka [o] erande kuda
sai. どっちか選んで下さい • “ Please choose one of the tw o.”
^ several, e.g. Iku-nin ka kim ashita . 幾
/ 々び+ co u n te r+ ka 幾一；
人か来ました • “ Several people came.”
ikura ka いく {幾')らか some amount, e.g. Ikura ka hanasemasu.
いくらか話せます • “ I can speak a little (some).”
ikutsu ka \ヽくた^ ) つ力、 some quantity, some number, e.g. Ikutsu
ka kaim ashita . いくつか買いました . “ I bought some.”
いつ（何時） ^ some tim e, e.g. Itsu ka Nihon n i ik ita i to
；
omotte imasu . いつか日本に行きたいと思っています . “ I am
th in k in g that 丄would like to go to Japan some aay.”
+ c o u n t e r 何一力、 several, e.g. han-mn ka iku to omoi-
masu • 何人か行くと思います • “ I th in k several people w ill go.”
nani ka 何か something, e.g. Nani ka tabetai d e s u . 何力、食べた
いです . “ I w ant to eat something.”
naze ka なぜ（何故）;^ somehow, e.g. Naze ka kono uchi wa
am ari suki de wa arimasen • なぜかこの家はあま（余）り好きでは
ありません . “ Somehow I don’t like this house ve ry much.”
Note: When other particles are used, they always follow k a y and
never come between the interrogative word and k a .
e.g. agemashita k a . 誰かに上げましたか . “Did
you give it to someone?”
I n te r r o g a tiv e w o r d + m o
A n interrogative w ord + mo has tw o separate meanings depending
on w hether it is followed by a negative verb or a positive verb.
I. I n te r r o g . iv o r d + m o -{-p o s itiv e v e r b "every. . . n (inclusive)
dare mo 誰も everyone, e.g. Sonna koto wa dare mo ga
Interrogative Words plus Particles 143
か队そんな事は誰もが知っている • “ Everyone knows
such a th in g .”
dochira mo どちらも both, e.g. Dochira mo ii d e s t i . どち
らもいいです . “ Both are good.”
ゐ如 mo どこ（何処）も everywhere, e.g. mo konde
似み“ a• どこも混んでいました • “ I t was crowded every
where (Everywhere was crowded).”
donata mo ど ts：
ナこも everyone, e.g. Donata mo eigo ga
⑽ ぬ似 . どなたも英語がお上手です • “ Everyone speaks
English w e ll.”
donna-\-no\m-\-mo どんな一も every kind of, e.g. Donna
/«•か敗？fmasM• どんな人もいます • “ Every kind of person
is here.”
donna ni mo (non-existent)
Jcw o+noun+m o どの一も every, e.g. Dono hon mo muzu-
々as/2/swが m 似 w• どの本も難しす ( 過）ぎます . “ Every book
is too d ifficu lt.”
do mo (non-existent, except fo r case 2, p . 148)
dore mo どれも every one of them, e.g. Dore mo omo-
s h ir o i ぬ似 . どれも面白いです • “ Every one of them is
interesting.”
dotchi mo どっちも both, e.g. Dotchi mo k ire i d e s u . どっ
ちもきれい (綺麗）です _ “ Both of them are p retty.”
iku-\-counterm o 幾一も any number, several, e.g. Iku-
nin mo k im a sh ita . 幾人も来ました . “ Several people
came.”
mo いく（幾）らも any amount, many, e.g. Mada
mo nokotte • ま（未）だいくらものこっていま
す . “ There are s till any number (many) of them left.”
ikutsu mo \ 、く ( 幾')つも any number, several, e.g. Ikutsu
mo k a im a sh ita . いくっも買いました • “ I bought several.”
mo いつ (何時 )も always, e.g. Itsu mo uchi n i imasu.
いっも家にいます • “ I am always home.”
mm ’ + counter+ wo 何 — も any number, e.g. Nan-satsu
敗？々瓜 • 何冊も買いました . “ I bought several
books.”
nani mo (non-existent, except fo r case 3, p . 148)
naze mo (non-existent)
Note: When other particles are used, they always go between the
interrogative word and m o .
e.g. w/ mo ky6mi ga 似 • どちらにも興味があり
ます. “ I am interested in both.” D o n o hon n i m o kai-
te 你 . どの本にも書いてあります • “It is written in
every book.”
II. I n te r r o g a tiv e w o r d + m o + n e g a tiv e ve rb <{no . .. (exclusive)

dare mo 誰も nobody, e.g. Z)の^ mo 々/ 俯仍 ⑽ deshita.
誰も来ませんでした . “ Nobody came.”
ゐ mo どちらも neither, e.g. Zte/wVa wo yoku ar/-
was ⑽ • どちらもよくありません . “ Nei ther of them is
good.”
ゐ如？wo どこ（何処）も nowhere，e.g. Doko ni mo ikima-
s e n . どこにも行きません • “ I w on’t go anywhere.”
donata mo ど于s：すこ％ nobody, e.g. Donata mo irasshaima-
sen d e s i t a . どなたもいらっしゃいませんでした . “ Nobody
came.”
ゐ wmz+noun+m o どんな一も no kind of, e.g. Donna hon
mo yaku n i tachimasen. どんな本も役に立ちません . “ No
kind of book is useful.”
donna ni mo (non-existent)
dono-\-no\in-\-mo }£(〇— も no, e.g. Dono hon mo omo-
shiroku a r im a s e n . どの本も面白くありません . “ None of
the books is interesting.”
dd mo どうも not at all, somehow, e.g. wo
m 仍 ⑽ • どうもよくありません . “ It is not good at all,” or
“ Somehow it isn’t good.”
dore mo どれも none, e.g. Dore mo yasuku arimasen.
どれも安くありません • “ None is cheap.”
dotchi mo どっち％ neither， e.g. Dotchi mo chiisaku ari-
浓仍⑽• どっちも小さくありません. “ N either of them is
small.”
tRu+ counter+ mo 幾一も not many, e.g. A m a ri iku-nin
mo kimasen d e s h ita . 余り幾人も来ませんでした • “ N ot too
m any people came.”
/ 々なm wo いく（幾）らも not much, e.g. Ikura mo nokotte
如仍州 . いくらも残っていません . “ N ot much is le ft.”
mo いく（幾）つも not many, e.g. Mo ikutsu mo
a r im a s e n . もういくつもありません . “ Not many are left
any more.”
/なw mo いつ（何時）も x^ v &y， Itsu mo ikcm asm . いつ
も行けません . “ I can never go.”
nan'+ counter +mo 何一も not many, e.g. Nan-mai mo

kakimasen d e s h it a . 何枚も書きませんでした . “ I didn’t
w rite many pages (sheets).”
nani-\-mo -fcj% nothing, e.g. Nani mo arimasen. 何もあ
りません • “ There is nothing.”
naze mo (non-existent)
Note: When other particles are used, they always go between the
interrogative word and m o.
e.g. m• ⑽ ？ ikimasen• どこ（何処）にも行きません： “I
won’t go anywhere.” D a r e n i m o m is e m a s e n deshita.
誰にも見せませんでした • “I didn’t show it to anyone.”
Interrogative word+Vte mo “ no m atter who (wnat, etc.)”

De mo is used in the same manner as Vte but it follows an
interrogative word directly. De is the te-iovm of the copula da.
Therefore, an interrogative w o r d + ^ mo means <4no m atter who
(what, etc.) it is.” Thus it is often translated into English as
“ anyone,” “ anything,” etc. This expression is used m ainly w ith posi
tive verbs. See 6, p . 149
ぬ re • • • 桃0 誰 …V ても no matter who, e.g. Dare ga kite mo
o d o ro kim a se n . 誰が来ても驚きません . “ No m atter who comes,
I won’t be surprised.” Dare de mo h a ire m a s u . 誰でも入れます .
“ Anyone (no m atter who he is) can enter.”
dochira • • /Site 饥〇て、 no m atter which, e.g. Dochira
o erande mo ii d e s u . どちらを選んでもいいです - “ No matter
which one you choose, it w ill be all rig ht.” Dochira de mo
k a m a im a s e n . どちらでも構いません . “ I t doesn’t m atter w ith
either one•”
ぬ々o ••• 桃0 どこ（何処）… V ても no m atter where, e.g. Doko
e itte mo atsui d e s u . どこへ行っても暑いです • “ No m atter where
we go, it is hot.” Doko de de mo utte imasu . どこででも売っ
ています • “ I t is sold anywhere.”
ぬどなた " . V ても no m atter who, e.g. Donata
ga irasshatte mo ano kata wa aitakunai to osshaimasu. どなた
がいらっしゃってもあの方は会いたくないとおっしゃいます. “ No
m atter who comes, he says that he doesn’t want to see him .”
m• ぬ mo omise shimasu• どなたにでもお見せします .
“ I ’ll show it to anyone.”
ぬ w w 0 + n o u n ".V 允 wo どんな N . " V ても no matter what kind
of, e.g. D ow w flゐ ⑽ o 如你饥 0 yomanai desh6• どんな本を買っ
ても読まないでしょう . “No m a tter w h at kind of book w e buy,

he probably w o n ’t read it.” Donna hon de mo y o m im a su . ど
んな本でも読みます • “H e w ill read a n y kind of book.”
donna de mo どんなでも no m a tter how , e.g. Donna de mo
kam aw an ai kara sh ite kudasai. どんなでも構わないからして下さ
い • “N o m atter h ow you do it, it’s all right; p lease do it.”
ゐ m*. • • V/e 嫩〇どんなに • • • V ても no m a tter h ow m uch, e.g.
Donna ni hataraite mo m ada binbo d esu . どんなに働いてもまだ
貧乏です • “N o m a tter h o w hard I w ork, I am still poor.” O kane
ga tak u san m okaru nara donna ni de mo h atarak im asu . お金
が沢山儲かるならどんなにでも働きます . “If I ca n earn so m u ch
m oney, 1’1丄 w ork a lot (no m a tter h o w m u cn w ork 丄h a v e to
do, I’ll do it).”
ゐ ⑽ + n o u n ••• V& mo どの N … V ても no m a tter w h ich , e.g.
Dono hon o yonde mo tsu m arim asen . どの本を読んでもつまりま
せん . “No m a tter w h ich book I read, I b ecom e bored.” Dono
hon de mo ii kara m isete k u d asai . どの本でもいいから見せて下
さい . aA n y book is all rig h t; p lea se sh o w it to m e.,>
mo どう V ても no m a tter how , e.g. Do mite mo ano
h ito w a ch o tto ok ashii d esu . どう見てもあの人は一寸おかしいで
す . “No m a tter h ow I look at h im , he is a little odd.” Do de
mo k a m a i m a s e n . どうでも構いません . “ N o m atter h ow it is, it
d o esn ’t m a tter.”
ふ％ . •• mo どれ . • • V ても no matter which one, e.g. Dore
o mite mo yoku a r im a se n . どれを見てもよくありません . “No
matter which one I see, none is good.” 沒 d/衫桃 0 kekk5
desu• どれでも結構です • “Any one of them is fine.”
ゐ纪 ••• どっち … V ても no m atter w h ich , e.g. Z)がc み/
o tabete mo oish ik un ai d esh o . どっちを食べてもおいしくないで
しょう . “N o m a tter w h ich on e I eat, it probably w o n ’t b e ta sty .”
Dotchi ni de mo h a i r e m a s u . どづちにでも入れます . “Yo u can
en ter eith er on e.”
/ 々w+ co u n ter •• mo 幾一 V ても no m atter h ow m any, e.g.
/ 々. w k 故； ta rim a sen • 幾人いても足りません • “ N o m atter
h o w m an y p eople are here, it’s not en o u g h .” Iku-nin ni de mo
a g e m a s u . 幾人にでも上げます . “I’ll g iv e it to an y n um ber of
p eop le.”
mo いく（
幾）ら. . . V ても n o m a t t e r h o w m u c h ，e.g.
Ikura nonde mo m ada nodo g a k a w a ite im a su .
いくら飲んでも
まだ喉が渴いています • “N o m a tter h ow m uch I drink, I am still
th irsty.” Ikura de mo tsu k a tte k u d asai . いくらでも使って下さ

い . “ P lea se u se a n y am oun t.”
ikutsu • ••V te 動いく iM ) つ … N ても no m a tter h o w m any, no
m atter h ow old, e.g. Ikutsu ni natte mo m ada kodom o no yo
d esu • いくつになってもまだ子供のようです • “N o m atter h ow old
h e gets, he is still lik e a ch ild .” Ikutsu de mo k a tte agem asu .
いくつでも買って上げます • “I’ll buy y ou an y n um ber of th em
(no m atter h ow m any).”
dsw m o いつ ( 何時 ) V ても no m atter w h en , e.g. Itsu itte mo
uchi n i im asu. いつ行っても家にいます . “N o m atter w h e n I go,
h e is hom e.), Itsu de mo ii d e s u . いつでもいいです • “A n y t im e
is fine.”
w^m’+ c o u n t e r + V /e mo 何一 V ても no m a tter h ow m any, e.g.
々/ な mo k am a im a sen • 何人来ても構いません . “N o m at
ter h ow m any people com e, it d oesn ’t m a tter.” Nan-nin de mo
ii d e s u . 何人でもいいです . “An y n um ber of people w ill be all
righ t.”
mo 何 . • • V ても no m atter w hat, e.g. Nani o tabete
mo oish ik u arim asen. 何を食べてもおいしくありません . “No
m atter w h a t I eat, it d oesn 't ta ste good.,> Nan' de mo dekim asu.
何でもでき（出来）ます . “ H e can do a n y th in g .”
wa汉ぬ w o なぜ (何故）でも no m atter w h y (see 4 ，p p . 148-49)
Naze de mo i k e m a s e n . なぜでも行けません • “N o m a tter w h y , I
ca n ’t go.”
Note: In the case of interrogative wordH-cfg wo, when other particles

are used, they always go between the interrogative word and
d e m o.
e .g . e ぬ mo ikimasu.どこ（何処）へでも行きます . ‘‘I’ll go
anywhere.”
C o n v e n ie n t T h in g s to R em em ber C o n c e r n in g S o m e F o r m s o f
I n te r r o g a tiv e W o rd + P a r tic le .
1 . W h e n an in terro g a tiv e vj〇v6.-\-ka is fo llo w ed b y th e verb s
shiru or wakaru, th is com b ination d oes n ot h a v e th e sp ecial
m ea n in g s listed on p p . 141-42.
e.g. Dare ka k i m a s h i t a . 誰か来ました . “S o me o n e ca m e.”
Dare [d a] ka^ s h i r i m a s e n . 誰か知りません . “I don ’t
k n o w w h o.” T h e copula da is o ften om itted.
Doko ka e i k i m a s h i t a . どこ（何処）かへ行きました .
*This ka shows uncertainty.

“H e w en t so m ew h ere .”
Doko [d a ] ka^ sh itte im asu ka. どこか知っていますか.
“D o you k n ow w h e r e ? ”
2. Dd+mo has b ecom e th e adverbial word domo m ea n in g ^very
m uch,” “q uite,” “so m eh o w ,” e tc .， w h en it is used w ith a
p o sitiv e verb.
e.g. D om o arigato g o z a i m a s u . どうも有難うございます .
“T h an k you v er y m uch.” D om o N ih o n g o w a m uzu-
k a sh ii d e s u . どうも日本語は難しいです • “Japanese is
really d ifficult (no m a tter h ow hard I work).**
3. T h ere is n o ex p ressio n nani mo m ea n in g ttev e ry th in g .,> T h e
exp ression nan' de mo is clo se to “ev e ry th in g ,” alth ou gh
stric tly sp ea k in g it m ea n s “a n y th in g .”
e.g. N an1 de mo t a b e m a s u . 何でも食べます • “H e e a ts a n y
th in g (ev e ry th in g ).”
Note: The adverbial word n a n im o used with negative verbs is

used as an emphatic expression,
e.g. Yori ni mo yotte n a n im o kyo konakute mo yo-
katta no ni. . . よりにもよって何も今日来なくても
よかったのに … “Of all the days of the year, he had
to come today (he didn’t have to come today)!”
4. T h ere is no exp ression naze . . . V te mof but th ere is th e e x
pression naze de mo m ea n in g uno m a tter w h y (no m a tter
w h a t th e reason),” w h ich is fo llo w ed b y both p o sitiv e and
n eg a tiv e verbs.
e.g. Naze de mo ikitaka tta nr d e s u . なぜ (何故）でも行きたか
ったんです • “ No m atter w hat the reason, I wanted to
go.”
Naze de mo ik itak u n ak atta n* d esu . なぜでも行きた
くなかったんです. “No m atter w h a t th e reason, I
didn ’t w a n t to g o .”
Note: These sentences can be considered as the answers to such

questions as ：
e.g. Naze ikitakatta n’ desu ka. なぜ行きたかったんです
か . “ Why did you want to go ?” Naze ikitakuna
katta n’ desu ka. なぜ行きたくなかったんですか .
“Why didn’t you want to go ?”
*This ka shows uncertainty.

T h e on e w h o an sw ers does n ot w an t to g iv e in form ation

a s to w h y h e d oes or d o esn ’t do th e action . D ep en d in g
o n th e ton e, it m ay even sou n d b elligeren t.
C onfusion arises o v er th e u se of an in terro g a tiv e w o rd + mo

or an in terro g a tiv e w o r d + ^ mo.
a. follow ed b y a p o sitiv e verb
Interrogative w o rd + 所0+ p o sitiv e verb “e v e r y " . ”
Interrogative w o rd + ぬ桃 0+ p o sitiv e verb “a n y " . ”
e.g. Dore mo ii d e s u . どれもいいです . “Every-
th m g is good.”
Dore de mo ii d e s u . どれでもいいです • “A n y
on e is all righ t.”
b. follow ed b y a n eg a tiv e verb
Interrogative w o rd + m o+ n eg a tiv e verb (fol
low ed b y o n ly a v ery fe w verbs, se e 6)
e.g. Nani mo a r i m a s e n . 何もありません • “T h er e is
n o th in g .”
Nan* de mo a r i m a s e n . 何でもありません • “It’s
n o th in g .”
Nani mo k a m a i m a s e n . 何も構いません . “He
d o esn ’t ca re about a n y th in g .”
Nan* de mo k a m a i m a s e n . 何でも構いません .
“It d o esn ’t m atter w h a t it is.”
In terrogative w o rd + ぬ n e g a tiv e verb
A n in terro g a tiv e w o r d + ^ mo is fo llo w ed on ly b y a v ery
fe w verb s in a n e g a tiv e form su ch as nai or kamawanai.
e.g. ぬ抓？似n• . 誰でもない • “It’s nobody.”
Dotchi de mo kamawanai•どっちでも構わない • “It
d oesn ’t m atter w h ich o n e，” etc.
T h e exp ressio n ikura de mo nai is not too com m on, but
som etim es it is u sed in th e se n se th a t “th e am oun t is n ot
too m uch.”
e.g. Ikura de mo arimasen ga, orei no sh iru sh i n i to tte
kudasai. いく（幾）らでもありませんが，お礼のしるし
にとって下さい . uIt (th e am ount) is n o t m uch, b u t
p lea se ta k e it as a token of m y thanks.**
NO UNS名詞くめいし>
I. C h aracteristics of Japanese N oun s (T h ou gh pronouns are a

cla ss of nouns, for co n v en ie n c e th e y are trea ted under a
sep arate h ead in g in th is b o o k 〔pp. 191-92〕 ).
1 . G enerally no d istin ction b etw een sin g u la r and plural
E x c e p tio n s:
a. O ccasion ally a su ffix is attached to noun s or pro
noun s to form plurals (e.g. watakushi 私 “I,”
watakushi-tachi すこち（逢 ' ) “w e ,” 如ゐ w o 子供
“ch ild ,” 如ゐ mo- なc み2• 子供たち “ch ild ren ”)， s e e
n oun su ffixes for plural form s, p p . 179-82
b. R ep etition of th e sa m e w ord m ak es th e plural of
certa in n ou n s (hito A hitobito X な
“people，” shima 島 “island，” shimaj’ima 島々 “is-
lan ds•” S ee p . 154, 3b
2. N o gen d er (no fem in in e, m a scu lin e, n euter)
3. N o ca se (P a rticles w h ich fo llo w noun s d ecide th e ca se in
Japanese, se e P articles, pp. 93-140.)
II. V ariou s F orm s of Jap anese N oun s

1 . N oun u sa g e sim ilar to E n g lish u sa g e
a. Common n o u n s 普通名詞〈ふつうめいし〉
C oncrete n o u n s 具体名詞〈ぐたいめいし〉（ゐ⑽ 本
“b ook,’’ ゐ⑽ 0 花 “ flow er”)
Abstract n o u n s 抽象名詞〈ちゅうしょうめいし > ( フソ>兗
自由 “ lib e rty ”）
b. P roper n o u n s 固有名詞〈こゆうめいし〉（れ々ッ〇東京
“T o k y o ,” 田中さん “Mr. T an ak a ”）
2. N ou n s u sed as adverb s w ith o u t c h a n g in g in form
a. N u m e r a ls 数詞〈すうし〉
Cardinal numbers 基数〈きすう > 三つ or
犯 w 三 “ three ”）
e.g. K oko ni mittsu no rin go g a arim asu. (noun)
ここに三つのリンゴ淋檎 )があります.
uT h er e are th ree apples h ere.,>
R ingo o mittsu kudasai. ( a d v e r b ) リンゴを
Nouns 151
三つ下さい • “P lease g iv e m e three apples.”

Ordinal n u m b e r s 序数〈じよすう〉（たみ^ ^ 一番 “first ”）
e.g. A n o gak usei w a kono kurasu de ichiban
desu. (noun ) あの学生はこのクラスで一番
です . “He is th e top in th is cla ss.”
K ore g a ichiban okii desu. (adverb ) これが
一番大きいです • “T h is is th e largest.”
b. N ouns of q uantity
( ^ 々奶 ⑽ 沢山 “m any，” 似々似/ ^ 少し ‘‘a lit t le ,” 之
全部 “all,” w m c 皆 or w /w w a 皆 ‘‘all ,” ぬの •大勢
“m any [people ]”）
e.g. Takusan no okashi o tabem ashita. (noun)
沢山のお菓子を食べました . “I ate lots of
cak es.”
O kashi o takusan k aim ashita. (adverb ) お菓
子を沢山買いました. “We b ought m any
cak es.” 鼸 :_
_ 涵_
c. Som e ab stract nouns
0 7 力事実 “truth” or “in fact,” zettai 絶対 “ ab
so lu ten ess” or “absolutely,” 割合 “ rate” or
“rela tiv ely ”) .1': ㈣
e.g. Sore w a ブ •/力Ysm desu. ( n o u n ) それは事実です .
“T h a t is a fa ct.”
Jijitsu sonna koto w a shiranakatta. (adverb) ■
事実そんな事は知らなかった. “In fa ct I
didn’t k now su ch a th in g .”
d. N ouns of gen eralized tim e
(々外今日 ‘‘today,” 々 ⑽ 今週 “th is w eek ”）
e.g. no gogo ikim asu. (noun ) 今日の午後行
きます . “I am g o in g th is afternoon.”
Kyo ikim asu. (a d v e r b ) 今日行きます .
“I am goin g today.”
3. N ouns w h ich are m odified not by ad jectives but by adverbs
or n on-con ju gative ad jectives
a. N oun s of direction s
(/h•沿zs/n• 東 “ east,” 西 “ w est ”）
e.g. Hokkaido w a N ihon no mottomo kita ni aru.
北海道は日本の最も北にある • “H okkaido is
situ ated fu rth est north in Japan.”
Sonna minami ni aru n' d esu ka . そんな南
152 Nouns
にあるんですか. “Is it situ ated th at far

so u th ? ”
4. N ouns w h ich can be used as ad jectives as w ell as adverbs.
a . り似力’ 同じ “sa m e,” “a n y w a y ” （traditional gram m ar
ca teg o rizes th is w ord as ad jective, but in m odern
Japanese it is easier to trea t it a s noun. T h e on ly
ad jectival in flection still u sed is th e ku-iorm, ona-
m ea n in g “sim ila rly ,” “eq u ally.”
e.g. Kore to sore w a onaji desu. (noun ) これとそ
れは同じです . “T h is and th at are th e sa m e.”
Onaji hito de w a arim asen. (adjective ) 同じ
人ではありません . “It’s not th e sam e person.”
Onaji iku ni (to) sh ite mo, k y5 w a h onto w a
ikitaku nai n ’ desu. (adverb ) 同じ行くにし
ても今日は本当は行きたくないんです . ‘‘I’ll go
all th e sam e, but I don’t really w ant to go
today.”
5. N ouns w h ich are unique to Japanese
a. Copular nouns (adjectival nouns)
(か’m . [ 如 ] きれい (綺麗）な “ pretty,” or “ clean,”
[ 而 ] 静かな “ quiet”）
C haracteristics of copular nouns
1 . N ot used as an independent word in a sen ten ce,
but alw a y s fo llo w ed by a copular {da, desu, etc.
or na before nouns).
2. N ever b ecom es th e subject or th e d irect object
in a sen ten ce.
3. M odified by adverbs, not by adjectival words.
N o te: T h ese words are o ften not translatable as

nouns. T ogeth er w ith a copula, th ey h ave an
adjectival m eaning. S in ce it is difficult for non
n atives to d istin gu ish b etw een regu lar nou ns and
copular nouns, th ey sh ould m em orize all the
copular nou ns togeth er w ith na. In order to
determ ine if a noun is regu lar or copular,
Japan ese-E n glish d iction aries sh ou ld be con
su lted, sin ce m ost o f th em list copular nou ns
w ith na.
e.g. K ore w a 知>幻• d e s u . これはきれいです.
“T h is is p retty.”
Nouns 153
Kore wa k ir e i n a hana desu. これはきれ

いな花です • “This is a pretty flower.”
如 m • ぬ 6kii h e y a きれいで大きい部屋
“a pretty and big room，’
COM M ON C O PULAR N O U N S
atataka n a 暖かな w arm
aw are n a 哀れな pitifu l
benri n a 便利な co n v en ien t
g6j6 n a 強情な stubborn
hade n a 派手な sh o w y
heibon n a 平凡な com m onplace
idai n a 偉大な great
igai n a 意外な u nexp ected
ijiw aru n a 意地悪な m ean
ij5 n a 異常な abnorm al
iya n a いや(厭)な d istastefu l
kantan n a 簡単な sim p le
kasuka n a 力、す力、な fain t
kirai n a 嫌いな d ista stefu l
kiraku n a 気楽な carefree
kirei n a きれい(綺麗)な pretty
k6ka n a 高価な ex p en siv e
m o tto m o n a もっと（尤)もな reasonable
on w a n a 温和な m ild
reisei n a 冷静な cool
sh izu ka n a 静かな quiet
su ki n a 好きな favorite
tab6 n a 多忙な busy
tsiik ai n a 痛快な th rillin g
tein ei na 丁寧な polite
y 6 i n a 容易な easy
y u k a i n a 愉快な pleasan t
zeitaku n a 贅沢な extravagan t
(okina, chiisana, okashina, se e p. 92)
b. P seudo-noun (Noun in fo r m ) 形式名詞くけいしきめいし〉
まま “as it is,” ため（為） “for th e sak e
of,” 伽 . 通り “ju st as”)
T h is is a group of noun s w h ich are n ever used
independently. T h ey are a lw a y s used w ith a m odi
fier (see N oun m odifiers, p p . 189-90).
154 Nouns
e.g. U ch i o d eta mama, m ada k a ette k im a sen . 家

を出たまま，まだ帰って来ません. “He le ft
h om e, and a s o i n o w h e still h as not com e
h om e.M {mama m ean s uas it is /' status quo)
III. D erivation ot N oun F orm s
1 . T ru e nouns
ひsw々從机 “ desk,” 々/ 木 “ tree，
” 本 “ book”）
2. N o u n s derived from other parts of sp eech
sl. V 2 (kaeri 掃り “ return,” 餅沒考え “ thought,”
助切 ⑽ • 望み “ hope” )
b. A d j如如近く “ neighborhood” ） See pp. 84, 89
for 々w-form.
c. Adjstem (ad jective of colors) aka # <{red,n shiro 色
“w h ite”
E：
d. P a rticle (wo の “fa ct,” “o n e ”）
3. C om pound nouns
a. N o u n + N o u n ( 外 w d a 夜中 “m iddle of th e n ig h t,”
似 0/b• 朝日 “m orn in g su n ”）
b. Repetition of tw o nouns (used as plurals) {hitobito
人々 “ people,” み必/ 日々 “ days” ）The in itia l sound
of the second noun often becomes voiced.
IK c. Noun+V2 ( 々ぬ • 給筆削り “ pencil sharp-
ener”）
d. V 2+ V 2 ( 外知々 / . 読書き “reading and w ritin g ,”
ぬ m沿• 食過ぎ “o v erea tin g ”）
e. V 2+N oun ( 如 / 煎 ?w o 買物 “ shopping,” な知 wo 似食物
“ food,” 々ぬ/ ^ 消しゴム “ eraser”）
f. Adjstem+ Noun たみ/ 近道 “short cut,” 似/^•
wflw/ぬ嬉し涙 “tears of joy”）
g. N oun+ A djstem ( 以桃/ガ如気短か “ short temper,”
•みのぬ足早 “ quick w alker ”）
h. A d j s t e m み/ 高飛び “ high jum p,” /Jw 似 ;an’
遠回り “ detour ”）
Adjstem+ Adjstem (t6asa 遠浅 “sh o a l ”）
A d jstem+ suffix 從（
mな美しさ “beauty ”）
A d jstem+ suffix 知知寒け “ c h ill ”）
Cop. n .+ su 伍 x s幻• （
/»•加必要性 “ necessity ”）
k. Adverb+ Noun か如またいとこ “ second cous
in,” t o か抑か只事 “ ordinary m atter ”）
Nouns 155
1 . N o u n + V 2+ N o u n (如•加仍みか wか• 人差指 “in dex fin ger ”）
4. A bbreviated noun s
国連 from 似如国際連合 “ th e U n ited
N atio n s,” k6k6 高校 from k 6t6gak k 6 高等学校 “ h igh
sch oo l”
5. Japanized W estern words
(似7 <ぬ / かアルバイト “p art-tim e job,” from G e r m a n 义 ”ゐの7;
ぬ wsm ダンス “d ance,” from E n g lish dance)
T h ere are literally thou sand s of fo reig n w ords used
in th is m anner, but p ronunciations, and so m etim es
m ean in g s, are Japanized, and it is o ften difficult to
te ll from w h a t w ords th ey actu a lly originate. T h ese
w ords co m e from su ch fo re ig n la n g u a g es as E n glish,
G erm an, F rench, R ussian, P o rtu g u ese, and others.
M oreover, so m e of th ese w ords are often sh orten ed in
Japanese, so th at th e y are e v e n m ore d i 伍 cu lt to re
cogn ize. For exam ple, 似如 m ean s “strik e,”
m ean s ^hunger strik e,5, dem o m ean s ^dem onstration/*
and so forth. N o list of all th e se w ords is p ossib le;
m oreover, n ew w ords are co n tin u a lly Demg added. For-
tun ately, h ow ever, th ey are w ritten in 々ポの so that
readers are m ade aw are th a t th e y h ave fo reig n origins.
NOUN-FOLLOWING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
B A K A R I D E W A N A K U • • • MO ばかりではなく •.•も not o n l y •• •

but also, e.g. Jiddsha bakari de wa naku uchi mo kaimashita.
自動車ばかりではなく家も買いました . “T h e y b ough t not on ly a car,
but also a h o u se.”
B A K A R I K A ••• MO ばかりか … も not o n l y ••• but also, e.g. 4 似
hito wa Furansugo bakari ka Doitsugo mo hanashimasu. あの人
はフランス語ばかりかドイツ語も話します. “He n ot on ly sp eak s
F rench, but h e also sp eak s Lrerman.”
B A M U ばむ be slig h tly in so m e con d ition, e.g. Ase bande kima-
• 汗ばんで来ました • “I am g e ttin g slig h tly sw e a ty .”
BIR U びる apparent sta te of, e.g. Ano ko wa otona bite imasu.
あの子は大人びています • “T h a t ch ild looks lik e a grow n -u p.”
BU R I ぶり lapse of time ，e.g. San-nen buri de a im a s h ita . 三年ぶ
りで会いました . “I sa w h im a fter a lap se of th r ee y ea r s.”
B U R U ぶる pretend to be, p ose as, a ssu m e airs, e.g. Ano hito wa
tensai butte ite okashii desu. あの人は天才ぶっていておかしいです.
“It’s fu n n y b eca u se he p retend s to be a g e n iu s.” Itsu mo johin
ろm说 /m fls 汉 . 何時も上品ぶっています . “She a lw a y s a ssu m e s airs
of g e n tility .”
D A K A R A T O IT T E だからと言って ju st becau se, e.g. Kodomo
dakara to itte baka ni dekinai• 出来 ')
子供だからと言って馬鹿にでき（
ない . “Just b eca u se h e is a child, w e ca n ’t b elittle h im .”
D A K E A T T E だけ ( 丈）あって =dake ni
D A K E NI だけ（丈）に as expected of ，e.g. Kanemochi dake ni yolrn
o 々の^ 0 なm々瓜仍 w• 金持だけによくお金を使います • “A s exp ected
of a rich person, he sp en d s a lot of m o n ey .” Onna dake ni yoku
ki ga ts u k im a s u . 女だけによく気が付きます . “As ex p ected from
a w om an, sn e is th o u g h tfu l.”
DARAKE だらけ fu ll of, e.g. Kono sakubun wa machigai darake
d e s u . この作品は間違いだらけです . “T h i s com p osition is fu ll of
m ista k es.”
D A T E R A NI だてらに =to iu no ni in sp ite of th e fa c t t h a t . . .
e.g. Onna datera ni yoku y a rim a su . 女于とてらK よくやります • “In
sp ite of th e fa ct th a t sh e is a w om an , sh e d oes w ell.,>
Noun-following Words and Expressions de mo nai...de mo nai 157
D A T T A だった =de atta w a s, e.g. Chiisana machi datta ga ima

wa okina tokai ni n a t t a . 小さな町だったが今は大きな都会になった.
“It w a s a sm a ll to w n , but n ow it h as b eco m e a b ig c ity .”
D A TTE f i って = de atte mo even if ，e.g. Okanemochi dqtte muda
na koto o shite wa ik e m a s e n . お金持だって無駄なことをしてはいけ
ません . “E v en if a person is rich, h e sh o u ld n ot b e w a ste fu l.”
D E A R U である =navu=tavu
D E A R U B A K A R I D E [W A ] N A K U . . . M O であるばかりでなく…
も not o n l y . . . bu t also, e.g. Ano hito wa oijin de aru bakari de
似々 akm a mo / / ぬ sw. あの人は美人であるばかりでなく，頭もい
いです . “ N o t o n ly is sh e a ttr a ctiv e, b ut sh e is also sm a rt.”
D E A R U K O T O であること =taru koto
D E A R U T O W A であるとは =to wa
D E A T T A であった = datta
D E A T T E MO であっても e v e n th ou gh , e.g. Yononaka ni wa
kanemochi de atte mo kechi na hito ga takusan i m a s u . 世の中に
は金持であってもけちな人が沢山います. “In th is w orld th ere are
m a n y w h o are stin g y , e v e n th o u g h th e y are n c h .,>
D E M A N I A U で間に合う s u 伍 ce, e . g . ぬ m ew ⑽ /w a 似如 • こ
れで間に合いますか • “W ill th is d o ? ”
D E M A N IA W A S E R U で間に合わせる m a n a g e w ith , se r v e th e pur-
pose, e.g. S⑽ - ⑽ ゐ warn• 似な w m o r / ぬ似 .千円で間に合わ
せるっも（
積）りです . UI in te n d to m a n a g e w ith o n e th ou san d y e n .n
D E M A N IA W A S U で間に合わす =dc mauiawascvu
D E M O でも
1 . e.g. Konna mono de mo ii desu ka• こんナ【％ので 1 \ヽ
いですか . “ Is e v e n th is kind of th in g all r ig h t? ”
2. w h e th e r . . . or (u sed in pairs) e.g. Otoko de mo onna de mo
kamawanai kara hitori tetsudai ga hoshii d e s u . 男でも女で
も構わないから一人手伝いが欲しいです• 1 don’t care if it:’s a
m an or a w o m a n ; I w a n t to h a v e a h elp er.”
D E M O N A I でもない n o t ev en , e.g. Kanemochi de mo nai no niy
itsu mo dkii jid&sha o k a im a s u . 金持でもないのにいつ（何時')も大
きい自動車を買います • “A lth o u g h he is n o t e v e n rich, h e a lw a y s
b u y s b ig cars.”
D E M O N A I ••• D E MO N A I でもない… でもない it i s n ’t ••• it isn ’t ，
e .g Are de mo nai kore de mo nai to honto ni urusai mto desu.
158 de mo nari de mo Noun-following Words and Expressions
あれでもないこれでもないと本当にうるさい人です . “ H e is a person
w h o sa y s ‘th is isn ’t it, th a t isn ’t it,’ and is so p articular.”
DE MO N A N ’ D E MO でも何でも ev ery th in g , in c lu d in g … ， e.g.
Ano hito wa kanji de mo nany de mo shitte i m a s u . あの人は漢字
でも何でも知っています • “H e k n o w s ev e ry th in g, in clu d in g C h inese
ch a ra cters•”
DE MO N A N ’ D E MO N A I でも何でもない n o th in g of th a t sort,
e.g. Ano hito wa yumei de mo nan’ de mo nai no ni， itsu mo
功a / な / 桃a 似 • あの人は有名でも何でもないのに，何時も威張っていま
す . aH e is n ot fa m o u s or a n y th in g lik e that, but h e is alw a y s
p u ttin g on airs.”
D E W A では
1 . H=de areba， nara e.g. Sugaku de wa kare wa dare ni mo
w a 々⑽似• • 数学では彼は誰にも負けない • “In (If it is) m athe-
m atics, he is equal to a n y o n e.”
2. accord in g to, e.g. Ano hito no iu tokoro de wa amari u eiga
de wa nai yd d e s u . あの人の言うところではあま（余）りいい映
画ではないようです . “ A ccord in g to w h at h e sa y s, it isn ’t
th a t good of a m o v ie.”
3. u sed m com parison, e.g. Kore to sore [to] de wa dochira ga
okii desu k a . これとそれではどちらが大きいですか • “W h ich
is b igger, tm s or th a t (B etw ee n th is o n e and th at one,
w h ic h is b ig g er )? ”
DE W A A R U GA ではあるが（ th e fo llo w in g cla u se is o fte n a
n eg a tiv e con cept) Ano kyoju wa gakusha de wa aru gaf yoi
s 《似の• ぬ w；0 wa/• あの教授は学者ではあるが，よい先生ではない.
“T h a t p rofessor is a good sch olar but n ot a good teacher/*
DE W A N AI ではない is n ot (n e g a tiv e of ぬ arw ，ぬ） e.g. Are
wa Yamamoto-san de wa arimasen. あれは山本さんではありません.
‘T h a t isn ’t Mr. Y am am oto.”
~DQKORQ DE W A N A I どころではナs：い = dokoro no hanashi de wa
nai far from . . . (em phatic) e.g. Hirune dokoro de wa arimasen
J 從ゐ加 • 昼寝どころではありませんでした . “ I certa in ly did n o t h a v e
tim e to ta k e a nap (far fro m ta k in g a nap).”
DOKORO K A どころか far f r o m . . . b u t . . . , rather, on th e con tra
ry, e.g. Hima dokoro ka isogashikute taberu mma mo arimasen
t f e M a • 暇どころか忙しくて食べる暇もありませんでした • “F ar fro m
h a v in g fre e tim e, I w a s b u sy and I didn’t e v e n h a v e tim e to e a t.”
Noun-following Words and Expressions goto ni 159
GA ATTE NO K O TO があってのこと because of, e.g. ^4⑽ 0 /⑽幻

o shita no mo mina zurui kangae ga atte no koto d a . あんなこ
とをしたのも皆ずるい考えがあってのことだ. “Because of his sly
tmnkmg, he aid all that.’’
GAKARI DE がかりで combined, e.g. Go-nin gakari de mochiageyd
to shimashita ga mochiageraremasen d e s h ita . 五人カミカ、りで持ち上
げようとしましたが持ち上げられませんでした.“With all five people’s
strength combined they tried to lift it, but they could not do it.n
GAKARU がかる tinged with, e.g. Sora ga haiiro gakatte kima-
sM a •空が灰色がかって来ました .“The sky is becoming tinged
with grey.”
GAMASHII カミましい looks like, sounds like, smacks of, e.g. Ano
hito wa itsu mo iken gamashii koto o u m a s u . あの人 t t l 、つ(何時）
も意見がましいことを言います • “He always says something which
sounds like admonition.” Honto no musume na no ni taihen tanin
gamashiku furumaimasn. 本当の娘なのに大変他人がましく振舞い
ます. aAlthough she is their real daughter, she behaves like a
stranger.”
GATERA [NI] while, at the same time, e.g. Sanpo gatera
Yamada-san no uchi ni i t t a . 散歩がてら山田さんの家に行った.
“While taking a walk I went to Mr. Yamada’s house.”
GE 気 seeming condition of others, e.g. Ano hito no okonai wa
0她柳辦麵 . • あの人の行いは大人気がない . “That man’s be
havior is childish (unbecoming of a grown-up person).’’
GORO 頃 approximate time, e.g. /m e た/?/-ノ7 郭ぬ似 •今一時頃
です . “It’s about one o’clock.” Kotoshi no haru goro kara byoki
d e s u . 今年の春頃から病気です . “She has been sick since about
springtime this year.’’
GOTO ごと =gurumi and all, together with, inclusive, e.g.
知抑か m• 夕arJ• 畑ごとお前にやろう • “I’ll give you the
field and all (my property including the field).**
GOTO NI ごと（毎）に every, e.g. Nichiyobi goto ni ane no uchi
似 m• 日曜日ごとに姉の家に行きます . “I go to my sister’s
house every Sunday.” 77/ 砂 ^?似 • 如似 r/m 仍 w• 日ごとに暖
かくなります _ “It gets warmer every day.’’ （ cf. m’，p . 170)
Note: Difference between m a in ic h i and h i g o to n i : M a i n ic h i g a k k o n i

认 /masw. 毎日学校に行きます. “I g 〇to school every day•”历沢か
160 gurai Noun-following Words and Expressions
m• 如:mな々《 wan'mfl似 . 日ごとに寒くなります. “Ev e r y d a y it g e ts

co ld er.”一 resu lta n t part in a ic a te s p r o g ressiv e in c re a se or d ecrease.
G U R A I ぐらい (位） =hodo=kurai e.g. Kare gurai atama ga yoke-

r が 0 / / 妨 • 彼ぐらい頭がよければいいなあ • “I w ish I w er e as sm a rt
as h e is ! ”
G U R U M I ぐるみ =goto alto g eth er, in clu d in g , e.g. Okina sakana
o honegurumi tabemashita. 大きな魚を骨ぐるみ食べました. “He
a te a b ig n sh ， b on es and a ll.”
IG AI NI 以外に ex cep t, o u tsid e of, e.g. Ano hito igai ni tomodachi
ga i m a s e n . あの人以外に友達がいません . “I h a v e no o th e r frien d
b ut h im .” Gekkyu igai ni mo shunyu ga a r i m a s u . 月給以外にも
収入があります • “I h a v e in co m e b esid es m y sa la ry .”
IGO 以後 after, e.g . Raishu no Nichiyd igo wa uchi ni i m a s u . 来
週の日曜以後は家にいます • “I’ll b e h o m e a fte r n e x t S un day.” S o w
igo ano hito ni atte i m a s e n . それ以後あの人に会っていません . “I
h a v e n ’t se e n h im s in c e th e n .”
IJO iy_h m ore th an , b eyon d , fu rth er, e.g. Kmo wa go-]iizan ijd
み ⑽ 狄咖麵 s/hYc• 昨日は五時間以上勉強しました • “I stu d ied m ore
th a n fiv e h ours y e ste rd a y .” Sore ijd no koto wa shtnm asen . そ
れ以上の事は知りません • “I k n o w n o th in g b eyon d th a t.” 始 m /分
三つ以上 “th r e e or m o re”
IK A 以下 le ss than , b elow , e.g. Sen-en ika nara k a im a s u . 千円以
下なら買います • “I’ll buy it if it is le ss th a n o n e th o u sa n d y e n .”
汾伽み / 松？ぬ々/ ⑽ / 々a ぬ • 今年の出来は平年以下です .
“T h is y e a r ’s crop is b elo w th e a v er a g e y ea r .”
IK S 以降 on and after, e.g . Gogatsu iko kono shigoto o shite ima
su. 五月以降この仕事をしています. “We have b een d oin g th is
w ork s in c e M ay.”
IZEN 以目ij oerore, ago, e.g. Goroku-nen izen ni ichi-do immashita,
五六年以前に一度行きました • “I went there five or six years ago.”
JIM IRU しみる acq u ire a ch a ra c teristic w h ich did n ot e x is t b efore
{jimiru c o m e s fro m th e verb shimiru, m ea n in g usoak in to, p e n e
tra te into/* e.g. Nagai aida inaka ni ita no de inaka jim ite
sh im a im a sh ita . 長い間田舍にいたので田舍じみてしまいました .
a^ m ce I h a v e liv ed in th e co u n tr y fo r a lo n g tim e, I h a v e b eco m e
r u stic .”
JO 上 fro m th e stan d p oin t of, e.g. Kono machi wa rekishijo jiiyo
Noun-following Words and Expressions mi 161
na machi de a r u . この町は歴史上重要な町である . “T h is c ity is
im portant from th e h istorical stan d p oin t.”
K A N A かな I w ond er if th a t is, e.g. Are wa Konno-san ka na.
あれは今野さんかな . “1 w ond er if th a t is M iss K onno.”
K A SH IR A [N ] かしら I w onder if (u sed m ore by w o m en )，
ka s h i r a . これかしら . “I w onder if th is is it.”
K A T O B A K A R I [ O M O U ] かとばかり
1 . th in k in g th a t it is th e b est tim e t o . . . , e.g. Ima ka to bakari
omotte machikamaeta. 今かとばかり思って待ち構えた . “I
w aited, th in k in g th a t th e ch a n ce w ou ld co m e at any
m in u te.”
2. th in k in g th a t w as only, e.g. Yume ka to bakari yorokonda.
夢かとばかり喜んだ • “T h in k in g th a t it w a s on ly a dream , I
rejoiced to find it w a s real.”
K A R A S H IT E からして at a m ere g la n ce (sound, ta ste ，etc.) of. • ”
e.g. 々a r a 从说似ぬ w/ 0々似/ ^ • 服装からして既におかしい .
“F rom a m ere g la n ce at h is cloth in g, I alread y th in k h e is w eird.”
KE気 essen ce, quality, e.g. W C a 々奶み2. ■ «み如仰 w瓜.似從バ
m⑽ 0 卵ぬ sm. 私は油気のないあっさりしたものが好きで
す . “I lik e g r e a se le ss， sim p le food.”
KORO 頃 =goro
K U SA I 臭い sm ell of, e.g. Kono hen wa sakanakusai desu n e . こ
の辺は魚臭いですね• “T h er e is a fish y sm ell around here, isn ’t
th ere ?”
M ADE NI までに by, e.g. Kyd no ban go-ji made ni kite kudasai.
今日の晚五時までに来て下さい. “Pl e ase co m e b y fiv e o ’clock th is
ev e n in g .”
M E K A SU めかす in ten tio n a lly sh o w s h im self to b e of th e quality
of th e p reced in g noun, e.g. Ano hito wa itsu mo bijm mekashite
か^ s w . あの人は何時も美人めかしています • “S he is a lw a y s tr y in g
to m ake h erself a b ea u ty .”
M E K U めく h ave th e appearance of, sh o w sig n s of, e.g. Rare wa
ima o toki meku jitsugyoka desu. 彼は今を時めく実業家です • “H e
is a b u sin essm an w h o prospers n o w .n Dandan haru meite kima-
s みぬ: • 段々春めいてきました . “S i g ns of sp rin g sh o w m ore and
m ore.”
MI 味 flavor, essen ce, e.g. Ano hito wa ninjomi ga aru kara suki
162 mo ard ni Noun-following Words and Expressions
d e s u . あの人は人情味があるから好きです • “I lik e him , b ecau se he

has a w arm , h um an tou ch .”
MO A R 〇 NI もあろうに u n ex p ected occurrence, e .g • 历か浓〇似ガ
ni kyo Tomita-san ni aimasmta. 人もあろうに今日富田さんに会い
ました. “Of all th e p eople in th e world, I m et Mr. T o m ita to-
day.”
MO SOKOSOKO N I もそこそこに hurriedly, e . g . ■ 如々〇•
soko ni uchi o d e t a . 朝飯もそこそこに家を出た • ‘‘H u rried ly e a tin g
breakfast, I le ft h o m e.”
M U K I 向き su ita b le for, e.g. iTtwo かraw wo 化を mowo
mannin muki d a . このレストランの食物は万人向きだ • “T h e food
of tm s restau ran t su its all ta ste s (suitab le for ten thou sand people).”
N A NO なの se n ten ce -e n d in g p hrase for w om en, m ore fa m ilia r
than desu no. Hanako-san ga ichiban no nakayoshi na n o . 花子
さんが一番の仲良しなの . “ H anako is m y b est frie n d .”
N A NO (N’）D A なのだ it is the fa ct th a t it is; slig h tly emphatic
ending, na no da usually does not have to be translated. Isu na
no d e s u . 椅子なのです . “ I t is a chair.”
N A NO D E なので b eca u se it is (w as), e.g. Ame na no de uchi
w / f w 仍みぬ . 雨なので家にいました . ‘‘Be c a u s e it w a s raining, I
w a s h om e.,)
N A NO NI なのに alth ou gh it is (w as), in sp ite of th e fa ct th a t it
is (was), e.g. Ii otenki na no ni uchi ni im a s h ita . いいお天気な
のに家にいました . “A l t h o u g h th e w ea th er w a s b e a u t i f u l , I sta y ed
h om e.”
N A M I 並 ordinary, e.g. Ano gakusei wa sugaku wa ju-nin nami
ゴがw• あの学生は数学は十人並です . “ H e is an av era g e stu d en t in
m ath em a tics (sam e le v el as ten oth er stu d en ts).’’
N A M I I JO 並以上 m ore than average, e.g. Ano hito wa nami ijd
no saino o motte imasu. あの人は並以上の才能を持っています.
“H e h as ta len ts above th e a v er a g e•，’
N A M I NI 並に a s ，e.g. Kazoku nami ni toriatsukatte k u d a s a i. 家
族並に取扱って下さい. “Please treat m e as a m em ber of you r
fa m ily •”
N A M I NO 並の com m on ，ordinary, e . g . 瓜ゐ mo m. m；0 從々 ⑽ 似而 ’
no seikatsu o sasete yaritai to o m o im a su . 子供には世間並の生活を
させてやりたいと思います • “I w an t to let m y child ren lead a nor-
Noun-following Words and Expressions ni datte 163
mallife in this world.”

NARA DE WA ならでは without, none but, except= ぬ wa/故な wa,
e.g. Sonna koto wa ano hito nara de wa d e k im a se n . そんなこと
はあの人ならではでき（出来）ません . “None but he can do such a
thing.” Ano hito nara de wa yo mo hi mo a k e m a s e n . あの人な
らでは夜も日も明けません• “Without him, I can’t live.”
NARA TOMOKAKU ならと（兎）もかく（角） it would be excusable
it it were • • •, but •. • ， e.g. Kodomo nara tomokaku okina otona
ga sonna koto o shitara okashii desu y o . 子供ならともかく大きな
大人がそんな事をしたらおかしいですよ• “It would be excusable if a
child were to do it, but if an adult does such a thing, it would
be funny.”
NARA TONIKAKU ならと（兎）にかく（角） = nara tomokaku
NARI NI なりに in the capacity of, e.g. Otona nara otona nari ni
fu r u m a in a s a i. 大人なら大人なりに振舞いなさい. “If you are an
adult, behave like an adult.” Chichi wa chichi nari ni nana wa
haha nari ni jibun no iken o motte i m a s u . 父は父なりに母は母な
りに自分の意見を持っています. “Father has his own opinion and
mother has her own, each in his and her respective capacity.”
NARU なる = ぬ狀 w= 如rw, e.g. Watakushi wa jibun no haha naru
hito o shirimasen deshita• 私は自分の母す s：る人 'を知りませんでしナこ•
“I didn’t know the person who was my own mother.” Literary
expression.
NASHI DE なしで withcmt，e.g. Norikae nashi de ikaremasu • 乗
換えなしで行かれます• “You can go without transferring.”
NASHI DE WA なしでは without, followed by a negative idea,
e.g. Gohan nashi de wa shokuji o tabeta ki ga shimasen . ごはん
(御飯 ) なしでは食事を食べた気がしません• “Without rice I don’t feel
that I ate a meal.”
NASHI NO なしの without, e.g. Nihon no Kurisumasu wa Kinsuto
nashi no Kurisumasu desu. H本のク ') スマスはキ ') ス Y t z しのク ')
スマスです . ^Japanese Christmas is a Christmas without Christ.”
NI CHIGAINAI に違いない = ni sdi nai there is no doubt of, e.g.

Ano hito wa Amerika-jin ni c h ig a in a i. あの人はアメリカ人に違い
ない .“There is no doubt that he is an American.”
NI DATTE にだって = ni de mo even to, even at, e.g. Konna
chiisana machi ni datte ii omise ga takusan arimasu yo• こんすsy\、
164 ni de mo Noun-following Words and Expressions
さな町にだっていいお店が沢山ありますよ. “There are many good

stores even in such a small town, you know.”
NI D E MO にでも = ni datte
NI HIREI SHITE に比例して in proportion to, e.g• ひ cM ⑽ ぬ .S0
ni hirei shite zei mo takaku narimasu. 家の大きさに比例して税も
高くなります. uIn proportion to the size of the house, the tax
becomes higher, too.”
NI HOKA NARANAI に他ならない no other than , nothing but, e .g .
Daiganu wa gakusei no benkyo suru tokoro ni hoka naranai. 大
学は学生の勉強する所に他ならない. UA university is nothing but
a place tor students to study .**
NI ITARU MADE に至るまで until, e.g. 冗似*ど w；0 W m• 仏 zrw
made shujin ni tsukaeta . 彼は死に至るまで主人に仕えた. “He
served his master until he died.”
NI ITA TT E [WA] に至って reaching, e.g. 汾如 m• 仏 _ w；0 m
oeki kotoba mo n a i . ここに至っては言うべき言葉もない• “Reaching
I：
this stage, I don’t even have a word to say.”
NI IWASEREBA に言わせれば according to, e.g. ぬ-
iwasereba chikagoro no Tokyo wa totemo suminikui tokoro da so
I
d e s u . 山田さんに言わせれば近頃の東京はとても住みにく（難）い所だ
そうです. uAccording to Mr. Yamada, Tokyo has been a very
IC difficult place to live recently.”
NI KAGITTE に限って particularly, one out of all of the things,
e .g. Ano hito ni kagitte sonna koto wa shinai to o m o im a s u . あ•
の人に限ってそんな事はしないと思います.“He is the last man in
the world to do a thing like that .”
NI KAKETE にかけて extending over, e .g. 伽⑽⑽
aki ni kakete bydki d e s h ita . 去年の夏から秋にかけて病気でした.
“I was ill last year from summer to autumn.”
NI KAKETE WA にかけては as far a s .. .is concerned, e .g . Go-
gaku ni kakete wa ano hito wa tensai d e s u . 語学にかけてはあの人
は天才です• “As far as language learning is concerned, he is a
genius.”
NI KANSEZU に関せず regardless, e .g. みぬm m•々⑽sぬ:m s似
ぬ似 / 外 sみ /似 •性別に関せず才能で採用します . “Regardless of
their sex we’ll hire by their ability.”
N I K A N S H IT E に関して = ni tsuite concerning, e.s. Nihon ni
Noun-following Words and Expressions ni nozonde 165
kanshite kyd gakko de iroiro na koto o naraimashita. H本に满し

て今日学校でいろいろ (色々）な事を習いました • “ We learned lots of
things about Japan today at school.”
N I KAN SU RU K A G IR I に関する限り as fa r as ••• is concerned, e.g.
Nihon bungaka ni kansuru kagiri kare no chishiki wa taishita
m ぬ . 日本文学に関する限り彼の知識は大したものだ • “ A s fa r as
Japanese literature is concerned，his knowledge is profound.”
N I K A W A T T E に代って in place of, e.g. Kyd Yoshida-san ni
如々/mas/以 • 今日吉田さんに代って来ました . “ I came here in
place of Miss Yoshida today.”
N I K I G A TS U K U に気がつ (付）く notice, e.g. Heya no sumi ni
iru Toshiko-san ni ki ga tsukimashita . 部屋の隅にいる俊子さんに
気がつきました . “ I noticed Toshiko, who was in the corner of the
room.”
N I K I O TSU KE R U に気をつ (付）ける pay attention to, e.g. Kono
tsugi wa motto yoku kore ni ki o tsukete k u d a s a i . この次はもっと
よくこれに気をつけて下さい • “ Please pay more attention to this
next tim e .”
N I K O S H IT A KO TO W A N A I にこしたことはない nothing can be
better than, e.g. w / 々仍/»如如か泌 0 ⑽ .それにこし
たことはありません • “ N othing could be better than that.”
N I M E N JIT E に免じて in consideration for, e.g. Toshi ni menjite
夕狀奶み/ お似 w• 年に免じて許して上げます • “ I ’ll forgive you ，
considering your age.”
Note: The age can be taken as either too old or too young.
N I M IE R U に見える it looks as if it were, e.g. Koko kara wa hito

ni m i e m a s u . ここからは人に見えます • “ I t looks like a person from
here.”
N I MO HODO G A A R U にもほど ( 程 )がある goes beyond the lim it ，
e.g. Ano hito no yokubari ni mo hodo ga arimasu . あの人の欲
ばりにもほどがあります . “ His greediness knows no lim it.”
NI MO KAKAWARAZU にもかかわ (拘）らず in spite of, e.g• & -

m ui tenki ni mo kakawarazu ozei no hito ga kimashita . 寒い天気
にもかかわらず大勢の人が来ました • “In spite of the cold weather,
many people came.”
NI NOZONDE に臨んで in the presence of • • • ， at the time of ,
e.g. Kono ki ni nozonde hitotsu itte okitai koto ga a r u . この機に
166 ni okeru Noun-following Words and Expressions
臨んで一つ言っておきたい事がある • “A t th is opportunity I h a v e one
th in g I w a n t to tell y ou .”
於）ける =de
N I O K ERU にお（ in, e.g. Sekai ni okeru mottomo
kydryoku na kuni wa Beikoku to Soren de aru • 世界 K おける最も
強力な国は米国とソ連である . “T h e str o n g e st co u n tries in th e w orld
are th e U n ited S ta tes and th e S o v iet U n ion .”
NI 5 J IT E に応じて in response to, e.g. Hitsuyd ni djite doko e de
mo ik im a s u . 必要に応じてどこ（何処 )へでも行きます • “In resp o n se
to n ece ssity , I’ll g o an y w h ere.”
N I OYOBI に及び “ a 你 reach in g, e.g. Koto koko ni oyobi
watakushi wa ketsui s h i t a . ことここに及び私は決意した . “T h e
situ a tio n h a v in g reach ed th is sta g e, I m ade up m y m ind .”
N I SA IS H IT E に際して w hen, at th e tim e of … ，e.g. 似’ 如 /-
shite awatezu furum au koto wa taisetsu de aru• 危機^ こ勝てあわ
てず振舞うことは大切である. “It is im portan t to b eh a v e w ith o u t
h a ste at a tim e of cr isis.”
I：
N I SEY O にせよ = ni shiro
NI SE SS H IT E に接して be in receip t of, e.g. Kono shirase ni ses-
shite sugu ie o d e m a s h ita . この知ら（報 )せに接して直ぐ家を出まし
た . “R e c e i v i n g th is n ew s, I le ft h om e im m e d ia te ly .”
NI SH IC H A にしちゃ colloqu ial for m’ sA 办
IK
NI SHIRO N ou n NI SHIRO にしろ N oun にしろ w h e t h e r ••• or,
e.g. Hon ni shiro zasshi ni shiro dochira ka ni k im e n a s a i. 本
にしろ雑誌にしろどちらかに決めなさい. “W h e t h e r a book or a
m ag a zin e, d ecid e on on e.”
NI (TO ) S H IT A TO KORO D E にしたところで = ni shite mo even ，
e.g. Kono hon ni shita tokoro de amari yoku a r im a s e n . この本
にしたところであま（余）りよくありません . “Ev e n th is book isn ’t
v er y good.”
N I S H IT A G A T T E に従ってfo llo w in g , e.g. Chichi no chiikoku ni
shitagatte kono daigaku ni h a i t t a . 父の忠告に従ってこの大学に入っ
た . “F o l l o wi n g m y fa th er’s ad vice, I en tered th is u n iv e rsity .”
NI S H IT E MO にしても = ni shita tokoro de even ， e.g. Sore ni
•か桃 o • ぬ • それにしてもあんまりです • “E v en so, th a t’s
too m uch (E v en in su ch circu m sta n ces, h is b eh avior w as too
m u ch ).’’
NI (TO) S H IT E W A にしては for, e.g. Amerika-jin ni shite wa
Noun-following Words and Expressions ni yoreba 167
sei ga hikui desu. アメリカ人にしては背が低いです. aF or an

A m erica n h e is sh o rt.”
N I S G l N A I に相違ない = ni chigainai it m u st be, e.g. Are ga
Shimizu-san ni soi a r im a s e n . あれが清水さんに相違ありません.
“T h a t m u st be Mr. S h im izu (T h ere is n o doubt of h is b ein g Mr.
S h im izu ).”
NI S O T T E に沿って alon g, e.g. Sono hoshin ni sotte susumimasho.
その方針に沿って進みましょう.“L et’s p roceed a lo n g th is lin e.”
NI SU G IN A I にす(過）ぎない n o th in g but, no m ore than, e.g.
Kodomo no itta koto ni s u g im a s e n . 子供の言ったことにすぎません.
“It’s no m ore th a n w h a t a ch ild said .”
N I T A IS H IT E に対して
1 . con cern in g, e.g. Ano monaai ni taishite donna iken o motte
— 似w 々a . あの問題に対してどんな意見を持っていますか.
“W h at kind of opinion do y ou have co n ce rn in g th at
p roblem ?”
2. as opposed to, e.g. A m ga nam akem ono de a ru no n i ta ish ite
ががo 々/wを w ぬ似.兄が怠け者であるのに対して弟は勤勉
です . <4W h ile th e older b rother is lazy, th e y o u n g e r brother
is d ilig e n t.”
N I T O M O N A I に伴いin k eep in g w ith , e.g. Kagaku no shinpo ni
tomonai wareware no seikatsu ga raku ni n a t t a , 科学の進歩に伴
い我々の生活が楽になった • “W ith th e a d v a n cem en t of sc ien ce , our
life h as b eco m e e a sy .”
N I T O M O N A T T E に伴って = ni tomonai
N I T O T T E にとって from th e stan d p oin t of, for, e.g. Watakushi
ni totte kore wa taihen daiji na koto na no d e s u . 私にとってこれ
は大変大事な事なのです. “T h is is a v er y im p ortan t th in g fo r m e.”
N I T S U IT E について con cern in g, e.g. Nihon ni tsuite benkyd
s h im a s h ita . 日本について勉強しました• “I stu d ied about Japan.”
N I T S U R E T E につれて in accord ance w ith , in proportion to, e.g.
Ongaku ni tsurete odotte k u d a s a i. 音楽につれて踊って下さい.
“P le a se d ance w ith th e m u sic.”
NI W A にはfor, e.g. Amerika-jin ni wa mezurashii d e s u . アメ
リカ人には珍しいです.“It (th is quality) is rare fo r an A m erica n .”
N I Y O R E B A によれば accord in g to, e.g. Shinbun ni yoreba ashita
0脈辦ル r w s J ぬ似 •新聞によれば明日雨が降るそうです.“A ccord-
168 ni yori Noun-following Words and Expressions
in g to th e n ew sp ap er, (I hear) it w ill rain to m o rro w (If w e d e

pend on th e n ew sp ap er . . . ).n
N I YORI により from , e.g. Kesa no shinbun ni yori sore o shiri-
m a s h i t a . 今朝の新聞によりそれを知りました . “W e fo u n d it out
from th is m o rn in g ’s n ew sp a p er.”
NI YORU TO によると = n i y o r e b a a c c o r d i n g t o ，e.g.Sh imi zu-
san no hanashi ni yoru to Toda-san no oto-san wa totemo okane-
d a がぬ似 •清水さんの話によると戸田さんのお父さんはとて
もお金持だそうです• “A cc o rd in g to Mr. S h im izu , T o d a ’s fa th e r is
v er y w e a lth y .”
NI Y O T T E によって
1 . by, =de e.g. Kono hoho ni yotte s h im a s h ita . この方法によっ
てしました . “ I did it b y th is m eth o d .”
2. d ep en d in g on, e.g. Hi ni yotte c h ig a im a s u . 日によって違いま
す . “D ep en di ng on th e day, it is d ifferen t.”
NO A M A R I NI のあま（
余）りに b eca u se of th e in te n sity of, e.g.
Kanashisa no amari ni hitoban-ju n a kid d sh im a sh ita . 悲しさのあ
まりに一晩中泣き通しました . “B e c a u se of th e in te n sity of g rief, I
cried a ll th r o u g h th e n ig h t•”
NO HAZU D A のはず（害）だ is su pp osed to, is ex p ec ted to, e.g.
Goscm ノ
V A a z w ぬ似 . 御存じのはずです . “ H e m u st k n o w it.”
N O HO の方 com p arison , e.g. Kono uchi no ho ga okii d e s u . こ
の家の方が大きいです • “T h is h o u se is b ig g er .”
NO IU の言う so-called , e.g. Are ga kimi no iu bijin k a . あれが
君のいう美人か . “ Is sh e w h a t you w o u ld ca ll b ea u tifu l? ”
N O K A W A R I NI のかわりに in stea d of, rep la cin g so m eth in g , e.g.
Yamamoto-sensei no kawari ni Shimoda-sensei ga osHiete kudasai-
m a s h i t a . 山本先生のかわりに下田先生が教えて下さいました . “Mr.
sn im o d a ta u g h t u s today in stea d of Mr. Y a m a m o to .”
NO K IR A I G A A R U のきら（
嫌）いがある h a v e a te n d e n c y to be,
e.g. Ano hito wa osnaoeri no Jurat ga a rim a su . あおやぺ
りのきらいがある • “S h e h a s a ten d e n c y to b e a ta lk a tiv e p erso n .”
NO K O TO のこと about， e.g. Ano hito no koto o kangaete ima-
• あの人のことを考えていました . “I w a s th in k in g about h im .”
NO K O TO D A K A R A のことだから k n o w in g h ow one is, e.g.
Yamada-san no koto dakara， mata osoku kuru d e s h d . 山田さんの
Noun-following Words and Expressions no yd da 169
ことだから，又遅く来るでしょう . ‘‘K n o w i n g M r. Y am ad a (I su sp e ct
th at) h e w ill co m e la te a g a in •”
N O K O T O T O IE B A のことと言えば sp ea k in g of, e.g. Matsuda-
san no koto to ieba raigetsu Amerika ni iku so desu y o . 松田さ
んのことと言えば来月アメリカに行くそうですよ . “S p e a k i n g o f M r .
M atsuda, I u nderstan d th a t h e w ill g o to A m e rica n e x t m on th .),
N O SEI D E のせいで b eca u se of, e.g. Toshi no sei de konogoro
wa sugu ts u k a r e m a su . 年のせいでこの頃はす ( 直）ぐ疲れます • “B e
ca u se of m y age, I g e t tired e a sily n o w a d a y s.”
N O SEI K A のせいか P erh ap s b eca u se of, e.g. Kaze no sei ka
かか而 a说 •風邪のせいか頭が痛くて困って
います • “P erhap s b eca u se of a cold, I am su ffer in g from a bad
h ea d a ch e.”
NO T A M E N I のため（
為）に
1 . b eca u se of, e.g. Byotzi no tame ni gakko o yasumimashita.
病気のために学校を休みました• “B e ca u se of illn ess, I didn ’t
g o to sc h o o l.”
2. fo r th e sa k e of, e.g. Kodomo no tame ni tsu k u rim a sh ita . 子
供のために作りました • “I m ade it fo r th e ch ild ren .”
N O T 〇RI の通り a ccord in g to, e.g. Haha no kotoba no tori ni
s h im a s h ita . 母の言葉の通りにしました . “I did ju st as m y m oth er
said .”
N O T S U ID E N I のついでに w h ile d oin g e.g. Kaimono no tsui-
de ni tomodachi no tokoro e yoru koto ni s h im a s h ita . 買物のつい
でに友達の所へよることにしました• d ecid ed t0 dr〇 P in at m y
frien d ’s h o u se on m y w a y to (back from ) th e sto r e s.”
NO UE D E の上で
1 . in, on, e.g. Chizu no ue de wa so natte i m a s u . 地図の上では
そうなっています . “It appears th a t w a y on th e m ap.”
2. upon doing, e.g. Kenkyu no ue de oshiraseshim asu. 研究の上
でお知らせします • “U pon d oin g resea rch w e sh a ll let y ou
k n o w .”
N O U E NI の上に in addition to, e.g. Kaze no ue ni oame made
ブ似 • 風の上に大雨まで降っています • “In addition to b ein g
w in d y, it is pouring, too.”
N O Y 〇 D A のようだ sppeaj： s ， e.g. Ano hito wa kodomo no
ぬ . あの人は子供のようだ • “H e is lik e a ch ild .” （
cf. r 似 M , p . 171)
170 no yd na Noun-following Words and Expressions
NO Y 〇 N A のような（
a ttrib utive of 松？：^ ぬ ) ，e.g. ゐ mo wo 外
na hito d e s u . 子供のような人です . “ He is (a man) like a child.”
NO Y 〇 N I のように（ adverbial of ⑽ jy j ゴa), e.g. Kodomo no yd
ni yorokobim ashita. 子供のように喜びました . “ He rejoiced lik e a
child.”
N O M I DE [W A ] N A K U • • • M O のみでなく •••も not o n ly . . . but
also, e.g. Kare wa tanin nomi de naku kazoku no mono ni mo
amari shinsetsu de wa nai. 彼は他人のみでなく家族の者にもあま
( 余）り親切ではない . uNot only is he not kind to strangers, but
he is also not kind to his own fa m ily either.”
N O M I N A R A Z U のみならず = nomi de \_wa~\ naku
0 H A JIM E [T O S H IT E ] を初め beginning w ith, e . g . ふ咖づ ⑽ ひ
hajime taihen ozei no hito ga kite i m a s h ita . 佐伯さんを初め大
変大勢の人が来ていました. “ So many people were there, starting
w ith M rs. Saeki.”
0 M O TO N I S H IT E を基にして based on, e.g. 卵；
^ ブ
V
o moto ni shite tsukurarem ashita. 平仮名は '漢字を基にして作らわ '^
した . “ Hiragana were made on the basis of Chinese characters.”
0 M O TTE を以て w ith, e.g. Hankoshin o motte oya ni tachi-
m u k a tt a . 反抗心を以て親にたちむかった . ‘‘He confronted his par
ents w ith antagonism.”
0 NEG ATTE Y A M A N A I を願ってやまない desire sincerely (do
not stop hoping), e.g. Anata-gata no seiko o negatte yamimasen.
あなた方の成功を願ってやみません . “ I sincerely w ish fo r your suc
cess.”
0 T G S H IT E を通して throu gh , e.g. Yokoyama-san o toshite
Minami-san ni a im a s h ita . 横山さんを通して南さんに会いました .
“ I met M r. M in am i through M r. Yokoyama.”
OKI NI おきに at intervals of, e.g. Is-shukan oki ni shiken ga
a r/ 桃 • —週間おきに試験があります . “ We have exams every
other week.” Gakkai wa futa-tsuki oki ni h ira k a re m a su . 学会 ^:
二月おきに開かれます . “ The academic conference is held every
th ird m onth.”
Note: When the figure gets above three, there is often some confusion
in the use of this okiy depending on the users,
e.g. Itsu-ka oki ni kite kudasai. 五日おきに来て下さい .
Theoretically, “Please come every six days (five days be
tween).’’ But it is more common to interpret, “Please
Noun-following Words and Expressions -teki 171
come every five days.** In this case, o k i n i is used in

the same way as g o to n i, p .159.
-PPO I っぽい sh o w in g a trait of character, -ish, e.g. Ano hito wa

sukoshi kodomoppoi hito d e s u . あの人は少し子供っぼ、い人です.
“H e is a little ch ild ish .”
R A SH II らしい like, h as a ll th e ch a ra cteristics of, e.g. O 如々 r 似 /^7
hito d e s u . 男らしい人です . “ H e is a m a n ly m an.” “H e is a m an
w h o h as all th e c h a ra c teristics of a m an.” (cf. no yd na ^like/*
Otoko no yd na hito d e s u . 男のような人です . “S h e is a w o m a n
w h o is lik e a m an.” S e e p . 170.
S H ID A I次第
1 . d ep en d in g on, e.g.Kotoshi Nihon ni iku ka ikanai ka wa
okane shidai d e s u . 今年日本に行くか行かないかはお金次第で
す . ''Whether Til g o to Japan or n ot th is y ea r d ep en ds upon
th e m o n ey .”
2. as soon as, e.g. Tdchaku shidai denwa o kakemasu • 致着次
第電話をかけます • “I’U telep h o n e y o u as soon as I arrive.”
T A R U たる =de aru=naruy e.g. Watakushi wa watakushi no
chichi taru hito ga donna hito de atta ka s h ira n a k a tta . 私は私の
父たる人がどんな人であったか知らなかった. “I didn ’t k n ow w h a t
k ind of a p erson m y fa th e r w a s.” literary ex p ressio n .
T A R U K O T O たること =de aru koto， e.g. Gakusha taru koto ni
shiichi o kanjita• 学者たることに羞取を感 Z ti . “I w a s ash am ed
of th e fa c t th a t I w a s a sch olar.”
TARU NI M O KAKAWARAZU たるにもかかわ ( 拘）らず in spite of
the fact that (he) is, e.g. Kare wa gakusha taru ni mo kakawa-
razuy hidoku hanashibeta d a . 彼は学者たるにもかかわらず，ひどく
話し下手だ • “Although he is a scholar, he is a very poor speaker.”
TARU NI SUG INAI たるにす ( 過）ぎないわ 6 1 1 〇 111〇此 1:11这 11， 6 ぶ.
Are wa kodomo taru ni s u g i n a i あれは子供たるにすぎない . “He
is no more than a cnild.”
T E て =to iu no wa
T E K I 的 -ic, -cal ，e.g. Iroiro na rekishiteki jinbutsu o kenkyu suru
no wa o m o s h ir o i. 色々な歴史的人物を研究するのは面白い . “It is
in te re stin g to stu d y v a rio u s h istorical ch a ra cters.”
Note: r e k is h ite k i is more literary than r e k is h ite k i n a (both attributive)
だ /— / jinbutsu 歴史的人物 “ historical character”
172 to bakari omou Noun-following Words and Expressions
かな々f dekigoto 歴史的な出来事 “ historical event”

み如々/m’ （adverbial)歴史的に “ historically”
Exception: h i k a k u t e k i is used adverbially without n i
e.g. hikakuな々/ 5kii 比較的大きい “comparatively big”
T O B A K A R I O M O U とばかり思う a lw a y s th in k that, e.g. Sasaki-
san to bakari omotte itara Nomura-san d e s h i t a . 佐々木さんと（
文力>
り思っていたら野村さん T L 々 . “I a l w a y s t h o u g h t t h a t i t w a s M r .
S asaki, b u t it tu rn ed out to be Mr. N o m u ra .”
T O C H IG A T T E と違って u nlike, d ifferen t from , e.g. Watakushi
to chigatte ototo wa taihen benkyoka d e s u . 私と違って弟は大変勉
強家です • “U n lik e m e, m y y o u n g e r brother stu d ie s v er y h ard.”
T O IE B A と言えば sp ea k in g of, e.g . Tanaka-san to ieba， chikagoro
chittomo a i m a s e n . 田中さんと言えば近頃ちっとも会いません .
“S p eak in g of M iss T an aka, I h a v e n ’t se e n h er at all la te ly .”
T O IU と言う w h ic h is called , w h o is called , referred to as, e.g.
Yamada-san to iu hito o shitte imasu k a ? 山田さんと言う人を知っ
ていますか • “D o y o u k n o w a p erson ca lled M rs. Y a m a d a ? ”
T O IU H ODO N O と言うほど ( 程）の w h a t y ou can call, e.g.
saku to iu nodo no mono de wa anmasen gay omise s h im a s h o . 傑
作と言うほどの物ではありませんがお見せしましょう. “It isn ’t w h a t
y o u w ou ld ca ll a m a sterp iece, b u t p lea se look at it.”
T O IU N O W A と言うのは = お on e w h ic h is called , e .g • ル
to in no wa okii kuni desu ne. アメリカというのは大きい国ですね.
“A m e ric a (T h e c o u n tr y ca lled A m e rica ) is a b ig co u n try , is n ’t it? ”
T O IU Y 〇 N A と言うような su ch th in g s as, e.g. M 如 w 沒/辦か
iu yo na mono wa mita koto ga a r i m a s e n . 日本映画と言うような
ものは見たことがありません . “I h a v e n ev er se e n su ch th in g s as
Jap anese m o v ie s.”
T O K A IU とか言う so m e th in g like, so m e th in g to th e effect, e.g.
Kyd Sasaki-san to ka iu hito ga k im a s h ita . 今日佐々木さんとか言
う人が来ました . “T o d a y a person ca lled so m e th in g lik e M r. S asaki
c a m e .”
T O [W A ] K A G IR A N A I と限らない is not n ecessa rily , e .g • 五1/沿?
ga yoku nanasem hito ga mina Eikoku-jin to wa kagiranai. 英
語がよく話せる人が皆英国人とは限らない. “Al l th o se w h o can
sp eak E n g lisn flu e n tly are not n e c e ssa r ily E n g lish p eo p le.”
T O (NI) M IE R U と見える it look s as if, e.g. Asoko wa shizuka na
幻々か似 m• あそこは静かな所と見えます . “T h a t look s lik e
Noun-following Words and Expressions wa tomokaku 173
a quiet p lace.”
T O (NI) N A T T E となって as, e.g. Ano hito wa machi no chushin
to natte yoku h a ta ra k im a su . あの人は町の中心となってよく働きま
す . uHe w o rk s hard as (by b eco m in g ) a cen tra l fig u re in th e city.^
T O S H IT E として in th e ca p a city of, e.g. Kono kotoba o daiji na
mono to shite oboete oite k u d a s a i . この言葉を大事なものとして覚え
ておいて下さい • “P le a se rem em b er th is w ord as a p reciou s th in g .”
T O S H IT E M O としても =totemo
T O S H IT E N O としての as, e.g. Hahaoya to shite no sekinin ga
a r im a s u . 母親としての責任があります . “I h a v e a resp o n sib ility as
a m oth er.”
T O S H IT E W A としては for, e.g. Amerika de umareta hito to
sW か幻 _卵抑 / ^ a ぬ sw •アメリカで生れた人としては英語が下手
です . <cF o r a p erson w h o w a s b orn in th e Llmted S ta tes, h is
E n g lish is poor.”
« ? ! 丨|
T O T O M O N I と共に w ith , e.g. Watakushi no chichi wa toshi to 丨
|_ 丨
_1!
tomo ni yasashiku n a r im a s h ita . 私の父は年と共に優しくなりました .
“M y fa th er b eca m e g e n tle w ith a g e.”
TO W A とは a m to wa sh o w s su rp rise, fo llo w in g th e topic, ㈣ |
e.g. Sonna koto to wa yume ni mo shirimasen d e s n i t a . そんな事
とは夢にも知りませんでした • “I w o u ld n ’t e v e n h a v e d ream ed su ch
a t h in g ! ”
T O T E M O とても = to shite mo
ev en , e.g. Watakushi totemo itsu
made mo konna shigoto wa shite itaku a r im a s e n . 私とてもいつ
(何時）までもこんな仕事はしてぃたくありません . “Ev e n I m y se lf
do n ot w a n t to do th is k ind o i:w o r k fo re v er.”
W A M O C H IR O N [N O K O T O ] は勿論 n ot o n ly but … ， e.g.
Machi wa mochiron mukaigawa no yama mo m ie m a s u . 町は勿論
向い側の山も見えます • “N ot on ly ca n w e se e th e c ity ， b u t w e ca n
a lso s e e th e m o u n ta in s on th e oth er sid e.”
W A O R O K A [N A K O T O ] はおろか to sa y n o th in g of, m u ch le ss ，
e.g. Ha n as u ko t o w a o r o k a ，a i m o s h i m a s e n d e s h i t a . t ^ f L h k t s
おろか，会いもしませんでした • did n ot e v e n se e h im ， m u ch le ss
ta lk w ith h im .”
W A TOM OKAKU はと（兎）もかく（角） se ttin g aside, n ot to m e n
tion, to sa y n o th in g of, e.g. Jodan wa tomokaku kore kara do
s み/ お / 々m おw m o r / ぬ sw k • 冗談はともかくこれからどうして行くつ
■ill
174 wa tonikaku Noun-following Words and Expressions
も（
積）りです力、 . “A l l jokes aside, w h at do y ou in tend to do from
now on?”
W A T O N IK A K U はと（角） =wa tomokaku
兎）にかく（
YORI HOKA [NI] NAI より他ない is th e on ly one, th ere isn ’t an y
Z W /J び J
other, e.g. 々狀召：)w / 如如 w似••大統領なら彼よ
り他にない• “If it ’s a p resident, th ere isn ’t an y other o n e but
h im .”
YORI MO よりも th an (com parison), e.g. Ano hito no ho ga
watakushi yori mo toshiue d e s n . あの人の方が私よりも年上です .
“S he is older th an I.”
ZEN 然 h a v e an air of, e.g. Ano hito wa totemo gakuska zen to
s/zfか fmcsw• あの人はとても学者然としています . “H e h as a schol-
arly air.”
ZU K U D E ずくで by m ean s of, e.g. Chikara zuku de sono shoku
o e m a s h ita . 力ずくでその職を得ました • “H e obtained th e job by
fo rc e.”
Z U T SU ずつ a certain am oun t or q u an tity at a tim e, e.g. Nisan-
nin zutsu k im a s h ita . 二三人ずつ来ました . “T h e y ca m e by tw o s
and th r ee s.”
COMMON NOUN-PREFIXES 接頭語くせっとうご >
P r e fix K a n ji M e a n in g E x a m p le K a n ji M e a n in g
bo- 某 a c e rta in bojitsu 某日 a c e rta in day

bo- 亡 deceased bofu 亡父 deceased
fa th e r
超第大同不副
cho- super chojin 超人 su p erm an

dai- No. dauchi 第一 N o .1
aaiifai)- g re a t aaisakka 大作家 p ro m in en t
w rite r
do- th e sam e donin 同人 sam e perso n
fu- dis-, un- futei 不定 u n c e rta in ty
fuku- vice-, assis fukuaai- 副大統領 vice-president
ta n t, sub- toryo
fukuunkai 副委員会 su b co m m ittee
fuku- 複 double fukusha 複写 duplication
com pound fukubun 複文 com pound
sen ten ce
復義義
埽母足
fuku- 復 re fukki rev ersio n

義 in-law gibo m o ther-in-law
artifi gisoku artificial leg
cial
giji- 疑似 pseudo- giji- 疑似宗教 pseudo-religion
shukyo
hai 排 anti- haimchi 排日 anti-Jap an ese
(exclude)
han- 反 anti- hanbei 反米 an ti-A m erican
(oppose)
han- 汎 Pan Han ，Tai- 況太平洋 Pan-Pacific
heiyo 会議 C onference
Kaigi
han- 半 half, sem i han- 半病人 perso n n ot
byonin q u ite w ell
hi 被 receiving, hisen- 被占領国 occupied
be sub rydkoku co u n try
jected to
176 Com i Noun-prefixes
Prefix Kanji Meaning Example Kanji Meaning

hi- 非 non-, un- h ib u n m e i- 非文明国 uncivilized
定
地
次今
幾
本平 koku country-
hira- common hirashain 平社員 mere cierk
hon- this, the honnin 本人 the person
same him self
iku- several, ikunichi 幾日 several days
some
ima- modern imadoki 今時 present age
next jinan 次男 the second son
ji- of the jizake 地酒 sake of the
place place
j 〇- regular jotokui 定得意 regular
customer
jun- 準 semi-, jun- 準決勝 semi-final
quasi- kessho
ki- your kiko 貴校 your school
ko- 小 small, koyaku- 小役人 petty official
petty nin
ko- 故 the late ko 故三木氏 the late
Miki-shi M r. M ik i
kon- ム this tim e konshu 今週 this week
kd- i good, ko- 好人物 good-natured
favorable jinbutsu man
kyu- 旧 form er, ex- kyU- 旧軍人 ex-soldier
gun jin
ma- 真 mid-, rig h t manatsu 真夏 midsummer
mashita 真下 rig h t below
mas- 真正直 piam honesty
shojiki
mai- 毎 every mainichi 毎日 every day-
mame- 豆 m iniature mame- 豆人形 m iniature doll
ningyo
man- 満 fu ll mangetsu 満月 fu ll moon
me- 女 female megami 女神 goddess
(human)
f t ( 雌 ) female meusm 牝 ( 雌 )牛 cow
(animal)
mei- 名 noted meimon 名門 noted fa m ily
ma- M non-, -less mu jo 無情 heartless
Common Noun-prefixes 177
Prefix Kanji Meaning Example Kanji Meaning

nii- 新 new nuzuma 新妻 new w ife
oni- 鬼 tough omnenji 鬼検事 relentless
prosecutor
来最再正
rai- next, rainen 来年 next year

coming
S 写 E
大
建会
sai- the most saidai the biggest
sai- re saiken reconstruction
員
sei- regular seikann regular
member
月覆
sen- 先 last sengetsu T last month
shita- 下 under, shitabaki footwear
lower
書
F F
請国
rough shitagaki rough copy

け
sub- shitauke sub-contract

正
諸
sho- many, shokoku several

several countries
金
E
二 E
sho- genuine shokin hard cash

時
just sho ni-ji exactly

tw o o’clock
多
対
大
他
多
数
空
総
員
§
so entire so in the whole

membersnip
sora- feigned, soramimi feigned
pretended deafness
日方人使
su- several sujitsu several days

面
ta- many tahomen many sides

ta- strange tanin strangers
^
tai- big, pro taishi ambassador

m inent
tai- toward, taibei 対米政策 policy towards
against seisaku Am erica
takaku- many- takaku 多角経営 m ultiple
sided, keiei enterprise
常
当
m ultiple
単
tan- single tandoku 単独 singleness,

separateness
to- the said tonin 当人 the said person
toko- ever tokonatsu 常夏 eternal
summer
178 Common Noun-prefixes
Prefix K a n ji M eaning Example K a n ji M eaning

usu- 薄 lig h t usugi 薄着 tm n clothing
usucha[iro] 薄茶 lig h t brown
uwa- 上 upper, uwagi 上着 upper garment
upward
outward uwabe 上辺 outward
appearance
yd- 洋 Western yofuku 洋服 Western
clothes
zai- 在 situated in Zaioei 在米日本 Japanese Em
Nihon 大使館 bassy in the
Taishikan United States
zen- 前 ex-, form er zen- 前大統領 ex-president
daitoryo
zen- 全 whole zen- 全国民 the whole
kokumin nation
COMMON NOUN-SUFFIXES 接尾語くせつびご >
Suffix Kan j i M eaning Example Kan j i M eaning
-a m a r i 余り over jii-n e n 十年余り over ten y ears

=yo am ari
•ban 番 ordinal ich i-b a n 一番 N o .1
-b a n m e 番目 ordinal ic h i-b a n m e 一番目 th e first
-ch aku 着 arriv in g at T o k y o c h a k u 東京着 (train) arriv in g
(ressh a ) a t T okyo
-chu 中 during, in k y u k a -c h u 休暇中 d u rin g th e
th e m idst of v acation
•d a i 大 size jits u b u ts u - 実物大 life size
dai
•d a i 台 level ic h im a n -e n 一万円台 level of
dai ¥10,000
-d a i 代 period, age 從wめ^ / ^ 1980年代 198Os
h a c h iju n e n -
dai
-d a n 壇 circle bundan 文壇 lite ra ry circle
•dom o 共 hum ble w a ta k u sh i- 私共 we
form of do m o
plural
-do 堂 shop nam e F u g e sts u -d d 風月堂 Fugetsudo
-do s k i 通し all th ro u g h y o d d s h i 夜通し all n ig h t
-fu 風 style, N ih o n -fit 日本風 Japanese sty le
m an n er
-g a t a 方 about (tim e) y u g a ta 夕方 tw ilig h t
-g a t a 方 honorific a n a ta -g a ta あなた方 you (plural)
fo rm of
plural
-g a ta 型 m odel 1 9 7 8 -n e n 1978年型 1978 m odel
g a ta
-g a ta がた about se n -e n g a ta 千円がた about ¥1,000
-goto 事 m a tte r ta d a g o to 只事 ord in ary
m a tte r
offense sh o h a n 初犯 th e first offense
-hart 犯
•h a tsu 発 departing か- / ^ SM京都発 (train) d e p a rt
(ressh a) in g K yoto
80
Common Noun-suffixes
性
流
来
等
似
内
目
狂
教
強
家
M eaning Example
会
K a n ji M eaning
化中
重
場
所
M
人
次
事
弱
位
費
■
cost kenchiku-hi 寛築費 cost of

co n stru ctio n
騰
ra n k ichi-i 一位 th e first in
姆
ra n k
_
a little yonjn-jaku 四十弱 a little u n d e r

under fo rty
：
m a tte r, kanshinji 関心事 m a tte r of

affair in te re st
-yv o rder dai-ni-ji 第二次 th e second in
>.
-;v o rd er
natio n alityNihon-pn 日本人 Jap an ese
-;o place shukaijo 集会所 m e e tin g hall
-y« place undojo 運動場 a th le tic field
.l
-i«
fold ni-ju 二重 tw o folds
en tire icnimchi-ju 一日中 all day
-ize gutaika 具体化 m aterialize
也
如
suru する
professional geijutsu-ka 芸術家 a rtist
person
w orld, shakai 社会 society
c o m m u n ity
fam ily Yamada-ke 山田家 th e Y am ada
♦
-^ F am ily
a little ni-mairu ニマイル a little over
-^ over kyd 強 tw o m iles
‘
:r fa ith kinsuto-kyo キリスト教 C h ristia n ity

m aniac shashin-ky& 写真狂 p h o to g rap h y
m an iac
-ra ordinal hitotsu-me 一つ目 th e first one
w
-ra
w itn in kikan-nai 期間内 w ith in th e
挪
period
resem ble ckichioya-ni 父親似 resem b lin g
fa th e r
plural kodomo-ra 子供等 ch ild ren
since sakunen-rai sin ce last y e a r
style Furansu- フランス F re n c h sty le
ryu 流
-ness, sekkyokusei positiveness
quality
Common Noun-suffixes 181
Sujfix K a n ji M eaning Example K an ji M eaning
•se i 製 m an u fa c N ih o n -s e i 日本製 m a n u fa c tu red

tu re d m ja p a n
•sen 選 selections k in d a i- 近代日本 selections
N ih o n 文学選 fro m m o d ern
b u n g a k u se n Jap an ese
lite ra tu re
-sen 線 tr a n s it line Y a m a n o te - 山手線 Y am an o te line
sen
-s h ik i 式 m odel sh in s h i/u 新式 new m odel
fash io n k y iis h ik i 旧式 old fash io n
-sh o 所 place yaku sh o 役所 g o v ern m en t
office
•sh u 手 person u n te n s h u 運転手 d riv e r
-s u g i 過 p ast g o - ji s u g i 五時過 a fte r five
o’clock
•ta c h i 達 p lu ral w a ta k u s n i- 私達 we
ta c h i
•ta i 带 zone n e tta i 熱帯 to rrid zone
•ta n 端 end s a in a n ta n 最南端 end fu rth e s t
so u th
-td 等 etc. B e ik o k u ，米国英国 U.S., E ngland,
EikokUy to 等 etc.
-ts u k i 付 w ith, k a g u -ts u k i 家具付 fu rn ish e d
a tta c h e d (room s, etc.)
-ts u m e 詰 ap p o in tm en t Y o k o h a m a - 横浜詰 appointed to
= zu m e (to a posi- z u m e th e Y okoham a
tion, etc.) office
- ts u z u k i 統 row , c o n ti y a n e - 屋根続 row s of roofs
n u ity tSUZURl
•u e 上 honorific c h ic h i-u e 父上 v en erab le
fo r su p erio r fa th e r
•u su 薄 lack of te m o c h i-u su 手持蒋 n o t m u ch on
h an d
-y a 屋 shop h o n -y a 本屋 bo o k sto re
dealer h o n -y a -sa n 本屋さん book d ealer,
bo o k sto re
ow n er
•ya m i 病み p a tie n t 肺病病み tu b ercu lo sis
p a tie n t
Common Noun-suffixes
K a n ji M eaning Example K an ji M eaning

除け protection kaze-yoke 風除け sh e lte r ag a in st
w ind
余 = amari
寄り close by Yamanote- 山手寄り n e a r th e bluff
yori
•yuki 行き bound for Amerika- アメリカ bound fo r
yuki 行き A m erica
-zuke 付 dated mikka-zuke 三日付 d a te d th e th ird
•zuki 好 lover of yakyu-zuki 野球好 baseball fan
-zuki 付 a tta c h e d to taishikan- 大使館付 a tta c h e to an
zuki em bassy
? ずくめ covered kuro- 黒ずくめ all in black
w ith zukume
〖尽し e n u m e ra kuni-zukushi 镇尽し en u m eratio n
tion of th e n am es
of c o u n tries
詰 packed hako-zume 箱詰 p ack ed in a box
積 load goton-zumi 五噸積貨 fre ig h t c a r
kasha 車 w ith five-ton
load cap acity
•zure ずれ w orldly- seken-zure 世間ずれ o verly w ise in
w ise w orldly aftairs
•zure づれ com pany, futari-zure 二人づれ a p a rty of tw o
p a rty
COMMON PROPER N O U N -SUFFIXES

Geographical Names
Suffix K a n ji Meaning Example K a n ji M eaning
•ch d 町 tow n, Eifuku-cho 永福町 E ifu k u D istrict
= m aclii d istric t
-do 道 old province San'in-dd 山陰道 S an ’m P ro v in ce
•ddri 通 avenue, Ginza-dori 銀座通 G m za S tre e t
=tdri s tre e t
"fu 府 m etro p o litan Kyoto-fu 京都府 K yoto P re fe c
p re fe c tu re tu r e
•gawa 川，河 riv e r Sumida- 隅田川 S um ida R iver
-kawa gawa
Suffix K a n ji Meaning Example K an ji Meaning
county, sub- K o s h i-g u n 古志郡 K o s h i しo u n ty

•g u n 郡
p re fe c tu re
road K is o - ji 木曽路 K iso Road
-ji 路
island I o - jim a 硫黄島 Iw o Island
- jim a 島
= s h im a
h ighw ay ゴJ 木曽街道 K iso H ighw ay
- k /ゴ街道
h ighw ay TSfon'必東海道 T okaido H ig h
-k a id d 海:道
along th e w ay
sea
p re fe c tu re C h ib a -k e n 千葉県 C hiba P re fe c
•k e n 県
tu re
lake 山中湖 L ake
•ko 湖
ko Y am an ak a
w ard 品川区 S h in ag aw a
-k u 区
ku W ard
d istric t O i-m a c h i 大井町 Oi D istrict
-m a c n i BJ
=chd to w n
village K a m ik u m i- K am ikum i
-m u r a
m u ra V illage
ch ain of C h i s h i m a - 千島列島 K u rile Islands
-rWM 列島
islands r e tto
m o u n tain F u ji-s a n 富士山 M t. F uji
-s a n 山
= yam a= zan
city O s a k a -s h i 大阪市 O saka C ity
-s h i 市
island A w a ji- 淡路島 A w aji Island
•s h im a 島
= jim a s h im a
•shU 洲 co n tin en t A jia - s h u アジア洲 A sian
C o n tin en t
•shU 州 U.S. sta te O r e g o n - s M オレゴン S ta te of
O regon
m etropolis T o k yo -to 東京都 T okyo M etro
•to 都
polis
island T o n g a -td トンガ島 T o n g a Island
-to 島
= s h im a = jim a
bay T o k y o -w a n 東牙、
湾 T o k y o Bay
-w a n M
m o u n tain A sam a- 浅間山 M t. A sam a
•ya m a 山
= san = zcm yam a
ocean T a ih e i-y d 太平洋 Pacific O cean
-y〇洋
184 Common Noun-suffixes
Suffix K a n ji Meaning Example K a n ji M eaning

-zan lU
=san=yama
Note: In writing out a Japanese address, the largest unit comes first,
e.g. Nihon, Tokyo-to, Kodaira-shi, Suzuki-cho, 3-chdme, 100-5
日本東京都小平市鈴木町 3 丁目 100-5
100-5, 3-chome, Suzuki-cho, Kodaira-shi, Tokyo-to, Japan
Personal Names
•chan ちゃん (see -san) used affectionately to address children
友子ちゃん Tomoko
-dono 殿 M r .; more form al than -sew, often used in official documents
Suzuki-dono 鈴木殿 M r. Suzuki
•j〇孃 M iss; not used to address an unm arried woman directly,
but used to refer to her
ぬ山田孃 Miss Yamada
-kun 君 M r” M aster; often used by young men and boys to address
th e ir male m ends
Nakajima-kun 中島君 Nakajim a
•me 奴 expresses abuse
ano Egawa-me あの江 }\\奴 that despicable Egawa
様 M r” Mrs., M iss; more polite than -saw, commonly used to
address others in letters
戸田様 M r. Toda
•san さん M r. ，Mrs., Miss; most common suffix
h 似々a-s⑽ 田中さん Mrs. Tanaka
•shi 氏 M r.; honorific suffix, not used to address a man directly,
but used to refer to him , p articula rly in w ritin g
•Sみ/ 桃清水氏 M r. Shimizu
Some of the above suffixes are used not only after proper names,
but also after some nouns.
e .g .如纪ゐ⑽坊ちゃん used to address a little boy
ojj-san お懷さん used to address a g ir l
shashd-san 車掌さん used to address a tra in conductor
(似桃めお医者さん used to refe r to a physician
(Usually the word 幻 •先生 is used to address
a physician)
Note: In writing out a person’s name, the family name precedes the
given name.
e.g. 謂ゴa 山田次郎 Jir5 Yamada
It should also be remembered that it is not common in Japan
to call one’s acquaintance (even a fairly close friend) by his/
her first name, as in the United States. Y a m a d a -s a n (last
name plus s a n ) is the most common way to address Mrs.
Yamada, one’s acquaintance.
Terms of Address
It is com m on to address persons of a ce rta in position by th e ir
title instead of tn e ir nam e. T h is is especially tru e w ith in a social
s tru c tu re w here th e ra n k in g is apparent. In fact, it sounds alm ost
im polite to address o n e ^ superior by h i s / h e r last nam e plus -san .
It is n a tu ra lly u n th in k ab le to call your superior by ju st h is / h e r first
nam e as is often done in th e U nited S tates. It should also be noted
th a t th e pronoun あなた（ or 々//m• 君 for m en) “ y o u ” should
n o t be used w hen one talk s to one's superior, th a t is, use of a n a ta
or k im i should be reserv ed only to o n e ^ equals and inferiors,
e.g. B u c k o , chotto ohanashi shitai koto g a arim asu ga, im a oiso-
gashii desu k a ? 部長，一寸お話ししたいことがありますが，今
おf t しV、です力、 “ D ep artm en t head, I w ould like to speak
to you a m in u te ; are you busy n o w ? ”
M ore exam ples of position traditionally addressed only by title :
課長 section chief
(k e n )c h ijt(-s a n )知事 (prefectural) governor
k o c h o s e n s e i 校長先生 school principal
s e n m u irs a n ) 専務 m anaging director
sewsd 先生 m ost-used te rm for addressin g a person w ho
com m ands resp ect from th e n a tu re of m s /
h e r w ork such as teachers, professors, doc
tors, w riters, D iet m em bers, etc. E ven am ong
th e colleagues of th e sam e school, it is
custom ary to call each o th er by se n s e i or
so-and-so sen sei instead of by his / h e r nam e,
sh a c h d (-sa n ) 社長 president of a com pany
sh ic h d {-sa n ) 市長 m ayor
c/^c/z6(-s<2w) 町長 m ayor of a sm all tow n
son ch d(-san ) head of a sm all village
TERMS FOR FAMILY MEMBERS AND RELATIVES
T h e te rm s w hich are used to address or re fe r to fam ily m em bers

or relatives com e basically in pairs, th e n eu tral one and th e m ore
polite one. T h e n eu tral form is used in w ritin g as w ell as in re
fe rrin g to one's ow n fam ily (hum ble form ), w h ile ta lk in g to a non
fam ily person or persons. T h e polite fo rm is used to d irectly
address one’s ow n fam ily m em bers or to re fe r to a n o th er perso n ’s
fam ily. T h is form tak es a v ariety of suffixes, ch an g in g th e level
of politeness,
e.g. fa th e r
n eu tral:
以たゐ/ 父（ w ritten ) K are no chichi w a gaikokan de aru.
彼の父は外交官である. “ H is fa th e r is a diplom at.”
(spoken-hum ble) Chichi w a im a d ek ak ete im asu . 父は
今出か(掛) けています. “Fa t h e r is o ut now .”一re fe rs
to th e sp eak er’s ow n fa th e r
chichioya 父親 m ore im personal th a n
polite:
otosan (address) Otosan, kyo no gogo isogashii desu ka.
お父さん，今日の午後忙しいですか. “Dad, are you
busy th is aftern o o n ?”
Otosan w a donna oshigoto o sh ite irarem asu k a . お> 、
さんはどんなお仕事をしていられますか. “ W h at k ind of
work does your father do ?”一 refers to someone else，s
father
more polite:
otosama used in th e sam e w ay as otosan, b ut
m ore polite
affectionate:
otdchan (tdchan) お父ちゃん used mainly by little child
ren, addressing their father
otdchama ぉ父ちゃま used in th e sam e w ay as がみ:/^
b u t m ore polite
rough:
の ^ ブz おやじ Not a good term, but is often used by men
in informal situations to refer to their own fathers,
oyaji-san for others*.
Terms for Family Members and Relatives 187
T h e re a re still m ore te rm s fo r “fa th e r,” w hich are used in different

localities in Japan, b u t one can easily learn th e m a fte r stay in g
th e re fo r som e tim e.
In th e follow ing list, th e te rm s fo r o th e r fam ily m em bers w ill be
given. Like th e te rm s fo r “fa th e r,” th ey h av e several different
form s, of w hich th e m ost com m only used ones w ill be listed.
English
equivalent neutral polite more polite children rough
m o th er haha， o k a sa n o k a sa m a {o )k a ch a n o fu k u r o
母お母さん (c h a m a ) おふくろ
h ahaoya
母親
p aren ts r y o s h in g o r y 6 sh in g o ry d s h in -
両親御両親 sam a
husband sh u jm g o s h u jin g o s h u jin - danna
主人御主人 sam a 旦那
otto d a n n asam a
夫旦那様
w ife kanai o k u sa n o k u sa m a kaka
家内奥さん m
tsu m a
妻
son m u su ko m u su k o sa n g o sh iso k u sa m a (m ore often used
息子御子息様 fo r a g ro w n son)
boya botch a n o b o tch a m a (m o r e often used fo r a
坊や坊ちゃん yo u n g son)
d a u g h te r m u su m e m u su m esa n
娘娘さん
o jo s a n o j o sa m a
お嬢さん
elder ani o n iis a n o n iis a m a (o )n iich a n a n ik i
b ro th er 兄お兄さん {ch a m a ) 兄貴
elder ane o n e sa n o n e sa m a (o )n ech a n aneki
sister 姉お姉さん {c h a m a ) 姉貴
fam ily k a zo k u g o k a zo k u gokazoku sam a
家族御家族
188 Terms for Family Members and Relatives
English
equivalent neutral polite more polite children rough
siblings kyodai g o k y d d a i — The word k y o a a i is used fo r
兄弟(姉妹) 御兄弟 siblings, that is, fo r both
brothers and sisters, but when
one talks only about sisters,
the word s h im a i should
be used.
baby akanbo akachan
赤ん坊赤ちゃん
grand- so fu o jn s a n o jn s a m a {o )jiic h a n jijn
father 祖父お祖父さん {c h a m a ) 爺
grand- sobo o b a sa n o b a sa m a {o)bdch an baba
mother 祖母お祖母さん {c h a m a ) 婆
uncle o ji o jis a n o jis a m a o jic ^ a n
伯父，伯父さん， {c h a m a )
叔父* 叔父さん
aunt oba oba sa n o b a sa m a obach an
伯母，伯母さん， {c h a m a )
叔母* 叔母さん
nephew oi o ig o s a n
甥甥御さん
niece m ei (o )m e ig o sa n
姪お姪御さん
cousin ito k o o ito n o sa n
、とこおいとこさん
伯父1 Jolder than one’s parent
botn uncle, but
叔父」 lyounger than one’s parent
伯母1 Jolder than one’s parent
both aunt, but
叔母j lyounger than one’s parent
N O U N M O D IF IE R S
名詞修飾語くめいししゅうしょくこ〉
In Japanese, every noun modifier precedes th e noun w hich it

modifies w h e th e r it is a w ord, phrase, or clause. T h e follow ing
a re th e five m ost com m on noun modifiers.
1 . N oun (or pronoun) + wo w a ta k u s h i n o to n a r i no u ch i no
kodom o私の隣の家の子供
“m y neighbor’s child”
2. Copular n o u n ( p o s i t i v e ) 々/m ’ wo uchi きれい（綺麗）な家
“p re tty house”
Copular n o u n + ^ w a n a i (negative) s h iz u k a d e w a n a i tokoro
静かではない所 “ place
w hich is n ot qu iet”
3. A djective (positive) uchi 大きい家 “big house”
( n e g a t i v e ) 於 / 如似 / h e y a 大きくない部屋 “room
w hich is not big”
4. N on-conjugative adjective 々 ⑽ m ono こんなもの “th is kind
of th in g ”
ゐ ⑽ h ito どの人 “w hich person”
5. Sentence-ending verb form s—R elative clauses
1 . T h e re is no relativ e pronoun in Japanese, and th e verb
w hich directly precedes th e noun m odifies it. (E xcep
tion, see tokoro no, p. 78)
2. T h e re is no distinction betw een re stric tiv e and non-
re stric tiv e clauses in Japanese.
a. V 3 ( p o s i t i v e ) ゐ ⑽ 仍ゐ办 h i t o 話している人
“ta lk in g person,” th a t is, “person
w ho is ta lm n g ”
b. Ynai ( n e g a t i v e ) ゐ ⑽ 仍 ⑽ h i t o 話さない人 “u n
speak in g person,” th a t is, “p e r
son w ho doesn’t sp e a k ”
*c. V ta (positive past) it ta h ito 行った人 “person
w ho w en t”
* Sometimes V/a as a noun modifier, rather than being an objective

modifier, implies a speaker’s evaluation of the following noun.
e.g. 々owafな hito 困った人 “person with whom we are having trouble”
cf• 知ww故 * hito 困っている人 “person who is in trouble”
190 Noun Modifiers
megane 〇如知 ^z ( = kakete iru) h i t o 眼鏡をかけた人

“ person wearing glasses”
d. V n a k a tta (negative past) ik a n a k a tta h \to 行かすムかっナこ人
“ person who didn’t go”
Example of a sentence w ith some noun modifiers
W a ta k u s m no to n a r i no ucm n i s u n d e ir u
私の隣の家に住んでいる
(Noun+ wo) (Noun+ wo) (N o un + m ) (V3—relative clause)
(noun modifier) (noun modifier) (adverbial phrase) (noun modifier)
K ir e i na ya sa sh u o n n a no h ito w a kono
きれい (綺麗 )な優しい女の人はこの
(Cop. n .+ n a ) (Adj.) (Noun+ wo)
(Subject) (Non-conj.
adj.)
(noun modifier) (noun modifier) (noun modifier) (noun modifier)
k in jo no sh o g a k k o no sen sei _ d esu .
近所の小学校の先生
です.
(Noun+ wo) (Noun + ⑽ (Complement) (Copula—main verb)
(noun modifier) (noun modifier)
UA pretty, kind lady who lives next door to m y house is a

teacher at the elementary school in this neighborhood.”
In the above example, the core of the sentence is h ito w a s e n s e i

d e su 人は先生です， “ a person is a teacher,” and the rest (⑽
lin e d words and phrases) are mostly noun modifiers (one adverbial
phrase).
PR O NO UNS代名詞くだいめいし〉
Japanese pronouns are a cla ss of nouns. Thus, th e ru les govern ，

in g th e use of pronouns are th e sam e as th ose of nouns as show n
below :
I. C haracteristics of Japanese Pronouns

1 . Generally no distinction b etw een sin gu lar and plural,
excep t to attach plural suffixes to som e personal pro
noun s (see N oun, p . 150)
w a ta k u s h i 私 “Y、
(
又
w a ta k u s h i-ta c h i 私違
w a ta k u sh i-d o m o
a n a ta あナs：
“we”
“we”一 humble plural form
ナこ “you”一 singular
\a n a ta -ta c h i あなナこ逢 “you”一 plural
し wok-卵 ^ ! あなた方 “you”一 honorific plural form
お前 “you”一 used only to one’s subordinate
1卿沉 -ra お前等 “you”一 plural, etc.
2. No case (Particles w hich follow pronouns decide th e case
in Japanese, see Particles, pp. 93-140.)
3. M any m ore pronouns in Japanese than E nglish. M any
of th ese pronouns depend on interpersonal relationship
(See below , I I , 1)
II. Com m on Japanese Pronouns

1 . Person 1st person
w a ta k u s h i p olite )， w a ta s h i，a ta s h i， boku 後
私、（
(used by men), more polite than ore
2nd person
あなた（most common), (not as
polite as anata), om ae (to a subordinate),
kim i (used by men)
3rd person
如^ 彼 “he,” 々 ⑽ o知彼女 “she,” kono kata
この方， sono k a t a そ oy方， ano kata あの方
mean “this person,” “that person right there,”
and “that person over there,” respectively.
They are also used for “he,” or “she.” {Kata
192 Pronouns
is m ore p olite than hito. Kata can n ot be used

w ith ou t m odifiers, w h ile hito can be used in
depen dently w ith o u t any m odifiers.)
In terrogative
ぬ wo 如化どの方 “w h ich p erson,” ゴare 誰 “w h o,”
ゴcw ぬ 2：どなた “w h o ” （ m ore polite than ぬ ;^)
N o te: T here are m any m ore pronouns w h ich are used for different
occa sio n s and in different lo ca lities in Japan.
2. T h in g (d em on strative pronoun)
dore どれ “ w h ich of th e th ree or m ore”
“th at over th ere”
d o tc h i どっち
〖‘w h ich of th e tw o ”
40 chira E ちら
N ote: kochira, sochira, achira are m ore polite th an kore, sore, are.
kotchi, sotchiy atchi, d o tch i are th e m ost colloquial.
3. P l a c e * 如如ここ “h ere,” 知如そこ “just there,” 似 ?如

あそこ “o ver th ere”
4. D irection 々卯み/ra こちら “th is direction ,” そち
ら “righ t over th ere,” 沉加.re：あちら “w a y over th ere,”
ぬどちら “w h ich direction” （ se e also 2 above for
difrerent m ean in gs of kochira, sochira, achiray and
docmra)
For th e difference of ko, so, a and dot se e N on-con jugative
A d jectives, p. 92.
5. O ther in terrogative pronouns, see In terrogative words, p.
141.
* In E n glish th e p lace words su ch as “h ere” or “th ere” are alw ays adverbs,
but in Japanese th ey are pronouns. T herefore, w e have to add th e particle
n i (or de) a fter th ese w ords, to use them adverbially, e .g . Son o hon wa
々〇々〇 m a r i m a s u . その本はここにあります. “T h e book is h e r e.”
A D V E R B S 畐U詞 < ふくし >
Jap anese adverbs are sim ila r to th eir E n g lish co u n terp a rts in th a t
th e y do n ot in flect, and th e y m od ify verb s, a d jectiv es, and oth er
adverbs. B ut so m e Jap anese adverb s also m o d ify a lim ited n um ber
of n ou n s (S ee N oun , II, 3, a, p . 151), as w e ll a s cop u lar n o u n s p lu s
na. M an y Jap anese ad verb s h a v e stric ter lim ita tio n s in th e ir u sa g e
th an E n g lish adverb s. T h a t is, so m e of th e m are a lw a y s fo llo w ed
b y p o sitiv e verbs, so m e o n ly b y n eg a tiv e verbs, and so m e c h a n g e
m ea n in g s d ep en d in g on w h e th e r th ey are fo llo w e d b y p o sitiv e or
n e g a tiv e ex p ressio n s. O th ers a re a lw a y s fo llo w ed b y te n ta tiv e or
te n ta tiv e -n eg a tiv e exp ressio n s, or by ex p re ssio n s of com p arison , and
so forth. T m s sectio n p resen ts th e m o st co m m o n ly u sed ad verb s
w ith th e se particu lar lim ita tio n s.
In addition, th e re are se v er a l w ord s w h ic h a ctu a lly b elo n g to
oth er parts of sp eech , but w h ic h are so m e tim e s u sed as adverbs.
W h en used as adverb s, so m e of th em reta in th e ir orig in a l form s,
and oth ers in flect. E x a m p les of ad verb s and w ord s u sed as ad verb s
appear b elo w in th e fo llo w in g order:
I. F o rm s of Ja p a n ese A d v erb s
1 . T r u e ad verb s
2. A d verb s d erived from o th er parts of sp ee ch
II. C om m on A d v e rb s and th e ir U sa g e
1. T im e
2. Q u antity
3. D eg ree
4. C ircu m sta n ce
III. C om m on ly U sed A d v e rb s w ith L im ita tio n s

1 . A d verb s u sed o n ly w ith p o sitiv e ex p re ssio n s
2. A d verb s u sed o n ly w ith n e g a tiv e ex p re ssio n s or n e g a
tiv e ideas
3. A d verb s w ith m ea n in g s v a r y in g accord in g to u se w ith
p o sitiv e or n e g a tiv e ex p re ssio n s
4. Adverbs used with conditional expressions
Adverbs
5. A d verb s used w ith te n ta tiv e exp ression s

6. A d v erb s used w ith n eg a tiv e te n ta tiv e exp ression s
7. A d v erb s used w ith ex p ressio n s of com parison
F orm s of Japanese A d verb s

1 . T r u e A d v erb s w h ich m odify:
a. V erbs, ad jectives, other adverbs, copular nouns,
e.g. mattaku 全く “co m p letely ,” kanari ナひ
(可成） “fa irly ,” かなmo とても “v ery ,” etc.
b. C ertain nouns, e.g. びo m u k a s h i ずっと昔 “ lon g
ago,” mo 故？ m a e もっと前 “fu rth er forw ard，”
ichid o もう一度 “ on ce m ore，” 似々osM k ita 少し北
“a little north,” etc.
2. A d v erb s derived from oth er parts of sp eech
a. A d jec tiv es
1 . Adjû sim ilar to E n glish a d je c tiv e + ly , e.g.
/zの^ 々m 早く “ early,” /a 如々w 高く “ highly,’’
如 -form , see p. 89.
2. R epetition of A d jste m , e.g. hayabaya
“early”
3. R ep etitition of A d j^ , e.g. yokuyoku J：< J：<
“ex c e e d in g ly ”
b. C opular N oun
T h is adverbial p hrase fu n ctio n s sim ila rly to ad-
j e c t iv e + 々M, e.g. m• 静かに “q u ietly ”
c. N o u n s (S ee N oun s, II, 2, p p . 150-51)
1 . Q u antity w ord s and num bers, e.g. takusan
択山 “ many,” 似々似み/ 少し “ a f ew,” “ a lit-
tle,” — つ “ one，
’
2. T im e w ords, e.g. /m e 今 “ n ow .” 々外今日
“ today”
3. O nom atop oeic w ords, e .g • 細 a 卵如がたがた
kotsukotsu こて)こつ S ee pp. 202-207.
4. D eg r ee w ords, e.g. /sso — 層 “ev e n m ore”
5 . しireu m stan tial w ords, e.g. mozen ures-
0111te ly ，” ゴ ⑽ 断固 “d ec isiv e ly ”
d. V erbs
1. Vte amanjite 甘ん Mて “co n ten ted ly ” from
のwaw力rw 甘んじる “to be co n ten te d ”
Adverbs 195
at ポaw於な改めて “a g a in ” fro m 改
める “r e n e w ”
似沉な合わせて “ c o lle c tiv e ly ” from
合わせる “ put to g e th e r ”
の ^:；wポな誤って “b y m ista k e ” from 0ツamarw
誤る ‘‘err”
ぬ好んで “w illin g ly ” fro m な好む
“lik e ”
々烈s/?/な決して “by no m ea n s” fro m kessuru
決する “ d eterm in e (not) to d o . " , ” a lw a y s
u sed w ith a n e g a tiv e verb
/?ポ仍み办果たして “a s w a s e x p ec ted ” from
t o a 似果たす ‘‘a cc o m p lish ”
みar 以《晴れて “op en ly, p u b licly ” from /m rw w
晴れる “ clear up”
w 位/ a / な目立って “n o ticea b ly ” from m ed a な《
目立っ “b e co n sp icu o u s”
な絶えて ‘‘never, n ot at a ll” from 絶
える “c e a se to e x is t”
2. Y zu 化從汉絶えず “ w ith o u t stopp in g, co n
tin u o u sly ” from 如絶える “ ce a se to
e x is t”
3. V2 あま（余）り ‘‘too … f rom am a作
余る “rem ain, be le ft o v er”
4. V 2V 2 なwダ / な m沿 • 次々 “ one by one” fro m む wぎ m
次ぐ “co m e a fte r ”
V 3V 3 ッ如行く行く “in th e fu tu r e” fro m
ツ行く tlgQ” kawamgamaYu
るがわる “a lte r n a te ly ” from
“c h a n g e,” 桃 asw m as 鉍ますます “m ore
and m ore” from 増す “ in crea se.”
5. V 3+ m ’ • 思うに “in m y opinion ” fro m
⑽ 思う “th in k ”
C om m on A d verb s and th e ir U sa g e
T im e
futatabi ^ again ^ m ore literary th a n mata, e.g. Kyonen
futatabi sono chi o t a z u n e t a . 去年再びその地を訪ねた . “I
v isite d th e p la ce a g a in la st y ear.n
k 似むかねて “ p reviou sly, b etore,” e .g • 汾，公 m . むm
196 Adverbs
kanete kiite im a s h ita . それについてはかねて聞いていました • “I

heard about it b efo re.”
saisan "again and a g a in ,n e.g. Saisan kikasaremashita.
再三聞かされました . “I w a s told about it ag a in and a g a in .”
sA ふ暫らく “fo r a lo n g tim e ,” e.g. Ano hito ni wa shiba-
raku atte i m a s e n . あの人にはしば (暫）らく会っていません . “I
h a v e n ’t se e n h im fo r a lo n g tim e .”
sA/み似/ ^ 0 屢々 “o fte n ” 夕ツ is m o st colloq u ial,
e.g. Asoko e wa shibashiba as hi o h a k o n d a . あそこへはしば
しば (屢々）足を運んだ • “I w e n t th e r e o fte n .”
似抑す ( 直）ぐ “im m e d ia te ly ,’’ e.g. Sugu kite kudasai. す < ：来:
、
て下さい . “P le a se co m e rig h t a w a y .”
仿仿とうとう（到頭） “fin a lly ” = ) ’の ⑽ 你 e.g. To to deki-
w M 仏とうとうでき（出来）ました • “I fin ally fin ish ed it.”
yagate やがて “soon” =mamonaku e.g. Yagate kuru deshd.
やがて来るでしょう • “H e w ill probably c o m e soon .”
2. Q u an tity
chotto ちょっと（一寸 ' ) “a Uttle，” e.g. Chotto matte kudasai.
ちょっと待って下さい • “P le a se w a it a m in u te.”
tanto f こんと “m any, m u c h ,” e.g. Ano hito wa okane o tanto
motte i m a s u . あの人はお金をたんと持っています . “H e h a s lo ts
of m o n e y .”
3. D eg r ee
卵々w ご（
極）く “e x c e e d in g ly ” = totemo= hanahada e.g. Goku
故: / ⑽ t o 似 • ぬ似辦 • • • ごく内輪の話ですが • • . “It’s an
ex c e e d in g ly p ersonal story, b u t ”
• かなり（可成） “con sid erab ly, q u ite,” e.g. Kanari yoku
ゐ M e /w a 似 • かなりよくでき（出来）ています • “It is q u ite w e ll
d one.”
全く “v ery m u ch ,” e.g. Ima mattaku komatte imasu.
今，全く困っています • “I am rea lly in trou b le n o w .”
如もっと “m ore,” e.g. Sono ho ga motto yasui desu yo.
その方がもっと安いですよ . “T h a t is ch eap er.”
mottomo 最も “most” =icJubcm e.g. Sore ga mottomo juyd da.
それが最も重要だ. “It is m o st im p ortan t.”
taihen 大裳 “v&cy” = totemo e.g. Taihen okina uchi desu , 大
変大きな家です . “It is a v e r y b ig h o u se .”
ツo/w ゐよほど（余程） “very, g r e a tly ,” e.g . 如ゐな w如 r ぬ：か
miete mada nete i m a s u . よほど疲れたとみえてま（未）だ寝てい
Adverbs 197
ます. “Appare nt l y he w a s v ery tired, b ec a u se h e is still

sle ep in g .”
zutto ずっと “by i ^ ，h r ，’’ e.g. Kono hd ga zutto omoshiroi• こ
の方がずっと面白い • “T h is is m u ch m ore in te r e stin g .”
4. C ircu m stan ce
ル幻ふと “by ch a n ce” = ぎぬ你， “su d d en ly ” =か /⑽ ^4⑽
hito no koto o futo omoidashita. あの人のことをふと思い出し
た • “I happened to th in k o f h im .” F m/ o sowwa 切 0
das か•桃 • ふとそんな事を思い出しました • “S u d d en ly I re
called su ch a th in g .”
hitasura ひすごすら “ediT：nest\y ，
” e.g.Shikenmaenanodentta-
sura benkyo ni hagende imasn. 試験前なのでひたすら勉強
に励んでいます. “B e c a u se it is b efo re h is ex a m s, h e is
ea r n e stly stu d y in g h ara.”
hakkiri Vt っきり “clea rly ,” e.g. Hakkiri itte kudasai. はっき
り言って下さい • “P le a se sa y it c lea r ly .”
汉み/ 是非 “d efin ite ly ， b y an y m ea n s，” e.g. Zehi so shimashd.
是非そうしましょう • “L et’s do th a t b y all m ea n s.”
III. C om m on ly U sed A d v e rb s w ith L im ita tio n s accord in g to U se

1 . Adverbs used only with positive expressions
kanarazu必ず w ith o u t fa il
ルみ如 m；
0 桃仍 w• 明日は必ず来ます • “I’ll co m e
tom orrow w ith o u t fa il.”
如：
，勿7 か辛うじて barely, n arrow ly
Karojite nogaremashita. 辛うじてのがれました . “I had a
narrow escape.**
2. Adverbs used only with negative expressions or negative ideas

anagachi (not) n ece ssa r ily = kanarazusnimo
Anagachi uso de mo n a i . あながち噓でもない . “It’s not n e c e s
sa r ily a lie.”
chittomo ちっとも (not) a b it =sukoshimo
Chittomo w a k a r a n a i. ちっともわか（分）らない . “I c a n ’t under-
stan d it at a ll.”
淡妨いっこう（
一向）（
not) in th e lea st
Ikko u r e n a i . いっこう売れない • “I c a n ’t se ll th e m at a ll.”
む仍所 0 いささ（
些）かも (not) in th e le a st =sukoshimo
Isasakamo o d o ro ka n a i. いささかも驚かない， <CI am n o t su r
p rised in th e least.^
198 Adverbs
kesshite 決して never Sonna koto wa kesshite shite wa ikema-

sen y o . そんなことは決してしてはいけませんよ . “ Don’t you
ever do sucn a th in g !”
似 :Msmwo 必ずしも（ not) necessarily
Wakai nara kanarazushimo tsukarenai to wa kagiranai.
から必ずしも疲れないとは限らない • “ Just because he is young,
we can’t say that he doesn’t get tired.”
まんざら（満更）（ not) altogether
ぬ ^ : ぬ w； a wa/• まんざら馬鹿ではない • “ He is not
altogether a fool.”
metta ni めっナこ[減t多 ')!(C rarely, seldom
Metta ni i k im a s e n . めったに行きません • “ I seldom go.”
rokuroku ろ>くろく (not) satisfactorily
Ano ko wa rokuroku hon mo y o m e n a i . あの子はろくろく本も
読めない • “ T ha t child can’t even read a book satisfactorily.”
sappari 冬っばり (not) at all
Yonde mo sappari wakarimasen. 読んでもさっぱりわか（
分）り
ません • “ Even though I read it, I can’t understand it at a ll.”
sukoshimo すこしも (not) in the least
Sukoshimo yoki shite inakatta. 少しも予期していなかった. “I
didn’t expect i t at all.”
がな / とうてい（到底） (not) possibly
Sonna koto wa tdtei arienai. そんなことはとうていあり得たい.
“ Such a th in g can’t possibly occur.”
zenzen (not) at all
ゐぬかぬ • 全然でき（出来）ませんでした . “I
couldn’t do it at all.”
3. Adverbs with meanings varying according to use with positive

or negative expressions
Adverbs W i th p o sitiv e exp ressio n s W i th n e g a tiv e exp ressions
amari so A d j — th a t • • • (not) very
あま（
余）り A m ari yasui no de taku- A m ari takaku arimasen.
san kaimashita . あ隻りあまり高くありません.
安いので沢山買いました. “ I t isn’t ve ry expensive.’
“ I t was so inexpensive
th a t I bought a lot.”
betsuni separately (not) especially
別に Sore wa betsuni shite oite Betsuni ii to mo omoi-
Adverbs 199
Adverbs W ith p o sitiv e expressio n s W ith n eg a tive exp ressions

ゴasa/.それは別にして •別にいいとも思
おいて下さい. “P lea se いません • “I don’t th in k
lea v e it separate.** it is esp ecia lly good.”
do mo v ery m uch (not) v ery =amari
どうも Do mo angato gozai- Domo yoku arimasen.
•どうも有難うござどうもよくありません.
います. “T h an k you “It is not v er y good.”
v ery m u ch .”
hotondo alm ost hardly
ほと（
殆）んど Md hotondo dekimashita. Benkyd shite nakatta
もうほとんど出来ました. no de， kyd no shiken wa
“I am alm ost done.” hotondo dekimasen de-
s/»Ya•勉強してなかった
ので今日の試験はほとん
ど出来ませんでした.
“B eca u se I w a sn ’t p re
pared, I cou ld hardly
do tod ay’s te st.”
issai all =zenbu not at all =zenzen

一切 Uchi-ju no mono o kaji Sonna koto wa issai
de issai yaite shimai- shirwiasen desita. そん
m a s h ita .家中の物を火な事は一切知りませんで
事で一切焼いてしまいました . “I didn’t k now
した • “I lost ev ery th in g su ch a th in g at all.”
in th e h ou se in a fire.”
mada still (not) y e t
ま（
未 )だ Mada dckimasu . で Mada d e k im a s e n . まだ
き（
出来）ます • “H e can でき（出来）ません . “I
still do it.” h a v en ’t ftnished it y e t.”
mo already (not) any lon ger
% う Mo gohan o tabemashita. Mo konna koto wa shi-
もうごはん (御飯 )を食べ •もうこんな事は
ました . “I h a v e eaten しまん • “W e w o n ’t do
dinner already.*' th is kind of th in g any
lon ger.”
nakanaka considerably, quite h ardly (u su ally tak in g
なかなか (w ith Adj.) tim e to do som eth in g)
( 中々） Nakanaka yoku deki- Nakanaka dekimasen.
200 Adverbs
Adverbs W ith p o sitiv e expressio n s W ith n e g a tiv e exp ressio n s

m a s h i t a . なかなかよくなかなかでき（出来）ませ
でき（出来）ました • “Y ou ん. “It’s ta k in g so m e
h a v e d on e it q u ite tim e to do it.”
w e ll.”
totemo v er y (w ith Adj.) n ot at all, c a n ’t p o ssib ly
とても Totemo kawaii onna no /m o nito ni wa totemo
ko desu ne • とても可愛 kanawanai. あ O X m
い女の子ですね • “S h e is とてもかなわない. “I
a v e r y c u te g irl, isn ’t a m no m a tch fo r m m ,
sh e? ” re a lly .”
zenzen w h o lly , en tire ly n ot at all
全然 Sono koto wa zenzen Sonna koto wa zenzen
himitsu ni shite oite shm m asen deshita.
々wぬ似 / • その事は全然んな事は全然知りません
秘密にしておいて下さい. でした . “I didn ’t k n o w
“K eep th a t m a tter an su ch a th in g at a ll.”
a b solu te secret, w ill
y ou ?”
4. Adverbs used with conditional expressions

mangaichi が一 b y a n y c h a n ce = man'ichi
Mangaichi shipped shitara， sore koso taihen d e s u . 万が一失敗
したら，それこそ大変です • “If b y a n y c h a n ce w e fa il, it w ill
b e ca ta stro p n ic.”
もし if
Moshi ame ga futtara ikimasen. もし雨が降ったら行きません.
“If it rains, I w o n ’t g o .”
moshi もし e v e n i f =/0 な^ =yoshi
Moshi ame de mo i k i m a s u . もし雨でも行きます . “ E v en if it
rains, I’ll g o .”
如か沒たとえ =mosm=yosm
e v e n if
Tatoe ame de mo ikimasu ka. たとえ雨でも行きますか • “E ven
ir it rains, w ill y ou g o ? n
5. Adverbs used with tentative expressions

ある（
或）いは p erhaps
Aruiwa so ka mo shirenai desu. あるいはそうかもしれないで
す • “P erh ap s it m ig h t b e so.”
おおむ (概 )ね probably, p erh ap s = taigai
Adverbs 20]
O m u n e so n n a ko to d a r d to o m o tte i m a s h i t a . おおむねそんなこ
とだろうと思っていました . ‘‘I th o u g h t th a t it w o u ld p erhaps
b e lik e th a t.”
の ^ 仍おおよそ ( 大凡） rou gh ly, n early
O y o so so n a r u n o d e w a n a i k a to o m o tte i m a s h i t a . おおよヤ
そうなるのではないかと思っていました. “I w a s th in k in g it
w ou ld probably tu rn out lik e th a t.”
sa d a m esh i 定め L p resu m ab ly
Sflぬ :mesW 0むぬ s M • 定めしお疲れでしょう • “I am su re
you are v er y tired .”
sazo さぞ（撫） no doubt, su rely
S a zo k ir e i d a tt a d e s h d . さぞきれい (綺麗 ) だったでしょう . “I
am su re it w a s b ea u tiiu l.”
多分 probably
T a b u n a s h ita w a ir a s s h a r u d e s h d . 多分明日はいらっしゃるで
しょう • “P rob ably h e w ill co m e to m o rro w .”
おそ ( 恐）らく probably
K y d w a o so r a k u k o n a i d e s h d • 今 H はおそらく来たいで V ょう .
“H e w ill probably n ot co m e tod ay.”
6. A d verb s u sed w ith n e g a tiv e -te n ta tiv e ex p re ssio n s

m似まさか su r e ly (not) = y 〇m o y a
M a s a k a (Y o m o y a ) k y d w a k o n a i d a r o to o m o i m a s u . まさか今
日は来ないだろうと思います . “ I su r e ly don’t th in k h e w ill
co m e today.”
7. A d verb s used w ith ex p re ssio n s o f com p arison

あたか（恰）も as if
A ta k a m o k a n e m o c h i n o y d n i f u r u m a u . あたかも金持のように
振舞う . “H e b e h a v e s a s if h e w e r e a rich m an .”
ch ddo 了霞 as if, lik e = m aru de
C/zJゐ yd m’a如 • ぬ sw• 丁度昼間のように明るい
⑽ ：
です • “It’s as b rig h t as day.”
m u s h ir o むし (寧）ろ rath er
W a ta k u s h i w a m u s h ir o so n o h o g a s u k i d e s u . 私はむしろその
方が好きです • “I rath er lik e it b ette r.”
scm o さも as if
S a m o b e n k y o k a n o y d n i i t te i m a s h i t a . さも勉強家のように
言ハていました . “ H e w a s ta lk in g as if h e w e r e a v er y d ilig e n t
m an.
ONOMATOPOEIC WORDS
( G /M /G O 擬声語 < ぎせいご > G /7 W G O 擬態語くぎたいご〉 )
In E n glish , on om atop oeic w o rd s a re th o se w h ic h im ita te n atu ral

sounds. In Jap anese, h o w ev er, th e se w o rd s n ot o n ly im ita te n atu ral
sounds, but a lso d escrib e or g iv e an im a g e of a c e rta in action . T h e r e
are litera lly h u n d red s of th e se w ord s. T h e w ord s w h ic h rep resen t
sou nd a re ca lled giseigo (so u n d -im ita tin g w ords), w h ile th e w ord s
w h ich d escrib e a ctio n s are gitaigo (a ctio n -im ita tin g w ord s). S o m e
w ord s ca n be u sed as both giseigo and gitaigo. T h e s e w o rd s ca n
b e used a s ad verb s as th e y are, or so m e tim e s w ith th e p a rticle to
(o ccasio n a lly ni) added. T h e y are v e r y im p ortan t in Jap anese, b e
ca u se o fte n th e u se of giseigo or gitaigo is th e o n ly w a y to d escrib e
accu ra tely a ce rta in actio n or con d ition . F or ex a m p le, th e verb
warau ca n b e “to sm ile ” or “to la u g h ” d ep en d in g on w h ich
giseigo (or gitaigo) is used w ith it.
nikoniko warau 1(ここ \ここ笑^ “sm ile ”
niyaniya w a r a u にやにや笑う “g r in ”
geragera warau Vf bV f b 笑う “la u g h b o istero u sly ”
kusukusu warau くすくす笑う “g ig g le ,” “c h u c k le ”
herahera w a r a u へらへら笑う “la u g h c o n d esc en d in g ly ,” etc.
C om m on O n om atop oeic W ord s and E x a m p les of th e ir U sa g e s

Onomatopoeic Used as ど/se 柳 Used as gitaigo
words (sound-imitating w.) (action-describing w.)
batabata fo o tstep or flapping h u rry-scu rry
ばたばた sou nd , e.g. batabata hashiru
bechabecha ch a tte rin g , ta ttlin g , e.g.
ベ*ちゃ '^ちゃ bechabecha shaberu
berabera ta lk in g g lib ly , e.g.
べらべら berabera shaberu
biribiri so u n d of te a r in g up
びりびり (paper, th in clo th s, etc.),
e.g. biribiri yaburu
bishobisho drip, so a k to th e sk in , e.g.
びしょびしょ bishobisho ni nureru {naru)
boribon m u n ch , cru n ch , e.g. (scra tch o n eself) v io le n tly ,
ぼりぼり boribori taberu e.g . boribori kaku
Onomatopoeic Words 203
Onomatopoeic Used as g is e ig o Used as g ita ig o

bo ro b o ro cr u m b le in to d ecay, e.g.
ぽろぽろ b oroboro n i n a r u
b o ta b o ta drip drip
ぼたぼた
boyaboya ab sen t-m ind ed , e.g. b o y a b o y a
ぼやぼや s h ite ir u
bukubuku bubbling fa t, baggy, e.g. bukubuku
ぶくぶく f u t o t t e ir u
bu rabu ra d a n g lin g , e.g. b u r a b u r a s a g a -
ぶらぶら r u at leisu re, e.g. b u r a b u r a
su ru
b u ru b u r u sh a k in g , e.g. b u r u b u r u f u r u -
ぶるぶる eru
buyobuyo so ft and flabby, e.g. b u y o b u y o
ぶよぶよ su ru
c h a k ic h a k i efficien t, e.g. c h a k ic h a k i s u r u
ちゃきちゃき
chanchan reg u la rly , prom ptly, e.g.
ちゃんちゃん ch an ch an h a ra u
c h in c h in b o ilin g so u n d of hot
ちんちん w ater, e.g. c h in c h in
w aku
ch okoch oko to d d lin g w alk , e.g. ch okoch oko
ちょこちょこ aru ku
dabudabu lo o se g a rm en t, e.g. d a b u d a b u
だぶだぶ da
d o k id o k i sou n d of h eart throb- n ervou s, e.g. d o k id o k i s u r u
どぎどぎ b in g
dondon boom boom b oom w a lk b risk ly, e.g. dondon
どんどん (soun d of a drum ) a ru k u
b a n g b an g (soun d of
a gu n )
doyadoya sou nd of m a n y fo o t
どやどや step s, e.g . d o y a d o y a
n a it te k u r u
fu fu sou nd of hard breath- b ein g ex h a u sted , w o rk in g
ふうふう in g or b lo w in g hard, e.g. f u f u iu {da)
204 Onomatopoeic Words

fu r afu ra being dizzy, Demg exhausted,
ふらふら e.g. f u r a f u r a s u r u
g cibu gabu drink liquid thirstily
がぶがぶ e.g. g a b u g a b u n o m u
g a m ig a m i speak crossly
がみがみ e.g. g a m i g a m i o k o ru
g a ta g a t a rattling noise trembling, e.g. g a ta g a t a f u r u -
がたがた e r u rickety, e.g. g a ta g a t a d a
gayagaya talk noisily
がやがや
g eragera laugh loudly
げらげら
gobogobo sound of gushing water
ごぼごぼ
gubugubu sound of rinsing one’s
ぐぶぐぶ mouth
gungun walk oriskly, e.g. gungun
ぐんぐん a ru k u
g u rn g u ru turn around and around, e.g.
ぐるぐる g u ru g u ru m aw aru
gugu sound of deep sleeping
ぐうぐう sound of hungry
stomach, e.g. / g a
g u g u n a ru
h a k ih a m speak clearly, e.g. h a k ih a k i
はきはき s h ite ir u {h a n a su )
h erah era laugh condescendingly
へw ら^S ら
hokahoka warm, e.g. hokahoka su ru
ほかほか
hyokohyoko unsteady steps, e.g. hyoko
ひょこひょこ h yoko aru k u
h y o ro h y o r o tall and skinny, e.g. h yoro
ひょろひょろ h y o ro s e i g a ta k a i
jir o jir o staring at something, e.g.
じろじろ j i r o j i r o m ir u
jim e jim e damp and humid, e.g. jim e
じめじめ jim e su ru
Onomatopoeic Words

juju sizzlin g sou nd
じゅうじゅう
k a c h ik a c h i sound of tw o hard
かちかち ob jects to u c h in g
kankan sound of b ell b ein g v er y a n gry, e.g. k a n k a n
かんかん o k o ru
stro n g h eat, e.g. k a n k a n h i
g a te r a
k asakasa sou n d of dry objects b e in g v er y dry, e.g. k a s a k a s a
かさかさ to u ch in g su ru
k e fo k e r o n onchalan t, e.g. k e ro k e ro s u r u
けろけろ
k ir a k ir a sh in y , e.g. k ir a k ir a h ik a r u
ぎらぎら
k o ro k o ro round object rolling, e.g.
ころころ k o ro k o ro k o ro g a r u
k o to k o to sound of rap p ing
ことこと
k o ts u k o tsu sou n d of k n o ck in g in du striou s, e.g. k o ts u k o tsu
こつこつ h a ta r a k u
ku chakucha m esse d up, w rin k led up, e.g .
くちゃくちゃ ku chakucha n i m a ru m eru
k y o ro k y o r o g o g g le , e.g. k y o ro k y o r o m i n i
きょろきょろ
m agom ago con fu sed , e.g. m a g o m a g o s u n t
まごまご
m o j im o ji h esita te, e.g. m o j i m o j i s u r u
もじもじ
m onyam onya m u m b le, e.g. m o n y a m o n y a iu
もにゃもにゃ
m ch am cha so ft and stic k y , slim y , e.g.
にちゃにちゃ n ic h a n ic h a s u r u {k u tts u k u )
n ik o n ik o sm ile , e.g. n ik o n ik o w a r a u
にこにこ
m y a n iy a grin , e.g. n iy a n iy a w a r a u
にやにや
206 Onomatopoeic Words
Onomatopoeic Used as giseigo Used as gitaigo

p a c h ip a c h i sou n d o f ap plau se and
ぱちぱち fire cra ck lin g
pasapasa dry, e.g. p a s a p a s a s u r u
ばさばさ
pekopeko h u n g ry sto m a ch , e.g. o n a k a
ぺこぺこ g a p e k o p e k o d a y se r v ile b e
h avior, e.g . p e k o p e k o o ji g i
su ru
perapera fluent in lan g u a g e, e.g. e ig o
ぺらぺら g a p era p era da
p ik a p i k a sn in y , e.g. p ik a p i k a h ik a r u
ぴかぴか
p in p i n v er y h ea lth y , e.g. p in p i n s h ite
ぴんぴん ir u {da)
pokapoka v er y w arm ,
ぽかぽか e.g. p o k a p o k a a ta t a k a i
p o r ip o r i cru n ch cru n ch
ぽりぽり
p oroporo sh ed d in g cop iou s tears, cr u m
ぽろぽろ ble, e.g. p o r o p o r o n a m i d a o
n a g a su
p o ts u p o ts u fa ll in b ig drops little b y little , e.g. p o ts u p o ts u
ぽつぽつ h a n a su
p u r ip u r i b e in g m ad, e.g . p u r i p u r i o k o ru
ぷりぷり
sa ra sa ra sou n d of clear stream , fe e l of d ry and sm o o th touch,
さらさら ru stlin g e.g. s a r a s a r a s h ite ir u
se k a s e k a r e stless, e.g . se k a s e k a s u r u
せかせか {a ru k u )
s h ik u s h ik u cr y so rro w fu lly ,
しくしく e.g. s h ik u s h ik u n a k u
s h im ijim i k een ly , d eep ly, e.g . s h i m i j i m i
しみじみ k a n jt r u
s h in s h m q uiet and cold, e.g . s h in s h in
しんしん to y o g a J u k e r u
s h ito s h ito ra in in g q u ietly, e.g. s h ito s h ito
しとしと am e ga fu ru
Onomatopoeic Words 207

su pasu pa sm ok e, puff, e.g. su p a su p a
すぱすぱ ta b a k o o fu k a s u
s u ta s u ta b risk ly, e.g. s u ta s u ta a r u k u
すたすた
su yasu ya sle ep in g p eacefu lly,
すやすや e.g. s u y a s u y a n e m u r u
te k a te k a brigh t, sh iny,
てかてか e.g. te k a te k a h ik a r u
tobotobo tru d gin gly, e.g. tobotobo a r u k u
とぼとぼ
to n to n sound of k n o ck in g m o v e quickly,
とんとん e.g. to n to n h a s h ir u
w akuwaku b e excited , e.g. m u n e g a
わくわく w ak u w a k u su ru
y o c h iy o c h i to tterin g ly ,
よちよち e.g. y o c h iy o c n t a r u k u
yoroyoro sta g g erin g ly ,
よろよろ e.g. y o r o y o r o a r u k u
yuyu self-com p osed ,
ゆうゆう e.g. y u y u s h ite ir u
zaza sound of p ouring rain
ざあざあ
za k u z a k u jingle, e.g. o k a n e g a
ざくざく zaku zaku a ru
za w a za w a ru stlin g n oisy w ith m o v em en t of
ざわざわ
m any people, e.g. z a w a z a w a
su ru
z u ta z u ta cu t or tear in to shreds,
ずたずた e.g. z u ta z u ta n i k ir u
zu n zu n w ith o u t a m om ent's delay,
ずんずん e.g. z u n z u n s u s u m u
C O N JU N C T IO N S 接続詞くせつぞくし〉
A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, words, phrases,

or clauses. There are two kinds of conjunctions in Japanese: sen
tence-beginning conjunctions and conjunctions between words,
phrases, or clauses.
I. Common sentence-beginning conjunctions (many of them are
a combination of two or more words, and sometimes it is not
easy to recognize them as conjunctions).
a ru iw a or
ある（或 )いは
= m a ta w a
daga が but, however d esu g a is more polite
= desu g a
d a k a r a ヤとt 、 b so, therefore d esu k a ra is more polite
= d esu k a ra
dakedo tiV f ど but dakedo is more colloquial
= dakeredom o than d a k e r e d o m o
d a n o n i すとの、
こ but very colloquial
d a t t a r a ナどっナこら if so d e s h ita r a is more polite
= a e s n ita r a
d a tt e t i って but, yet very colloquial
d e で and so
d e w a で \% well then ja is more colloquial
—j a
d e m o でも but colloquial
h a ta s h ite as expected
果たして
k a k u s h ite in this way literary expression
か (斯）くして
k a ts u かつ moreover literary expression
々の^ ゐ (mo) けれど but
m a ta 又 and, moreover
m a t a w a 又は or
= a ru iw a
m o tto m o however, of course
もっと（
尤）も
Conjunctions 209
加 :0 なお（
尚） lurther
s a r a n i更に lurther literary expression
s a t e さて well
shikar uni however literary expression
しかるに
shikashi but
しか (併）し
shikashinagara however literary expression
しかしながら
shitagatte 從って therefore
shitemiruto then
して見ると
sokatoitte even so
そうかと言って
sokode そこで thereupon, accordingly
somosomo in the first place
そもそも
sonoue その moreover
soredakara therefore, accordingly
それだから
それで therefore, thereupon
soredemo but, even that
それでも
soredewa well then
それでは
soredokoroka far from it
それどころか
sorekara ャれから and then
それも and that
sorenara if so
それなら
知それに besides
soretomo それとも or
sorewasoto by the way
それはそうと
soreyueni so literary expression
それ故に
soshitara and then
そうしたら
210 Conjunctions
s G s h i t e そうして and
= so s h ite
s o s u r u to then, if so
そうすると
so s u r e b a th en
そうすれば
ただ (唯）
only, but
ta d a s h i 低し but literary exp ression
to itte と/言って and y et, but ev e n so
か々かところで by th e w a y
か々on?例ところが but
《とは言え h ow ev er
ts u ite w a in th is con n ection
夕從 m 故に so, th erefo re literary exp ression
夕故よ（依）つて th erefore literary exp ression
I I . しonjunctions between:
1 . Nouns
a. “ and” oyobi R' び，打狀 ⑹ • 並びに， both more
lite ra ry than:
ぬ ⑽ だの See Particles,p. 99
於の^ なり See Particles,p . 120
to と See Particles,p . 134
か知とか See Particles,p . 135
ya や See Particles,p . 138
夕のやら See Particles,p . 139
b. “ or” 又はの 7«.泌0 ある（
或）いは，both more
lite ra ry than 々a か See Particles, p . 110
c. “ b o t h • • • a n d " . ” mo も See Particles, p . 116
2. Adjectives
a. A dj 々你 adj くて See V erb-follow ing Expres
“an d ”
sions, p. 84
dano ャと(〇 See Particles, p . 100
b. “ or” k か See Particles, p . 110
3. Copular nouns
a. “ and” ぬで See Particles, p . 102
b. “ or” 如か See Particles, p . 110
4. Clauses
a. Co-ordinating conjunctions
Conjunctions 211
1 . “and” V 2 See Function of Second Base of the

Verb, pp. 5-6
V て See V erb-follow ing Expressions,
p. 54
V 3 ski V 3 し See V erb-follow ing Expres
sions, p. 74
纪 n. V たり V たり See Verb-follow
ing Expressions, p. 54
2. ^but5* V 3 ga V 3 ^ See Verb-follow ing E x
pressions, p. 62
V 3 keredomo V 3 けれども See Verb-fol-
low ing Expressions, p. 65
3. “or” V 3 如 … V 3 如 V 3 か … V 3 か See Par-
tid e ka, p . 110
Subordinating conjunctions
1 . Conditional verb-endings
a. “if” V 3 to V3 と S e e C onditionals, p.
30
V m V ば See conditionals, p_ 30
Vtara V たら See Conditionals, p.
31
V 3Wflra V なら See Conditionals, pp.
31-32
b. “ even if ” V な漏 V ても See Verb-fol-
lowing Expressions, p. 57
c. “ if not” V ⑽ か V ないと See Verb-fol
此卿 V なかったら See Verb-fol-
V なければ See V erb-follow
ing Expressions, p. 42
似^ V ないなら See Verb-fol-
b. “ even if not” 如か㈣ V なくても
See Verb-follow ing Expressions, p.
43
2. P a r tic le s as co n ju n ctio n s
a. “ because• • • ’’ V 3 々ara V 3 から See
Verb-follow ing Expressions, p. 64
212 Conjunctions
V 3 n o de V 3 ので See V erb-follow ing

Expressions, p. 72
b. “ in order t o . . . ” V 3 助 V 3 のに See
V erb-follow ing Expressions, p. 73
c. "a lth o u g h .. . n V 3 n o n i V 3 のに See
V erb-follow ing Expressions, p. 73
d. “while ••• ’’ V2 節卵 ra V2 ながら
See V erb-follow ing Expressions, pp.
49-50
e. “ t h a n . " ” V 3 3W / V 3 より See Verb
fo llo w in g Expressions, p. 81
3. Nouns used as conjunctions
a. “ w hile … ” V 3 a/ ぬ [m.] V 3 間 See Verb
b. “ after … Vto a か [ ぬ ] V た後 See Verb-
c. ubefore n V 3 mae [n i] V 3前 See Verb
d. “ in order t o ••• ” V 3 t o 似 [m.] V 3 ため（為）
See V erb-follow ing Expressions,
p. 74
e. “ w h e n . . . ” V 3 [m ] V 3 時 See Verb
INTERJECTIONS
感動詞くかんどうし> ，間投詞くかんとうし>
An interjection is an independent word which expresses such

things as surprise, lamentation or address. Interjections become
neither subject nor predicate, and never modify other words. Some
of the common interjections are as follows:
I. Surprise W あつ a m あらの ^ : おや桃泛まあ
e.g. Ara, shibaraku deshita wa n e . あら，しば
( 暫）らくでしたわね • “Wel l ,I haven’t seen
you for a long time!”
II. D istr e ss なああ 6 おう：^ rの^ ^ やれやれの ^ の ^ おやおや
e.g. A y zannen deshita n e . ああ，残念でしたね .
“Ah, it was too bad.”
III. Address 0/ おい々狀 a こら々 o r e これ：v似 • やい
e.g. Oiy sonna koto wa suru n a . おい , そんな事
はするな • “Hey, don’t do such a thing!”
氺IV. A n s w e r ん2/ はい说いいえぞええ（み似• is more polite th an め
e.g. Ano hon 0 yomimashita ka. hai, yomimashita.
あの本を読みましたか. はぃ，読みました.
“Did you read that book?” “Yes, I read it.”
V. Doubt h a tm て hatena て ts:
e.g. Hate， are 0 doko ni oita ka n a . はて，あれ
をどこ（何処）においたかな . “Let me see,
where did I put it r”
VI. Resolving doubt ゐなるほど (成程）
e.g. Naruhodo， yoku w akarim ashita. なるほど，
よくわか (分）りました . “Oh, I see, I got
it (understood it well).”
VII. Admiration he へ一 fUmu ふ一む
* C are sh o u ld b e ta k e n w h en o n e a n sw e rs a n e g a tiv ely p o sed q u es
tio n , b e c a u se h a i Ky e s }, and tie *^0** are reversed .
e.g. ⑽ • 明日いらっしゃいませんか.
“Won’t you go tomorrow ?”
が!zf, . はい，参りません . “ N 0， I w o n ’t g o .”
瓜，激《> /所咖 / • いいえ，参ります . “Y es, I’ll g o .”
214 Interjections
e.g. He, taishita mono desu n e . へ一，大し

たものですね • “ W ell, th a t is something!”
V III. U rging sora セら hora
ほら etc.
e.g. Sora, sonna n i bonyari shite nai d e . . .
そら，そんなにぼんやりしてないで ...
“ There, don’t be so absent-minded.”
FORMAL LEVEL OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
敬語 < けいご>
LEVELS OF FO R M A LITY OF VERBS
One of the im portant aspects of Japanese verbs is the level of

form ality. That is, the same verb can be presented in various
ending forms, even though the meaning is EXAC TLY TH E SAME.
These different endings are used on different occasions. For ex
ample, w ritte n Japanese and spoken Japanese have, more often than
not, different endings. Moreover, even in w ritte n Japanese, several
different endings can be found according to the style of w ritin g
chosen by the author. The verb endings ordinarily found in most
books, articles, and lectures are very like ly not found in children’s
stories, because these verb endings are the more lite ra ry endings
(dictionary form endings), w hile those in children's stories are the
colloquial endings (2nd base verb form plus the suffix m asu , or the
desu form of the copula).
In spoken Japanese, too, verb form s often change depending upon
placement w ith in the sentence: whether they appear in the middle
or at the end of the sentence; whether the speaker is superior, in
ferior, or equal, to the listener according to Japanese tradition; or,
frequently, whether the speaker and listener are male or female.
Thus the array of endings is complex, especially if we include
verbs plus sentence-ending particles. It is not necessary to be
fa m ilia r w ith a ll these endings, but one should fam iliarize oneself
w ith the common endings presented in I, II and III below.
For convenience, endings are divided roughly into fo u r categories
in this book:
I. Inform al level (dictionary form or 3rd base [V^fl fo r the per
fective tense] of the verb and adjective)
T his is the verb-ending form most commonly used in
w ritte n Japanese, but in spoken Japanese, too, it appears
frequently in the middle of the sentence, followed by a noun
which it modifies, or w ith conjunctions,
e.g. Sakubun o k a k u . 作文を書く • “ I w rite a composition.”
(sentence-ending)
216 Formal Level of Words and Expressions
Nani ka taberu mono ga arimasu ka . 何か食べるもの

がありますか • “ Is there anything to eat?” （ noun
modifier)
Igirisu ni wa itta keredomo, Furansu n i wa ikimasen
d e s h ita . イギリスには行ったけれども，フランスには
行きませんでした• （ before a conjunction) “ I went to
England, but I did not go to France.”
As a verb-ending form , this level is also used in conver
sations among men, but not among women, since it sounds
very rough.
e.g. Ashita iku ka . 明日行くか • “ W ill you go tomorrow?”
(sentence ending.)
A, ashita i k u . ああ，明日行く . “ Yeah, I ’ll go tom or
row.” (sentence ending)
II.
Polite level (2nd base verb plus m asu [_mashita], dictionary
form of adjectives plus desu \_deshita\ and copula desu \_de-
s h ita ]y as sentence ending)
This is the form most commonly used in spoken Japanese.
However, perhaps because this ending sounds softer than
the dictionary form , children's stories are often w ritte n in
this form rather than in inform al endings.
e.g. W atakushi wa kyo gakko ni i k i m a s u . 私は今日学
校に行きます • “ I am going to school today.”
M ukashi mukashi ojnsan to obasan ga arim ashita.
昔々おじいさんとおばあさんがありました. “ Long
long ago there lived an old man and an old
woman.” In ta iry tales, it is common to use the
verb a rim ash ita fo r people who lived.
III. Form al level
T his is the most form al level of speech. The details
of the use of this level are found in the succeeding
pages, pp. 216-30.
IV. Very fa m ilia r level
These endings are very colloquial and need not be
learned in the beginning. However, when at the stage of
reading modern Japanese fiction, or when visitin g Japan,
one w ill begin to meet them frequently, and should be
able to recognize them. Often, from the tone of the
endings, the reader (listener) can determine such things as
the age, sex, and social class of the speaker.
Formal Level of Words and Expressions 217
e.g. Women's speech

Kyo wa ik a n a i w a . 今日は行かないわ • “ I won’t
go today.”
Kino itta no [ y o ] . 昨日行ったの • “ I went yester-
day.”
Ashita kite n e . 明日来てね • “ Please come tomor-
row, OK?” etc.
Men’s speech
Ashita wa k itto jyomw 外 . 明日はきっと読むよ .
“ I ’ll read it tom orrow fo r sure.”
Kore o 似 n / 狀これをするね • “ I ’ll do it, OK?”
etc.
HONORIFIC AND HUM BLE VERB FORMS

Form al speech w hich requires honorific and humble verbs (nouns,
adjectives, etc.) is one of the most characteristic features of the
Japanese language. It is therefore im perative to learn both the
honorific and humble verb form s, if one wishes to read and speak
proper Japanese fluently.
I. H onorific Forms Borrowed from Other Verb Forms
1 . Passive voice form (more often used by men than
women)
a. Vowel-stem verbs { S r a r e r u ) Sensei ga okashi
o t a b e r a r e m a s h it a .先生がお菓子を食べられまし
た . “ The teacher ate a cake.”
b. Consonant-stem verbs (V i + reru ) Anata ga sore
o ka karem a sh ita ka . あなたがそれを書かれまし
たか • “ Did you w rite it? ”
c. Irre g u la r verbs
s u r u — sa reru Mo ano oshigoto o sa rem ash ita
k a . もうあのお仕事をされましたか. “ Have
you done tnat w ork already?”
k u r u — korareru M yonichi mata koko e korare-
桃仍汉 ka• 明日又ここへ来られますか . “Ar e
you coming back here again tom orrow r”
Note: (iAshita^ is read ^mydnichV' to keep it in harmony
with the honorific verb.
2. Causative-passive form
Formal Level of Words and Expressions
a. Vowel-stem verb ( y i+ s a s e r a r e r u ) Tenno-Heika

ga sore o tsu zu k e sa se ra re ta . 天皇陛下がそれを
続けさせられた . “ The Emperor deigned to con
tinue it.”
b. Consonant-stem (V i+ se ra reru ) Denka ga kono
hon o k a k a se ra reta . 殿下がこの本を書かせられ
た . “ His Highness wrote this book.”
c. Irre g u la r verbs
su ru —sa se ra re ru Kotaishi ga Yoroppa ni ryoko
sa se ra re ta . 皇太子がヨーロッパに旅行させられ
た. “ The Crown Prince traveled to Europe.”
k u ru —k o sa se ra re ru Kotaishi Hidenka mo gois-
sho ni hikojo made k o sa se ra re ta , 皇太子妃殿
下も御一緒に飛行場まで来させられた. “ The
しrown Princess came to the airport, also.”
Note: This is the Highest form of honorific. It is seldom
used now, because the Japanese language has be
come much more informal in recent years. But
one might come across these expressions in read
ing articles written before World War II.
Regular H onorific and Humble Forms
1 . H onorific {〇 V 2 n i n a ru ) O su w a ri n i n a rim a se n ka.
お坐りになりませんか . “ Won’t you s it down?”
2. Humble fô V2 su ru ) Kino denwa o okake sh im a sh ita .
昨日電話をおかけしました . “ I called you yesterday.”
Humble {〇 V 2 ita su ) Sakujitsu odenwa o okake ita sh i-
m a sh ita . (more polite ) 昨日お電話をおかけ致しまし
た . “ I called you yesterday.”
Note: Special care should be taken when using this humble
iorm, because its use is limited to occasions when the
speaker’s action involves the listener. So such a sentence
as WatakusJu ga osuwari itashimasu，私がお坐 ^ 致します .
does not make any sense in Japanese, even though the
speaker who is not used to the correct humble form
might think he/she is saying, “I will sit down,” in a
polite humble form.
There are more form al honorific and humble form s, but
they are om itted in this section, since they are not used
as commonly as the ones listed, (e.g. o V 2 asobasu fo r
honorific, 0 V 2 m d sh ia g e ru fo r humble, etc.)
Formal Level of Words and Expressions 219
Irregular Honorific and Humble Verb Forms

Some of the most common verbs have irregular hon
orific and humble forms, as w ell as regular honorific
and humble forms. These irregular form s are shown in
the next pages.
Note: Regular (including passive) and irregular honorific verb forms
are mostly used interchangeably, that is, one can use which
ever the form one prefers. However, in the Tokyo area it
may be that the use of the honorific forms made from passive
verbs is more often preferred by men, while irregular forms
by women.
e.g. Itsu Sendai e 如 ka? “When are you going
to Sendai?” may carry a more masculine tone th a n :
Itsu Sendai e irasshaimasu ka?
220 Honorific and Humble Verb Forms
IRREGULAR HONORIFIC AND HUM BLE VERB FORMS

IRREGULAR
Honorific Humble
Verb
a g e ru 上げる sash iag eru 差し上げる

“to give”
aru ある “to be” gozaimasu (neuter)
“to have” ございます
au 会う “to meet” ome ni kakaru

お目にかかる
da だ “to be” -copula de irassharu de gozaimasu

de a r u であるでいらっしゃる
(kaze o) hiku (okaze o) mesu

ぉ風邪を召す
“to catch a cold”
iku 行く “to go” ir a s s h a r u いらっしゃる m a ir u 参る
iru いる “to be” ira s s h a ru いらっしゃる o r u おる
o ra re ru おられる
oide ni naru
おいでになる
iu 言う “to say” ossharu m 5 s u 申す

おっしゃる m 6 sh iag eru 申し上げる
k a r ir u 借りる haishaku suru
“to borrow”
haishaku itasu
kiku 聞く “to hear” ukagau 伺 5

“to ask” oukagai suru
お伺いする
oukagai itasu
お伺い致す
kiru 着る “to wear” omeshi ni naru

お召しになる
kuru 来る “to come” ir a s s h a r u いらっしゃる m a ir u 参る

oide ni naru
おいでになる
okoshi ni naru
おこしになる
Honorific and Humble Verb Forms 221
REGULAR
Honorific 1 Honorific 2 Humble
(o V2 suru)
(Passive form) {〇 V2 ni naru) (o V2 itasu)
a g e ra re ru 上げられる oage ni naru oage s u r u お上げする

お上げになる oage it a s u お上げ致す
oari ni naru
おありになる
oari d a おありだ
a w a re ru 会われる oai ni naru oai s u r u お会いする

お会いになる oai i t a s u お会い致す
(okaze o) hikareru (okaze o) oliiki ni naru

お風邪をひかれるお風邪をおひきになる
ik a re ru 行かれる
ir a r e r u いられる
iw a re ru 言われる
k a rir a r e r u 借りられる okari ni naru okari s u r u お借りする

okari it a s u お借り致す
k ik a re ru 聞かれる okiki ni naru
お聞きになる
okiki s u r u お聞きする
okiki it a s u ぉ _ き致す
k ir a r e r u 着られる
k o ra re ru 来られる
222 Honorific and Humble Verb Forms
IRREGULAR
Verb Honorific Humble
u k a g a u 伺う oukagai s u r u お伺いする
“to go calling” oukagai itasu お伺い致す
oukagai moshiageru
a g a ru 上がる
miru 見る “to see” goran ni naru haiken s u r u 拝見する
haiken itasu _ 見致す
m is e ru 見せる ome ni kakeru
“to show” お目にかける
neru 寝る “to sleep” oyasumi ni naru

お休みになる
nomu 飲む “to drink” oagari ni naru itadaku 戴く

おあがりになる
omou 思う “to think” z o n jiru 存じる
omotte i r u 思っている omotte o r u 思っておる
“to be thinking”
shinu 死ぬ “to die” okakure ni naru
お隠れになる
onakunari ni naru
shiru 知る “to know” * zo n jiru 存じる

zo n jiag eru 存じ上げる
shitte i r u 知っている gozonji d a 御存じだ zonjite o r u 存じておる
“to know,” “to be gozonji de irassharu shitte o r u 知っておる
acquainted with” 御存じでいらっしゃる zonjiagete oru
shitte irassharu
知っていらっしゃる
suru する “to do” n a s a ru なさる ita s u 致す

ta b e r u 食べる meshiag 弓r u 召し上がる itadaku 戴く
“to eat” oagari ni naru
おあがりになる
tazuneru
“to ask” 尋ねる u k a g a u 伺ラ
“to visit” 訪ねる
(toshi o) t o r u 年をとる (otoshi o) mesu
“to become older”
* used only in negative form (See the verb shiruy p .107)
e.g. Zonjimasen • 存じません • “I don’t know.”
Zonjiagemasen• 存じ上げません . “I don’t know.”
Honorific and Humble Verb Forms 223
REGULAR
Honorific 1 Honorific 2 Humble
V2 ni naru) (o V2 suru)
(Passive form) {〇
(o V2 itasu)
m ira re ru 見られる
m iserareru 見せられる omise ni naru omise s u r u お見せする

お見せになる omise ita s u お竟せ画:す
y asum areru 休まれる
n o m a re ru 飲まれる onomi ni naru
お飲みになる
om ow areru 思われる omoi ni naru

お思いになる
omoi ni natte iru

お思いになっている
sh in a re ru 死なれる
s a r e r u される
ta b e ra re ru 食べられる otabe ni naru
お食べになる
tazunerareru otazune ni naru otazune suru
(otoshi o) torareru (otoshi) o otori ni naru

お年をとられるお年をおとりになる
224 Formal Level of Adjectives
FO RM AL LEVEL OF ADJECTIVES
The combination of an adjective plus gozaim asu is the form al
level of the adjectives. The stems of the adjectives make the fo l
low ing change before g o zaim asu,
I. Adjective, stem ending in o : lengthen of and add gozaim asu.
Informal level
or diet, form Stem Polite level Formal level
om oshiroi om osniro O m o sh iro i desu. O m osh iro
gozaim asu .
面白い面白面白いです面白うございます.
“ interesting” “ I t is interesting. »
y o i (it) yo yo (ii) desu. Y o g ozaim asu.
よい（
いい）上いい) です.
よい（ようございます.
“ good” “ I t is good.”
Note: Exception in this category_ Adjective, ending with oi: simply

add gozaimasu directly after the stem o.
oi 0 O i desu. 0 gozaim asu .
多い多多いです多ございます.
“ many” “ There are many.”
to i to T o i desu. {o)To g ozaim asu.
遠い遠遠いです. (お ) 遠ございます .
“fa r” “ It is fa r away.”
II. Adjective, stem ending in a\ change a to dy and add gozai-
m asu.
tak ai taka T a k a i desu. {〇) T ako g ozaim asu.
高い高高いです. (お ) 高うございます .
“ high” “ It is high.”
“ expensive’ “ It is expensive.’>>
na g ai naga N a g a i desu. {o)Nago g ozaim asu.
長い長長いです. (お ) 長うございます .
“ long” “ I t is long.”
III. Adjective, stem ending in u : lengthen u, and add gozaim asu.
y a su i yasu Y a s u i desu. {〇)^ a su gozaim asu.
安い安安いです. (お ) 安うございます .
“ cheap” “ It is cheap•”
Formal Level of Some Common Expressions 225
sa m u i sa m u S a m u i desu. {o)Sam u
寒い寒寒いです. gozaimasu.
“ cold” “ It is cold.” お)寒うございます.
（
IV . Adjective, stem ending in i\ change i to u f and add g o za i

m asu .
m u zu k a sh u m u zu k a sh i M u zu k a sh u {o)M u zu kash u
desu. g o za im a su .
難しい難し難しいです. ( お )難しゅうござい
“ d iffic u lt” “ It is d ifficu lt.” ます.
ya sa sh u y a s as h i Y a sa sh ii desu. (o) Y asash u
g o za im a su .
易 (優）しい易 (優）し易 (優）しいです . (お ) 易 (優）しゅうご
“ easy” “ It is easy.” ざいます.
“ gentle” “ She is gentle.”
Note: Exception in this category:
okii oki Okii desu. Okyu gozaimasu.
大きい大き大きいです，大きゆうございます .
“It is big.“ {y is inserted between
k and u)
FORM AL LEVEL OF SOME COMMON EXPRESSIONS

Polite Formal English equivalent
S u m im a sen M d sh iw a k e g o za im a sen . I am sorry.
済みません. 申し訳ございません.
ネ S u m im a sen 冬 M d sh iw a k e g o za im a se n I am sorry.
aesh ita. d esh ita . I was sorry.
済みませんでした. 申し訳ございませんでした.
S u m im a sen . O so re m m a su . Excuse me.
済みません. 恐れ入ります.
A r ig a to . A r ig a to g o za im a su , Ih a n k you.
有難う. 有難うございます.
^ A rig a to g o za im a sn ita .
有難うございました.
A r ig a to zo n jim a su . Thank you.
有難う存じます .*
* The perfective forms (^-forms) are used when the action for which one
is apologizing, thanking, or congratulating, occurred in the past.
226 Three Levels of Imperative
^ A rig a to zo n jim a sh ita .

有難う存じました.
O soreirim asu . Thank you.
恐れ入ります. I am much obliged.
^ O so rein m a sh ita .
恐れ入りました.
O m ed eto. O m ed etd gozaim asu . Congratulations.
おめでとう. おめでとうございます.
ネO m ed etd g ozaim ashita .
おめでとうございました.
O m ed etd zo n jim a su . Congratulations.
おめでとう存じます.
^ O m edetd zo n jim a sh ita .
おめでとう存じました.
* The perfective forms (/a-forms) are used when the action for which one
is apologizing, thanking, or congratulating occurred in the past.
THREE LEVELS OF IM PER ATIVE

Levels Example English equivalent
Inform al V 5 (im perative) K a ke. W rite!
see p. 6 書け.
Vte k u re K a ite kure. W rite (it) fo r me.
書いてくれ.
The above two form s are very abrupt, so their use should be avoided.
Polite V 2 na sa i K a k in a sa i. W rite.
書きなさい.
o V 2 nasai 0 kakin asai. W rite.
お書きなさい.
Vte ku d asa i K a ite ku d asa i. Please w rite.
書いて下さい.
Form al o V 2 ku d asa i O k a k i kud asai. Please w rite.
お書き下さい.
o V 2 kud asaim ase O k a k i kudasai- Please w rite.
m ase.
お書き下さいませ.
The above examples are the most common im perative forms.
There are several other form s, some more inform al, and others
more form al.
Honorific Noun-prefixes, o and go 227
HONORIFIC NOUN-PREFIXES, O AND GO
There are two honorific prefixes used with nouns, o and go. Be
cause both of them are often written with the same uhmese charac
ter, ^JJ, one has to establish which reading is correct for each case.
Fortunately, however, it seems that in recent years o is more often
written with hira g an a お， while 御 is still used for 卵 . There is
no definite rule governing when a noun takes o and when a noun
takes go as an honorific prefix, except that words which originate
from Chinese may more often take go, while Japanese words may
usually take o. It should probably be mentioned briefly that the
character ® is sometimes read on, m i, or gyo. These are also
honorific prefixes, but they are much less common than o or go
(e.g• ⑽ ；m• 御身 “your body,” 々a服 • 洲神の御心 “God’s
will,” 幻收 • 御意 ‘*your wishes,” etc.).
The function of the honorific prefix is roughly divided into the
following categories:
1 . Idiomatic—Attached to some nouns when they sound more
idiomatic if they are used with o or go. In this
case these prefixes do not signify any particular
politeness.
e.g• 辟み ⑽ ごはん (御飯） “cooked rice,” “meal,”
加ん 2 お茶 “tea”
2. Respect for others—Attached when one talks about the ob

jects or actions of others in order to show
a feeling of respect,
e . g . ど仍ゐwy/衫御主人 “your husband”
ゴa お体 “your body”
3. Politeness—Attached when one wants to show politeness in

formal speech. This prefix is often excessively
used by some women, particularly in the Tokyo
area, but too much use of this prefix could sound
affected. In ladies’ conversation, it may not De
uncommon to hear ohitotsu, o fu ta tsu , etc., for
“one” and “two.” Even more extreme examples
are op an or okoht for such foreign words as
bread or coffee. Also, in high-class Japanese inns,
one may hear the maids use these honorific pre
fixes when they speak to the customers, because
228 Nouns with Honorific Prefixes o or go
they are trained to be very polite to them.

One should also remember that an honorific word can im ply re
spect in one instance, and politeness in another. Therefore, one
has to decide from the context which meaning is intended in each
case. That is, if the speaker is talking about the object or action
of others, the honorific prefix is very like ly intended to show respect,
but if the prefix is used fo r the speaker’s action, it is to show
politeness in form al speech.
e.g. Gokydryoku ita s h im a s u .御協力致します • “ I ’ll cooperate.”
—politeness
onegai itashimasu• 御協力お願い致します • “ We’ll
request your (honorable) cooperation.” 一 respect
The follow ing is a sample lis t of nouns which often appear w ith
honorific prefixes. Honorific prefixes are often combined w ith
honorific and humble verb endings to raise the level of form ality.
NOUNS W ITH HONORIFIC PREFIXES O OR GO
Function of
Noun Meaning Honorific form honorinc
anshin peace of mind goanshin 御安心 respect
benkyd study obenkyo お勉強 respect
or
gobenkyo 御勉強
bon tray obon お盆 idiom atic
bon Festival of the Dead obon お盆 idiom atic
byoki sickness gobydhi 御病気 respect
cha tea ocha お茶 idiom atic
daiji precious odaiji お大事 respect
denwa telephone odenwa お電話 politeness
enryo restraint goenryo 御遠慮 respect
genki good health ogenki お元気 respect
mesm {han) cooked rice gohan 御飯 idiom atic
hima leisure hours onima お暇 respect
hon book go hon 御本 respect
iken opinion goiken 御意見 respect
jikan tim e ojikan お時間 respect
kage patronage okage お陰 idiomatic
Nouns of Time in Formal Speech 229
Function 〇1
Noun Meaning Honorific form honormc
kanem ochi rich person okanem ochi お金持 idiom atic/
politeness
karada body okarada お体 respect
kashi cake okashi お菓子 laiomatic
keiko lesson okeiko お稽古 politeness
kekkon marriage gokekkon 御結婚 respect
kenkyu research gokenkyu 御研究 respect
kom e uncooked rice okome お米 idiomatic
ko i favor gokoi 御好意 respect
kyaku customer, guest okyaku(san) お客（さん）idiom atic
m anzoku satisfaction gom anzoku 御満足 respect
m iyage present, souvenir om iyage お土産 idiomatic
m izu water om izu お水 idiomatic
on debt of gratitude goon 御恩 respect
to a superior Mil
rika i understanding gonnai 御理解 respect 1111
ryoko travel goryoko 御旅行 respect
ryoshin parents gory 6shin 御両親 respect
shigoto work oshigoto お仕事 respect _1丨
1
sh in p a i w orry goshin pai 御心配 respect
sh o k u ji meal oshokuji お食事 politeness/ L||
•:丨
idiomatic _
，丨
s h u jin husband g o sh u jin 御主人 respect

taku house, fam ily otaku お宅 respect
tein ei politeness gotein ei 御丁寧 respect
tom odachi friend otom odachi お友達 : politeness
yakusoku promise oyakusoku お約束 politeness
yushoku supper oyiishoku お夕食 politeness
or
goyushoku 御夕食
NOUNS OF TIM E IN FORMAL SPEECH
Some very commonly used nouns of time, such as kyo and ashitay
have more form al equivalents. The follow ing is a short list of
these words w ith examples showing how they are used.
230 Nouns of Time in Formal Speech
English Colloquial More formal Example

today kyo h o n jits u K y o wa ii tenki d e s u . 今日
今日本日はいい天気です . “ I t ’s fine
ko n n ich i weather today.”
今日 H o n jits u wa 11 otenki de
gozaim asu.本日はいいお天
気でございます . “ I t ’s fine
weather today.”
tomorrow asnita m y o n ich i ZsAzYa ikim asu • 明日行きま
す . ‘‘I ’ll go tom orrow.”
M y o n ich i m a irim a s u . 明日參
ります • “ I ’ll go tom orrow.”
yesterday kin d s a k u jits u K in o wa isogashii deshita.
昨日昨日昨日は忙しいでした • “ I was
busy yesterday.”
S a k n jits u wa isogashii gozai-
m a s h ita . 昨日は忙しゅうご
ざいました. “ I was busy
yesterday.”
this year kotoshi kon nen K o to sh i wa ame ga oi desu.
今年は雨が多いです. “ We
ho n n en have had lots of rain this
year.”
H o n n en wa ame ga 6 gozai
masu. 本年は雨が多ござい
ます • “ We have had lots
of rain this year.”
last year kyonen sa ku n en K y o n en Nihon ni ikim ashita.
去年日本に行きました. “I
went to Japan last year.”
S a k u n e n Nihon ni mairima-
shita• 昨年日本に参りました .
“ I went to Japan last year.”
this tim e kondo kono tabi K o n d o wa hikoki de kima-
or s h ita . 今度は飛行機で来まし
next tim e た . “ This tim e I came by
depending on plane.”
the case K o n o tabi wa hikoki de mai-
r im a s h ita . この度は飛行機
で参りました. “ Tiiis tim e
I came by plane.”
Extremely Colloquial Expressions 231
tim e toki o ri or A n o to k i wa arigato gozai-

時折 mashita . あの時は有難うご
setsu ざいました • “ Thank you for
節 your kindness at that tim e.”
A n o o ri wa arigato zonjima-
shita •あの折は有難う存じま
した . ‘‘Thank you fo r your
kindness at that tim e.”
Note: When one uses formal time words, it is more common to use formal
verb and adjective endings also, as shown above.
EXTREM ELY COLLOQUIAL EXPRESSIONS
The follow ing expressions m ight be called “ extremely colloquial.”

They often contain contractions and ellipses, and are based on the
spoken language. Because their number is countless, lib e rty has
been taken to include only a few examples, which may serve as
suggestions in dealing w ith sim ilar expressions.
aitsu あ \ヽつ = a r e ， ano yatsu A its u wa honto n i baka da n a . あ I、
つは本当に馬鹿だな• “ That guy is really stupid.”
0ぴ 0 ありゃ /to / w⑽ ’ ゴ似？ありゃ一体何だい .
“ W hat on earth is it? ”
arya s h in a i ありや b な、、 = a r i wa s h in a i= n a i (emphatic) N ih o n
hodo konde iru tokoro wa ary a s h i n a i . 日本程混んでいる所はあり
ゃしない . “ There is no country which is more crowded than
Japan:
cha ちゃ = t e wa Itch a ikem asen y o . 行っちゃいけませんよ• “ You
mustn’t go, you know.”
ch au ちゃう = t e sh im a u K y d w aru i koto M s h ic h a t t a .今日悪い
事しちゃった • “ I did a bad thing today.”
Note: In colloquial speech, particles are often omitted. C hau is more
often used by women.
ch im a u ち玄う = t e sh im a u S h in k e is u ija k u n i n a tch im a i so da.
神経衰弱になっちまいそうだ • 1 f e e l a s 辻 1 am g〇ing t0 have a
nervous breakdown•，’ ch im a u is more often used by men.
d a i f i \ 、 = d e s u ka K o re n a n ’ d a i . これ何だい • “ W hat is this?”
datte tiって
1. = d e atte m o = d e m o Ikura binbd datte anna k ita n a i u ch i ft;
232 Extremely Colloquial Expressions
sumanakutemo yosaso na mon’ da. いくら貧乏だってあんな

汚ぃ家に住まなくてもよさそうなもんだ. “ Even if they are
poor, it seems they don’t have to live in such a d irty house.”
2. =da to (iu) M m ’ ゴa t o ? 何だって • “ W hat did you say?”
j a じゃ = ぬ如 0 從フ ' a 衫az• • そうじゃない • “ I t ’s not that.”
koitsu こ、ヽつ =kore Koitsu wa yokunai na• こ '^、
つは X くすs:い 'ts:.
“ This is no good.”
norya こ ^) ゃ =kom wa Korya komatta koto ni natta . こりゃ困っ
たことになった • “ T his turned out to be a lot of trouble.”
n’ =no Doko e iku rC deshd. 何処へ行くんでしょう • “ I wonder
where he is going.”
nakucha 化くちゃ =nakute wa =nakereba Konna muzukashii mondai
wa anta de nakucha tokenai deshd. こんな難しい問題はあんたでな
くちゃ解けないでしょう . “ I suppose you’re the only one who can
solve such a difhcu lt problem.”
wawふ？なんど =nanka=nado Sorma hon nando yomu no mo tya
d a . そんな本なんど読むのもいやだ . “ I would hate to read such a
book.”
nya K ゃ =ni wa Ano ko nya k o m a tta . あの子にゃ困った . “ I had
so much trouble w ith that kid.”
soitsu そいっ =sore Soitsu wa okashiL そいつはおかしい• “That’s
funny.”
sor夕a そりゃ =sore wa Sorya bakagete iru na• そりゃ馬鹿 }げて'い
るな . “ T h a t’s idiotic.”
似すりゃ =sureba Ko surya yoku naru daro. こうすりゃよく
なるだろう . “ I f you do this, it ’ll probably improve.”
tatte ナこって =te mo Boku ga nani o shitatte kamawanai daro.
僕が何をしたって構わないだろう . “ No m atter w hat I do, you don’t
care, do you?”
te ya shinai てやナs：い =te [wa] inai Jibun no koto shika kan-
gaete ya shinau 自分のことしか考えてやしない . “ He thinks of
nothing but Himself.”
tottem o とっても =totemo Tottemo tsukareta wa, とっても疲れた
わ . “ I am so tired.”
yappari やっぱり =yappashi=yahari Yappari kite yokatta. やっ
ぱり来てよかった • “ As I thought, it was a good th ing that I came.”
A P P E N D IX I
C O U N T IN G S Y S T E M
NUMBERS 数詞
There are tw o ways of counting in Japanese: one is the native

Japanese system w hich goes only as fa r as ten, and the other is
borrowed from the Chinese and w ill go as high as one chooses.
Original Japanese counting system

Used when 1 . counting objects by the piece.
2. counting a person's age (equivalent to is-saif ni-
sai， etc. [see p. 239], but is-saif ni-sai sound
more form al than hitotsu, futatsu).
hitotsu 一つ one muttsu 六つ six
futatsu 二っ two nanatsu 七つ seven 11
mittsu 三っ three yattsu 八つ eight _U
yottsu 四っ fo ur kokonotsu 九つ nine
itsutsu 五つ five to 十 ten
Hatachi tw enty— hatachi is used fo r a person's age,

_111111
^tw enty vears old,n equivalent to nijus-sai. 1111111
System borrowed from the Chinese •iin.iil
八九十十十十十
ichi 一 one hachi eight

ni ~~*. two ku {kyii) nine
san three ju ten
ski 四 fo u r ju-icm eleven
go 五 five ju-ni twelve
roku 六 six ju-san thirteen
shicm 七 seven ju-shi fourteen, etc.
niju 二十 tw enty goju 五十 fifty

mju-ichi 二十一 twenty-one rokuju 六十 sixty
ni ju-ni 二十二 tw enty-tw o shicmjU 七十 seventy
sanju 三十 th irty hachiju 八十 eighty
yonju 四十 fo rty kyuju 九十 ninety
*hyaku 百 one hundred
* Japanese always omit one in one hundred: never ic h i-h y a k u t but always
just h y a k u .
234 Counting System
hyaku-ichi~S— one hundred nisen 二千tw o thousand

one sanzen HTthree thousand
hyaku-jii 百十 one hundred yonsen 四千 fo u r thousand
ten gosen 五千 nve thousand
nihyaku 二百 two hundred rokusen six tnousand
sanbyaku 三百 three hundred nanasen - tf seven thousand
yonhyaku 四百 fo ur hundred hassen eight thousand
gohyaku 五百 five hundred kyusen 九千 nine thousand
roppyaku 六百 six hundred ichiman 一万 ten thousand
nanahyaku -fg * seven hundred 百万 one m illion
happyaku eight hundred 林 ichioku — 億 one hundred
kyuhyaku ji~S nine hundred itcho 一 $匕 m illion
^sen (or issen) ^F* one thousand one trillio n
sen-kyaku one thousand
one hundred
O R D IN A L NUMBERS
first ichi-oan aai-ichi hitotsu-me ichi-ban-me
一番第一一つ目一番目
second m-ban dai-ni futatsu-me ni-ban-me
二番第二二つ目二番目
th ird san-ban dai-san mittsu-me san-ban-me
三番第三三つ目三番目
fo urth yo-ban 0 # dai-yon yottsu-me yo-ban-me
{ y o n -b a n ) 第四四つ目四番目
fifth go-ban dai-go ttsutsu-me go-ban-me
五番第五五つ目五番目
sixth roku-ban dai-roku muttsu-me roku-ban-me
六番第六六つ目六番目
seventh nana-ban dai-shichi nanatsu-me nana-ban-me
七番第七七つ目七番目
(shicm-ban)
eighth nacm-ban dai-hachi yattsu-me hachi-ban-me
八番第八八つ目八番目
ninth ku-ban aai-Ru kokonotsu-me ku-ban-me
九番第九九つ目九番目
* For one thousand, one hears both s e n and isse n .

O k u and ch o are always preceded by ic h i: ic h io k u and itc h o , and never
o k u or cho.
Japanese Numbers and English Numbers 235
tenth ju-ban dai-ju ------ ju-ban-me

十番第十十番目
Note: The above ordinal numbers are nouns. They should be followed
by n o if they are used as noun modifiers.
e.g. Ano hito wa kono de かzw desu. (noun) あの人は
このクラスで一番です . “He is the first (top) in this class.”
Yamada-san wa ano m itts u - m e n o isu m suwatte iru hito
desu. (attributive) 山田さんはあの三つ目の椅子に坐ってい
る人です . “ Mr. Yamada is the person who is sitting on
that third chair.”
The suffix m e is used after number+ counter [se e pp. 23o-41).
e.g. Ano 5 • ⑽ か -讲彡 wo hito wa dare desu ka•あの五人目の人は誰
ですか • “Who is that fifth person?”
Mo n ih a i- m e no k5hi o nonde imasu. もう二杯目のコーヒー
を飲んでいます • “I am already drinking a second cup of
coffee.”
JAPANESE NUMBERS A N D ENGLISH NUMBERS

As the use ot commas snows, the division of tne u n it in the
English number system comes between every three digits. In
Japanese, the division is made every fo ur digits, as shown below.
〇 one o ichi
十百千万十百千億十百千兆十
〇 ten o ju
〇 hundred o hyaku
o ' thousand o sen
〇 ten thousand cT man
万万万
〇 hundred thousand o jum an

o ' m illion o hyakuman
o ten m illion o senman
o hundred m illion o' oku
億億億
o* b illion o juoku
o ten b illion o hyakuoku
o hundred billion o sen’oku
〇 trillio n cT cho
兆
r—1 ten trillio n i—i jutcho
COUNTERS 助数詞
Japanese uses many different counters to count objects, depending

on the type of th in g being counted. T his trad ition is sim ilar to
such English phrases as athree slices of breads 4<three pairs of
236 b—d Counters
socks,” “ three ⑶ 办 of coffee.”

In Japanese, fo r example, mai is used fo r counting th in objects,
hon is used fo r long objects, and so fo rth.
I t should also be remembered that in grouping objects in Japanese
the divisions are based on groups of fives and tens, instead of sixes
and twelves as in the West. Traditionally, Japanese has no such
group as the dozen (d豆su ダース is the Japanese rendering of
the English dozen). For example, sets of Japanese dishes or bowls
are sold in units of five.
The follow ing is a partial list of common counters. A sample
counting up to ten is given once fo r each new beginning letter,
and occasional examples showing how to use the suffix are also
included. Exceptions are shown by the use of parentheses.
b- bai 倍（m ultiplicative) times san-chaku

ichi-bai “ one tim e” yon-chaku
m’-ろぬ• “ double,” “ tw ice” go-chaku
“ trip le ,” “ three times” roku-chaku
yon-bai nana-chaku
go-bai hat-chaku
roku-bai kyu-chaku
nana-bai jut-chaku
hachi-bai i
kyu (kuybai -ch5 丁仿/w “ beancurd”
ju-bai it-cho <(one tofu"
e.g. Tochi no nedan ga \
kyonen no m-bai ni natta. -ch6 挺 a pair of scissors
土地の値段が去年の二倍になっ it-cho **one pair** of scissors
た. “ The price of the land 丄
has doubled since last year.”
d- -dai 台 vehicle
-ban 番 See Ordinal N um ichi-aai uone car,J
bers, pp. 234-35 ni-dai atw o trucks*5
san-dai
-bun 分 part, fraction
yo-dai
ni-bun no ichi 1/2
go-dai
yon-bun no san 3/4
roku-dai
1
shichi-aai
c- _chaku 着 clothes hachi-dai
it-chaku ône dress'* ku-dai
ni-chaku “ two suits” ju-dai
Counters e—j 237
-do 度（occurrence) tim e san-bai

ichi-do ône time^ yon-hai
1 go-hai
rop-pai，roku-hai
e- -en 円 yen nana-hai
ichi-en uone yen,*
hap-pai
ni-en kyii-hai
san-en
jup-pai
yo-en
go-en -hatsu % round of ammuni
roku-en tion
shichi-en ip-patsu aone shof*
hachi-en ni-hatsu
kyu-en {san-patsu)
jii-en e.g. Kare wa san-patsu
u tta • 彼は三発打った . “ He
f- -fuku服 puff of tobacco fired three shots.”
smoke, packet of powdered ■hen 遍（ occurrence) tim e = ゴひ
medicine, cup of green tea か -如 w “ one tim e,” “ once”
ip-puku ni-hen
ni-fuku
i
san-puku
yon-fuku -hen 篇 chapter, canto, vol
ume, etc.
go-fuku
rop-puku ip-pen uone chapter5*
nana-fuku not common ni-hen
hap-puku i
kyu-fuku -hiki 匹 small animal
jup-puku ip-piki “one dog”
e.g. Tabako o ip-puku ika- ni-hiki <ltwo cats'*
ga desu k a . タバコ [煙草 )を一 I
服いかが (如何 ) ですか • “ W ill ■hon 本 long object
you have a cigarette?” ip-pon uone penciln
-fuku 幅々 a如 wowo “ hanging ni-hon <ltwo umbrellas**
scroll” j- -jo tatami "straw mat5>
ip-puku t(one kakemono>, ichi-jd “one tatami”
ni-jd
h- _hai 杯 cup san-jd
か - 細 ‘‘one cup” of tea yo-jo
ni-hai atwo cupsn of coffee g 〇-j〇
238 k—yi Counters
roka-jd m- -ma 間 room

shicm-jd (/n•か-ma) “ one room”
hachi-jo {futa-ma)
kyu-jo [mi-ma)
ju-jd yo-ma
■於帖 ream of paper go-ma
icm-jo uone ream,* roku-ma
丄 nana-ma
条 a rticle of documents hachi-ma
ichi-jd Dai ichi-jo ''A rtic le I J, {kokono-ma)
not common
(ju-ma)
k- -ka 課 lesson -mai 枚 th in object
ik-ka uone lesson5* ichi-mai uone sheet,> of paper
ni-ka ni-mai <ltw o slices5* of toast
san-ka san-mai
yon-ka yo (yon)-mai
go-ka i
rok-ka shichi {nana)-mai
shiehi {nana)-ka hachi-mai
hak-ka kyu {ku)-mai
kyu-ka ju-mai
juk-ka -m aki 卷 ro ll
-kai M (repetitive) tim e (Jiito-maki) <{one roir*
ik~kai uone tim e n (Juta-maki)
1 {mi-maki)
-kan 卷 volume yo-maki
ik-kan uone volumen -mei 名 people—more fo rm a l
1 than -nin
-ken 軒 house ichi-mei {tone person,*
ik-ken <{one house>, 1
1 yo (yon)-mei
-ko 個 piece
n- -nin A people
ik-ko aone piece5*
ihitori) uone person,>
1 (Jutari)
-kyaku 脚 chair san-nin
ik-kyaku <{one chair^ yo-nin
go-nin
roku-nin
Counters r—t 239
shichi-nin
hachi-nin -satsu 冊 books
ku-nin is-satsu ône book**
ju-nin 1
r- -retsu 歹IJ row -sho 章 chapter
ichi-retsu uone row** is-sho uone chapter^
ni-retsu 1
san-retsu -shu 首 poem
yon {yo)-retsu is~shu <{one poem>,
go-retsu e.g. is-shu y o m u , 一首よむ .
roku-retsu “ to compose a poem.”
smchi{nana)-retsu i
hacni-retsu -soku 足 footwear
kyii-retsu is-soku aa p air5* of socks
ju-retsu ni-soku <ctw o pairs55 of shoes
-rin 輪 flower
icm-rin “ one flower w ith ■s5 艘 boat
丄 stem” /s-sJ “ one boat”
-ryo 両 (輛）carriage
ichi-ryo uone car5* t- -tan 反 ro ll of kimono ma
te ria l
s- -sai 歳 ( 才）age it-tan “one tan”
む-s似• “ one year old” ni-tan
ni-sai san-tan
san-sai yon-tan
yon-sai go-tan
go-sai roku-tan
roku-sai nana-tan
nana-sai hat-tan
has-sai kyu-tan
kyu-sai jut-tan
jus-sai ■tan 反 land，.245 acres
-sao 棹 tansu “ chest of it-tan “one tan”
drawers”
(hito-sao) tcone tansu'" - t e k i 滴 drop of liquid
{futa-sao) it-teki aone dropn
{mi-sao)
(yo-sao) ■ten 点 point
{itsu-sao) it-ten <cone point,>
240 tsu—z Counters
kyu-wa
-t6 頭 big animal ju-wa, jup-pa
it-to <(one cow^ -wa 把 bunch, bundle
ni-to <{tw o horses^ ichi-wa, ip-pa uone bundle**
I
tsu --tsu i 対 a pair -w a ri 割 10 %
it-tsui <4one pair5* ichi-wari <l10%n
ni-tsui 丄
san-tsui roku wari
yon-tsui shichi-wari, nana-wari
go-tsui hachi-wari
roku-tsui kyu-wari
nana-tsui ju-wari
hat-tsui z- _zen 膳 a pair of chopsticks
kyu-tsui ichi-zen “ one p air” of
jut-tsui chopsticks
■tsii 通 letter ni-zen
it-tsu <cone letter5* san-zen
1 yo-zen
w- -wa 羽 bird go-zen
ichi-wa，ip-pa “one bird” roku-zen
ni-wa shichi-zen
san-ba hachi-zen
yon-wa ku {kyuyzen
go-wa ju-zen
roku-wa，rop-pa ■zen 膳 bowl of rice
smchi-wa ichi-zen wone bow ln of rice
hachi-wa, hap-pa
N o t e : 1 . It is not common in Japanese to use the expression correspond-

ing to “ a cup of tea，” か ^ ⑽ 一杯のお茶， or “ a sheet of
paper/* ic h i- m a i n o k a m i etc. As shown in the ex
amples below, the particle follows the noun, not the number
plus the counter.
e.g. O c h a o ip - p a i [ ip -p a i o c h a o') n o m i m a s h it a . お茶を一杯飲
みました . “ I drank a cup of tea.”
K a m i g a sa n -m a i { S a n -m a i k a m i g a ) a r im a s u . 紙
，が三枚
あります• “There are three sheets of paper.”
Dates 241
2. H an ^ “half” is always used after the counter.

e. g. 5 伽-to •み ⑽ 三杯半 “ three-and-a-half cups,” “three cups
and a half”
ゐ⑽二歳半 “two-and-a-half years old”
D ATES
Japanese Years
From ancient times Japan has kept tra ck of tim e by grouping
years into periods, or eras, as they are sometimes called. Some
periods lasted fo r a long time, w hile others lasted only fo r a very
short tim e. The changes of the periods often depended on super
stitions.
Since 1872 the Western calendar has been used, w hile at the
same tim e the old idea of period names has been retained, except
th a t they now coincide w ith the reign of each successive Emperor.
Thus we have:
the M e iji period 明治 1868-1912
the TaishG period 大正 1912-1926
the Sh6wa period 昭和 1926-to the present
One frequently sees the Japanese year used alone. For example,
the dates of historical events are more often given in Japanese
period names. Or, try in g to find the publishing date fo r a book,
one may encounter the Japanese year at the end of the book, though
of late the Western dates are frequently used. When one asks a
Japanese person about his date of b irth , the answer may be given
in the Japanese year. I t is, therefore, essential to know how to
convert the Japanese date into the Western year as quickly and
correctly as possible. The follow ing is a simple method fo r it.
25th year of M e iji 明治二十五年 1868+25—1 1892
3rd year of Taish6 大正三年 1912+ 3 —1 1914
54th year of Sh6wa 昭和五十四年 1926+54—1 1979 etc.
The reason fo r subtracting one is that the n rst year is not to be
counted. When an Em peror dies, the year is changed immediate
ly. In 1912, fo r example, up to the 30th of July belongs to the
M e iji period, w hile the 31st belongs to Taisho, because Emperor
M eij died on the 30th of July and his son, Emperor Taisho, then be
came Emperor. The year 1912, then, is the 45th year of M e iji as
w ell as the 1st of Taisho. For the same reason, 1926 is the 15th
year of Taisho as w ell as the 1st of Showa (See the chart, p. 242).
242 Modern Japanese Eras/Christian Era
co
o n vre r s il
r
<
fly
l2 -
/«
M /
5/ Jap. Year Christ. Year Jap. Year Christ
8
68 68 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 78 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 88 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98q >
e ij治 8
( 1907 Show a 19
明
M eiji 40
9
明治 41 1908 昭和 20
0
42 1909 21
1
43 1910 22
2
44 1911 23
45 1912 24
3 4 T aish o 1 1912 25
大正 2 1913 26
5
3 1914 27
6
10 4 1915 28
11
7
12
13 5 1916 29
8
14
15 6 1917 30
16
9
1
1
7
8
7 1918 31
19
0
20 8 1919 32
21
9 1920 33
1
22
23
24 10 1921 34
2
25
26 11 1922 35
3
27
28 36
29 12 1923
4
30
31 13 1924 37
5
32
33 14 1925 38
34
6
35 1926 39
36 15
7
37
38 Show a 1 1926 40
39
8
昭和 2 1927 41
42
9
3 1928
4 1929 43
0
5 1930 44
1
45
6 1931
2
46
7 1932
47
3
8 1933 48
4
9 1934 49
5
10 1935 50
6
11 1936 51
12 1937 52
7
13 1938 53
8
14 1939 54
9
15 1940 55
1941 56
0
16
99 09 09 09 09
19
19
)0 17 1942 57
1
)0
18 1943 58
- 2 3 ^ ^
Dates 243
It is also important to remember that the Japanese always count

out the full number in the Western year, e.g. {is) sen -kyiihyaku-
⑽ 1979 千九百七十九年（one thousand nine hundred and
seventy-nine years). To say ju k u -sh ich iju k u -n en (nineteen seventy-
nine) does not make any sense in Japanese.
Months of the Year
Ichigatsu 一月 January Shicnigatsu 七月 July
Nigatsu 二月 February Hachigatsu 八月 August
Sangatsu 三月 March Kugatsu 九月 September
Shigatsu 四月 April Jugatsu 十月 October
Gogatsu 五月 May Juichigatsu 十一月 November
Rokugatsu 六月 June Junigatsu 十二月 December
Days of the Week
Getsuyobi (Moon day) Kinyobi (Metal [Venus] day)
月曜日 Monday 金曜日 Friday
Kayobi (Fire [Mars] day) Doyobi (Earth [Saturn] day)
火曜日 Tuesday 土曜日 Saturday
Suiyobi (Water [Mercury] day) Nichiyobi (Sun day)
水曜日 Wednesday 日曜日 Sunday
Mokuyobi (Wood [Jupiter] day)
木曜日 Thursday
Days of the Month

This list is used both for the day of the month and for the
duration, except tsu itach i, the 1st day of the month {ichinichi means
one day long). Most of the numbers are followed by nichi, and a
few are followed by ka as indicated; tsu ita ch i and hatsuka are
exceptions.
tsu itach i 一日 1st jU ni-nichi 十二日 12th
，fu tsu -k a 二日 2nd ju sa n -n ich i 十三日 13th
m ik-ka 三日 3rd -ka ju yok-ka 十四日 14th
yok-ka 四日 4th ju go-n ich i 十五日 15th
itsu-ka 五日 5th ju ro k u -n ich i 十六日 16th
m u i-ka 六日 6th ju sm ch i-n ich i 十七日 17th
nano-ka 七日 7th ju h acn i-n ich i 十八日 18th
yd-ka 八日 8th ju k u -n ich i 十九日 19th
kokono-ka 九日 9th -ka hatsu-ka 二十日 20th
td-ka 十日 10th n iju icn i-n ich i 二十一日 21st
ju ich i-n ich i 十一日 11th m ju n i-n ic h i 二十二日 22nd
244 Dates
n iju sa n -n ich i 二十三日 23rd n iju h a ch i-n ich i 二十 / 2汾 h

•ha nijU yok-ka 二十四日 24th n iju k u -n ic h i 二十九日 29th
n iju g o -n ich i 二十五日 25th sa n ju -n ich i 三十日 30th
n iju ro k u -n ich i Z I+ T n0
26th sa n ju ich i-n ich i 三ヤー H 31st
n ijU s k ic h i-n ic h i 二十七日 2 7 th
misoka 晦日 last day of the month
6misoka 大晦日 last day of the year
L un ar M o n t h s 陰暦〈いんれき〉
Of the twelve months, Y a y o i, S a ts u k i, and S h iw a s u are still quite
frequently used, y の^/ wo 如m 弥生の空 “spring sky,” ぬむ《々/ “桃沒
め早月雨 “ early summer rain,” wo mac/h•師走の町
“busy year-end streets,” etc.
Mutsuki 睦月 1st month Fumizuki (Fuzuki)
Kisaragi 如月 2nd month 文月 7th month
Yayoi 弥生 3rd month Hazuki 葉月 8th month
Uzuki 卯月 4th month Nagatsuki 長月 9th month
Satsuki 早 (皐)月 5tn month Kannazuki神無月 10th month
Minazuki 水無月 6th month Shimotsuki 霜月 11th month
Shiwasu 師走 12th month
THE CHINESE ZODIAC

Twelve Chinese H orary Characters and Symbolic Anim als 十二古
〈じゅうにし〉
Japanese are still fond of using the traditional symbolic animals
of the しhmese zodiac. This is particularly true at the beginning of
a new year, or for a person’s year of birth. It is not uncommon
to hear a person ask, A n a ta w a n a n id o sm desu k a . あなたは何年
ですか • “In what animal year were you born?” As shown below,
this is a twelve-year cycle.
o
O
e
o
n
H
r
s
Horary Corresponding Symbolic d

in
ng lej
Characters Hours Animals
IX
鼠牛虎兎龍
1J
3
6
9
8
4
9
0
9
6
1J
Ne 子丄丄p_m«—
— 1 a.m. Rat 72
1 IX
73
1
69 6 96
39
7
91
74
4
9
Ushi
9
丄山nu—
1
3 a.m.
i— 1
丑 Ox 75
1
76
2
Tora a.m.一 5 a.m. Tiger

1
寅 6
1
8
39
0
9
5
9
1x IX
1
U
1
卯 5 a.m.— 7 a.m. Hare

— 1 1
3
6
39
9
5
9
9
1
Tatsu M 7 a.m.— 9 a.m. Dragon

IX
25
4
0
49
9
9
Time 245
Horary Corresponding Symbolic Corresponding Years

Characters Hours Animals
1191-
44
蛇馬羊猿鶏犬猪
巳午未申酉戌亥
1
Mi 9 a . m - -11 a.m. Snake 1953 1965 1977
-
a.m —-丄 1954 1966 1978
494 4
Uma ll p.m . H orse
2
H itsu ji 1 p .m - - 3 p.m. Sheep 1955 1967 1979
3
1911
Saru 3 p .m - - 5 p.m . Monkey- 1956 1968 1980
4
4949
T ori d p .m - - 7 p.m . Cock 1957 1969 1981
5
Inu 7 p .m .-- 9 p.m. D og 1958 1970 1982
X
6
I 9 p .m - -11 p.m. Boar 1959 1971 1983
7
9
HOUR OF THE DAY
a.m./p.m. 力•時 o’clock / mw 分 minute 妙 5 秒 second
gozen 午前 icht-p ip-pun ichi-byo
(one o ’clock ) (one m inu te) (one second:
(a.m.) ni-ji ni-fun ni-byd
san-ji san-pun san-byd
yo-ji yon-fun {yon-pun) yon-byd
go-ji go-fun go-byo
roku-ji rop-pun roku-byo
shichi-ji nana-fun nana-byo
(shichi-fun) _咖リ
hacm-ji hap-pun hachi-byo
{haem-fun) liil
ku-ji kyu-iun kyu-byo wen
jU-ji j up-pun ju-byo
juichi-ji juip-pun juichi-byo
jum -ji mjup-pun mju-byd
£ 〇g 〇午後 ichi-ji (jusan-ji)^ nijuip-pun mjuichi-byd
ni-ji (juyo-ji)^ sanjup-pun sanju-byo
(p.m.) sanjiiip-pun sanjuichi-byd
yonjup-pun yonju-byo
yonjuip-pun yonjuichi-byo
goj up-pun goju-byo
gojmp'pun gojuichi-byo
juni-ji (nijuyo-ji)^ rokujup-pun
N o t e :1. Words to remember in stating time In Japanese
sugi 過 past (often omitted)
w從前 before
ゐ伽半 half
* Used for timetables.
246 Duration of Time
2. There is no equivalent Japanese time word to the English

“quarter•” The ‘々uarter” is always expressed in Japanese
ju g o -fu n 十五分, •
3. In stating date and time in Japanese, the largest unit comes
first.
e.g. sen -kyu h ya ku -sh ich iju ku -n en S h ig a tsu toka g o ê n j u - j i san-
か^ 知5 (smが）一九七九年四月十日午前十時
三十分二十五秒 (過） “ thirty minutes, twenty-five sec
onds, after ten c/clock, a.m., April 10, 107^.”
Shdw a gojuyo-nen G ogatsu tsu ita c h i gogo sa n -ji ju p -p u n
桃财昭和五十四年五月一日午後三時十分前 “ten minutes
before three o’clock ， p.m.， May 1 , 54th year of
Showa.M
DURATION OF TIME
In E n glish th e duration of tim e is u su a lly exp ressed by p lacin g
th e preposition “fo r” before th e tim e: fo r a year, for tw o m onths,
for th ree w eek s, etc. In Japanese th e com m on w a y to ex p ress
duration is to add th e suffix ~kan 間 m ean in g “duration •” Care
has to be taken, h ow ever, b ecau se of som e irreg u la rities in th e u se
of -kan . T h e fo llo w in g illu stra tes proper u se of tim e-duration
term s.
I. T im e u n its w h ich a lw a y s ta k e -k a n to sh ow duration

W eek is-shu-kan 一週間 “io r on e w e e k ”
ni-shu-kan 二週間 “lo r tw o w ee k s,” etc.
Hour ichi-ji~kan 一時間 “for on e hour”
m-ji-kan 二時間 “for tw o h ours,” etc.
II. T im e u n its w h ich so m etim es ta k e -kan

to sh o w duration
Y ear た/ ^ - ; ( or —年（間） “for on e y ea r”
ni-nen-kan {or n i-n e n ) 二年（間） “fo r tw o yea rs”
(B oth ex p ressio n s are com m on.)
M onth ik-kagetsu-kan (or w-kagetsu, hito-tsuki) ufo r one
ーヶ月間ーヶ月一月 m on th ”
m-kagetsu-kan {on m-kagetsu，futa-tsuki) “fo r tw o
ニヶ月間ニヶ月二月 m o n th s”
san-kagetsu-kan ôr san-kagetsu} mi-tsuni) <{for three
三ケ月間三ケ月三月 m on th s”
(Of tn e th ree exp ression s, th e tw o in th e paren
th e ses are m ore com m on, but fo r tou r m onths
Punctuation 247
or m ore, only th e -kagetsu-kan or -kagetsu is

used.)
yon-kagetsu-kan (or yon-kagetsu) “for four
四ケ月間四ケ月 m on th s”
go-kagetsu-kan (or go-kagetsu) “for five
五ケ月間五ケ月 m o n th s,” etc.
D ay ------ icln-nichi — H “for on e day’’
如 -々 ⑽ （ orルな二日（間） ‘‘fo r tw o
days”
mik-ka-kan (or m ik-ka) 三 H (f愚) “f or th r ee days,”
etc.
(ichi-nichi <$one day1* is th e on ly excep tion, and
ta k e s no -kan. For fo u r days or m ore, se e pp.
243-44.)
M i n u t e が -夕か m ( o r か-> 肋）一分（間） “for on e m inu te”
ni-fun-kan (or n i - f u n ) 二分（間） ‘‘for tw o
m in u tes,” etc.
‘‘for on e secon d ”
ni-byo-kan (or n i - b y o ) 二秒 ( 間） “for tw o
secon ds,” etc.
A P P E N D I X II
PUNCTUATION
T h ere are several m arks w h ich correspond to E n glish p un c

tuation: / 沉 ⑽ 読点、 (a com m a, literally reading point) ，如な w 句点 0
(a period, literally phrase or clause point), 括弧「」（ quotation
m arks), ( ) (parentheses), [ ] (brackets), etc., but ru les fo r th eir
u se seem to b e le ss rigid th an in E nglish. For exam p le, th e use
o f toten, or com m a, se em s to be quite arbitrary. (For question mark,
se e p. 63, -kaf N ote.)
A P P E N D I X III
HOW TO READ A JAPANESE SENTENCE

(S IM P L E S T E P S T O F O L L O W )
M any Jap anese se n te n c e s se e m long, but if o n e k n o w s h o w to

read them , th e y w ill n ot se em a s im p ossib le to h an d le as o n e m ay
h a v e th o u g h t. T r y th e fo llo w in g step s:
I. F in d all co n ju n ctio n s b etw e en cla u se s in th e sen ten ce.
V 2 nagara ながら V 3 ski し
がと
V 3 kara から ^ba ば
V3如けれど ^ tar a たら
V 3 no de ので ^te て
V 3 no ni のに Yte yno ても
(For m ore con ju n ction s, se e p. 210-12.)
If th e re are no con ju n ction s, sim p ly fo llo w th e step s after
III b elow .
II. D iv id e th e se n te n c e in to sep arate sh ort cla u ses a fter each

con jun ction .
III. In each clau se:

F in d th e sen ten ce -e n d in g exp ression , if th e r e is an y. M ost
of th e Jap anese se n ten ce -e n d in g ex p re ssio n s can b e tra n s
lated at th e b e g in n in g of an E n g lish se n ten ce ,
e.g. koto ga a r u ことがある sd da そうだ
koto ni n a r u こと\こ于z る yd da ようだ
koto ni s u r u こと\こする to iu という
no {ny) da のだ to omou と思う
rashii らしい wake d a わけだ etc.
(For m ore sen ten ce -e n d in g ex p ressio n s, se e V erb -fo llo w
in g E xp ression s, pp. 39-86.)
2. F in d th e m ain verb.
a. If th e r e is a sen ten ce -e n d in g exp ression , th e m ain verb
sh o u ld d irectly p reced e th e se n ten ce -e n d in g exp ression .
b. If th e r e is no sen ten ce -e n d in g exp ression , th e m ain verb
sh ou ld d ire ctly p reced e th e con jun ction .
c. T h e m ain verb cou ld b e an y on e of th e fo llo w in g :
How to Read a Japanese Sentence 249
1 . Copula
2. V erb JT r a n sitiv e
1In tr a n sitiv e
3. A d jec tiv e
Note: Be alert to all the different verb form s ；present,
perfective, positive, negative, tentative, potential,
honorific, passive, causative, causative-passive,
etc.
IV. F in d th e su b ject fo r th e verb

1 . If th e r e is a su b ject, it w ill be m ark ed w ith su ch p a rticles
as wa, gat mo, shikay and dake. A lso o n e sh o u ld rem em b er
th a t th e g ra m m a tica l su b ject m a y b e a sim p le w ord lik e
noy b eca u se no is o fte n u sed as a noun,
e.g. S oko ni iru no w a Y am ad a-san desu. そこ }C l 、るの
は山田さんです. “Th e o n e w h o is th e r e is Mr.
\ am ada.n 1
(F or m ore no a s n ou n s, se e p . 128.) I
2. If th e r e is no su bject, o n e w ill h a v e to su p p ly it, g u e ssin g
fro m th e co n te x t. O ne o f th e d ifficu lties in rea d in g Jap an ese
is th a t each c la u se m a y h a v e a d ifferen t su bject, y e t th e Mlltli
su b jects m a y still b e om itted ,
e.g. M o g o fu n m o su reba a m e g a a garu kara m a te to MINI!
itta ga, m atazu ni d ete sh im a tta . もう五分もすれ晒
咁丨
ば雨が上がるから待てと言ったが待たずに出てしまっ
た . "He sa id to w a it, b e c a u se it m ig h t stop rain
in g in fiv e m in u tes or so, but I le ft w ith o u t w a it
ing.^ Or, d ep en d in g on th e co n te x t, it ca n also
b e tra n sla ted , “I said to w a it, b e ca u se it m ig h t
stop ra in in g in fiv e m in u te s or so, but h e le ft
w ith o u t w a itin g .”
V. O n ce o n e finds th e m a in verb and its su b ject (e x iste n t or
supplied), th e y w ill b e c o m e th e co r e o f th e se n ten ce .
V I. T h e re st w ill m er ely b e th e ad d ition s to th e co re of th e
sen ten ce .
T h e y m a y b e so m e of th e fo llo w in g e lem en ts:
1 . S e n te n c e-b e g in n in g co n ju n ctio n s (S e e pp. 208-210)
2. A d v erb s
h ow , w h en , w h ere, h o w m a n y (m uch), etc.
A d v erb ia l p h ra ses
250 How to Read a Japanese Sentence
3. Noun-modifiers Other noun

Copular nonn+na
Adjectives See p p . 189-
Non-conjugative adjectives 90
V 3
4. D irect object (See the p article oy pp. 129-30)

In direct object (See the p article nit p . 122)
EXA M PLES
Senkichi wa Kanda no aru hakariya no mise ni hoko shite iru.
仙吉は神田の或る秤屋の店に奉公している.
Sore wa am rasmi yawaraka na sunda hizashi ga kon no daibu
それは秋らしい柔らかな澄んだ陽ざしが紺の大分
hageochita noren no shita kara shizuka ni misesaki ni sashikonde
はげ落ちた暖簾の下から静かに店先に差し込んで
iru toki datta. Chobagoshi no naka ni suwatte taikutsusd ni
いる時だった. 帳場格子の中に坐って退屈そうに
makitabako 〇 fukashite ita banto ga hiOachi no soba de shinbun o
卷煙草をふかしていた番頭が火鉢の傍で新聞を
yonde iru wakai banto ni konna ju ni hanashikaketa.
読んでいる若い番頭にこんな風に話しかけた.
The above excerpt fro m Shiga Naoya^ Kozo no kami-
same づ、僧の神様 may look complex at the firs t glance, but if one
looks at it carefully, it consists of three sentences w hich are not
basically so complex. In each sentence, once the core of the
sentence (subject and m ain verb) is located, the rem aining parts
are all m odifiers (noun modifiers, adverbial phrases, etc.).
1. Senkichi wa iKanda no ) mise ni hoko shite iru.

\aru |
[hakariya n o }
“ SenkicJii is employed at a certain scale shop in Kanda.”
Core o f the sentence:
Senkichi wa hoko shite iru. “ Senkichi is employed.”
(subject) (main verb)
How to Read a Japanese Sentence 251
Remaining parts:
noun modifiers Kanda no (Noun+ ⑽ 1
(Non-con- , mise m
jugative adj.) (adv. phrase—
\ hakariya no (Noun+ 助） where)
2. Sore wa (aki rashu hizashi ga ikon no \ noren no

<yawaraka na | daibu | shita kara
[sunda [hageocnitaj
shizuka ni
sashikonde iru toki datta.
misesaki ni
“ I t was the tim e when the fa ll-like , soft, clear sun’s rays were
q uietly pouring into the store fro n t fro m under the m ostly
faded blue noren curtains.5*
Core o f the sentence..
Sore wa tom ddttCL. “ I t was the tim e.”
(subject) (complement) (main verb)
Remaining parts:
aki rashu (N b im + グasみ
noun m odifiers:
Iyawaraka na (Cop. + na) | hizashi
111111丨
sunda (Vt〇) J 111111丨
relative clauses: (kon no (subject of relative |
clause) noren
I daibu (adv.—degree)
[hageochita (Vta—noun m odifier)
hizashi ga (subject of rela- ) toki
1 tiv e clause) \
sashikonde iru(yz —noun m odifier) J

adverbial phrases: noren no shita kara (from where)
snizuka ni (how)
3. Chobagoshi no naka nimisesaki
| ni (to(hibacm
where) no soba de\
suwatte I
>banto ga | shinbun o yonde iru i banto
]taikutsuso ni ni
\wakai J
I makitabako o fukashite ita
konna fu ni hanashikaketa.
“The clerk, who was sitting inside the latticed counter with a
bored look, smoking a cigarette, talked in the following manner
252 How to Read a Japanese Sentence
to the young clerk, who was reading a newspaper beside a

brazier.”
Core o f the sentence:
banto ga hanashikaketa. “ The clerk talked (to the clerk).’’
(subject) (main verb)
Remaining parts:
relative clauses: chobagoshi no naka ni (adv.—where)
suwatte (V/e—conjunction, ând5*)
taikutsusd ni (adv.—how) banto
makitabako o fukashite ita
(V to—noun modifier)
obj.)
wakai (adj.—noun m odifier)
adverbial phrase: konna fu ni (how)
IN D E X I
VERB-FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS AND
NOUN-FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS
V erb -follow in g ex p ressio n s in lo w er ca se
N O U N -FO L L O W IN G E X PR E SSIO N S IN U P P E R CA SE
(See also alphabetical lists of Common Noun-suffixes, pp.179-82,
Counters, pp. 235-41 and Particles, pp. 93-140)
In order to extend its usefulness as a reading aid, the following list includes
many Chinese characters, even though some of them may not appear fre
quently in contemporary writings.
a g a r u あ（上）がる， 47 da だ，5 1 = ta
a g e r u あ (上 ) げる， 47 〇V2 da お V2 だ， 47
aida 間， 60 da ato de だ後で，5 1 = ta ata de
a s a r u あさ（漁）る， 47 da baai [ w a ] だ場合， 51
〇V2 asobasu お遊ばす， 47 = ta baai [wa]
da b a k a r i だばかり， 51
ba V3 dake ば V8 だけ (丈) ， 81 = ta bakari
= ba V8 hodo da bakari n i だばかりに， 51
ba V8 hodo ば V3 ほど (程 ) ， 81 = ta bakari ni
ba ii n’ desu ga••.ばいいんですが， 81 da ga s a i g o だが最後， 52
(Interrog. w.)+ ba li no ka ばいい = ta ga saigo
のか， 81 da koto ga a r u だことがある， 52
ba ii no ni ばいいのに， 82 = ta koto ga aru
ba k o s o ばこそ， 82 da koto ga a t t a だことがあった， ]
baai 場合， 60 52 =ta koto ga atta
V ta baai, 51 da koto ni s u r u だことにする， 52
b a e ば (栄）え， 47 = ta koto ni suru
b a k a r i ばかり， 60 da m a m a だまま（儘 ) ， 52
V ta bakari, 51 = ta mama
bakari de wa n a i ばかりではない， da mono d a だものだ， 52
60 =ta mono da
nai bakari de wa nai, 40 da oboe ga a r u だ覚えがある， 52
BAKARI DE WA NAKU...MO ば = ta oboe ga aru
かりではなく… も， 156 da tameshi ga nai だ例がない， 52
BAKARI K A ...M O は•かり力、 … も， = ta tameshi ga nai
156 da tokoro d a だところだ， 52
BAMU ばむ， 156 = ta tokoro da
bekarazaru ベからざる， 61 da tokoro d e だところで， 52
b ek a ra zu ベからず， 61 = ta tokoro de
beki べき， 61 da tokoro g a だところが， 52
BIRU びる， 156 = ta tokoro ga
BURU ぶる， 156 da tsumori d a だつ (積）もりだ， 53
254 Index—Expressions
= ta tsumori da de i r a i で以来， 55 = te irai

da ue de だ上で， 53 = ta ue de de iru でいる， 56 = te iru
DAKARA TO I T T E だからと言っ d e it a d a k u でいただ (頂，戴）く， 56
て， 156 = te itadaku
d a k e だけ (丈 ) ， 61 de kara でから， 56 =te kara
dake a t t e だけ（丈）あって， 61 de koso でこそ， 56 = t e koso
D A K E A T T E だけ (丈) あって， 156 de k u d a s a i で下さい， 56
dake de wa n a i だけ (丈）ではない， = te kudasai
61 de kudasaru で下さる， 56
nai dake de wa n a i ,40 = te kudasaru
dake n i だけ (丈) に， 61 de kure でくれ， 56 = te kure
DAKE N I だけ (丈) に， 156 de kureru でくれる， 56
dara だら， 53 =tara = te kureru
dara s a i g o だら最後， 54 de kuru で来る， 56 = te kuru
= tara saigo de made でまで， 57 = te made
DARAKE だらけ， 156 DE M A N IA U で間に合う， 157
dari だり， 54 = tari DE MANIAWASERU で間に合わせ
d a r 6 だろう， 61 る， 157 = de maniawasu
dasu 出す， 47 DE M A N IA W A SU で間に合わす，
DATERA N I だてらに， 156 157 = de maniawaseru
D A T T A だった， 157 de m i e r u でみ (見）える， 57
DATTE だ 0 て， 157 = te mieru
de で， 54 = te de miru でみ（見）る， 57 = te miru
de ageru で上げる， 55 = te ageru de mo でも， 57 = te mo
DE A R U である， 157 DE MO でも， 157
= naru = taru (Interrog. w.) + de mo でも， 57
de aru である， 55 = te aru = te mo
DE ARU BAKARI DE [WA] de mo i i でもいい， 57 = te mo ii
N A K U ...M O であるばかりでなく nakute mo ii， 43
••.も， 157 de mo kamawanai でも構わない，
DE ARU K O T O であること， 157 57 — te mo kamawanai
DE ARU TO W A であるとは， 157 DE MO N A I でもない， 157
= to wa DE MO NAI...DE MO NAI でも
DE ATT A であった， 157 = datta ない…でもない， 157
DE ATTE M O であっても， 157 de mo V n ak u te mo でも V なくて
debakariiru でばかりいる， 55 も， 58 = te mo V n ak u te m〇
= te bakan iru DE MO NAN’ DE M O でも何で
de ga a r u でがある， 47 も， 158
de hoshii で欲しい， 55 DE MO NAN， DE MO NAI でも
= te hoshii 何でもない， 158
(Interrog. w.) + de ii (no) ka de morai tai でもら（貰）いたい， 58
wakaranai でいいかわか (分）らな = te morai tai
い， 55 = te ii (no) ka wakaranai nai de morai tai, 40
de iku で行く， 55 =te iku de morau でもら（貰）う， 58
Index—Expressions 255
= te morau ga が， 62
de naranai でならない，58 GA ATTE NO KOTO があっての
= te naranai こと， 159
de n o k e r u でのける，58 ga mono wa nai がものはない， 62
= te nokeru gachi 勝ち， 48
de oku でおく，58 = te oku g a i 甲斐， 48
de ori でお (居）り，58 = t e ori GAKARI D E がかりで， 159
de sae V b a でさえ V ば，58 GAKARU がかる， 159
= te sae Vba G A M A SH II がましい， 159
de s h im a u でしま（仕舞）う，58 gari がり， 83
= te shimau garu がる，83,86
de shiyo ga nai でしよう（仕様)が g a t a i がた（
難）い， 48
ない，58 = te shiy5 (sh5) ga nai GATERA [ N 1 ] がてら， 159
de wa では，59 = te wa ge げ，48,83
DE WA では，158 GE 気， 159
DE WA ARU G A ではあるが， 158 GORO 頃， 159
de wa ikenai ではいけない，59 GOTO ごと， 159
= te wa ikenai goto n i ごと（毎）に， 62
de wa ir a r e n a i ではいられない，59 GOTO N 1 ごと（毎）に， 159
= te wa irarenai gurai ぐらい(位)，67 = kurai
de wa komaru では困る，59 G U R A I,160
= te wa komaru GURUMI ぐるみ， 160
DE WA N A I ではない，158
de wa n a r a n a i ではならない，59 hajimeru 始める， 48
= te wa naranai h a ta s u 果たす， 48
de yaru でやる，59 = te yaru h a t e r u 果てる， 48
desh5 でしょう，6 1 =dar5 h a z u はず (箸) ， 62
dokoro de wa nai どころではな hazu ga (wa) n a i はず (箸）がない，62
い，61 nai hazu ga (wa; n a i ,41
DOKORO DE WA NAI どころで hazumi n i はずみに， 62
はない， 158 hi ni w a 日には， 62
dokoro ka どころか，61 h6 方， 62
DOKORO K A どころか，158 h6 ga ii ( y o i ) 方がいい， 63
dokoro no hanashi de wa nai ど nai h5 ga 11， 41
ころの話しではない，61 h o d o ほど (程 ) ， 63
= dokoro de wa nai HODO ほど (程 ) ， 160 = gurai
dokoro no sawagi de wa nai どこ hodo no koto wa nai ほど (程）のこ
ろの騷ぎではない， 61 = dokoro とはない， 63
de wa nai hoka [wa] nai 他はない， 63
dSshi 通し，47 hy5shi ni 拍子に， 63
e n a i え (得) ない，48 IGAI [ N I ] 以外， 160

igai [ni] [ w a ] 以外， 63
f u r i o s u r u 振りをする，62 IGO 以後，160
ij5 [ w a ] 以上， 63 k e r e b a ければ， 84

以上， 160 keredo [ m o ] けれど，65， 112
IK$ 以下， 160 ki ga a r u 気がある， 65
IKS 以降， 160 ki ga s u r u 気がする， 65
o V2 itasu お V2 致す， 48 ki ni n a r u 気になる， 65
IZEN 以前， 160 kirai ga a r u きら（嫌）いがある， 65
k ir e r u 切れる， 49
JIMIRU じみる，160 kiri きり， 52
JO ± , 160 kiru 切る， 49
komu 込む， 49
ka か，63 KORO 頃， 161
ka d6 k a かどうか，64 KOSO こそ， 113
ka d5 ka ni yotte かどうかによっ koto こと， 65
て，64 koto ga aru ことがある， 66
ka mo shirenai かもしれない，64 Vta koto ga aru, 52
ka mo shirenu かもしれぬ，64 koto ga atta ことがあった， 66
KA NA かな， 161 Vta koto ga atta, 52
ka Vnai k a か V ないか，64 koto ga dekiru ことができ（出来）
ka Vnai ka ni yotte か V ないかにる， 66
ょって，64 koto ni naru ことになる， 66
ka s h i r a [ n ] かしら，64 koto ni natte iru ことになってい
KA SHIRA [ N ] かしら，161 る， 66
KA TO BAKARI [O M O U ] かとば koto ni shite iru ことにしている，
かり，161 66
ka to omou to かと思うと，64 koto ni suru ことにする，66
kaesu 返す， 48 V ta koto ni suru, 52
kagiri 限り，64 koto to omou ことと思う，66
k a k e r u かける，48 koto wa V3 ことは V 3, 66
k a n e r u 兼ねる，48 ku く， 84
kankei j5 関係上， 64 ku mo Adjku mo nai くも Adj く
kara から，64 もなぃ， 84
kara koso からこそ，65 ku mo nashi Adjku mo nai くも
kara ni wa からには，65 なし Adj くもない， 84
KARA SHITE からして，161 o V2 kudasai お V2 下さい，49
kara to i t t e からと言って，65 o V2 kudasaimase お V2 下さいま
k a r 5 かろう，84 せ，49
(Interrog. w.) + kar6 ga かろうが， kunai くない， 84
84 = (Interrog. w.) + karo to kurai くらい(位)，67
kata 方， 48 K U R A I,160 =gurai
kattara かったら，84 KUSAI 臭い， 161
kawari ni 代りに，65 kuse ni くせに，67
nai kawari ni, 41 kute くて， 84
ke 気， 84 kute mo くても， 85
KE 気， 161 kute sumu くて済む， 85
kute tamaranai くてたま（堪）らな加なあ，69

い， 85 n a g a r a ながら，49
kuto mo くとも， 85 = kute mo nai ない，40
nai bakari de wa nai ないばかり
ma mo naku 間もなく， 67 ではない，40
made まで， 67 nai dake de wa nai ないだけ (丈 )
made mo nai までもない， 67 ではない，40
made n i までに， 67 nai de ないで，40
MADE NI までに， 161 nai de h o s h i i ないで欲しい，40
mae ni 前に， 67 nai de kudasai ないで下さい，40
nai mae ni, 41 nai de morai tai ないでもら (貰)い
mai まい，39， 68 たい，40
mai shi まいし， 68 nai de sumu ないで済む，40
m a m a まま（儘 ) ， 52 nai hazu wa nai ないはず (箸）はな
mama n i まま（儘）に， 68 い，41
masu 亥す， 49 nai ho ga i i ない方がいい，41
MEKASU めかす， 161 nai kawari ni ないかわりに，41
MEKU めく， 161 nai koto wa nai ないことはない，
MI 味， 161 41
m i t a i みたい， 68 nai mae ni ない前に，41
MO ARO N I もあろうに， 162 nai ni yotte ないによって，69
mo...mo suru も… もする， 49 nai nara ないなら，41
mo shinai もしない， 49 nai shi...nai ないし …ない，41
MO SOKOSOKO N I もそこそこに， nai t o ないと，41
162 nai to wa kagiranai ないとは限ら
mo sureba V2 mo suru もすればない，41
V2 もする， 49 nai uchi n i ないうち（内）に，42
mono もの，49,68 nai wake de wa nai ないわけでは
mono da ものだ， 68 ない，42
mono de mo nan’ de mo nai もの nai wake ni [wa] ikanai ないわけ
でも何でもない， 68 にはいかない，42
mono de wa (ja) nai ものではな nai y5 n i ないように，42
い， 69 nakattara なかったら，42
mono no ものの， 69 n a k e r e b a なければ，42
mu む， 40 = n, nakereba ikenai なければいけな
MUKI 向き，162 い， 42
nakereba naranai なければならな
n’ ん，40,69 い， 42
n’ daんだ，72 nakute なくて，42
na な， 69,86 nakute mo なくても，43
NA NO なの 162 nakute mo i i なくてもいい，43
NA NO (N’） DA なのだ， 162 nakuto mo なくとも，43
NA NO DE なので，162 NAMI 並，162
NA NO NI なのに， 162 NAMI IJO 並以上，162
NAMI NI 並に， 162 NI KANSURU KAGIRI に関する

NAMI NO 並の， 162 限り， 165
naosu 直す， 50 NI KAWATTE に代って， 163
nara ( b a ) なら， 69 NI KI GA TSUKU に気が付く，，
nara V8 de なら V3 で， 69 165
NARA DE W A ならでは， 163 NI KI 0 TSUKERU に気を付け
NARA T O M O K A K U ならと（兎）もる， 165
かく（角）， 163 ni koshita koto wa nai にこ（越）し
NARA TONIKAKU ならと（兎）にたことはない， 70
かく（角) ， 163 NI KOSHITA KOTO WA NAI に
n a r e r u 慣れる， 50 こ（越）したことはない， 165
nari なり， 69 NI MENJITE に免じて， 165
nari V3 nari なり V8 なり， 69 NI MIERU に見える， 165
NARI N1 なりに， 163 NI MO HODO GA ARU にもほど
NARU なる， 163 (程 ) がある， 165
nasai なさい， 50 ni mo kakawarazu にもかかわ（拘）
NASHI DE なしで， 163 らず， 70
NASHI DE WA なしでは， 163 NI MO KAKAWARAZU にもかか
NASHI NO なしの， 163 ゎ ⑽ らず， 165
ne ね， 70 〇V2 ni naru お V2 になる， 50
neba naranai ねばならない， 43 NI N A T T E になって， 173
ni に，86 NI NOZONDE に臨んで， 165
ni + motion verb NIOKERU にお（於) ける，166=de
に + motion verb, 50 NI O J I T E に応じて， 166
ni atari に当り，70= ni atatte ni o y o b i におよ（及）び， 70
ni atatte に当って， 70 NI OYOBI に及び， 166
ni chigainai に違いない， 70 ni oyonde に及んで，70= ni oyobi
NI C H IG A IN A I に違いない， 163 NI SAISHITE に際して， 166
NI D A T T E にだって， 163 NI SESSHITE に接して， 166
NI DE MO にでも， 164 NI SEYO にせよ， 166
NI HIREI SHITE に比例して， 164 NI S H IC H A にしちゃ， 166
NI HOKA NARANAI に他ならな ni shiku wa nai に如くはない， 70
い， 164 ni sh in obin ai に忍びない， 70
NI IT A R U M A D E に至るまで， 164 ni shiro にしろ， 70
NI I T A T T E に至って， 164 ni shiro Vnai ni shiro にしろ V な
NI IWASEREBA に言わせれば，いにしろ， 70
164 NI SHIRO Noun NI SHIRO にし
ni kagiru に限る， 70 ろ N ou n にしろ， 166
NI KAGITTE に限って， 164 ni shita tokoro de にしたところ
ni kakaru にかかる， 50 で， 71
NI K A K E T E にかけて， 164 NI SHITA TOKORO DE にしたと
NI KAKETE W A にかけては， 164 ころで， 166
NI KANSEZU に関せず， 164 ni shitagatte に従って， 71
NI KANSHITE に関して， 164 NISHITAGATTE に従って， 166
ni shite mo にしても， 71 ら， 168

NI SHITE MO にしても， 166 NO KOTO TO I E B A のことと言
NI SHIITE WA にしては， 166 えば， 169
NI SOI N A I に相違ない， 167 no ni のに， 73
NI S O T T E に沿って， 167 no ni taishite のに対して， 73
n is u g in a i にす（
過）ぎない， 71 NO SEI DE のせいで， 169
NI S U G IN A I にす (過）ぎない， 167 NO SEI K A のせいか， 169
NI TAISHITE に対して， 167 NO TAME N I のため（為）に， 169
NI TOMONAI に伴い， 167 NO TORI の通り， 169
NI TOMONATTE に伴って， 167 NO TSUIDE N 1 のついで (序）に，
NI T O T T E にとって， 167 169
ni tsuite について， 71 NO UE DE の上で， 169
NI T S U I T E について， 167 NO UE N1 の上に， 169
ni tsurete につれて， 71 no wa betsu to shite のは別とし
NI TSURETE につれて， 167 て， 73
ni wa には， 71 no wa tomokaku [to shite] のは
NI WA には， 167 と（兎）もかく（角） 73
ni wa V3 には V3, 71 no wa tonikaku [to snite] のと
ni [wa] oyobanai に及ばない， 71 ( 兎) にかく（角 ) ， 73
NI Y O R E B A によれば， 167 NO D A のようだ， 169
NI YORI により， 168 NO YO N A のような， 170
NI YORU T O によると， 168 NO YO N I のように， 170
NI Y O T T E によって， 168 NOMI DE [W A] NAKU...MO の
nikui にく（難）い， 50 みでなく … も， 170
no の， 71 nomi narazu のみならず， 73
NO AMARI NI のあま（余）りに， NOMI NARAZU のみならず， 170
168 nu ぬ， 43
no da のだ， 72
no de ので， 72 6 V (お）う，82= y5
no de i i のでいい， 72 o V2 asobasu お V2 遊ばす， 47
no de mo nan’ de mo nai のでも o V2 da お V2 だ， 47
何でもない， 72 (Interrog. w.) 6 ga V うが，82
no de wa n a i のではない， 72 = y 〇 ga
no de wa nai daro ka のではない 5 ga kamawanai V うが構わない，
だろうか， 72 82= yo ga Kamawanai
no de wa n a k u ( t e ) のではなく， 72 5 ga Vmai ga V うが V まいが， |
NO HAZU D A のはず (箸 ) だ， 168 82= yo ga Vraai ga
NO H6 の方， 168 5 ga V o ga V うが V うが， 82
NO I U の言う， 168 = yo ga V y5 ga
NO KAWARI N I のかわりに， 168 0 HAJIME [TO S H I T E ] を初め， ‘
NO KIRAI GA A R U のきら（嫌)い 170
がある， 168 〇V2 itasu お V2 致す， 48
NO KOTO のこと， 168 〇V2 kudasai お V 2 下さい， 49
NO KOTO DAKARA のことだか〇 V2 kudasaimase お V2 下さいま
せ， 49 saseru させる， 44
O MOTO NI S H I T E を基にして， ’ sasete ageru させて上げる， 45
170 sasete itadaku させていただ（頂厂
O MOTTE を以て， 170 戴 ) く，45
O NEGATTE YAMANAI を願っ sasete kudasaru させて下さる， 45
てやまない， 170 sasete kureru させてくれる， 45
〇V2 ni naru お V2 になる， 50 sasete m o r a u させてもら（貰）う， 45
5 ni mo V うにも， 83 sasete yaru させてやる， 45
(Interrog. w.) + 6 to V うと， 82 sashite ageru さして上げる， 45
= y5 to = sasete ageru
6 to kamawanai V うと構わない， sashite itadaku さしていただ（頂，
82= yo to kamawanai 戴）く， 45 = sasete itadaku
5 to kangaeru V うと考える， 83 sashite kudasaru さして下さる， 45
= yo to kangaeru = sasete kudasaru
5 to Vmai to V うと V まいと， 82 sashite kureru さしてくれる， 45
= yo to Vmai to = sasete kureru
5 to omou V うと思う， 83 sashite morau さしてもら（貰）う，
= yo to omou 45 = sasete morau
5 to V 6 to V うと V うと， 82 sashite yaru さしてやる， 45
= yo to V yo to = sasete yaru
6 to suru V うとする， 83 sasu さす， 44 = saseru
= y5 to suru sei d a せい (所為 ) だ， 74
O T O S H IT E を通して， 170 sei k a せぃ (所為 ) か， 74
oboe ga a r u 覚えがある， 52 serareru せられる， 45
OKI N I おきに， 170 seru せる， 45
osore ga a r u 恐れがある， 73 sete a g e r u せて上げる， 45
otosu 落す， 50 sete itadaku せていただ（頂，戴）
owaru 終る， 50 <,46
sete kudasaru せて下さる， 46
• P P O I っぽい， 171 sete kureru せてくれる， 46
sete morau せてもら（貰）う， 46
rareru られる， 43 sete yaru せてやる， 46
r a s h i i らしい， 73 shi し， 74
RASHII らしい， 171 shidai 次第， 50
reru れる， 43 SHIDAI 次第， 171
shite ageru して上げる， 45
sa さ，74,85,86 = sete ageru
sae sureba さえすれば， 50 shite itadaku していただ（頂，戴）
sai 際， 74 く， 46 = sete itadaku
saichu ni 最中に， 74 shite kudasaru して下さる， 46
sareru される， 43 = serareru = sete kudasaru
sasareru さされる， 44 shite kureru してくれる， 46
= saserareru = sete kureru
saserareru させられる， 44 shite morau してもら（貰）う， 46
= se te m orau ta ue d e たうえ（上）で， 53
s h ite y a ru してやる，46 tabi n i たび (度）に， 74
= se te y a ru tagaru たがる， 53
s5 da そうだ，50,74,85,86 t a i たい； 53
s5 mo n a i そうもない， 51 takute たくて， 53
s6 na そうな，50,85,86 takute tamaranai たくてたま（堪）
s5 ni n a i そうにない，51 らない， 53
s5 ni n a r u そうになる， 51 tamae 給え， 53
s o b ir e r u そびれる，51 tame n i ため（為）に， 74
sokonau 損なう，51 tameshi ga n a i 例がない，52
su す，45 = seru tara たら， 53
sugi mo [sezu] Adjstem sugi mo (Interrog. w.)+ tara 1 1 [no」 ka
s h in a i す (過）ぎもせず Adjstem w akaran ai たらいいかわか (分）ら
す (過）ぎもしない，86 ない， 53
sugi mo [sezu] Copular Noun sugi tara s a i g o たら最後， 54
mo s h in a i す (過）ぎもせず Cop.n tari たり， 54
す (過）ぎもしない，86 TARU たる， 171
sugi mo shinai shi Adjstem sugi TARU K O T O たること， 171
mo shinai す (過）ぎもしないし TARU NI MO KAKAWARAZU
A djstem す (過）ぎもしない，85 たるにもかかわ (拘）らず， 171
sugi mo shinai shi Copular Noun TARU NI SU G IN A I たるにす (過）
sugi mo s h in a i す (過）ぎもしないぎなぃ， 171
し Cop. n す (過）ぎもしない，86 te て， 54
sugiru す (過）ぎる 51，85,86 TE て， 171
sugiru kirai ga aru す（過）ぎるき te a g e r u て（あ）上げる， 55
ら (嫌 )いがある，51，
85,86 te a r u てある， 55
te bakari i r u てばかりいる， 55
ta た， 51 te h o s h ii て欲しい， 55
ta ato de た後で， 51 nai de hoshn, 40
ta baai [ w a ] た場合， 51 flnterrog. w.) + te ii [noj Ka wa-
ta b a k a r i たばかり，51 k a r a n a iていいかわか（
分）らない，
ta bakari n i たばかりに，51 55
ta ga s a i g o たが最後，52 te iku て行く， 55
ta koto ga a r u たことがある，52 te i r a i て以来， 55
ta koto ga a t t a たことがあった，52 te i r u ている， 56
ta koto ni s u r u たことにする， 52 te ita d a k u ていただ（戴，頂）く， 56
ta m a m a たまま（儘 )， 52 te k a r a てから， 56
ta mono d a たものだ， 52 te k o s o てこそ， 56
ta oboe ga a r u た覚えがある，52 te k u d a sa i て下さい， 56
ta tameshi ga nai た例がない， 52 nai de kudasai,40
ta tokoro [ d a ] たところ， 52 te kudasaru て下さる， 56
ta tokoro d e たところで，52 te kure てくれ， 56
ta tokoro g a たところが， 52 te kureru てくれる， 56
ta tsumori [ d a ] たつも（積）り，53 te k u r u て来る， 56
te made てまで， 57 だけ（丈）では， 76

te m i e r u て見える， 57 TO IU NO W A と言うのは， 172
te m i r u てみる， 57 TO IU YO N A と言うような， 172
te mo ても， 57 to iu yo n i というように， 76
(Interrog. w.) + te mo ても， 57 to iwan b a k a r i といわんばかり， 76
te mo ii てもいい， 57 TO KA I U とか言う， 172
te mo kamawanai ても構わない， to ka iu ( k i k u ) とか言う， 76
57 to [wa] kagiranai と限らない， 77
te mo Vnakute mo ても V なくて nai to wa kagiranai, 41
%, 58 TO [W A] KAGIRANAI と限らな
te morai t a i てもら（貰）いたい， 58 い， 172
nai de morai tai, 40 to kiku と聞く， 76
te m o r a u てもら（貰）う， 58 to m i e r u と見える， 76
te naranai てならない， 58 TO M I E R U と見える， 172
te nokeru てのける， 58 to mo とも， 76
te oku ておく， 58 to mo na' u ともなく， 77
te o r i ており， 58 = to mo nashi ni
te sae V b a てさえ V ば， 58 to mo nashi ni ともなしに， 77
te shimau てしまう， 58 TO NATTE となって， 173
te shiy5 (sh5) ga nai てしよう（仕 to no koto da とのことだ， 77
様 ) がない， 58 to shita tokoro de としたところ
te wa ては， 59 で， 77
te wa ikenai てはいけない， 59 TO SHITA TOKORO DE とした
te wa irarenai てはいられない， 59 ところで， 166
te wa komaru ては困る， 59 to shitara としたら， 77
te wa naranai てはならない， 59 to shite として， 77
te yaru てやる， 59 TO SHITE として， 173
TEKI 的， 171 to shite mo としても， 77
to と， 75 TO SHITE MO としても， 173
TO BAKARI OMOU とばかり思 TO SHITE NO としての， 173
う， 172 TO SHITE WA としては， 173
TO CHIGATTE と違って， 172 to s u r e b a とすれば， 77
TO I E B A と言えば， 172 to suru to とすると， 77
to ieba i e r u と言えば言える， 75 TO TOMO NI と共に， 173
to iu と言う，75,82 TO WA とは， 173
TO I U と言う， 172 to wa i e とは言え， 77
to iu dake no koto de wa という to wa itte mo とは言っても， 77
だけ (丈）のことでは， 76 to wa nashi ni とはなしに， 77
= to iu koto dake de wa toki [ n i ] 時， 77
to iu hanashi d a とい (言）う話だ， 75 tokoro [ d a ] ところ， 78
TO IU HODO NO というほど (程） Vta tokoro [da], 52
の， 172 tokoro de ところで， 52
to iu koto da ということだ， 75 tokoro ga ところが， 52
to iu koto aake de wa ということ tokoro no ところの， 78
t5ri 通り，78 82
totan n i とたん（途端）に，78 y 〇 ga V m a i g a ようが V まいが，
TOTEMO とても， 173 82
tsuide n i ついで (序）に，78 yo ga V yo g a ようが V ようが，82
tsukusu 尽くす，79 y6 n a よう（様）な，80
tsumori [ d a ] つも（
積）り，78 yo n i ように，80
Vta tsumori [da], 53 nai y5 ni, 42
tsutsu つつ，59 y5 ni i u ように言う，80
tsuzukeru 続ける，59 y5 ni mo ようにも，83
yo ni naru ようになる，81
Uchi n i うちに，78 yo ni suru ようにする，81
nai uchi ni, 42 (Interrog. w.) + yo to ようと，82
ue de 上で，53 yo to k a m a w a n a i ようと構わない，
ue ni 上に，79 82
u r u 得る， 59 y5 to kangaeru ようと考える，83
= yo to omou
WA MOCHIRON は勿論， 173 yo to Vmai t o ようと V まいと，82
WA OROKA [NA K O T O ] はおろ yo to o m o u ようと思う，83
か， 173 y5 to suru ようとする，83
wa shimai はしまい，59 y d to...y5 t o ようと… ようと，82
wa s h i n a i はしない，59 yori より， 81
WA TOMOKAKU はと（兎）もかく YORI HOKA [NI, WA] NAI ょり
(角 ) ， 173 他ない，174
WA TONIKAKU はと（兎）にかく yori hoka [ni, wa] nai より他な
(角)，174 い，81
wake d a わけだ，79 yori hoka [ni] te ga [wa] nai よ
wake de wa n a i わけではない，79 り他手がない，81
nai wake de wa nai, 42 YORI MO ょりも，174
wake ni [wa] ik a n a i わけにいかな yori shikata ga n a i より仕方がな
い，79 い，81
nai wake ni [wa] ikanai, 42 yoshi da 由だ，81
wari ni 割に，79 yotei da 予定だ，81
ya や， 79 zaru o e n a i ざるをえ（得）ない，46

ya ina ya や否や，79 ZEN 然，174
yagu やぐ，86 zo ぞ， 81
yara やら，80 zu ず，46
y a ra ...y a ra やら …やら，80 zu j i m a i ずじまい (仕舞)，46
y a s u i やす (易) い，60 zu ni ずに，46
y5 様， 60 zu ni [wa] o k a n a i ずにお (措)かな
y 6 よう， 82 い，46
y5 d a よう（様) だ，80 zu sliite ずして，46
y6 g a ようが，82 ZUKU DE ずくで，174
yo ga k a m a w a n a i ようが構わない， ZUTSU ずつ，174
IN D E X I I
GRAM M AR
Accusative case, see Direct Object Adverbs,193

Adjectival nouns, see Copular nouns common adverbs of,
Adjectives, 87 circumstance,197; degree, 19b;
attributive, 87 quantity, 196; time, 195:
comparison of, with h o y 62, 9 1 ; with common adverbs used with
g u r a i {hod〇 y k u r a i \ 160 comparative expressions, 201;
conditional of, see k e r e b a conditional expressions, 200;
conjugations of, 88-89 negative expressions or ideas,
dictionary form of (conclusive, at 197-98; negative-tentative ex
tributive), 88-89 pressions, 2 0 1 ; positive and
difference between English adjec negative expressions, 198-200;
tives, 87 positive expressions,197; ten
endings: -ai, -ii, -ui, -oi, 87 tative expressions, 200-201
expressions which follow the stems derived from
of the adjectives, 83-86 adjectives,194; copular nouns’
formal level of, 224-25 194; n o u n s,194; verbs, 194-
functions of other than as adjec 95
tives: as adverbs, 89; as nouns, functions o f , 193
89 A g e r u y directional verb, 25, 26, 27,28
ii = y 〇 it 89 Alphabetical list of
k a tta - fo r m , perfective, 88-89 adjective-stem-following expres
k e r e b a t conditional,84, 88-89 sions, 83-86
々M-form，84,89 adverbs, common, 195-97
k u n a iy negative, 84 colloquial expressions, 230-31
k u te - to r m , 84,90 conjunctions, sentence-beginning,
n a sa s d t 85 208-10
negative of, see k u n a i copular noun-following expressions,
non-conjugative, r e n ta is h iy 92 86
perfective tense of, see k a tta copular nouns, 152-53
predicative, 87 counters, 235-41
pronominal, see Non-conjugative interrogative w ords,141
adjectives, 92 noun-following expressions, 156-74
stems of, 83,88-89 noun prefixes
superlative degree of, 91 common, 175-78; honorific, o and
/a-form, see k a tt a - i o r m t 88-89 g〇 y 227—
28
な-form, see 々mな-form, 90 noun suffixes
tenses of, commonly used, 90 common, 182-82; proper nouns:
tentative, 85-89 geographical names, 182-84;
y o i = i i f 89 personal names, 184-85
yosas5, 85 onomatopoeic words, g is e ig o and
Index—Grammar 265
gitaigOy 202-207 “to wear,” 19-20

particles, 93-147 Colors, 87,154
transitive and intransitive verbs, Colloquial expressions, 230-31
ta d d s h i and jid d s h i, 22-24 Comparisons
verb-following expressions, 39-83 Japanese numbers and English
Apposition, particle n o , 127 numbers, 235
Articles, 2 Complement,13
A r u t difference between i r u t 9; Compound words
motsUy 10 adjectives, see expressions which
negative of, 9; Y te ciruy 21-22, 55 follow the stem of the adjectives,
Auxiliary verbs, 38 83-86
directional verbs as auxiliaries, 27 nouns,154
-28 verbs, see expressions which follow
causative verb t e - io r m plus a direc second base of the verbs, 47-60
tional auxiliary verb, 28-29 Conjunctions, 208
functions of, 208
-bat conditional of between adjectives, 210; copular
adjectives, 84, 88-89; copulas,15; nouns, 210; clauses, 210-11;
verbs, 6-12, 81 nouns, 210
Bases, six particles used as, 210-12
adjectives, 88-89; verbs, 6-12; nouns used as, 212
copulas, 15-16；masUy 13; func sentence-beginning, 208-10
tions of, 5-6 Contrasting element
particle to use, w a y 137-38
Cardinal numbers, 233-34 Copular nouns, 152-53
Case, 150,191 expressions which follow copular
Categories of verbs, 3-5 nouns, 86
Causative-passive verb forms, see conjunctions between, 210
Verbs list o f , 153
Causative verb forms, see Verbs Copulas, d a (d e su ), see d a
Change of situation Counters, 235-41
particle to use, «/， 122
Characteristics of D a, copula
copular nouns,152; Japanese sen conjugations of, 15-16； functions
tences, y-vi ； nouns, 150; pro of, 13-14; negative of, 15-16
nouns, 191 D a im e is h i, see Pronoun
Charts D ardy tentative of copula
Chinese zodiacs, 244-45 functions o f , 13,15,19, 61
Christian era, vs. modern Japanese Dates, 241-44
eras, 242 Dative case, see indirect ob ject,122
honorific and humble verb forms, Days of the month, 243-44
220-23 Days of the week, 243
Clauses, relative, 189-90 D e w a y 15-16, 34-35, 59
Clothing, Japanese verbs to use for D e k ir u t see Verb, potential, 43-44
266 Index—Grammar
Demonstrative pronoun, see Pronoun verbs

Derivation of nouns, 154-55 (a ru \
'to be, to exist,” 9-10
D esh o , see d a rd
Desiderative, t a iy 53,107; h o s h i i , 107 ja r u
“to have,” 10
DesUy copular, see d a \ m o t t e ir u
Dictionary forms of, adjectives, 87; fa u
verbs, 3, 7-12 W ru
r」 “t〇 meet，
” 124
Differences between d asut 47
adjectives h a j im e r u t 48
V2 【‘to begin”
fAdj^ | ‘because,” k a k e ru y 48
lAdj3 n o d e (k a ra )) 84-85 n i kakaruy 50
conjunctions m o tte ik u 4<to take sometning'
along”
55
C i 6y “
b— 北” むwrgな认 m “to take someone
along” ；
G 』〇49} ‘‘While” •s h ir uI
. 广 “to know,” 107
nouns [w akaru J
(ko to , 65-66' } “to make,” 10
verb nominalizer
\ n o t 71-72 ,
ir u 4<to need,” consonant-stem
ド， 65- 66} “thing. verb, 4
\m o n 〇y 68
“to be,” vowel-stem verb, 3
way of."ing” k i r u ^to cut/* consonant-stem
d o , ‘
particles verb, 4
[bakariy 60] “to wear,” vowel-stem
“only” verb, 3, 20
\ d a k e y 61 J
(ta b a k a r i y ^ ^ v Q just done...Z，
2；2 }，
，
a t> in ” \ t a to k o r o J 52
phrases
{w a, 137 5} subject marker \k u s e n i, 67]
卜 “ although”
m a d e t 114-15" \ n o n i, 73
m o , 115
sa e t 131-32 { Z 7 e m } ，，h ei〇 le" 67
{r> to,” 103

42]
prefixes j n a i u c h i n i,
卜
“before”
(k o \ u c h i n i y 78
so miscellaneous
92
a ih a zu y 62]
“should”
.do. \b e k i, 61 J
pronouns
k o tc h iy sotchiy a tc h i l v8— )}“bec謙，” 102
{k o c h ir a y s o c h ira , a c h ir a \l ^ 2
k o r e , sore, a re
•ta i ,ta g a r u ,53,107
hoshiiy hoshigarUy 107 J
V*to
want，’
Index—Grammar 267
( a r ig a to g o z a im a s u y*Thank G at particle, 103-108

\ a r i g a td g o z a im a s h ita ) y o \x yf 225 verbs, adjectives, copular nouns,
which take the particle g a t for
{ r : .: 卜 - …” a direct object marker, in place
\ h i g o to n i of o , 106-108
everyday,” 159-60
\m a in ic h i G ise ig o , see Onomatopoeic words
(to as conjunction,134 ' G ita ig o , see Onomatopoeic words
V^-form as conjunction, 54^ G o, see Honorific noun prefix
“and” G o z a r u y see Verb, irregular
j r a s h i i , 1711 Habitual action
appears, like
n a y 170J verb form to u s e ,18
Direct object, particles to use, o, 90, H in s h i, see Parts of Speech
127, w a y 135 Honorific noun prefixes, o, 227-
Directional restrictions of some 29; g o , 227-29; on, m i, g y o t 227
verbs, see Verbs Honorific verb forms
Directional verbs, see Verbs causative-passive, 44, 217-18; irreg
Directional verbs as auxiliaries, see ular, 220-23; passive, 43-44, 217；
Verbs regular, 218, 221,223
D d s k i， s e e V e r b s Hour of the day, 245-46
Double negative expressions, 40-42 Humble verb forms
Double particles irregular, 220, 222 ; regular, 221,223
a particle plus m o, 116-17; a par
ticle plus n o , 127-28; a particle I t, 85, 89
plus w a , 137-38 I k u , 12
Duration of time, 246-47 te -io v m o f , 18; Y te plus ik u , 5d »
potential forms for, 44
Emphatic particles Indirect command, 80
d a k e s h ik a t 98-99; g a , 103; kosot Indirect object
113; m a d e y 114-15; m o , 115; sae, particle to use, n i , 122
131-32; s u r a , 133; to m o , 136; w a , Informal endings
137-38；zo f 138 see Adjectives, dictionary form
see Verbs, dictionary form
Familiar level of speech, 216-17 Informal level of speech, 215-16
Family and relatives In re k iy see Lunar months
how to refer to, 186-88 Interjections, 213-14
Foreign words in Japanese,155 Interrogative words
Formal level of list o f , 1 4 1 ; plus particles: con
adjectives, 224-25; imperatives, 226; venient things to remember,147
nouns, 227-29; nouns of time, -49; k a y 141-42 ; m o plus positive
2 2 9 - 3 1 ;common expressions, verbs, 142-44; m o plus negative
225-26; verbs, 215- 23 verbs, 144-45; Y te {de) m o, 145-47
Fractions, 236 Intransitive verbs, J id o s m
F u k u s h i, see Adverbs list of, 22-24; t e - io r m plus iru, 21-22
Ir a s s h a r u , honorific of ir u , ik u , k u r u .
268 Index一 Grammar
4-5, 220 N a t attributive form of co p u la ,15,

lr u y vowel-stem verb, 3, 7 86,117-18
differences between i r u ond a r u y N a r a , conditional form of copula da ,
9-10; Y te i r u y 56 16, 69, 31-32
I ta d a k u y directional verb, 26, 28 N a r a b a t see n a r a t
N a sa r u y see Verb, irregular
J a = d e w a t 15-16, 231 Negative of
Japanese sentences, how to read, 248 adjectives, see Adjective, conjuga
-52 tions; conditional, 35-36, 42
J o d d s h i, see Auxiliary verbs copulas, see Copula conjugations
T〇 s h it see Particles imperative
n a , sentence-ending particle,117;
K a k k o t see Parentheses, quotation V nai de kudasaiy 40
mark fe-form
K a n d d s h i, see Interjections n a i de, 40; n a k u te , 42
K a iu a ig a r u , 29 Negative suffixes
K e iy o m e ish iy see Copular nouns n \ 40; n a i, 40; n u , 42; zu , 46
K e iy o s h t, see Adjectives M, particle, 121-24
K u d a sa r u y directional verb, 25, 27, verbs and adjectives which should
28 be remembered
K u r e r u t directional verb, 25, 27, 28 with the particle n i t 124-27
K u teriy see punctuation Non-conjugative adjectives, 92
K u r u y see Verb, irregular Nouns
Y te plus k u r u , 56-57 abbreviated, 154-55
K u to te n , see punctuation abstract,151
how to make abstract nouns
Level of formality in speech from adjectives, 85; how to
very familiar, 216-17; form a l,216 make abstract nouns from
(see also honorific and humble copular nouns, 86
verb forms, 217-23); informal, adjectival, see copular nouns
215-16; polite, 216 characteristics o f , 150
Lunar months, 244 derivation of, 154-55
compound,154
M a s u , verb suf&x concrete,150
commonly used form s,13; conjuga copular nouns, 152-53
tion o f , 13; functions o f , 13 different kinds o f , 150-53
M e is h iy see Noun in fo rm ,153
Moamers for Japanese Western,155
adjectives, 194; adverbs, 194; cop numerals, 150-51
ular nouns, 194; nouns, 189- plurals,150
90; verbs, 194-201 oi directions,151-52
Month, lunar, see Lunar months of quantity,151
Months of the year, 243 of generalized tim e,151
M o r a u , directional verb, 26, 28 pseudo-noun, see noun in form
Index—Grammar 269
singular,150 Play, Japanese verbs to use for, 20-21

tru e,154 Plurals of
used as adjectives,152 nouns,150; pronouns,191
used as adverbs, 150-52 Predicate adjectives, 87
Noun-following expression, 156-74 Preface, v-vii
Noun modifiers, 189-90 Prefixes of nouns, see Alphabetical
Noun prefixes, 175-78 list of
Noun suffixes, 179-85 Preposition,1-2
Numbers Present tense, verbs and adjectives,
borrowed from Chinese, 233-34 18
cardinal,234 Probability, d a r d { d e s h o ) , 19, 61
fractions, 236 Progressive tense, V te plus i r u , 18,
Japanese numbers and English 22, 56
numbers, 235 Pronominal adjectives, see Non-con-
original Japanese, 223 jugative adjectives,
ordinal, 234-35 Pronouns
characteristics o f , 191
O, as honorific prefix different kinds
before adjectives, 224-25 direction,192
before nouns, 227-29 interrogative,141
before verbs, 47, 48, 49, 226 person, 191-92
O, particle, 129-30 thing (demonstrative),192
verbs which should be remembered place,192
with the particle o , 130-31 Proper noun suffixes, see Alphabet
Objective case, see direct object ical list of
Onomatopoeic words, g is e ig o and Punctuation, 247
g ita ig o , 202-207
functions of, 200 Question marks, k a 63
Ordinal suffixes, 234 Quotation, direct and indirect, 75
OssharUy honorific of iu , 4, 220 Quotation marks, 247
Parentheses, 247 Relative clause, 189-90

Particles Relative pronoun, 78,189
alphabetical list and usage of, 94- R e n ta is h iy see Non-conjugative adjec
140 tives
functions of, 93 Response to negatively posed ques
omission of, 231 tions, 213
with interrogative words, see Inter
rogative words Sentence structure, v-vi
Parts of speech,1-2 S e ts u b ig o , see Noun suffixes
Passive verb forms, see Verbs S e ts u z o k u s h iy see Conjunctions
Past experience, S e tto g o , see Prefixes
expression to use, 52 S h i r u t 19,107
Perfective tense,18, see also ^-form S h ita u , 29
270 Index—Grammar
Specificity of Japanese verbs in negative suffix, m a i, 39-40, 68

describing an action, 19-21 suffix, m u , 40; n \ 40
Stem verb conjugation, 6-12
adjectives, 83, 87-89; verbs, 7-12 Time
Subject common adverbs of, 195-96
omission of, 3, 249 duration, 246-47
particles to use, g a , 103-104; w a t nouns of, in formal speech, 228-31
137 (see also m o y 115-16; d a k e, 97; of the day, 245-46
d a k e s h ik a t 98-99: for the relative T o , particle, 134-35
clause,どの1 0 4 ;⑽ ， 127 as closing quotation, 75
Subjunctive, 33-4 as conditional,29, 30, 75
contrary to fact, 33-4; desire, 34; verbs, adjectives, copular nouns
hypothetical,33; wish, 34 which should be remembered
Suffixes for with to t 135
adjective stem, see Adjective stem T okiy use of, 32-33
following expressions, 83-86 Topic
copular nouns, see Copular noun particle to use, w a t 137
following expressions, 86 Toteriy see punctuation, 247
nouns, 179-82 Transitive verbs, T a d 〇 s h it 21
proper nouns, 182-84 list of, 22-24
verbs, see Verb-following expres te - io v m plus a r u y 21,55
sions, 39-83 te-form plus i r u f 22 , 56
S u r u , irregular verb, 10-11 Twelve Chinese zodiacal signs, see
conjugation o f , 10; functions of, Zodiacal signs
10-11;potential form of, 44
Syntax, see sentence structure, v Uncertainty
particle to use, k a , 64,109-10
Ta-form, perfective tense, see Verb U y a m a u , 29
T a g a rU y desiderative, 5 3 ,107
Taiy desiderative, 53,107 Verbal adjectives, see Adjectives
T a r a , conditional verb ending, 53 Verbs
TattobU y 29 bases, six, functions of
T e k i, noun suffix, 171-72 V i = m i z e n k e i — first base
Te-form, see Verb = negative base, 5
T e m o , 57 V2= r e n y o k e i = second base
with interrogative word, 57,144-45 = continuative base, 5-6
T e w a t 34-35, 59 r e n ta ik e i
Tenses of |= third base
s h u s h ik e i
adjectives, 90; verbs, 18-19 J attributive basel
Tentative \conclusive base/
adverbs used with negative-tenta = dictionary form, 6
tive expressions, 201 V4= k a te ik e i = fourth base
adverbs used with tentative expres = conditional base, 6
sions, 200-201 V5= m e ir e in e i = fifth base
Index—Grammar 271
= imperative base, 6 imperative form, see conjugations,

V6= s u ir y o k e i = sixth base 7-13
= tentative base, 6 three levels of, 226
categories of, 3-4 intransitive, jid o s h i t 21-24
causative, s a s e r u , s a s u f 44 of directional restrictions, 29
な-form plus directional auxiliary passive, r a r e r u , 43; r e r u , 43-44
verbs, 28-29, 45 for honorific, 43-44, 217
causative-passive, s a s e r a r e r u t sa sa - perfective, see ta - io x m t 16-18, ol-53
reru y 44; s e r a r e r u y s a r e r u t 45 position in the sentence, v-vi
as honorific form, 217-18 potential, 43-44,107
characteristics, 3 consonant-stem, 44
conditional patterns, miscellaneous, exceptions
34-37 m u ：ikarerU y ik e r u , 44
denial of obligation, 36 k ik u ： kikoerU y k ik e r u t 44
obligation, 35-36 m i r u ：m ie r u t m ir a r e r u , 44
permission, 36-37 irregular
prohibition, 34-35 k u r u , 43; su ru y 44
suggestion, 37 vowel-stem, 43
conditionals, 29-32, 81-82 probability,19, 61
differences in functions of progressive form, past and present,
30 ； ^nara(.dattara)f 31-32 J 18-19
V3 to , 29— 30 j taray 31 specificity, 19-21
conjugations subjunctive
copula, d a and d e su , 15-lb contrary to fact, 33-34
consonant-stem, 8-10 hypothesis, 33
exceptions wish, 34
consonant-stem verbs ending /fl-form, perfective tense
with-er^ and i r u y 4 expressions using, 51-53
irregular verbs functions of, 50,189-190, 215
g o z a r u , 12; k u r u f 4,11-12; how to form, 17-18
n a s a r u type, 4,12; s u r u , 4, negative of, 42
10 か-form
suffix, m a s u , 13 expressions using, 54-59
vowel-stem verbs, 7 functions of, 54
desiderative, 52,107 how to form, 16-18
dictionary form, 3, 7-12 plus directional verbs, 27-28
directional negative of, n a i d e y 40; n a k u te ，
kureru ： k u d a s a r u , 25 42
tn o r a u ：ita d a k u , 26-27 of causative verb plus directional
ya ru y a g e r u t 25-26 auxiliary verbs, 28-29
directional, as auxiliaries tenses, 54
Y te k u r e r u ： k u d a s a r u , 27 tentative, 6-16, 82
V te tn o ra u , ita d a k u , 28 transitive, ta d d s h i, 21-24
Vfe y a r u f a g e r u , 27 verb-following expressions after
272 Index—Grammar
first base, 39-46 duration of, 246

second base, 47-60 Word order
third base, 60-81 address,184
fourth base, 81-82 person’s name, 184-85
fifth base, 82 time (date, month, year, etc.), 246
sixth base, 82-83
YarUy directional verb, 25-26, 27-28
W a, particle, 137-38 Yoi = i i y 85, 89
W a k a r u , 107 Zodiacal signs, 244-45
Week, 243
HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPANESE GRAMMAR
口語日本文法便覧
昭和56年 7 月 1 0 日初版発行昭和 58年 10月 2 0 日重版発行
著者 Yoko M. McClain
箱行所黯北星堂書店
找印在.路. 代表者中土順乎
3 丁目 12番地電話東京（
03) 2 9 4 - 3 3 0 1 振替口座東京 8 - 1 6 0 2 4 番
THE HOKUSEIDO PRESS

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ISBN 4-590-00570-0
ISBN 0-89346-149-0
定価2,000 円
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HANDBOOK OF

MODERN JAPANESE GRAMMAR

P u b lish ed b y T h e H oku seid o P ress

The enthusiasm and earnestness of my students at the Univeristy

This book is intended both as a Japanese grammar reference

rest of the words, such as adverbial phrases, is very flexible, and

as こ とにする “ to decide.” This variation also depends

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................*................................... iii

4. Fourth Base .............................. 6

Comparative and Superlative Degrees of Adjectives ................ 91

NON-CONJUG ATIVE ADJECTIVES................................................ 92

5. Japanized Western words............................................. 155

2. Adverbs used only with negative expressions or

ONOMATOPOEIC WORDS {GISEIGO and G ITA IG O ).................202

FORMAL LEVEL OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS................ 215

I. Informal Level..................................................................... 215

APPENDIX I COUNTING SYSTEM.............................................233

The Chinese Zodiac.........................................................................244

According to their uses in sentences, Japanese words are divided

DICTIONARY FORM OF JAPANESE VERBS

JAPANESE VERBS ARE ROUGHLY DIVIDED INTO THREE

the final vow el-五） 下一段活用〈しもいちだんかつよう〉

II. Consonant-stem v e r b s 五段活用〈ごだんかつよう〉

III. Irregular verbs

form of the verbs iruy iku, kuru) 不規則五段活用〈 ふきそくご

CONJUGATIONS OF JAPANESE VERBS

FUNCTIONS OF EACH BASE (The Japanese term, the arbitrary

watakushi wa toshokan de benkyo sh im a sh ita . 弟は家で本を

CONJUGATIONS OF JAPANESE VERBS

-77?¢/ verb, m/rw (m i/ru ) 見 る “ to see”

1. mi -nai, -zu Negative

stem base suffix* arbitrary term

1. tabe -nai, etc. Negative

2. tabe -masu, etc. Continuative

3. tabe ru a. —(desho, daro)

4. tabe re -ba Conditional

II. Consonant-stem verbs

1. kak a -nai, -zu Negative

1. iw a -nai, etc. Negative

stem base suffix* arbitrary term

1. mat a -nai, etc. Negative

2. mach i -masu, etc. Continuative

3. mats u a.—(desho, daro) Conclusive

4. mat e -ba Conditional

ゴ仍 m ( d a s /u ) 出 す “ to take out,” “to mail”

stem base suffix* arbitrary term

1. das a -nai, etc. Negative

2. dash i -masu, etc. Continuative

3. das u a.一 (desho, daro) Conclusive

4. das e -ba Conditional

K oko n i ゐ 你 g a 2•撕 似 • ここに人がいます. “The r e are

III. irregular verbs

3. su ru a.一 (desho, daro) C onclusive

♦For co m p lete su ffix list, s e e pp. 39-83.

home work now.” Kono furui ki o (kitte) maki ni shimashd.

The character should be read ko, kit ku} according to

as ことにする “ to decide.” This variation also depends

the final vow el-五）下一段活用〈しもいちだんかつよう〉

form of the verbs iruy iku, kuru) 不規則五段活用〈ふきそくご

-77?¢/ verb, m/rw (m i/ru ) 見る “ to see”

ゴ仍 m ( d a s /u ) 出す “ to take out,” “to mail”

K oko n i ゐ你 g a 2•撕似 • ここに人がいます. “The r e are

nasaru なさる（honorific form of swrw)

gozaru ござる（polite form of /zrw)

3. kaku kak k changes to i : kaita ( いた ) kaite (いて )

lie , motte imasen. いいえ持っていません .

d irection al verb in d ica tes th a t th e recip ien t is d ecisiv e ly in

III. V& Jm orau もら ( 貰）う

T h e fo llo w in g fou r con d ition al fo rm s a re o fte n u sed in te rc h a n g e

く時ペンがい ( 要）ります . “W hen we w rite a le tte r , we

I. Expressions which follow the First Base 未然形〈みぜんけい〉 of

こらないとは限らない • “It m a y b e th a t su ch a th in g cou ld hap-

1 . sig n of p a ssiv e, e.g. Minna ni warawaremashita. 皆に笑わ

似忍な 0飲 r w させて上げる = - s 似み/ か 0炊 rw -sas^ か fo rm is m ore

II. Expressions which follow the Second Base 連用形〈れんようけい〉

-々か谷切れる run out of, e.g. Kino uridashita no nit mo urikire-

2. though, e.g. Shitte inagara nani mo iimascn dcshita. 知って

-sd mo nai そうも ts：、、 = -s o ni nai it lo o k s a s if one w o n ’t e v e n

•ta [-dd) ga saigo すこが最'後 = -か， 0 似 /卵 o n c e you d o . ••, e.g.