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CH2-Signals and Signal Space

This document discusses signals and signal processing concepts. It defines different types of signals such as continuous-time and discrete-time signals, analog and digital signals, periodic and aperiodic signals, energy and power signals, and deterministic and random signals. It also covers signal properties like energy, power, orthogonality, and correlation. Key signal processing topics summarized include Fourier series representation of signals, and exponential Fourier series.

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Ali Alluwaimi
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61 views75 pages

CH2-Signals and Signal Space

This document discusses signals and signal processing concepts. It defines different types of signals such as continuous-time and discrete-time signals, analog and digital signals, periodic and aperiodic signals, energy and power signals, and deterministic and random signals. It also covers signal properties like energy, power, orthogonality, and correlation. Key signal processing topics summarized include Fourier series representation of signals, and exponential Fourier series.

Uploaded by

Ali Alluwaimi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER 2

SIGNALS AND SIGNAL


SPACE
Signals

 A signal is a set of information or


data. Examples include a telephone,
a television signal, voice signal, and
transfer email.
 The signals are functions of

independent variable time (not


always the case (maybe space)).
Systems
 Signals may be processed further by
systems.
 A system processes a set of signals (inputs)
to yield another set of signals (outputs).
 A system may be made of hardware (e.g.
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic systems) or
software (e.g. algorithm that computes an
output from an input signal).
Signal Energy
 The signal energy Eg of the real signal is defined
as:

 The signal energy of the complex signal is defined


as:
Signal Energy
 The signal energy must be finite for it to be a
meaningful measure of the signal size.
 A necessary condition for the energy to be finite is
that the signal amplitude goes to zero as the time t
goes to infinity.

amplitude of g(t)  zero as t  


Example of Signal Energy

Signal with finite energy


Signal Power
 If the amplitude of g(t) does not goes to zero as t
goes to infinity, the signal energy is infinite. Then a
more meaningful measure of the signal size in such
a case would be the time average of the energy.
 The average power of the real signal is:
Signal Power
 The average power of the complex signal is:

 Signalpower Pg is the time average (mean) of the signal


amplitude squared, that is the mean-squared value of g(t).

 Square root of Pg is the root mean square (rms) value of


g(t).
Signal Power Example

Signal power is finite


Example
Solution
 The suitable measurement of the signal in (a) signal
is the energy
Solution
 The suitable measurement for the signal in (b) is the
signal power

1
3

The RMS of the power signal equal to


1
3
Example
Solution
Part (a)

C 2 T  C 2
limT  
2T  2
C
rms value 
2
Solution
 Part (b)
Solution
 Part (c)
CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals.
 Analog and digital signals.
 Periodic and aperiodic signals.
 Energy and power signals.
 Deterministic and probabilistic signals.
Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

 A signal that is specified for every value of time t is


a continuous time signal (e.g. audio and video
recordings).
 A signal that is specified only at discrete points of

t = nT is a discrete time signal (e.g. gross domestic


product (GDP)).
Analog and Digital Signals
 Analog signals and continuous time signals are not
the same.
 Digital signals and discrete time signals are not the
same.
 A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in
a continuous range is an analog signal.
 A signal whose amplitude can take only a finite
number of values is a digital signal.
Analog and Digital Signals
 Continuous time and discrete time qualify the
nature of signal along the time axis (horizontal
axis).
 Analog and digital qualify the nature of the signal
amplitude axis (vertical axis).
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
 A signal g(t) is periodic if there exists a positive
constant T0 such that
𝑔 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑡 + 𝑇0 , for all t

Periodic Aperiodic
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
 A periodic signal g(t) remains unchanged when
time shifted by one period.
 A periodic signal must start at 𝑡 = −∞ because if it
starts at some finite instant, say, t = 0, the time-
shifted signal g(t + T0) will start at t = -T0 and g(t
+ T0) would not be the same as g(t).
 A periodic signal must start from −∞ and continue
forever.
Energy and Power Signals
 A signal with finite energy is an energy signal and
has zero power.
 A signal with finite power is a power signal and
has infinite energy.
 A signal cannot be both an energy and a power
signal.
 Some signals with infinite power are neither energy
nor power signal (e.g. ramp signal g(t) = t).
Deterministic and Random Signals
 A signal whose physical description is known
completely mathematically and graphically is a
deterministic signal.
 A signal that is known in terms of probabilistic
description (e.g. mean value, mean square value,
distributions) is a random signal (e.g. noise).
UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION
Multiplication of a Function by an
Impulse
Sampling Property of the Unit
Impulse Function
Unit Step Function u(t)
Signals versus Vectors
 A vector can be represented as a sum of its
components in a variety of ways, depending on the
choice of coordinate system.
 Signals that are defined for only a finite number of
time instants (say N) can be written as vectors (of
dimension N).
 A signal can also be represented as a sum of its
components in a variety of ways.
Component of a Vector
 Consider two vectors g and x, as shown in Figure
below.
 Let the component of g along x be cx.
Geometrically, the component of g along x is the
projection of g on x.
Approximation of a Vector in Terms of
Another Vector
 Other infinite possibilities of decomposing g in terms
of x and e.
Which is the “best” decomposition?
 g is given in terms of x plus another vector e called
the error vector.
 The error vectors are e, e1, e2.
 The approximation in e is unique because its error
vector is the shortest (with the smallest magnitude or
norm).
Error Vector
 Error vector can be defined as

e  g  cx
 The objective is to minimize the error such that

g  cx
 The inner product between two vectors g and x

g.x  g x cos 
 The magnitude of the component g along x is
Error Vector

 Multiply both sides by x yields to

 If c = 0, g.x = 0.
so g and x are orthogonal
Two vectors are orthogonal if the dot product of the
two vectors equals zero
Decomposition of a Signal and Signal
Components
 Consider the problem of approximating a real
signal g(t) in terms of another real signal x(t) over
an interval [t1,t2]
Decomposition of a Signal and Signal
Components
 For best approximation, we need to minimize the
error signal, minimize its norm, corresponding to
minimum energy, Ee.
Energy of Error Signal

To minimize Ee, the necessary condition is


Energy of Error Signal

We observe a remarkable similarity between the


behavior of vectors and signals
Summary
 if a signal g(t) is approximated by another signal
x(t) as

then the optimum value of c that minimizes the


energy of the error signal in this approximation
is given by

c = 0 means the signals g(t) and x(t) are


orthogonal over the interval [t1,t2]
Example
Solution
Complex Signal Space and
Orthogonality

g(t) and x(t) are complex

Recall:
Complex Signal Space and
Orthogonality
Two complex function x1(t) and x2(t) are orthogonal
over an interval [t1,t2] as long as
Energy of the Sum of Orthogonal
Signals
 If signals x(t) and y(t) are orthogonal over
an interval [t1, t2], and if z(t) = x(t) + y(t), then
Correlation of Signals
 Correlation is how we recognize the desired signal
 The magnitude of the correlation coefficient is never
greater than unity.

cn (or ρ) is known as the correlation coefficient


Correlation of Signals
 If two vectors are aligned, the correlation
coefficient is maximum (cn = 1)
 If two vectors are aligned in opposite directions, the
correlation coefficient is −1.
 If two vectors are orthogonal, the correlation
coefficient is zero.
Correlation and Orthogonality
 Correlation and orthogonality are of a fundamental
importance in the communication system s such as
- Code division multiple access scheme (CDMA): “a channel
access method used by various radio communication
technologies.”
- Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM): “a
method of encoding digital data on
multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a
popular scheme for wideband digital communication, used in
applications such as digital television and audio
broadcasting, DSL internet access, wireless networks, power
line networks, and 4G mobile communications.”
Example
Solution
Solution
Correlation Function
 Consider the application of correlation to signal
detection in a radar unit.
 A signal pulse is transmitted to detect a suspect
target.
 By detecting the presence or absence of the
reflected pulse, presence and absence is confirmed.
 By measuring the time delay between Tx and Rx
pulse, the distance of target is determined.
Correlation Function
 If transmitted pulse is g(t), and received pulse is z(t)

 Correlation is zero because pulses are disjoint


(nonoverlapping in time).
 The integral yield zero even when the pulses are
identical but with relative time shift.
 The cross-correlation function of two real signals g(t)
and z(t), is defined by
Correlation Function

For complex signals


Autocorrelation Function
 The correlation of a signal with itself
Trigonometric Fourier Series
 Consider a signal set:
Trigonometric Fourier Series
 A signal g(t) can be expressed by a trigonometric
series over the interval of duration T0 seconds as:
Trigonometric Fourier Series
Trigonometric Fourier Series
 Compact Trigonometric Fourier Series
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
Exponential Fourier Series
Example
Solution
Solution
Exponential Fourier Spectra
 In exponential spectra, Dn coefficients are plotted
as a function of ω.
 Two plots are needed since Dn is complex: real and
imaginary parts or the amplitude and angle.
Solution to Previous Example with
Exponential Fourier Spectra
Solution to Previous Example with
Exponential Fourier Spectra
Example
Solution
Solution

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