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2017 Euclid Contest

Thursday, April 6, 2017

(in North America and South America)

Friday, April 7, 2017

(outside of North America and South America)

Solutions

©2017 University of Waterloo

2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 2

1. (a) Since 5(2) + 3(3) = 19, then the pair of positive integers that satisfies 5a + 3b = 19 is
(a, b) = (2, 3).
(b) We list the first several powers of 2 in increasing order:

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
n
2 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048

Each power of 2 can be found by multiplying the previous power by 2.

From the table, the smallest power of 2 greater than 5 is 23 = 8 and the largest power of
2 less than 2017 is 210 = 1024. Since 2n increases as n increases, there can be no further
powers in this range.
Therefore, the values of n for which 5 < 2n < 2017 are n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.
There are 8 such values of n.
(c) Each of the 600 Euros that Jimmy bought cost $1.50.
Thus, buying 600 Euros cost 600 × $1.50 = $900.
When Jimmy converted 600 Euros back into dollars, the rate was $1.00 = 0.75 Euro.
$1.00 $600
Therefore, Jimmy received 600 Euros × = = $800.
0.75 Euros 0.75
Thus, Jimmy had $900 − $800 = $100 less than he had before these two transactions.

6 0 and x 6= 1, we can multiply both sides of the given equation by x(x − 1) to

2. (a) Since x =
5x(x − 1) x(x − 1) x(x − 1)
obtain = + or 5 = (x − 1) + x.
x(x − 1) x x−1
Thus, 5 = 2x − 1 and so 2x = 6 or x = 3. This means that x = 3 is the only solution.
(We can substitute x = 3 into the original equation to verify that this is indeed a solution.)
(b) The sum of the entries in the second column is 20 + 4 + (−12) = 12.
This means that the sum of the entries in each row, in each column, and on each diagonal
is 12.
In the first row, we have 0 + 20 + a = 12 and so a = −8.
On the “top left to bottom right” diagonal, we have 0 + 4 + b = 12 and so b = 8.
In the third column, we have entries a = −8 and b = 8 whose sum is 0. Thus, the third
entry must be 12.
Finally, in the second row, we have c + 4 + 12 = 12 and so c = −4.
In summary, a = −8, b = 8, and c = −4.
We can complete the magic square to obtain:

0 20 −8

−4 4 12

16 −12 8
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 3

(c) (i) If 1002 − n2 = 9559, then 2 2

√ n = 100 − 9559 = 10 000 − 9559 = 441.
Since n > 0, then n = 441 = 21.
(ii) From (i), 9559 = 1002 − 212 .
Factoring the right side as a difference of squares, we see that

9559 = (100 + 21)(100 − 21) = 121 · 79

Therefore, (a, b) = (121, 79) satisfies the conditions.

(In addition, the pairs (a, b) = (79, 121), (869, 11), (11, 869) satisfy the conditions. The
last two of these pairs cannot be obtained in the same way.)

3. (a) The area of quadrilateral ABCD is the sum of the areas of 4ABC and 4ACD.
Since 4ABC is right-angled at B, its area equals 21 (AB)(BC) = 21 (3)(4) = 6.
Since 4ABC is right-angled at B, then by the Pythagorean Theorem,
√ √ √
AC = AB 2 + BC 2 = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5

because AC > 0. (We could have also observed that 4ABC must be a “3-4-5” triangle.)
Since 4ACD is right-angled at A, then by the Pythagorean Theorem,
√ √ √
AD = CD2 − AC 2 = 132 − 52 = 144 = 12

because AD > 0. (We could have also observed that 4ACD must be a “5-12-13” triangle.)
Thus, the area of 4ACD equals 12 (AC)(AD) = 21 (5)(12) = 30.
Finally, the area of quadrilateral ABCD is thus 6 + 30 = 36.
(b) Let the width of each of the identical rectangles be a.
In other words, QP = RS = T W = W X = U V = V Y = a.
Let the height of each of the identical rectangles be b.
In other words, QR = P S = T U = W V = XY = b.
The perimeter of the whole shape equals

QP + P S + SX + XY + V Y + U V + T U + T R + QR

Substituting for known lengths, we obtain

a + b + SX + b + a + a + b + T R + b

or 3a + 4b + (SX + T R).
But SX + T R = (T R + RS + SX) − RS = (T W + W X) − RS = a + a − a = a.
Therefore, the perimeter of the whole shape equals 4a + 4b.
The perimeter of one rectangle is 2a + 2b, which we are told equals 21 cm.
Finally, the perimeter of the whole shape is thus 2(2a + 2b) which equals 42 cm.
(c) Solution 1
Suppose that the rectangular prism has dimensions a cm by b cm by c cm.
Suppose further that one of the faces that is a cm by b cm is the face with area 27 cm2
and that one of the faces that is a cm by c cm is the face with area 32 cm2 . (Since every
pair of non-congruent faces shares exactly one side length, there is no loss of generality in
picking these particular variables for these faces.)
Therefore, ab = 27 and ac = 32.
Further, we are told that the volume of the prism is 144 cm3 , and so abc = 144.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 4

a2 b 2 c 2 (abc)2 1442
Thus, bc = = = = 24.
a2 bc (ab)(ac) (27)(32)
(We could also note that abc = 144 means a2 b2 c2 = 1442 or (ab)(ac)(bc) = 1442 and so
1442
bc = .)
(27)(32)
In other words, the third type of face of the prism has area 24 cm2 .
Thus, since the prism has two faces of each type, the surface area of the prism is equal to
2(27 cm2 + 32 cm2 + 24 cm2 ) or 166 cm2 .

Solution 2
Suppose that the rectangular prism has dimensions a cm by b cm by c cm.
Suppose further that one of the faces that is a cm by b cm is the face with area 27 cm2
and that one of the faces that is a cm by c cm is the face with area 32 cm2 . (Since every
pair of non-congruent faces shares exactly one side length, there is no loss of generality in
picking these particular variables for these faces.)
Therefore, ab = 27 and ac = 32.
Further, we are told that the volume of the prism is 144 cm3 , and so abc = 144.
Since abc = 144 and ab = 27, then c = 14427
= 16
3
.
Since abc = 144 and ac = 32, then b = 14432
= 92 .
This means that bc = 16 3
· 92 = 24.
In cm2 , the surface area of the prism equals 2ab + 2ac + 2bc = 2(27) + 2(32) + 2(24) = 166.
Thus, the surface area of the prism is 166 cm2 .

4. (a) Solution 1
We expand the right sides of the two equations, collecting like terms in each case:

y = a(x − 2)(x + 4) = a(x2 + 2x − 8) = ax2 + 2ax − 8a

y = 2(x − h)2 + k = 2(x2 − 2hx + h2 ) + k = 2x2 − 4hx + (2h2 + k)

Since these two equations represent the same parabola, then the corresponding coefficients
must be equal. That is, a = 2 and 2a = −4h and −8a = 2h2 + k.
Since a = 2 and 2a = −4h, then 4 = −4h and so h = −1.
Since −8a = 2h2 + k and a = 2 and h = −1, then −16 = 2 + k and so k = −18.
Thus, a = 2, h = −1, and k = −18.

Solution 2
From the equation y = a(x − 2)(x + 4), we can find the axis of symmetry by calculating
the midpoint of the x-intercepts.
Since the x-intercepts are 2 and −4, the axis of symmetry is at x = 21 (2 + (−4)) = −1.
Since the vertex of the parabola lies on the axis of symmetry, then the x-coordinate of the
vertex is −1.
To find the y-coordinate of the vertex, we substitute x = −1 back into the equation
y = a(x − 2)(x + 4) to obtain y = a(−1 − 2)(−1 + 4) = −9a.
Thus, the vertex of the parabola is (−1, −9a).
Since the second equation for the same parabola is in vertex form, y = 2(x − h)2 + k, we
can see that the vertex is at (h, k) and a = 2.
Since a = 2, the vertex has coordinates (−1, −18), which means that h = −1 and k = −18.
Thus, a = 2, h = −1 and k = −18.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 5

(b) Let the common difference in this arithmetic sequence be d.

Since the first term in the sequence is 5, then the 5 terms are 5, 5 + d, 5 + 2d, 5 + 3d, 5 + 4d.
From the given information, 52 + (5 + d)2 + (5 + 2d)2 = (5 + 3d)2 + (5 + 4d)2 .
Manipulating, we obtain the following equivalent equations:

52 + (5 + d)2 + (5 + 2d)2 = (5 + 3d)2 + (5 + 4d)2

25 + (25 + 10d + d2 ) + (25 + 20d + 4d2 ) = (25 + 30d + 9d2 ) + (25 + 40d + 16d2 )
75 + 30d + 5d2 = 50 + 70d + 25d2
0 = 20d2 + 40d − 25
0 = 4d2 + 8d − 5
0 = (2d + 5)(2d − 1)

Therefore, d = − 25 or d = 12 .
These give possible fifth terms of 5 + 4d = 5 + 4(− 25 ) = −5 and 5 + 4d = 5 + 4( 12 ) = 7.
(We note that, for these two values of d, the sequences are 5, 52 , 0, − 52 , −5 and 5, 11
2
, 6, 13
2
, 7.)

5. (a) First, we determine the perfect squares between 1300 and 1400 and between 1400 and
1500. √
Since 1300 ≈ 36.06, then the first perfect square larger than 1300 is 372 = 1369.
The next perfect squares are 382 = 1444 and 392 = 1521.
Since Dan was born between 1300 and 1400 in a year that was a perfect square, then Dan
was born in 1369.
Since Steve was born between 1400 and 1500 in a year that was a perfect square, then
Steve was born in 1444.
Suppose that on April 7 in some year, Dan was m2 years old and Steve was n2 years old
for some positive integers m and n. Thus, Dan was m2 years old in the year 1369 + m2
and Steve was n2 years old in the year 1444 + n2 .
Since these represent the same years, then 1369 + m2 = 1444 + n2 , or m2 − n2 = 1444 −
1369 = 75.
In other words, we want to find two perfect squares less than 110 (since their ages are less
than 110) whose difference is 75.
The perfect squares less than 110 are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100.
The two that differ by 75 are 100 and 25.
Thus, m2 = 100 and n2 = 25.
This means that the year in which the age of each of Dan and Steve was a perfect square
was the year 1369 + 100 = 1469.
(b) Solution 1
4ABC is right-angled exactly when one of the following statements is true:
• AB is perpendicular to BC, or
• AB is perpendicular to AC, or
• AC is perpendicular to BC.
Since A(1, 2) and B(11, 2) share a y-coordinate, then AB is horizontal.
For AB and BC to be perpendicular, BC must be vertical.
Thus, B(11, 2) and C(k, 6) must have the same x-coordinate, and so k = 11.
For AB and AC to be perpendicular, AC must be vertical.
Thus, A(1, 2) and C(k, 6) must have the same x-coordinate, and so k = 1.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 6

For AC to be perpendicular to BC, their slopes must have a product of −1.

6−2 4
The slope of AC is , which equals .
k−1 k−1
6−2 4
The slope of BC is , which equals .
k − 11 k − 11
4 4
Thus, AC and BC are perpendicular when · = −1.
k − 1 k − 11
Assuming that k 6= 1 and k 6= 11, we manipulate to obtain 16 = −(k − 1)(k − 11) or
16 = −k 2 + 12k − 11 or k 2 − 12k + 27 = 0.
Factoring, we obtain (k − 3)(k − 9) = 0 and so AC and BC are perpendicular when k = 3
or k = 9.
In summary, 4ABC is right-angled when k equals one of 1, 3, 9, 11.

Solution 2
4ABC is right-angled exactly when its three side lengths satisfy the Pythagorean Theo-
rem in some orientation. That is, 4ABC is right-angled exactly when AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2
or AB 2 + AC 2 = BC 2 or AC 2 + BC 2 = AB 2 .
Using A(1, 2) and B(11, 2), we obtain AB 2 = (11 − 1)2 + (2 − 2)2 = 100.
Using A(1, 2) and C(k, 6), we obtain AC 2 = (k − 1)2 + (6 − 2)2 = (k − 1)2 + 16.
Using B(11, 2) and C(k, 6), we obtain BC 2 = (k − 11)2 + (6 − 2)2 = (k − 11)2 + 16.
Using the Pythagorean relationships above, 4ABC is right-angled when one of the fol-
lowing is true:
(i)

100 + ((k − 11)2 + 16) = (k − 1)2 + 16

100 + k 2 − 22k + 121 + 16 = k 2 − 2k + 1 + 16
220 = 20k
k = 11

(ii)

100 + ((k − 1)2 + 16) = (k − 11)2 + 16

100 + k 2 − 2k + 1 + 16 = k 2 − 22k + 121 + 16
20k = 20
k=1

(iii)

((k − 1)2 + 16) + ((k − 11)2 + 16) = 100

k 2 − 2k + 1 + 16 + k 2 − 22k + 121 + 16 = 100
2k 2 − 24k + 54 = 0
k 2 − 12k + 27 = 0
(k − 3)(k − 9) = 0

and so k = 3 or k = 9.
In summary, 4ABC is right-angled when k equals one of 1, 3, 9, 11.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 7

6. (a) Extend CA and DB downwards until they meet the horizontal through O at P and Q,
respectively. D
C

A B

30° 45°
P O Q

Since CA and DB are vertical, then ∠CP O = ∠DQO = 90◦ .

Since OA = 20 m, then AP = OA sin 30◦ = (20 m) · 21 = 10 m.
√
Since OB = 20 m, then BQ = OB sin 45◦ = (20 m) · √12 = 10 2 m.
Since AC = 6 m, then CP = AC + AP = 16 m.
For CD to be as short as possible and given that C is fixed, then it must be the case that
CD is horizontal:
If CD were not horizontal, then suppose that X is on DQ, possibly extended, so
that CX is horizontal.
D
C
X
A B

30° 45°
P O Q
Then ∠CXD = 90◦ and so 4CXD is right-angled with hypotenuse CD.
In this case, CD is longer than CX or XD.
In particular, CD > CX, which means that if D were at X, then CD would be
shorter.
In other words, a horizontal CD makes CD as short as possible.
When CD is horizontal, CDQP is a rectangle, since it has two vertical and two horizontal
sides. Thus, DQ = CP = 16 m. √
Finally, this means that BD = DQ − BQ = (16 − 10 2) m.
sin θ
(b) Since tan θ = , then we assume that cos θ 6= 0.
cos θ
Therefore, we obtain the following equivalent equations:
cos θ = tan θ
sin θ
cos θ =
cos θ
2
cos θ = sin θ
1 − sin2 θ = sin θ
0 = sin2 θ + sin θ − 1
Let u = sin θ. This quadratic equation becomes u2 + u − 1 = 0.
p √
−1 ± 12 − 4(1)(−1) −1 ± 5
By the quadratic formula, u = = .
√ 2(1) √ 2
−1 + 5 −1 − 5
Therefore, sin θ = ≈ 0.62 or sin θ = ≈ −1.62.
2 2 √
−1 + 5
Since −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1, then the second solution is inadmissible. Thus, sin θ = .
2
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 8

7. (a) Solution 1
Suppose that the trains are travelling at v km/h.
Consider two consecutive points in time at which the car is passed by a train.
Since these points are 10 minutes apart, and 10 minutes equals 61 hour, and the car travels
at 60 km/h, then the car travels (60 km/h) · ( 16 h) = 10 km.
During these 10 minutes, each train travels 16 v km, since its speed is v km/h.
At the first instance, Train A and the car are next to each other.
At this time, Train B is “3 minutes” behind Train A.
Train B Train A

Car
10 km
Train B Train A
Car

1 1
Since 3 minutes is 20 hour, then Train B is 20 v km behind Train A and the car.
Therefore, the distance from the location of Train B at the first instance to the location
1
where it passes the car is ( 20 v + 10) km.
But this distance also equals 16 v km, since Train B travels for 10 minutes.
Thus, 61 v = 20
1 10
v + 10 or 60 3
v − 60 7
v = 10 and so 60 v = 10 or v = 600
7
.
600
Therefore, the trains are travelling at 7 km/h.

Solution 2
Suppose that the trains are travelling at v km/h.
Consider the following three points in time: the instant when the car and Train A are next
to each other, the instant when Train B is at the same location that the car and Train
A were at in the previous instant, and the instant when the car and Train B are next to
each other.
Train B Train A
Car

Train B Train A
Car
Train B Train A
Car

From the first instant to the second, Train B “catches up” to where Train A was, so this
must take a total of 3 minutes, because the trains leave the station 3 minutes apart.
3
Since 3 minutes equals 60 hour and the car travels at 60 km/h, then the car travels
3
(60 km/h) · ( 60 h) = 3 km between these two instants.
From the first instant to the third, 10 minutes passes, since these are consecutive points
at which the car is passed by trains. In 10 minutes, the car travels 10 km.
Therefore, between the second and third instants, 10 − 3 = 7 minutes pass. During these
7 minutes, Train B travels 10 km.
Since 7 minutes equals 607
hour, then v km/h = 10 km = 600 km/h, and so the trains are
7/60 h 7
travelling at 600
7
km/h.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 9

(b) From the first equation, we note that a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0, since the argument of a square
root must be non-negative.
From the second equation, we note that a > 0 and b > 0, since the argument of a logarithm
must be positive.
Combining these restrictions, we see that a > 0 and b > 0.
From the equation log10 a + log10 b = 2, we obtain log10 (ab) = 2 and so ab = 102 = 100.
From the first equation, obtain
√ √
( a + b)2 = 82
√
a + 2 ab + b = 64
√
a + 2 100 + b = 64
√
a + b = 64 − 2 100 = 44

Since a + b = 44, then b = 44 − a.

Since ab = 100, then a(44 − a) = 100 or 44a − a2 = 100 and so 0 = a2 − 44a + 100.
By the quadratic formula,
√ √
√
p
44 ± 442 − 4(1)(100) 44 ± 1536 44 ± 16 6
a= = = = 22 ± 8 6
2·1 2 2
√ √
Since b = 44 − a, then b = 44 − (22 ± 8 6) = 22 ∓ 8 6.
√ √ √ √
Therefore, (a, b) = (22√+ 8 6, 22 − 8 6)√or (a, b) = (22 − 8 6, 22 + 8 6).
(We note that 22 + 8 6 > 0 and 22 − 8 6 > 0, so the initial restrictions on a and b are
satisfied.)
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 10

8. (a) Let ∠P EQ = θ.
Join P to B.
We use the fact that the angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord in that circle
that passes through the point of tangency equals the angle inscribed by that chord. We
prove this fact below.
More concretely, ∠DEP = ∠P BE (using the chord EP and the tangent through E) and
∠ABP = ∠P EQ = θ (using the chord BP and the tangent through B).
Now ∠DEP is exterior to 4F EP and so ∠DEP = ∠F P E + ∠EF P = 25◦ + 30◦ , and so
∠P BE = ∠DEP = 55◦ .
Furthermore, ∠AQB is an exterior angle of 4P QE.
Thus, ∠AQB = ∠QP E + ∠P EQ = 25◦ + θ.
A

35° P D

25°
θ 55°
θ + 25° θ
B
55° E
Q

R 30°

C
F

In 4ABQ, we have ∠BAQ = 35◦ , ∠ABQ = θ + 55◦ , and ∠AQB = 25◦ + θ.

Thus, 35◦ + (θ + 55◦ ) + (25◦ + θ) = 180◦ or 115◦ + 2θ = 180◦ , and so 2θ = 65◦ .
Therefore ∠P EQ = θ = 12 (65◦ ) = 32.5◦ .

As an addendum, we prove that the angle between a tangent to a circle and a chord in
that circle that passes through the point of tangency equals the angle inscribed by that
chord.
Consider a circle with centre O and a chord XY , with tangent W V
ZX meeting the circle at X. We prove that if ZX is tangent to
the circle, then ∠ZXY equals ∠XW Y whenever W is a point on
the circle on the opposite side of XY as XZ (that is, the angle O
subtended by XY on the opposite side of the circle). Y
We prove this in the case that ∠ZXY is acute. The cases where
∠ZXY is a right angle or an obtuse angle are similar. X
Draw diameter XOV and join V Y . Z
Since ∠ZXY is acute, points V and W are on the same arc of chord XY .
This means that ∠XV Y = ∠XW Y , since they are angles subtended by the same chord.
Since OX is a radius and XZ is a tangent, then ∠OXZ = 90◦ .
Thus, ∠OXY + ∠ZXY = 90◦ .
Since XV is a diameter, then ∠XY V = 90◦ .
From 4XY V , we see that ∠XV Y + ∠V XY = 90◦ .
But ∠OXY + ∠ZXY = 90◦ and ∠XV Y + ∠V XY = 90◦ and ∠OXY = ∠V XY tells us
that ∠ZXY = ∠XV Y .
This gives us that ∠ZXY = ∠XW Y , as required.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 11

(b) Solution 1
Draw a line segment through M in the plane of 4P M N parallel to P N and extend this
line until it reaches the plane through P , A and D at Q on one side and the plane through
N , B and C at R on the other side.
Join Q to P and A. Join R to N and B.
P N
Q
M R

C
D

A B

So the volume of solid ABCDP M N equals the volume of solid ABCDP QRN minus the
volumes of solids P M QA and N M RB.
Solid ABCDP QRN is a trapezoidal prism. This is because N R and BC are parallel
(since they lie in parallel planes), which makes N RBC a trapezoid. Similarly, P QAD is
a trapezoid. Also, P N , QR, DC, and AB are all perpendicular to the planes of these
trapezoids and equal in length, since they equal the side lengths of the squares.
Solids P M QA and N M RB are triangular-based pyramids. We can think of their bases as
being 4P M Q and 4N M R. Their heights are each equal to 2, the height of the original
solid. (The volume of a triangular-based pyramid equals 13 times the area of its base times
its height.)
The volume of ABCDP QRN equals the area of trapezoid N RBC times the width of the
prism, which is 2.
That is, this volume equals 21 (N R + BC)(N C)(N P ) = 12 (N R + 2)(2)(2) = 2 · N R + 4.
So we need to find the length of N R.
Consider quadrilateral P N RQ. This quadrilateral is a rectangle since P N and QR are
perpendicular to the two side planes of the original solid.
Thus, N R equals the height of 4P M N .
Join M to the midpoint T of P N .
Since 4P M N is isosceles, then M T is perpendicular to P N .
M

P N
T

Since N T = 12 P N = 1 and ∠P M N = 90◦ and ∠T N M = 45◦ , then 4M T N is also

right-angled and isosceles with M T = T N = 1.
Therefore, N R = M T = 1 and so the volume of ABCDP QRN is 2 · 1 + 4 = 6.
The volumes of solids P M QA and N M RB are equal. Each has height 2 and their bases
4P M Q and 4N M R are congruent, because each is right-angled (at Q and at R) with
P Q = N R = 1 and QM = M R = 1.
Thus, using the formula above, the volume of each is 31 ( 12 (1)(1))2 = 31 .
Finally, the volume of the original solid equals 6 − 2 · 13 = 16
3
.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 12

Solution 2
We determine the volume of ABCDP M N by splitting it into two solids: ABCDP N and
ABN P M by slicing along the plane of ABN P .
Solid ABCDP N is a triangular prism, since 4BCN and 4ADP are each right-angled
(at C and D), BC = CN = AD = DP = 2, and segments P N , DC and AB are perpen-
dicular to each of the triangular faces and equal in length.
Thus, the volume of ABCDP N equals the area of 4BCN times the length of DC, or
1
2
(BC)(CN )(DC) = 12 (2)(2)(2) = 4. (This solid can also be viewed as “half” of a cube.)
Solid ABN P M is a pyramid with rectangular base ABN P . (Note that P N and AB are
perpendicular to the planes of both
√ of the side√triangular faces of the original solid, that
P N = AB = 2 and BN = AP = 22 + 22 = 2 2, by the Pythagorean Theorem.)
√
Therefore, the volume of ABN P M equals 31 (AB)(BN )h = 4 3 2 h, where h is the height of
the pyramid (that is, the distance that M is above plane ABN P ).
So we need to calculate h. P T N
Join M to the midpoint, T , of P N and to the midpoint, S,
of AB. Join S and T . By symmetry, M lies directly above ST . M
Since ABN P is a rectangle and S√and T are the midpoints of
opposite sides, then ST = AP = 2 2.
Since 4P M N is right-angled and isosceles, then M T is perpen-
dicular to P N . Since N T = 12 P N = 1 and ∠T N M = 45◦ , then
4M T N is also right-angled and isosceles with M T = T N = 1.
A S B
Also, M S is the hypotenuse of the triangle formed by dropping P N
a perpendicular from M to U in the plane of ABCD (a distance
of 2) and joining U to S. Since M is 1 unit horizontally from M
P N , then U S√= 1. √
Thus, M S = 22 + 12 = 5 by the Pythagorean Theorem.
D C
U
A S B
We can now consider 4SM T . h is the height of this triangle, from M to base ST .
M
1
h
S T

Now h = M T sin(∠M T S) = sin(∠M T S).

By the cosine law in 4SM T , we have
M S 2 = ST 2 + M T 2 − 2(ST )(M T ) cos(∠M T S)
√ √
Therefore, 5 = 8 + 1 − 4 2 cos(∠M T S) or 4 2 cos(∠M T S) = 4.
Thus, cos(∠M T S) = √12 and so ∠M T S = 45◦ which gives h = sin(∠M T S) = √12 .
(Alternatively, we note that the plane of ABCD is parallel to the plane of P M N , and so
since the angle between plane ABCD and plane P N BA is 45◦ , then the angle between
plane P N BA and plane P M N is also 45◦ , and so ∠M√T S = 45◦ .)
Finally, this means that the volume of ABN P M is 4 3 2 · √12 = 34 , and so the volume of
solid ABCDP M N is 4 + 34 = 16 3
.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 13

9. (a) There are 4! = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24 permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4.

This is because there are 4 possible choices for a1 , and for each of these there are 3 possible
choices for a2 , and for each of these there are 2 possible choices for a3 , and then 1 possible
choice for a4 .
Consider the permutation a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3, a4 = 4. (We write this as 1,2,3,4.)
Here, |a1 − a2 | + |a3 − a4 | = |1 − 2| + |3 − 4| = 1 + 1 = 2.
This value is the same as the value for each of 2,1,3,4 and 1,2,4,3 and 2,1,4,3 and 3,4,1,2
and 4,3,1,2 and 3,4,2,1 and 4,3,2,1.
Consider the permutation 1,3,2,4.
Here, |a1 − a2 | + |a3 − a4 | = |1 − 3| + |2 − 4| = 2 + 2 = 4.
This value is the same as the value for each of 3,1,2,4 and 1,3,4,2 and 3,1,4,2 and 2,4,1,3
and 4,2,1,3 and 2,4,3,1 and 4,2,3,1.
Consider the permutation 1,4,2,3.
Here, |a1 − a2 | + |a3 − a4 | = |1 − 4| + |2 − 3| = 3 + 1 = 4.
This value is the same as the value for each of 4,1,2,3 and 1,4,3,2 and 4,1,3,2 and 2,3,1,4
and 3,2,1,4 and 2,3,4,1 and 3,2,4,1.
This accounts for all 24 permutations.
2·8+4·8+4·8 80 10
Therefore, the average value is = = .
24 24 3
(b) There are 7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 permutations of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, because there are 7
choices for a1 , then 6 choices for a2 , and so on.
We determine the average value of a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 + a5 − a6 + a7 over all of these
permutations by determining the sum of all 7! values of this expression and dividing by
7!.
To determine the sum of all 7! values, we determine the sum of the values of a1 in each
of these expressions and call this total s1 , the sum of the values of a2 in each of these
expressions and call this total s2 , and so on.
The sum of the 7! values of the original expression must equal s1 −s2 +s3 −s4 +s5 −s6 +s7 .
This uses the fact that, when adding, the order in which we add the same set of numbers
does not matter.
By symmetry, the sums of the values of a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 will all be equal. That is,
s1 = s2 = s3 = s4 = s5 = s6 = s7 .
This means that the desired average value equals

s1 − s2 + s3 − s4 + s5 − s6 + s7 (s1 + s3 + s5 + s7 ) − (s2 + s4 + s6 ) 4s1 − 3s1 s1

= = =
7! 7! 7! 7!
So we need to determine the value of s1 .
Now a1 can equal each of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
If a1 = 1, there are 6! combinations of values for a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 , since there are still 6
choices for a2 , 5 for a3 , and so on.
Similarly, there are 6! combinations with a1 equal to each of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
Thus, s1 = 1·6!+2·6!+3·6!+4·6!+5·6!+6·6!+7·6! = 6!(1+2+3+4+5+6+7) = 28(6!).
28(6!) 28(6!) 28
Therefore, the average value of the expression is = = = 4.
7! 7(6!) 7
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 14

(c) There are 200! permutations of 1, 2, 3, . . . , 198, 199, 200.

We determine the average value of
|a1 − a2 | + |a3 − a4 | + · · · + |a197 − a198 | + |a199 − a200 | (∗)
over all of these permutations by determining the sum of all 200! values of this expression
and dividing by 200!.
As in (b), we let s1 be the sum of the values of |a1 − a2 | in each of these expressions, s2
be the sum of the values of |a3 − a4 |, and so on.
The sum of the 200! values of (∗) equals s1 + s2 + · · · + s99 + s100 .
By symmetry, s1 = s2 = · · · = s99 = s100 .
100s1
Therefore, the average value of (∗) equals . So we need to determine the value of s1 .
200!
Suppose that a1 = i and a2 = j for some integers i and j between 1 and 200, inclusive.
There are 198! permutations with a1 = i and a2 = j because there are still 198 choices for
a3 , 197 choices for a4 , and so on.
Similarly, there are 198! permutations with a1 = j and a2 = i.
Since |i − j| = |j − i|, then there are 2(198!) permutations with |a1 − a2 | = |i − j| that
come from a1 and a2 equalling i and j in some order.
Therefore, we may assume that i > j and note that s1 equals 2(198!) times the sum of
i − j over all possible
 pairs i > j.
200 200(199)
(Note that there are = choices for the pair of integers (i, j) with i > j. For
2 2
each of these choices, there are 2(198!) choices for the remaining entries in the permutation,
200(199)
which gives · 2(198!) = 200(199)(198!) = 200! permutations, as expected.)
2
So to determine s1 , we need to determine the sum of the values of i − j.
We calculate this sum, which we call D, by letting j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 198, 199 and for each of
these, we let i be the possible integers with j < i ≤ 200:
D = (2 − 1) + (3 − 1) + (4 − 1) + · · · + (197 − 1) + (198 − 1) + (199 − 1) + (200 − 1)
+ (3 − 2) + (4 − 2) + (5 − 2) + · · · + (198 − 2) + (199 − 2) + (200 − 2)
+ (4 − 3) + (5 − 3) + (6 − 3) + · · · + (199 − 3) + (200 − 3)
..
.
+ (199 − 198) + (200 − 198)
+ (200 − 199)
= 199(1) + 198(2) + 197(3) + · · · + 2(198) + 1(199) (grouping by columns)
= 199(200 − 199) + 198(200 − 198) + 197(200 − 197) + · · · + 2(200 − 2) + 1(200 − 1)
= 200(199 + 198 + 197 + · · · + 3 + 2 + 1) − (1992 + 1982 + 1972 + · · · + 32 + 22 + 12 )
= 200 · 21 (199)(200) − 16 (199)(199 + 1)(2(199) + 1)
= 100(199)(200) − 16 (199)(200)(399)
= 199(200) 100 − 133


2
= 199(200) 67 2

199(200)(67)
Therefore, s1 = 2(198!)D = 2(198!) · 2
= 67(198!)(199)(200) = 67(200!).
100s1 100(67)(200!)
Finally, this means that the average value of (∗) is = = 6700.
200! 200!
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 15

We note that we have used the facts that, if n is a positive integer, then
• 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 1) + n = 12 n(n + 1)
• 12 + 22 + · · · + (n − 1)2 + n2 = 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Using sigma notation, we could have calculated D as follows:
200 X
X i−1
D= (i − j)
i=2 j=1
200 X
i−1
! 200 X
i−1
!
X X
= i − j
i=2 j=1 i=2 j=1
200
! 200
!
X X
1
= i(i − 1) − 2
(i − 1)i
i=2 i=2
200
! 200
!
X X
1
= i(i − 1) − 2
(i − 1)i
i=2 i=2
200
!
X
1
= 2
(i − 1)i
i=2
200
!
X
1
= 2
(i − 1)i (since (i − 1)i = 0 when i = 1)
i=1
200
!
X
= 1
2
(i2 − i)
i=1
200 200
!
X X
= 1
2
i2 − i
i=1 i=1
1 1
+ 1) − 21 (200)(200 + 1)


= 2 6
(200)(200 + 1)(2(200)
1
(200)(201) 61 (401) − 12


= 2
= 100(201) · 398
6
= 100(201) · 199
3
= 100(67)(199)

which equals 199(200) 67

2
, as expected. (Can you determine a general formula when 200 is
replaced with 2n?)
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 16

10. (a) We start with the subset {1, 2, 3}.

The sums of pairs of elements are 1 + 2 = 3 and 1 + 3 = 4 and 2 + 3 = 5, which are all
different.
Thus, {1, 2, 3} is exciting.
We proceed to include additional elements in {1, 2, 3}.
We cannot include 4 to create an exciting set, since if we did, we would have 1 + 4 = 2 + 3,
and so {1, 2, 3, 4} is boring.
Consider the subset {1, 2, 3, 5}.
The sums of pairs of elements are

1+2=3 1+3=4 1+5=6 2+3=5 2+5=7 3+5=8

which are all different.

Thus, {1, 2, 3, 5} is exciting.
We cannot include 6 or 7 since 2 + 5 = 1 + 6 and 3 + 5 = 1 + 7.
Consider the subset {1, 2, 3, 5, 8}.
In addition to the six sums above, we have the additional sums 1 + 8 = 9 and 2 + 8 = 10
and 3 + 8 = 11 and 5 + 8 = 13, so the 10 sums are all different.
Therefore, {1, 2, 3, 5, 8} is an exciting subset of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} that contains exactly
5 elements.
(The subset {1, 4, 6, 7, 8} is the only other exciting subset of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} that con-
tains exactly 5 elements.)
(b) Suppose that S  is an exciting set that contains exactly m elements.
m m(m − 1)
There are = pairs of elements of S.
2 2
Since S is exciting, the sums of these pairs of elements are all distinct positive integers.
m(m − 1)
This means that the largest of these sums is greater than or equal to .
2
m(m − 1)
When two numbers add to or greater, then at least one of them must be at
2
1 m(m − 1) m2 − m
least as large as · = .
2 2 4
m2 − m
Therefore, there is an element of S that is greater than or equal to .
4
(c) Let n be a positive integer with n ≥ 10.
For each integer k with 1 ≤ k ≤ n, define xk = 2n · rem(k 2 , n) + k, where rem(k 2 , n) is the
remainder when k 2 is divided by n.
Define T = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 , xn }.
We show that T is exciting exactly when n is prime.
Suppose that a, b, c, d are distinct integers between 1 and n with xa + xb = xc + xd .
This equation is equivalent to

(2n · rem(a2 , n) + a) + (2n · rem(b2 , n) + b) = (2n · rem(c2 , n) + c) + (2n · rem(d2 , n) + d)

and
2n · (rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) − rem(c2 , n) − rem(d2 , n)) = c + d − a − b
Since a, b, c, d are distinct integers between 1 and n, inclusive, then we have
1 + 2 ≤ a + b ≤ (n − 1) + n, or 3 ≤ a + b ≤ 2n − 1. Similarly, 3 ≤ c + d ≤ 2n − 1.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 17

This means that 3−(2n−1) ≤ c+d−a−b ≤ (2n−1)−3 or −2n+4 ≤ c+d−a−b ≤ 2n−4.

But the left side of the equation

2n · (rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) − rem(c2 , n) − rem(d2 , n)) = c + d − a − b

is an integer that is a multiple of 2n, so the right side (c + d − a − b) must be as well.

Since −2n + 4 ≤ c + d − a − b ≤ 2n − 4 and the only multiple of 2n between −2n + 4 and
2n − 4 is 0 · 2n = 0, then c + d − a − b = 0 or c + d = a + b.
Thus, 2n · (rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) − rem(c2 , n) − rem(d2 , n)) = 0.
Since n 6= 0, then rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) − rem(c2 , n) − rem(d2 , n) = 0.
Therefore, xa + xb = xc + xd exactly when

a + b = c + d and rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) + rem(d2 , n)

Suppose that n is composite. We show that T is boring.

We consider three cases: n = p2 for some prime p, n is even, and all other n.
Suppose that n = p2 for some prime p. Since n ≥ 10, then p ≥ 5.
Set a = p, b = 4p, c = 2p, and d = 3p.
Then a + b = 5p = c + d.
Also, since p ≥ 5, then 0 < p < 2p < 3p < 4p < p2 .
Furthermore, since each of a, b, c, d is divisible by p, then each of a2 , b2 , c2 , d2 is divisible
by p2 = n, so rem(a2 , n) = rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) = rem(d2 , n) = 0.
This means that a + b = c + d and rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) + rem(d2 , n), and
so xa + xb = xc + xd , which means that T is boring.
Next, suppose that n is even, say n = 2t for some positive integer t ≥ 5.
Set a = 1, b = t + 2, c = 2, and d = t + 1.
Since t ≥ 5, then 1 ≤ a < b < c < d < 2t, so a, b, c, d are distinct positive integers in the
correct range.
Also, a + b = t + 3 = c + d.
To show that xa + xb = xc + xd , it remains to show that

rem(12 , 2t) + rem((t + 2)2 , 2t) = rem(22 , 2t) + rem((t + 1)2 , 2t)

Now rem(12 , 2t) = rem(1, 2t) = 1 and rem(22 , 2t) = rem(4, 2t) = 4 since 2t > 4.
Also, since (t + 2)2 = t2 + 4t + 4 and so (t + 2)2 and t2 + 4 differ by a multiple of n = 2t,
then rem((t + 2)2 , 2t) = rem(t2 + 4, 2t).
Similarly, since (t + 1)2 = t2 + 2t + 1, then rem((t + 1)2 , 2t) = rem(t2 + 1, 2t).
Therefore, we need to show that rem(t2 + 4, 2t) − rem(t2 + 1, 2t) = 4 − 1 = 3.
Since t ≥ 5, then t2 + t > t2 + 4.
This means that t2 < t2 + 1 < t2 + 2 < t2 + 3 < t2 + 4 < t2 + t; in other words, each of
t2 + 1, t2 + 2, t2 + 3, t2 + 4 is strictly between two consecutive multiples of t, and so none
of these four integers can be a multiple of t. This means that none of these is a multiple
of n = 2t.
Therefore, t2 + 4 and t2 + 1 are bounded between the same two multiples of n, and so the
difference between their remainders when dividing by n equals the difference between the
integers, which is 3.
Thus, xa + xb = xc + xd , which means that T is boring.
Finally, we consider the case where n is odd and composite and can be written as n = M N
for some odd integers M > N > 1.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 18

Set a = 21 (M + N ), b = n − a, c = 12 (M − N ), and d = n − c.
Since M and N are both odd, then M + N and M − N are even, and so a, b, c, d are
integers.
Since M > N > 0, then a > c > 0.
Since N ≥ 3, then n = M N ≥ 3M > 2M and so M < 12 n.
Since M > N , then a = 21 (M + N ) < 12 (M + M ) = M < 12 n.
Therefore, 0 < c < a < 21 n.
Since b = n − a and d = n − c, then 21 n < b < d < n and so 0 < c < a < 12 n < b < d < n.
This means that a, b, c, d are distinct integers in the correct range.
Also, note that a + b = n = c + d.
To show that xa + xb = xc + xd , it remains to show that

rem(a2 , n) + rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) + rem(d2 , n)

We show that rem(a2 , n) = rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) = rem(d2 , n), which will provide the
desired conclusion.
Since b = n − a, then b2 = n2 − 2na + a2 . Since b2 and a2 differ by a multiple of n, their
remainders after division by n will be equal. Similarly, rem(c2 , n) = rem(d2 , n).
Thus, it remains to show that rem(a2 , n) = rem(c2 , n).
But

a2 − c2 = (a + c)(a − c) = 21 (M + N ) + 12 (M − N ) 12 (M + N ) − 21 (M − N ) = M N = n

Since a2 and c2 differ by a multiple of n, then rem(a2 , n) = rem(c2 , n).

Thus, xa + xb = xc + xd , which means that T is boring.
Suppose that n is prime. We show that T is exciting.
Since n ≥ 10, then n is odd.
Suppose that xa + xb = xc + xd . We will show that this is not possible.
Recall that xa + xb = xc + xd is equivalent to the conditions a + b = c + d and rem(a2 , n) +
rem(b2 , n) = rem(c2 , n) + rem(d2 , n).
We work with this second equation.
When a2 is divided by n, we obtain a quotient that we call qa and the remainder rem(a2 , n).
Note that a2 = qa n + rem(a2 , n) and 0 ≤ rem(a2 , n) < n.
We define qb , qc , qd similarly and obtain

(a2 − qa n) + (b2 − qb n) = (c2 − qc n) + (d2 − qd n)

or
a2 + b2 − c2 − d2 = n(qa + qb − qc − qd )
Since a + b = c + d, then a2 + 2ab + b2 = c2 + 2cd + d2 or a2 + b2 − c2 − d2 = 2cd − 2ab.
Therefore, xa + xb = xc + xd exactly when a + b = c + d and 2cd − 2ab = n(qa + qb − qc − qd ).
Since d = a + b − c, then this last equation becomes

2c(a + b − c) − 2ab = n(qa + qb − qc − qd )

−2(c2 − ac − bc + ab) = n(qa + qb − qc − qd )
−2(c(c − a) − b(c − a)) = n(qa + qb − qc − qd )
−2(c − a)(c − b) = n(qa + qb − qc − qd )

Since xa + xb = xc + xd , then a + b = c + d and −2(c − a)(c − b) = n(qa + qb − qc − qd ).

Therefore, 2(c − a)(c − b) is a multiple of n, which is an odd prime.
2017 Euclid Contest Solutions Page 19

This means that either c − a or c − b is a multiple of n.

But a, b, c, d are between 1 and n inclusive and are distinct, so 1 − n ≤ c − a ≤ n − 1 and
1 − n ≤ c − b ≤ n − 1.
The only multiple of n in this range is 0, so c − a = 0 or c − b = 0, which contradicts the
fact that a, b, c, d are distinct.
Therefore, if n is prime, there do not exist four distinct elements of T that make T boring,
so T is exciting.
In summary, T is exciting exactly when n ≥ 10 is prime.