See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/23549966

Finance and economic development : policy choices for developing countries

Article · July 2006

Source: RePEc

CITATIONS READS
58 3,395

1 author:

Asli Demirguc-Kunt
World Bank
301 PUBLICATIONS   60,184 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Safety Net Management View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Asli Demirguc-Kunt on 20 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 WPS3955

Finance and Economic Development:

Policy Choices for Developing Countries

Aslı Demirgüç-Kunt *

Abstract: The empirical literature on finance and development suggests that countries
with better developed financial systems experience faster economic growth. Financial
development - as captured by size, depth, efficiency and reach of financial systems-
varies sharply around the world, with large differences among countries at similar levels
of income. This paper argues that governments play an important role in building
effective financial systems and discusses different policy options to make finance work
for development.

World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3955, June 2006

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the
exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly,
even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should
be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely
those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors,
or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at
http://econ.worldbank.org.

* Senior Research Manager in Finance, Development Research Department, World Bank. The paper was
written for publication in Bourguignon and Monga (2006) “Macroeconomic Issues in Low-Income
Countries.” The author is grateful to Meghana Ayyagari, Thorsten Beck, Bob Cull, Patrick Honohan,
Vojislav Maksimovic and Sole Martinez for helpful comments and Edward Al-Hussainy for excellent
research assistance.
 What is the role of the financial sector in economic development? Economists

hold very different views. On the one hand, prominent researchers believe that the

operation of the financial sector merely responds to economic development, adjusting to

changing demands from the real sector, and is therefore overemphasized (Robinson,

1952; Lucas, 1988). On the other hand, equally prominent researchers believe that

financial systems play a crucial role in alleviating market frictions and hence influencing

savings rates, investment decisions, technological innovation and therefore long-run

growth rates. (Schumpeter, 1912; Gurley and Shaw, 1955; Goldsmith, 1969; McKinnon,

1973; Miller 1998).1

Financial markets and institutions arise to mitigate the effects of information and

transaction costs that prevent direct pooling and investment of society’s savings.2 While

some theoretical models stress the importance of different institutional forms financial

systems can take, more important are the underlying functions that they perform (Levine,

1997 and 2000; Merton and Bodie, 2004). Financial systems help mobilize and pool

savings, provide payments services that facilitate the exchange of goods and services,

produce and process information about investors and investment projects to enable

efficient allocation of funds, monitor investments and exert corporate governance after

these funds are allocated, and help diversify, transform and manage risk.

While still far from being conclusive, the bulk of the empirical literature on

finance and development suggests that well-developed financial systems play an

1
Two famous quotes by Robinson and Schumpeter illustrate these different views. Joan Robinson (1952)
argued “Where enterprise leads finance follows,” whereas Joseph Schumpeter observed “The banker,
therefore, is not so much primarily a middleman…He authorizes people in the name of society …(to
innovate).”
2
See for example, Gurley and Shaw (1955), Diamond (1984), Boyd and Prescott (1986), Greenwood and
Jovanovic (1990), Galor and Zeira (1993), Aghion et al. (2004) among others.

1
independent and causal role in promoting long-run economic growth. More recent

evidence also points to the role of the sector in facilitating disproportionately rapid

growth in the incomes of the poor, suggesting that financial development helps the poor

catch up with the rest of the economy as it grows. These research findings have been

instrumental in persuading developing countries to sharpen their policy focus on the

financial sector. If finance is important for development, why do some countries have

growth-promoting financial systems while others do not? How do we define financial

development? And what can governments do to develop their financial systems?

This chapter addresses these questions. The next section provides a brief review

of the extensive empirical literature on finance and economic development and

summarizes the main findings. Section II illustrates the differences in financial systems

around the world and discusses the role of legal, cultural, political and geographical

factors in influencing financial development. Section III discusses the governments’ role

in building effective financial systems. Section IV provides areas of particular emphasis

for lower-income countries. Section V concludes.

I. Finance and Economic Development: Evidence

By now there is an ever-expanding body of evidence that suggests countries with

better developed financial systems – mostly captured by depth and efficiency measures-

experience faster economic growth.3 Cross-country studies show that better developed

banks and markets are associated with faster growth and that this relationship is robust to

controlling for reverse causality or potential omitted variables (King and Levine, 1993;

Levine and Zervos, 1998). These findings are also confirmed by panel and time-series
3
See Levine (1997 and 2005) for a comprehensive review of this literature.

2
estimation techniques (Levine, Loazya and Beck, 2000; Christopoulos and Tsionas, 2004;

Rousseau and Sylla, 1999). Research also indicates that financial sector development

helps economic growth through more efficient resource allocation and productivity

growth rather than through the scale of investment or savings mobilization (Beck, Levine

and Loayza, 2000). Furthermore, cross-country time-series studies also show that

financial liberalization boosts economic growth by improving allocation of resources and

the investment rate (Bekaert, Harvey and Lundblad, 2001 and 2005).

To further understand the relationship between financial development and

economic growth, researchers have also employed both firm-level and industry-level data

across a broad cross-section of countries. These studies better address causality issues

and seek to discover the mechanisms through which finance influences economic growth.

Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (1998) use firm level data and a financial

planning model to show that more developed financial systems – as proxied by larger

banking systems and more liquid stock markets- allow firms to grow faster than rates

they can finance internally. Consistent with Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (1998),

Love (2003) also uses firm level data and shows that the sensitivity of investment to

internal funds is greater in countries in less developed financial systems. Beck,

Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (2005) use firm level survey data for a broad set of

countries and show that financial development eases the obstacles that firms face to

growing faster, and that this effect is stronger particularly for smaller firms. Recent

evidence also suggests that access to finance is associated with faster rates of innovation

and firm dynamism consistent with the cross-country finding that finance promotes

3
growth through productivity increases (Ayyagari, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic,

2006).

Rajan and Zingales (1998) use industry level data across countries and show that

industries that are naturally heavy users of external finance – as measured by the finance-

intensity of U.S. industries4 – benefit disproportionately more from greater financial

development compared to other industries. Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, Laeven and Levine

(2006) again using industry data, highlight a distributional effect: They find that

industries that are naturally composed of small firms grow faster in financially developed

economies, a result that provides additional evidence that financial development

disproportionately promotes the growth of smaller firms. Also using industry-level data,

Wurgler (2000) shows that countries with higher levels of financial development increase

investment more in growing industries and decrease investment more in declining

industries, compared to countries with underdeveloped financial systems.

There are also numerous individual country case studies that provide consistent

evidence. For example, Jayaratne and Strahan (1996) compare states within the U.S. and

show that bank branch reform boosted bank-lending quality and accelerated real per

capita growth rates. Similarly, Guiso, Sapienza and Zingales (2002) examine the

individual regions of Italy. They find that local financial development enhances the

probability that an individual starts a business, increases industrial competition, and

promotes growth of firms. And these results are stronger for smaller firms which cannot

easily raise funds outside of the local area. Bertrand, Schoar and Thesmar (2004) provide

firm-level evidence from France that shows the impact of 1985 deregulation eliminating

4
Chosen on the basis that the US financial system is relatively free of frictions, so each US industry’s use
of external finance is a good proxy for its demand.

4
government intervention in bank lending decisions fostered greater competition in the

credit market, inducing an increase in allocative efficiency across firms.

Besides debates concerning the role of finance in economic development,

economists have debated the relative importance of bank-based and market-based

financial systems for a long time (Golsdmith, 1969; Boot and Thakor, 1997; Allen and

Gale, 2000; Demirguc-Kunt and Levine, 2001c). However, research findings in this area

have established that the debate matters much less than was previously thought, and that

it is the financial services themselves that matter more than the form of their delivery

(Levine, 2002; Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic, 2002; Beck and Levine, 2002).

Financial structure does change during development, with financial systems becoming

more market-based as the countries develop (Demirguc-Kunt and Levine, 1996 and

2001b). But controlling for overall financial development, differences in financial

structure per se do not help explain growth rates. Nevertheless, these studies do not

necessarily imply that institutional structure is unimportant for growth, rather that there is

not one optimal institutional structure suitable for all countries at all times. Growth-

promoting mixture of markets and intermediaries is likely to be determined by the legal,

regulatory, political, policy and other factors that have not been adequately incorporated

into the analysis or the indicators used in the literature may not sufficiently capture the

comparative roles of banks and markets (Demirguc-Kunt and Levine, 2001a).

Financial development has been shown to also play an important role in

dampening the impact of external shocks on the domestic economy (Beck, Lundberg and

Majnoni, 2006; Aghion, Banerjee and Manova, 2005; Raddatz, 2006), although financial

crises do occur in developed and developing countries alike (Demirguc-Kunt and

5
Detragiache, 1998 and 1999; Kaminsky and Reinhart, 1999).5 Indeed, deeper financial

systems without the necessary institutional development has been shown to lead to a poor

handling or even magnification of risk rather than its mitigation, consistent with the

findings of Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache (1998), Beck, Lundberg and Majnoni

(2006) and numerous country case studies discussed in Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache

(2005).

Another area of investigation where there has been recent empirical research is

the impact of financial development on income distribution and poverty. Theory provides

conflicting predictions in this area. Some theories argue that financial development

should have a disproportionately beneficial impact on the poor since informational

asymmetries produce credit constraints that are particularly binding on the poor. Poor

people find it particularly difficult to fund their own investments internally or externally

since they lack resources, collateral and political connections to access finance (see for

example, Banerjee and Newman, 1993; Galor and Zeira, 1993; Aghion and Bolton,

1997). More generally, some political economy theories also suggest that better

functioning financial systems make financial services available to a wider segment of the

population, rather than restricting them to politically connected incumbents (Rajan and

Zingales, 2003; Morck, Wolfenzon and Young, 2005). Yet others argue that financial

access, especially to credit, only benefits the rich and the connected, particularly at early

stages of economic development and therefore, while financial development may

promote growth, its impact on income distribution is not clear (Lamoreaux, 1994; Haber,

2004 and 2005). Finally, if access to credit improves with aggregate economic growth

and more people can afford to join the formal financial system, the relationship between
5
Also see Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache (2005) for a review of the bank crisis literature.

6
financial development and income distribution may be non-linear, with adverse effects at

early stages, but a positive impact after a certain point (Greenwood and Jovanovic,1990).

In cross-country regressions, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2004) investigate

how financial development influences the growth rate of Gini coefficient of income

inequality, the growth rate of the income of the poorest quintile of society, and the

fraction of the population living in poverty. The results indicate that finance exerts a

disproportionately large, positive impact on the poor and hence reduces income

inequality. Investigating levels rather than growth rates, Honohan (2004) shows that even

at the same average income, economies with deeper financial systems have fewer poor

people.6 Much more empirical research using micro datasets and different methodologies

will be necessary to confirm these initial findings, and to better understand the

mechanisms through which finance affects income distribution and poverty.

Taken as a whole, the empirical evidence reviewed above suggests that countries

with better developed financial systems grow faster and that this growth

disproportionately benefits the poorer segments of the society. Yet, financial system

development differs widely across countries. What makes some countries develop

growth-promoting financial systems, while others cannot? If finance is crucial for

economic development, what can governments do to ensure well-functioning financial

systems? I turn to these questions next.

6
Also looking at levels, Clarke et al. (2003) provide further evidence that financial development is
associated with lower levels of inequality.

7
II. Financial Development: Indicators and Historical Determinants

Financial development is a multifaceted concept and thus difficult to measure.

Ideally, we would like indicators of how well each financial system fulfills its functions,

i.e., identifies profitable projects, exerts corporate control, facilitates risk management,

mobilizes savings, and eases transactions. Unfortunately, since no such measures are

available across countries, I will rely on commonly used measures of financial

development to illustrate cross-country differences. Table 1 reports summary statistics

for indicators of financial depth, efficiency, access, size and openness by income level for

over 150 countries.

Private Credit, the value of credit by financial intermediaries to the private sector

divided by GDP, and Stock Market Capitalization, the value of listed shares divided by

GDP, are frequently used as measures of depth for the banking system and stock markets,

respectively. Private Credit captures the amount of credit channeled from savers, through

financial intermediaries, to private firms. Analysts use Stock Market Capitalization to

indicate the ability to mobilize capital and diversify risk. Both Private Credit and Market

Capitalization increase with income (Figures 1a and 2a), although at similar levels of

development there are still large differences (Figures 1b and 2b).7 For example, while

Thailand’s Private Credit is over 100 percent, at similar levels of GDP per capita, Peru

only has a value of 23 percent. Similarly, Malaysia’s Stock Market Capitalization is 140

percent, Costa Rica, another upper middle income country has a ratio of 10 percent.

7
Also note that significant increases in financial depth not predicted by the underlying institutional
improvements may signal trouble: Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache (1998) show that credit booms often
lead to crises, and Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (2002) show that levels of banking and stock market
development not predicted by legal efficiency and creditor rights protection do not promote firm growth.

8
 The Net Interest Margin measures the gap between what the banks pay the

providers of funds and what they get from firms and other users of bank credit and it

equals interest income minus interest expense divided by interest bearing assets, averaged

over the banks in each country. It is frequently used to measure efficiency despite the

fact that differences in net margins may reflect differences in bank activities rather than

differences in efficiency or competition. Net Interest Margin tends to decline with a

country’s income, suggesting bank efficiency improves with development (Figure 3a).

Unlike measures of depth, dispersion in efficiency figures tends to be higher at the lower

end of the income distribution (Figure 3b and Table 1).

While measures of financial depth and margins are available for a large set of

countries, measures of the reach of the sector have been much more difficult to obtain

across countries. Until recently, we did not have answers to simple questions like what

proportion of the population has a bank account or loan. Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and

Martinez Peria (2005) is the first study to develop cross-country measures of access to

and use of banking services. One of their indicators, Number of loans per capita,

captures the use of credit services, with higher numbers indicating mode widespread use.

Figure 4a shows that use of bank credit increases drastically with income. But

differences within income groups are also large: while there are 770 bank loans per 1000

people in Poland, there are only 94 in Venezuela (Figure 4b and Table 1). Further

research in this area is moving in the direction of developing better indicators of access to

different financial services, using surveys both at the financial institution and household

level.

9
 Another interesting indicator is the size of the financial system. For example

measured by the Liquid Liabilities of the financial system (M2), about one third of all the

countries have financial systems smaller than $1 billion, and another third have systems

smaller than $10 billion (Figure 5b). Leaving outliers like China or India aside, most

developing countries have very small financial systems (Figure 5a). This underlines the

importance of domestic policy actions to maximize each country’s capacity to secure the

best provision of financial services from the global marketplace.

The last indicator, Freedom in Banking and Finance index, is a measure of

openness of the banking industry. It is constructed by the Heritage Foundation and

captures the extent of government involvement in the financial sector through ownership

and control of financial institutions, quality of regulation and supervision, existence of

interest controls, activity restrictions or directed lending, and the ability of foreign

institutions to operate freely. The index ranges from 1 to 5, with higher ratings indicating

less openness and freedom. Lower income countries allow their banks less freedom in

general, compared to more developed countries. But, for example comparing two

low-income countries, Cote d’Ivoire has a much more liberalized banking system with a

score of 2.5, whereas in Uzbekistan government still has heavy involvement in the

financial sector and allows no foreign entry, getting the highest possible score of 5

(Figure 6a,b).

The above analysis illustrates that financial systems vary widely with respect to

all dimensions. Even at similar levels of development, there are significant differences in

their size, depth, efficiency, breath and openness. Given the important role finance plays

in promoting development, there is a growing body of research that examines

10
determinants of financial development. One area of this line of research focuses on

historical determinants of financial development and studies the legal, political, cultural,

ethnic and geographic differences across countries that may shape development of

financial institutions and markets.

La Porta et al. (1997 and 1998) stress that differences in legal traditions shape the

laws and enforcement mechanisms that protect the rights of outside investors, thus

influencing financial development. Focusing on the differences between the two most

influential legal traditions, the British Common law and the French Civil law, this view

holds that legal traditions differ in terms of the priority they attach to protecting the rights

of private investors against the state. Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2003b and

2005) also show that legal system adaptability is crucial and more flexible legal systems

do a better job at meeting the continuously changing financial needs of the economy and

promoting financial development.

Haber (2004), Pagano and Volpin (2001), Rajan and Zingales (2003) focus on

how political economy forces shape national policies toward financial development and

influence and change the political power of entrenched incumbents. According to this

view, closed political systems are more likely to impede the development of financial

systems that promote competition and threaten entrenched powers than open political

systems. This is because centralized and powerful states are more responsive to and

efficient at implementing policies that protect the interests of the elite than decentralized

and competitive political systems with an assortment of checks and balances.

Stulz and Williamson (2003) emphasize the role of religion and culture in

influencing development of institutions. Many scholars argue that religion shapes

11
national views regarding institutions, including financial institutions. For example, it is

said that Catholic Church fosters “vertical bonds of authority” rather than “horizontal

bonds of fellowship.” This view suggests that Catholic and Muslim countries tend to

develop cultures that maintain control, limiting competition and private property rights.

Alesina et al. (2003) and Easterly and Levine (2003) focus on ethnic differences, instead.

They argue that in highly ethnically diverse economies, the group that comes to power

tends to implement policies that expropriate resources, restrict the rights of other groups,

and prevent the growth of industries or sectors that threaten the ruling group.

Others stress the role of initial geographic endowments in determining attitudes

towards development of different institutions (Engerman and Sokoloff, 1997; Acemoglu,

Johnson and Robinson, 2001). Acemoglu et al. (2001) focus on the disease environment

and argue that the degree to which Europeans can settle in a land influenced the choice of

colonization strategy with long lasting implications on institutions. Engerman and

Sokoloff (1997) focus on the geographic endowments and study the differential

development of institutions in North America. They argue that the geographic conditions

in the North which favored production of wheat and maize fostered a large middle class

with egalitarian institutions, whereas the conditions in the South which led to the

production of rice and sugarcane also led to the rise of a powerful elite and more closed

institutions.

Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2003a) investigate the relative importance of

these historical determinants of financial development and find that differences in initial

endowments and legal origins are robustly associated with development of financial

institutions and markets. Thus, countries with common law origins with better protection

12
of outside investors were more likely to develop financial institutions. But colonization

strategy also mattered: Tropical environments, inhospitable to European settlement, were

more likely to foster extractive institutions as opposed to institutions that promote

financial development.8

Perhaps most important from a policy viewpoint however, is the government’s

role in building effective financial systems. In the next section, I review the role of

regulations and economic policies in influencing financial development.

III. Government’s Role in Making Finance Work

Although finance thrives on market discipline and fails to contribute to

development process effectively in the presence of interventionist policies, governments

do have a very important role to play in promoting well-functioning financial systems.

Specifically, governments can help greatly through providing a stable political and

macroeconomic environment, fiscal discipline and good governance; well-functioning

legal and information infrastructure; and strong regulation and supervision that enable

greater market monitoring without distorting the incentives of market participants.

Governments can also improve the contestability and efficiency of financial systems by

avoiding ownership of financial institutions, and liberalizing their systems including

allowing foreign entry. Government policies can also help in efforts to facilitate broad

access to financial services. Below, I discuss each of these areas and, where applicable,

pros and cons of different policies.

8
Ayyagari, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (2006a, b) instead focus on property rights protection and
show that legal origin is not a robust determinant whereas ethnic fractionalization is.

13
IIIa. Political and Macroeconomic Environment

Even if historical factors are favorable to financial development, political turmoil

may lead to macroeconomic instability and deterioration in business conditions. Civil

strife and war destroys capital and infrastructure, and expropriations may follow military

takeovers. Corruption and crime thrive in such environments, increasing cost of doing

business and creating uncertainty about property rights. Detragiache, Gupta and Tressel

(2005) show that for low-income countries political instability and corruption have a

detrimental effect on financial development. Investigating the business environment for

80 countries using firm level survey data, Ayyagari, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic

(2005) find that political instability and crime are important obstacles to firm growth,

particularly in African and Transition countries. Further, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and

Maksimovic (2005) show that the negative impact of corruption on firm growth is most

pronounced for smaller firms.

Given a stable political system, well functioning financial systems also require

fiscal discipline and stable macroeconomic policies on the part of governments.

Monetary and fiscal policies affect the taxation of financial intermediaries and provision

of financial services (Bencivenga and Smith, 1992; Huybens and Smith, 1999; Roubini

and Sala-i-Martin, 1992 and Roubini and Sala-i-Martin, 1995). Often large financing

requirements of governments crowd out private investment by increasing the required

returns on government securities and absorbing the bulk of the savings mobilized by the

financial system. Bank profitability does not necessarily suffer given the high yields on

these securities, but the ability of the financial system to allocate resources efficiently is

severely curtailed. Empirical studies have also shown that countries with lower and more

14
stable inflation rates experience higher levels of banking and stock market development

(Boyd, Levine and Smith, 2001) and high inflation and real interest rates are associated

with higher probability of systemic banking crises (Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache,

1998 and 2005).

IIIb. Legal and Information Infrastructure

Financial systems also require developed legal and information infrastructures to

function well. Firms’ ability to raise external finance in the formal financial system is

quite limited if the rights of outside investors are not protected. Outside investors are

reluctant to invest in companies if they will not be able to exert corporate governance and

protect their investment from controlling shareholders/owners or the management of the

companies. Thus, protection of property rights and effective enforcement of contracts are

critical elements in financial system development.

Empirical evidence shows firms are able to access external finance in countries

where legal enforcement is stronger (La Porta et al., 1997; Demirguc-Kunt and

Maksimovic, 1998; Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic, 2005), and that better

creditor protection increases credit to the private sector (Djankov, McLiesh and Shleifer,

2005). More effective legal systems allow more flexible and adaptable conflict

resolution, increasing firms’ access to finance (Djankov et al., 2003; Beck, Demirguc-

Kunt and Levine, 2005). In countries where legal systems are more effective, financial

systems have lower interest rate spreads and are more efficient (Demirguc-Kunt, Laeven

and Levine, 2004; Laeven and Majnoni, 2005).

Timely availability of good quality information is equally important, since this

helps reduce information asymmetries between borrowers and lenders. The collection,

15
processing and use of borrowing history and other information relevant to household and

small business lending – credit registries - have been rapidly growing in both the public

and private sectors (see Miller, 2003, for an overview). Computer technology has also

greatly improved the amount of information that can be analyzed to assess

creditworthiness, such as through credit scoring techniques. Governments can play an

important role in this process, and while establishment of public credit registries may

discourage private entry, in several cases it has actually encouraged private registries to

enter in order to provide a wider and deeper range of services. Governments are also

important in creating and supporting the legal system needed for conflict resolution and

contract enforcement, and strengthening accounting infrastructures to enable financial

development.

Empirical results show that the volume of bank credit is significantly higher in

countries with more information sharing (Jappelli and Pagano, 2002; and Djankov,

McLeish and Shleifer, 2005). Firms also report lower financing obstacles with better

credit information (Love and Mylenko, 2003). Detragiache, Gupta and Tressel (2005)

find that better access to information and speedier enforcement of contracts are associated

with deeper financial systems even in low-income countries. Indeed, compared to high

income countries, in lower income countries it is credit information more than legal

enforcement that matters (Djankov et al., 2005).

IIIc. Regulation and Supervision

For as long as there have been banks, there have also been governments

regulating them. While most economists agree that there is a role for government in the

regulation and supervision of financial systems, the extent of this involvement is an issue

16
of active debate (Barth, Caprio and Levine, 2006; Beck, 2006). One extreme view is the

laissez-faire or invisible-hand approach, where there is no role for government in the

financial system, and markets are expected to monitor and discipline financial

institutions. This approach has been criticized for ignoring market failures as depositors,

particularly small depositors, often find it too costly to be effective monitors.9 Thus,

governments often act as delegated monitors for depositors, exploiting economies of

scale to overcome costly information problems.

On the other extreme is the complete interventionist approach, where government

regulation is seen as the solution to market failures (Stigler, 1971). According to this

view, powerful supervisors are expected to ensure stability of the financial system and

guide banks in their business decisions through regulation and supervision. This view

relies on two crucial assumptions. First, that governments know better than markets, and

second, that they act in the best interests of the society. To the extent that officials

generally have limited knowledge and expertise in making business decisions and can be

subject to political and regulatory capture, these assumptions will not be valid (Becker

and Stigler, 1974; Haber et al. 2003).

Between the two extremes lies the private empowerment view of financial

regulation. This view simultaneously recognizes the potential importance of market

failures which motivate government intervention, and political/regulatory failures, which

suggest that supervisory agencies do not necessarily have incentives to ease market

failures. The focus is on enabling markets, where there is an important role for

9
Small depositors have to be protected, but banks also need to be protected against runs by uninformed
depositors that may precipitate forced liquidations. Further, market imperfections may also prevent optimal
resource allocation, as powerful banks may extract rents from firms, reducing their incentives to undertake
profitable investments. See Levine (2005) for further discussion.

17
governments in enhancing the ability and incentives of private agents to overcome

information and transaction costs, so that private investors can exert effective governance

over banks. Consequently, the private empowerment view seeks to provide supervisors

with the responsibility and authority to induce banks to disclose accurate information to

the public, so that private agents can more effectively monitor banks (Barth, Caprio and

Levine, 2006).

Empirical evidence overwhelmingly supports the private empowerment view.

While there is little evidence that empowering regulators enhances bank stability, there is

evidence that regulations and supervisory practices that force accurate information

disclosure and promote private sector monitoring boost the overall level of banking sector

and stock market development (Barth, Caprio and Levine, 2006).

Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2006) show that bank supervisory practices

that force accurate information disclosure ease external financing constraints of firms,

while countries that empower their official supervisors actually make external financing

constraints more severe by increasing the degree of corruption in bank lending.10

Consistent with these findings, Demirguc-Kunt, Detragiache and Tressel (2006)

investigate compliance with Basel Core Principles of regulation and supervision and

show that only information disclosure rules have a significant impact on bank soundness.

Finally, Detragiache, Gupta and Tressel (2005) find little significant impact of regulatory

and supervisory practices on financial development of low-income countries. Where

10
La Porta et al. (2006) find a similarly positive effect of private monitoring and disciplining for stock
market development. Laws and liability rules that mandate disclosure and facilitate private enforcement
promote stock market development, while there is little evidence for a positive effect of public
enforcement.

18
there is significance, greater supervisory powers seem to be negatively associated with

financial depth.

Related to the debate on different approaches for regulation and supervision, is

the important debate on whether prudential regulation and safety nets designed for

developed countries can be successfully transplanted to developing countries. Research

shows that financial sector policy which is considered appropriate in advanced economies

can prove ineffective or even counterproductive in weak institutional environments of

developing countries. For example, powerful regulators are not significantly associated

with increased corruption in banking in countries with strong institutions that provide

checks and balances, but lead to greater capture and corruption in lower-income

countries. However, although empowering the markets and focusing on information

disclosure are policies that promote bank stability most effectively in countries where

there is strong rule of law, we do not observe negative effects of such policies even in

low-income countries (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine, 2006).11 For developing

countries, these results have important implications for which aspects of the Basel II

accord (which was designed for and by regulators in advanced economies) to adopt and

over what time period. In particular, the complicated rules and procedures for

determining bank capital adequacy pre-suppose expertise and governance conditions

which simply do not exist in most low-income countries.

Similarly, research has questioned safety net design, particularly adoption of

deposit insurance in developing countries by highlighting the potential costs of explicit

schemes –lower market discipline, higher financial fragility, and lower financial

11
Consistent with these results, Demirguc-Kunt, Detragiache and Tressel (2006) show that compliance
with the information disclosure rules of Basel Core Principles promotes bank stability where there is strong
rule of law.

19
development – in countries where complementary institutions are not strong enough to

keep these costs under control (Demirguc-Kunt and Kane, 2002; Demirguc-Kunt and

Detragiache, 2002; Demirguc-Kunt and Huizinga, 2004; Cull, Senbet and Sorge, 2005).

These findings are particularly important for lower income countries with

underdeveloped institutions. For example, Detragiache, Gupta and Tressel (2005) also

find that presence of an explicit deposit insurance system does not lead to more deposit

mobilization in low-income countries; to the contrary it is associated with lower levels of

deposits.12

IIId. Contestability and Efficiency

Policymakers around the world frequently express concern about whether their

countries’ bank competition policies are appropriately designed to produce well-

functioning and stable banks. Globalization and the resulting consolidation in banking

have further spurred interest in this issue, leading to an active public policy debate.

Competition policies in banking may involve difficult trade-offs. While greater

competition may enhance the efficiency of banks with positive implications for economic

growth, greater competition may also destabilize banks with costly repercussions for the

economy.

Recent research has shown that contrary to conventional wisdom, there are no

difficult trade-offs when it comes to bank competition. Greater competition – as captured

by lower entry barriers, fewer regulatory restrictions on bank activities, greater banking

freedom, and better overall institutional development – is good for efficiency, good for

12
Using a sample of developed and developing countries, Cecchetti and Krause (2004) also find that
explicit deposit insurance results in less credit provision to the private sector.

20
stability, and good for firms’ access to finance (Berger et al., 2004).13 Indeed, regulations

that interfere with competition make banks less efficient, more fragile, and reduce firms’

access to finance. Thus, it is a good idea for governments to encourage competition in

banking by reducing the unnecessary impediments to entry and activity restrictions.

Similarly, improving the institutional environment and allowing greater freedoms in

banking and economy in general would lead to desirable outcomes.

Ownership is another important dimension of competition in banking. As I

discuss further in sections IIIe and f, research shows that while foreign banking is

associated with generally positive outcomes, state ownership is associated with higher

margins, greater fragility and less access. These results highlight the importance of

removing impediments to foreign entry and provide further justification for bank

privatization policies. Finally, bank concentration, which has been the focus of much

policy discussion, is not a good proxy for the overall competitive environment per se and

its impact often depends on the existing regulatory and institutional framework. Hence

governments would do better to focus on improving the underlying regulatory and

institutional environment (as discussed in sections IIIb and c) and ownership structure to

promote contestable financial systems, rather than trying to reduce concentration levels in

banking.

IIIe. Government Ownership of Financial Institutions

Policymakers in many countries have felt the need to retain public ownership of

banks. However, research has shown that government ownership of banks everywhere,

but especially in developing countries, lead to lower levels of financial development,

13
Also see Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic (2004), Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2006),
Claessens and Laeven (2004), and Demirguc-Kunt, Laeven and Levine (2004).

21
more concentrated lending and lower economic growth, and greater systemic fragility (La

Porta et al., 2002; Barth, Caprio and Levine, 2004). The inefficient allocation of credit

by state-owned banks to politically-favored and commercially unviable projects

frequently necessitates costly recapitalizations (Cole, 2005; Dinc, 2005). Thus, empirical

evidence shows that the ownership of financial firms is an area where the public sector

tends not to have a comparative advantage; such ownership weakens the financial system

and the economy.

However, privatization also entails risks and needs careful design. Studies of

privatization processes suggest the preferred strategy is moving slowly but deliberately

with bank privatization, while preparing state banks for sale and addressing weaknesses

in the overall incentive environment. On average, bank privatization tends to improve

performance over continued state ownership, and there are advantages to full rather than

partial privatizations, and in weak institutional environments selling to a strategic

investor and inviting foreign interests to participate in the process increase the benefits

(see Clarke, Cull, Shirley, 2005). Privatization, however, is not a panacea, and privatizing

banks without addressing weaknesses in the underlying incentive environment and

market structure will not lead to a deeper and more efficient financial system.

IIIf. Financial Liberalization

As illustrated above, in comparison with the scale of global finance, financial

systems in individual developing countries are often very small. Small financial systems

underperform because they suffer from concentration of risks, cannot exploit economies

of scale and are thus more vulnerable to external shocks (Bossone, Honohan and Long,

22
2001). Theoretically, these countries fall short of minimum efficient scale and have

much to gain by liberalizing and sourcing some of their financial services from abroad.

There is a very large literature on macroeconomic and international financial

issues which are outside the scope of this paper. In this section I limit my discussion to

(a) the impact of financial liberalization on financial development and the importance of

sequencing liberalization and institutional reforms; (b) the impact of exchange rate

regime on financial fragility; and the impact of (c) foreign entry and (d) international

capital flows on financial development.

Financial liberalization, financial development and the sequencing of reforms.

Many countries have liberalized their financial systems in the 1980s and 1990s with

mixed results. Liberalization, including deregulation of interest rates and more relaxed

entry policies, often led to significant financial development, particularly in countries

where there was significant repression, but the enthusiasm with which financial

liberalization was adopted in some countries in the absence of or slow implementation of

institutional development also left many financial systems vulnerable to systemic crises

(Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache, 1999). Poor sequencing of financial liberalization in a

poorly prepared contractual and supervisory environment contributed to bank

insolvencies as banks protected by implicit and explicit government guarantees

aggressively took advantage of new opportunities to increase risk, without the necessary

lending skills. Banking crises in Argentina, Chile, Mexico and Turkey in the 1980s and

1990s have been attributed to these factors (Demirguc-Kunt and Detragiache, 2005).

On the other hand, many Sub-Saharan African countries that have also liberalized

their interest rates and credit allocation and privatized their institutions by allowing entry

23
of reputable foreign banks did not suffer instability but from lower intermediation and in

some cases lower access to financial services. Some of this was due to the absence of an

effective contractual and informational framework (See Beck and Fuchs, 2004). This has

also resulted in claims of failed liberalizations in these countries and calls for greater

government intervention in the financial sector.14 Both of these experiences with

financial liberalization underline the importance of sequencing liberalization and

institutional improvements.

Impact of exchange rate policy on financial fragility. The choice of an

appropriate exchange rate regime for developing countries is another issue of active

debate.15 One of the reasons this is an important issue is because the choice of exchange

rate regime may influence the extent to which the impact of external shocks affect

financial stability. For instance, flexible exchange rates may have a stabilizing effect on

the financial system since the exchange rate can absorb some of the real shocks to the

economy (Mundell, 1961). Flexible regimes may also curtail the tendency of countries to

over-borrow in foreign currency and discourage banks from funding dangerous lending

booms through external credit (Eichengreen and Hausmann, 1999). Further, with a fixed

exchange rate (and even more so with a currency board), lender of last resort operations

are severely limited, since domestic monetary expansion risks undermining confidence in

the currency peg.

On the other hand, a commitment to a currency peg may reduce the probability of

banking crises by disciplining policymakers (Eichengreen and Rose, 1998). The lack of

an effective lender of last resort may also discourage risk-taking by bankers, decreasing

14
However, after a slow start, credit growth is accelerating across Africa, and there has also been a catch-
up in access, often through growth of cooperatives and other microfinance institutions.
15
See Yagci (2006) in this volume for an extensive discussion.

24
the likelihood of a banking crisis. Finally, developing countries are often plagued by lack

of credibility and limited access to international markets, and suffer from more

pronounced effects of exchange rate volatility due to their high liability dollarization.

Thus, the additional transparency and credibility associated with fixed exchange rates

may insulate a country from contagion (Calvo, 1999).

Empirically, Arteta and Eichengreen (2002) find that countries with fixed and

flexible exchange rates are equally susceptible to banking crises. In contrast, Domac and

Martinez Peria (2003) find that adopting a fixed exchange rate regime diminishes the

likelihood of a banking crisis in developing countries. However, once a crisis occurs, its

economic cost is larger under a fixed exchange rate.

Studies on the impact of dollarization on financial fragility similarly reveal mixed

evidence. Dollarization is a symptom of weak domestic currencies and volatile real

exchange rates and thus may be associated with fragility. Arteta (2003) investigates the

impact of deposit and credit dollarization for a large number of developing and transition

countries and finds no evidence that dollarization increases fragility. De Nicolo,

Honohan and Ize (2003) perform a similar test but measure fragility using average Z-

scores (measuring the distance to default for the banking system, which is different from

the actual occurrence of a systemic crisis) and non-performing loans across a large

number of countries. In contrast to Arteta’s results, they find that dollarization is

positively related to both measures of bank fragility. More research is needed in these

areas to guide the on-going policy discussion on the impact of exchange rate policies.

Impact of foreign entry. With financial liberalization, more and more developing

economies also allow entry of foreign financial institutions. While governments have

25
worried about whether allowing foreign banks to take a large ownership share in the

banking system could damage financial and economic performance, the bulk of the

empirical research in this area, particularly drawing on the experience of Latin American

and Eastern European countries, suggests that facilitating entry of reputable foreign

institutions to the local market should be welcomed. Foreign banks bring competition,

improve efficiency, lift the quality of the financial infrastructure and expand access

(Claessens, Demirguc-Kunt and Huizinga, 2001; Clarke, Cull and Martinez Peria,

2001).16

As the African experience illustrates, foreign bank entry cannot guarantee rapid

financial development in the absence of sound contractual and informational weaknesses,

however. Such weaknesses can prevent low-income countries from reaping full benefits

of opening their markets to foreign providers of financial services, and can potentially

explain the finding that greater foreign bank penetration is associated with lower levels of

financial development (Detragiache, Tressel, Gupta, 2006).17 However, addressing these

weaknesses is likely to allow foreign banks to act as an important catalyst for the sort of

financial development that promotes growth.

Impact of international capital flows. While there is consensus that liberalizing

financial systems facilitates their development, there are also concerns that this leaves

16
While in some countries like Pakistan, foreign banks have been shown to lend less to smaller more
opaque borrowers because they rely on hard information (Mian, 2003), evidence from Eastern Europe has
shown that foreign banks eventually go down market increasing small business lending (De Haas and
Naaborg, 2005). This is consistent with recent research that shows as new transaction-based lending
techniques have been developed, where large foreign institutions have greater advantage, relationship
lending, thus small, domestic institutions have become less important for SME lending (Berger and Udell,
2006).
17
Another explanation why cross-country correlations between foreign bank penetration and financial
development may be negative in low-income countries is that in most of those countries foreign bank entry
was through privatization of failed government banks.

26
them more open to volatility and crises.18 As discussed above, one way of containing

such volatility is stronger fundamentals, hence proper sequencing of reforms.19 Policy

discussion has also focused on proper design of capital controls, which could prevent or

mitigate the effects of sudden shifts in foreign capital. Controls can take the form of

restrictions on outflows; restrictions on aggregate inflows; restrictions on short-term

flows (a la Chile); or a Tobin tax, aimed at imposing a small uniform tax on all foreign

exchange transactions, regardless of their nature.

There is a large literature on the effects of capital controls, but overall, these

empirical studies suggest that these controls work at best temporarily, with the effects

diminishing over time, and are not effective in preventing spillovers from very large

shocks (Kaminsky and Schmukler, 2001).

Besides debt and equity flows, workers’ remittances, funds received from

migrants working abroad, have grown steadily in recent years becoming the second

largest source of external finance after foreign direct investment. Furthermore, unlike

other capital flows, remittances tend to be stable even during periods of economic

downturns and crises. Recent research also provides evidence that remittances do

promote financial development (Aggarwal, Demirguc-Kunt and Martinez Peria, 2006).

Other studies emphasize the importance of financial development in allowing countries to

make the most out of capital flows. For example, Hermes and Lensink (2003) show that

18
Opening up allows firms to raise resources abroad but Levine and Schmukler (2005) show that it may
also reduce the trading activity of these firms on domestic stock exchanges, negatively affecting the
liquidity of other firms that do not go abroad. However, Ferreira and Matos (2005) show that with
increased cross-listing, foreign ownership of shares traded on the local exchanges also increase.
19
Note that studies suggest volatility tends to decrease in the long run, with more integrated markets having
lower volatility due to better diversification and development of the financial sector (Bekaert and Harvey,
2003). However, liberalization does also increase the probability of crisis (Demirguc-Kunt and
Detragiache, 1999).

27
a more developed financial system positively contributes to the process of technological

diffusion associated with foreign direct investment.

IIIg. Facilitating Access

Access to financial services has increasingly been receiving greater emphasis over

the recent years, becoming a focal part of the overall development agenda. One reason is

the accumulating evidence on the importance of finance for growth, and the belief that

limited access to finance is a contributor to not being able to escape poverty. Another is

the observation that small enterprises and poor households face much greater obstacles in

their ability to access finance all around the world, but particularly in developing

countries.

What does access to finance mean? There are many dimensions of access,

including availability, cost, and range and quality of services being offered. Morduch

(1999) defines these dimensions as (a) reliability, whether finance is available when it is

needed or desired; (b) convenience, how easy it is to access finance; (c) continuity, ability

to access finance repeatedly; and (d) flexibility, whether the product is tailored to the

needs of the household or enterprise.

While there is much data on financial sector development more broadly, there is

very little data on usage and access to finance, both for households and firms. Hence,

there is also very limited analysis on the impact of access to finance on economic

development. Research using firm level survey data suggests that financing obstacles are

the most constraining among different barriers to growth (Ayyagari, Demirguc-Kunt and

Maksimovic, 2005). Financing obstacles are also found to be highest and most

constraining for the growth of smaller firms (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic,

28
2005). At the household level, lack of access to credit is shown to perpetuate poverty

because poor households reduce their children’s education (Jacoby, 1994; Jacoby and

Skoufias, 1997). Similarly, Dehejia and Gatti (2003) find that child labor rates are higher

in countries with under-developed financial systems, while Beegle et al. (2003) show that

transitory income shocks to greater increases in child labor in countries with poorly

functioning financial systems. A better understanding of what the chief obstacles to

improving access are, and access to which type of financial services has the greater

impact on reducing poverty and promoting growth, will need to wait for availability of

better data in this area.

There are many different reasons why the poor do not have access to finance –

loans, savings accounts, insurance services. Social and physical distance from the formal

financial system may matter. The poor may not have anybody in their social network

who knows the various services that are available to them. Lack of education may make

it difficult for them to overcome problems with filling out loan applications, and the

small number of transactions they are likely to undertake may make the loan officers

think it is not worthwhile to help them. As financial institutions are likely to be in richer

neighborhoods, physical distance may also matter, banks simply may not be near the poor

(Beck and De la Torre, 2006). Specifically for access to credit services, there are two

important problems. First, the poor have no collateral, and cannot borrow against their

future income because they tend not to have steady jobs or income streams to keep track

of. Second, dealing with small transactions is costly for the financial institutions.

Ceilings on the rates financial institutions can charge backfire and limit access to the poor

even more.

29
 Microfinance –specialized institutions that serve the poor - tries to overcome

these problems in innovative ways. Loan officers come from similar social status as the

borrowers and go to the poor instead of waiting for the poor to come to them.

Microcredit also involves education as much as it provides credit. Group lending

schemes not only improve repayment incentives and monitoring through peer pressure,

but they are also a way of building support networks and educating borrowers.

Has microfinance fulfilled its promise? Microfinance allows poor people to have

more direct access, but development of microfinance around the world has been very

non-uniform, with significant penetration rates only in a few countries like Bangladesh,

Indonesia and Thailand (Honohan, 2004). Group lending is very costly since labor cost

per dollar of transactions needs to be high by design. The most controversial aspect of

microfinance, however, has been the extent of subsidy required to provide this access.

Overall, the microfinance sector remains heavily grant and subsidy dependent. Skeptics

question whether microfinance is the best way to provide those subsidies and point out

that development of mainstream finance is a more promising way to reach the poor and

alleviate poverty in significant ways.

There are also good political economy reasons why we should not focus on the

poor and ask how we can make microfinance more viable, but instead ask how financial

services can be made available for all (Rajan, 2006).20 The poor lack the political clout to

demand better services, and subsidies may spoil the credit culture. By defining the issue

more broadly to include the middle class who often also lack access, would make it more

likely that promotion of financial assess will be made a priority.

20
Rajan (2006) argues “…let’s not kill the microfinance movement with kindness. If we want it to become
more than a fad…it has to follow the clear and unsentimental path of adding value and making money. On
that path lies the possibility of a true, and large-scale escape from poverty.”

30
 What can governments do to promote access? First and foremost, governments

can further access by making and encouraging infrastructure improvements. Better legal,

information, payments systems, distribution and other structures can allow technology to

bring down transaction costs. Research shows that small firms and firms in countries

with poor institutions use less external finance, especially less bank finance, and that

other types of finance are imperfect substitutes (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Maksimovic,

2005). For example, at the household level, giving each individual a national

identification number and creating credit registries where lenders share information about

their clients’ repayment records would help since all borrowers could then borrow using

their future access to credit as collateral (Rajan, 2006).

Government regulation can also help. Removal of interest ceilings, or usury laws,

would allow institutions to charge the rates that they need to be profitable and improve

access. These regulations end up hurting the very poor they are trying to protect as the

supply of these services completely dry up. Anti-predatory lending or truth in lending

requirements is also very important since households may also be forced into over-

borrowing by unscrupulous lenders. Reducing costs of registering and repossessing

collateral is crucial. In Brazil for example, inability to repossess property has contributed

to the cost of the housing finance program, keeping the mortgage rates too high to be

affordable for the poor. Anti-discrimination policies may also help against cases of active

or passive discrimination against the poor or different ethnic groups.

Financial regulations can also prevent the emergence of institutions better suited

to the needs of lower income households or smaller firms. Rigid chartering rules, high

capital adequacy requirements, very strict accounting requirements may reduce the ability

31
of institutions to serve the poorer segments of the society. As many households are

interested in savings services but not in credit services, considering and regulating

savings mobilization separately from credit services may be helpful (Claessens, 2005).

For example in South Africa, extension of bank regulation and supervision to

microfinance institutions reduced their capacity to offer their services profitably

(Glaessner et al. 2004).

Governments can also be instrumental in facilitating innovative technologies to

improve access. For example in Mexico, a program developed by Nafin, a government

development bank, allows many small suppliers to use their receivables from large credit-

worthy buyers to receive working capital financing (Klapper, 2006). This type of trade

finance is called reverse factoring and effectively allows small firms to borrow based on

the creditworthiness of their buyers, allowing them to borrow more at cheaper rates.21

Governments can also opt to stimulate access more directly. The US Treasury’s

Electronic Transfer Accounts (ETAs) to increase use of bank accounts, US Community

Reinvestment Act (CRA) to improve access to credit services, legal measures adopted by

the UK, France, Sweden, and Ireland among others, are such examples. However, there

is little consensus on the success of those schemes (Peachey and Roe, 2004; Claessens,

2005) and whether they can be replicated in developing countries. The experiences with

credit extensions, especially to improve the maturity structure of debt and reach the

SMEs, are extensive in both developed and developing countries. However, both the

rationale for and effectiveness of those interventions are much more doubtful (see Caprio

and Demirguc-Kunt, 1997; Beck and Demirguc-Kunt, 2006).

21
Also see Berger and Udell (2006) for a discussion of different innovative technologies that can expand
access of small firms even in the absence of a strong institutional environment. De la Torre and Schmukler
(2005) includes other such public-private partnership examples of expanding access.

32
 Last but perhaps most importantly, governments can improve access by

increasing competition in the financial sector. As financial institutions find their

traditional business coming under competition, they seek out new lines of profitable

opportunities, including lending to the SMEs and the poor. Given the right incentives,

private sector can develop and make use of new technologies – like credit scoring – to

reach the underserved segments. Foreign banks’ role in improving the competition

environment and improving access is important. There is accumulating evidence that

foreign banks can enhance access (Clarke et al, 2001 and 2003).22 Indeed, multinational

banks have been leading the way in expanding access all around the world.23

IV. Challenges for Low-Income Countries

Should all countries follow these recommendations? While the general messages

will not be dissimilar, the directions in which financial sector needs improvement in

different countries will be based on their initial conditions (World Bank, 2001). These

reforms are the most challenging for low-income countries, where the legacy of financial

repression and state ownership has generally hampered the development of a vigorous

private financial system, where the underlying legal and information infrastructure is

weak, and achieving minimum efficient scale will be difficult. Supported by stable and

sustainable macro policies, a priority for the state would be to divest itself of bank

holdings and attract reputable international banks. If democracy is weak and ethnic

conflict is high, a significant level of uncertainty will prevail, which will likely deter

22
Also see the country examples discussed in Claessens (2005).
23
Studies have found that while foreign banks with small local presence do not appear to lend much to
small businesses, large foreign banks in many cases surpass large domestic banks. See for example,
Sanchez et al. 2006.

33
entry by good foreign banks. Low population density is another factor that may deter

entry.

Legal and informational infrastructures are likely to be weak, and will need to be

strengthened if financial systems are to function well. Transport and communications

infrastructures are also essential for financial development. In financial regulation,

political capture and corruption will potentially be an issue, so transparency,

independence and accountability will be important. Although markets are likely to be

underdeveloped and the rule of law weak, encouraging and empowering the market to

participate in monitoring through education and disclosure will have longer-term

pay-offs. The temptation to extend government guarantees – in the form of deposit

insurance – to bolster confidence in the formal financial system should be resisted, as it

has been shown to create moral hazard and backfire. The country is likely to be too small

and too poor to sustain a liquid securities market, so this is an area of reform best left till

after other priorities are addressed. Reducing bank concentration is not a worthy goal in

itself either, the focus of policy should be improving contestability instead – through

lower entry barriers, fewer restrictions on bank activities and freedoms. Improving

competition in this way, coupled with institutional reforms, should increase the

availability and lower the cost of credit to enterprises with good growth opportunities.

Governments would do well to remove barriers that prevent borrowers and

lenders from accessing international capital markets, as institutional improvements are

made. While this will increase volatility at least in the short run, it will also lead to

significant benefits in terms of overall financial development. If the country is small,

exploring possibilities for regional cooperation may be fruitful in improving access to

34
higher quality financial services. Technological advances, facilitated by greater

competition and entry of foreign know-how, can lead to promising innovations in the

areas of deposits, payments, credit, and risk management, making basic financial services

available to poor households and small firms.

V. Conclusions

A well-functioning financial system is one of the key foundations on which

sustained economic development can be built. Research suggests that financial sector

development plays an independent and causal role in promoting long-run economic

growth. More recent evidence has also shown that finance is not only pro-growth, but

also pro-poor: Well developed financial systems are associated with more rapid growth

in the incomes of the poor, helping them catch up with the rest of the economy as it

grows.

Yet, financial development differs sharply around the world. Even at similar

levels of income, countries have very different levels of financial development. If

finance is a key driver of economic development, what can governments do to promote

financial development? Research so far suggests a number of important policy

recommendations. First and foremost, well functioning financial systems need stable

macroeconomic policies and strong legal and information systems. Making infrastructure

improvements a priority is a must. Second, promoting a contestable financial sector – as

characterized by lower entry barriers, fewer regulatory restrictions on bank activities,

greater banking freedoms -is essential for improving depth, efficiency and access. This

means reducing government ownership through careful privatization, and domestic and

35
international liberalization including foreign entry. Opening up is also accompanied by

risks however, particularly a higher risk of financial crisis, and therefore needs to be

synchronized with improvements in institutional improvements.

Third, governments have an important role to play as regulators. But empirical

evidence suggests the best approach to regulation is one which empowers the markets,

rather than creating all powerful regulators who may be subject to corruption and

political and industry capture. Empowering the market entails enforcing accurate and

timely information disclosure and providing the right incentives for market participants to

make sure they remain vigilant monitors – for example, through avoiding generous and

mis-priced deposit insurance, or forbearance policies that distort risk-taking incentives.

Research also questions the wisdom of transplanting First World practice to developing

countries. Often regulations considered appropriate in developed economies prove

ineffective or counterproductive in weaker institutional settings: Explicit deposit

insurance may destabilize the very financial system it is meant to protect, and powerful

supervisors may be more prone to corruption and extracting rents. Hence, the importance

of institutional factors that need strengthening to support these policies.

Finally, governments have an important role to play in facilitating broad access to

financial services, i.e., in expanding the availability of the range of financial services to a

broader set of households, firms and sectors in the economy. A sure way of improving

access is by making and encouraging infrastructure improvements. Better legal,

information, payments systems, distribution and other structures can allow technology to

bring down transaction costs. Promoting competition in the financial sector and allowing

36
foreign institutions will also encourage the private sector to reach the under-served

segments and increase the speed with which access-improving technologies are adopted.

Consumer protection rules such as anti-discrimination and anti-predatory lending

regulations would help, and so would removal of interest ceilings that end up hurting the

poor. Governments can also be instrumental in facilitating innovative technologies to

improve access through private-public partnerships.

Finally, while the general messages will be similar, the priorities and the extent to

which financial sector needs improvement in each country will depend on initial

conditions, with the reforms being the most challenging for low-income countries.

37
References

Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., and Robinson, J.A. 2001. “The Colonial Origins of
Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation.” American Economic Review 91,
1369–1401.

Aggarwal, R., Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Martinez Peria, M. 2006. “Do Remittances

Promote Financial Development?” Evidence from a Panel of Developing Countries.”
World Bank mimeo.

Aghion, P., Angeletos, M., Banerjee, A., Manova, K. 2004. “Volatility and growth: The
role of financial development.” Department of Economics, Harvard University mimeo.

Aghion, P., and Bolton, P. 1997. “A Trickle-Down Theory of Growth and Development
with Debt Overhang.” Review of Economic Studies 64, 151–172.

Alesina, A., Devleeschauwer, A., Easterly, W., Kurlat, S., and Wacziarg, R. 2003.
“Fractionalization.” Journal of Economic Growth 8(2).

Allen, F., and Gale, D. 2000. Comparing Financial Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Arteta, C. 2003. “Are Financially Dollarized Countries More Prone to Costly Crises?”
International Finance Discussion Paper, Board of the Governors of the Federal Reserve
System, No. 763.

Arteta, C. and Eichengreen, B. 2000. “Banking Crises in Emerging Markets:

Presumptions and Evidence.” In: Blejer, M. and Skreb, M. (eds.), Financial Policies in
Emerging Markets. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.

Ayyagari, M., Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Maksimovic, M. 2005. "How Important Are

Financing Constraints? The Role of Finance in the Business Environment." World Bank,
mimeo.

Ayyagari, M., Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Maksimovic, V. 2006a. "How Well Do

Institutional Theories Explain Firms' Perceptions of Property Rights?" Review of
Financial Studies, forthcoming.

Ayyagari, M., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Maksimovic, V., 2006b. "What Determines

Protection of Property Rights? An Analysis of Direct and Indirect Effects," World Bank
mimeo.

Banerjee, A., and Newman, A. 1993. “Occupational Choice and the Process of
Development.” Journal of Political Economy 101, 274–298.

38
Barth, J.R., Caprio Jr., G., and Levine, R. 2004. “Bank regulation and supervision: What
Works Best?” Journal of Financial Intermediation 13, 205–248.

Barth, J., Caprio, G., and Levine, R. 2006. Rethinking Bank Regulation - 'Till Angels
Govern. Cambridge University Press.

Beck, T. 2006 “Creating an Efficient Financial System: Challenges in a Global

Economy.” World Bank mimeo.

Beck, T. and A. de la Torre, 2006. “The Basic Analytics of Access to Financial

Services,” World Bank mimeo.

Beck, T., and Demirguc-Kunt, A. 2006. “Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: Access
to Finance as Growth Constraint.” Journal of Banking and Finance, forthcoming.

Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A., Laeven, L., and Levine, R. 2004. "Finance, Firm Size, and
Growth." World Bank Policy Research Working Papers 3485.

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Levine, R. 2006. “Bank Supervision and Corruption in
Lending”. Journal of Monetary Economics, forthcoming.

Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2006. “Bank Concentration, Competition,
and Crises: First Results.” Journal of Banking and Finance, forthcoming.

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2005. “Law and Firms' Access to Finance.”
American Law and Economics Review 7, 211–252.

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Levine, R. 2004. “Finance, inequality and poverty: Cross-
country evidence”. Mimeo. University of Minnesota (Carlson School of Management).

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2003. “Law, Endowments, and Finance.”
Journal of Financial Economics 70, 137–181.

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2003. “Law and Finance: Why Does Legal
Origin Matter?" Journal of Comparative Economics 31, 653–675.

Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Maksimovic, V. 2006. “Financing Patterns around the
World: Are Small Firms Different?” World Bank mimeo.

Beck, T., Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Maksimovic, V. 2004. “Financial and Legal
Constraints to Firm Growth: Does Size Matter?” Journal of Finance 60, 137–177.

Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Maksimovic, V. 2004. "Bank Competition and Access
to Finance: International Evidence." Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 36(3), 627
48.

39
Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Martinez Peria, M. 2005. "Reaching Out: Access To
and Use of Banking Services across Countries." World Bank Policy Research Working
Paper 3754.

Beck, T., and Fuchs, M. 2004. “Structural Issues in the Kenyan Financial System:
Improving Competition and Access.” World Bank Policy Research Paper 3363.

Beck, T., and Levine, R. 2002. “Industry Growth and Capital Allocation: Does Having a
Market- or Bank-Based System Matter?” Journal of Financial Economics 64, 147–180.

Beck, T., Levine, R., and Loayza, N. 2000. “Finance and the Sources of Growth, Journal
of Financial Economics 58, 261–300.

Beck, T., Lundberg, M., and Majnoni, G. "Financial Intermediary Development and
Growth Volatility: Do Intermediaries Dampen or Magnify Shocks?" Journal of
International Money and Finance, forthcoming.

Becker, G. and Stigler, G. 1974. “Law Enforcement, Malfeasance, and the Compensation
of Enforcers,” Journal of Legal Studies 3, 1-18.

Bekaert, G., Harvey, C.R., Lundblad, C. 2005. “Does Financial Liberalization Spur
Growth?” Journal of Financial Economics. In press.

Bekaert, G., and Harvey, C.R. 2003. “Emerging Markets Finance.” Journal of Empirical
Finance 10, 3-56.

Bekaert, G., Harvey, C.R., and Lundblad, C. 2001. “Emerging Equity Markets and
Economic Development.” Journal of Development Economics 66, 465–504.

Bencivenga, V.R., and Smith, B.D. 1992. “Deficits, Inflation and the Banking System in
Developing Countries: The Optimal Degree of Financial Repression.” Oxford Economic
Papers 44, 767–790.

Berger, A., and Udell, G.F. 2006.“A More Complete Conceptual Framework for
Financing of Small and Medium Enterprises.” Journal of Banking and Finance.

Berger, A., Demirguc-Kunt, A., Haubrich, J. and Levine, R. 2004. "Introduction: Bank
Concentration and Competition: An Evolution in the Making." Journal of Money, Credit,
and Banking 36(3), 433-53.

Bossone, B., Honohan, P., and Long, M. 2001. “Policy for Small Financial Systems.”
Financial Sector Discussion Paper 6. World Bank.

Bertrand, M., Schoar, A.S., and Thesmar, D. 2004. “Banking Deregulation and Industry
Structure: Evidence from the French Banking Reforms of 1985.” Discussion Paper No.
4488. Centre for Economic Policy Research.

40
Boot, A.W.A., and Thakor, A. 1997. Financial system architecture, Review of Financial
Studies 10, 693–733.

Boyd, J.H., Levine, R., and Smith, B.D. 2001. “The Impact of Inflation on Financial
Sector Performance.” Journal of Monetary Economics 47, 221–248.

Boyd, J.H., and Prescott, E.C. 1986. “Financial Intermediary-Coalitions.” Journal of

Economics Theory 38, 211–232.

Calvo, G. 1999. “Testimony on Full Dollarization.” Paper presented before a joint

hearing of the subcommittees on Economic Policy and International Trade and Finance,
US Congress, April.

Cecchetti, S. and Krause, S. 2004. “Deposit Insurance and External Finance,” NBER
Working Paper No. 10908.

Christopoulos, D.K., and Tsionas, E.G. 2004. “Financial Development and Economic
Growth: Evidence from Panel Unit Root and Cointegration Tests.” Journal of
Development Economics 73, 55–74.

Claessens, S. 2005. “Access to Financial Services: A Review of the Issues and Public
Policy Objectives.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3589.

Claessens, S, and Laeven, L. 2004. "What Drives Bank Competition? Some International
Evidence." Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 36(3), 563-83.

Claessens, S., Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Huizinga, H. 2001. "How Does Foreign Entry
Affect Domestic Banking Markets?" Journal of Banking and Finance 25(5): 891-911.

Clarke, G., Cull, R., Martinez Peria, M., and Sanchez, S. 2003. “Foreign Bank Entry:
Experience, Implications for Developing Countries and Agenda for Further Research.”
World Bank Research Observer 18, 25-59.

Clarke, G., Cull, R., and Martinez Peria, M. 2001. “Does Foreign Bank Penetration
Reduce Access to Credit in Developing Countries: Evidence from Asking Borrowers.”
World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2716.

Clarke, G., Cull, R., and Shirley, M. 2005. “Bank Privatization in Developing Countries:
A Summary of Lessons and Findings.” Journal of Banking and Finance 29, 1905-30.

Clarke, G., L. C. Xu and H. Zhou, 2003. “Finance and Income Inequality, Test of
Alternative Theories,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, #2984.

Cole, S. 2005. “Fixing Market Failures or Fixing Elections? Elections, Banks, and
Agricultural Lending in India.” Harvard Business School mimeo.

Cull, R., Senbet, L., and Sorge, M. 2005. "Deposit Insurance and Financial
Development." Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 37, 43-82.

41
De Haas, R., and Naaborg, I. 2005. “Does Foreign Bank Entry Reduce Small Firms’
Access to Credit: Evidence from European Transition Economies.” Dutch National Bank
Working Paper 50.

Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Detragiache, E. 2005. “Cross-Country Empirical Studies of

Systemic Bank Distress: A Survey,” In Davis, P. (ed.), Financial Instability, Asset Prices,
and Credit. National Institute Economic Review, forthcoming.

Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Detragiache, E. 2002. "Does Deposit Insurance Increase

Banking System Stability? An Empirical Investigation." Journal of Monetary Economics
49:7, 1373-406.

Demirguc-Kunt A., and Detragiache, E. 1999. “Financial Liberalization and Financial

Fragility.” In: Pleskovic, B., and Stiglitz, J. (eds.), Proceedings of the Annual World Bank
Conference on Development Economics. The World Bank, pp. 332-34.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A. and Detragiache, E. 1998. “The Determinants of Banking Crises:

Evidence from Developing and Developed Countries.” IMF Staff Papers 45, 81–109.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A. and Detragiache, E. and Tressel, T. 2006. “Banking on the

Principles: Compliance with Basel Core Principles and Bank Soundness.” World Bank
mimeo.

Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Huizinga, H. 2004. "Market Discipline and Deposit Insurance."
Journal of Monetary Economics 51, 375-99.

Demirguc-Kunt, A., and Kane, E. 2002. "Deposit Insurance around the Globe: Where
Does It Work?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(2), 175-96.

Demirguc-Kunt, A., Laeven, L., and Levine, R. 2004. "Regulations, Market Structure,
Institutions, and the Cost of Financial Intermediation." Journal of Money, Credit, and
Banking 36(3), 593-622.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2001. Financial Structure and Economic Growth: A
Cross-Country Comparison of Banks, Markets, and Development. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2001. “Financial Structure and Economic Growth:
Perspectives and Lessons. In: Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. (eds.), Financial
Structure and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Comparison of Banks, Markets, and
Development. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, pp. 3–14.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. 2001. “Bank-Based and Market-Based Financial

Systems: Cross-Country Comparisons.” In: Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Levine, R. (eds.),
Financial Structure and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Comparison of Banks,
Markets, and Development. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, pp. 81–140.

42
Demirgüç-Kunt A., and Levine, R. 1996. “Stock Market Development and Ffinancial
Intermediaries: Stylized Facts.” World Bank Economic Review 10, 291–322.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Maksimovic, V. 1998. “Law, Finance, and Firm Growth.”
Journal of Finance 53, pp. 2107–2137.

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., and Maksimovic, V. 2002. “Funding Growth in Bank-Based and

Market-Based Financial Systems: Evidence from Firm Level Data.” Journal of Financial
Economic 65, 337–363.

De Nicolo, G., Honohan, P., and Ize, A. 2003. “Dollarization of the Banking System:
Good or Bad:” IMF Working Paper 03/146.

Detragiache, E., Gupta, P., and Tressel, T. 2005. “Finance in Lower-Income Countries:
An Empirical Exploration.” International Monetary Fund Working Paper, WP/05/167.

Dinc, S. 2005. Politicians and Banks. Political Influences on Government-Owned Banks

in Emerging Countries, Journal of Financial Economics 77, 453-79.

Djankov, S., McLiesh, C., and Shleifer, A. 2005. “Private Credit in 129 Countries.”
NBER Working Paper 11078.

Diamond, D.W. 1984. “Financial Intermediation and Delegated Monitoring.” Review of

Economic Studies 51, pp. 393–414.

Domac, I. and Martinez Peria, M. 2003. “Banking Crises and Exchange Rate Regimes: Is
There a Link?’ Journal of International Economics 61(1), 41–72.

Easterly, W., and Levine, R. 2003. “Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments
Influence Economic Development.” Journal of Monetary Economics 50, pp. 3–39.

Eichengreen, B. and Hausmann, R. 1999. “Exchange Rates and Financial Fragility.”

National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7418.

Eichengreen, B. and Rose, A. 1998. “Staying Afloat when the Wind Shifts: External
Factors and Emerging-Market Banking Crises’, NBER Working Paper No. 6370,
January.

Engerman, S.L., and Sokoloff, K.L. 1997. “Factor Endowments, Institutions, and
Differential Paths of Growth among New World Economies: A View from Economic
Historians of the United States.” In: Haber, S. (ed.), How Latin America Fell Behind.
Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press, pp. 260–304.

Ferreira, M., and Matos, P. 2005. The Colors of Investors’ Money: Which Firms Attract
Institutional Investors from around the World?

43
Galor, O., and Zeira, J. 1993. “Income Distribution and Macroeconomics.” Review of
Economic Studies 60, pp. 35–52.

Goldsmith, R.W. 1969. Financial Structure and Development. New Haven, CT:Yale
University Press.

Greenwood, J., and Jovanovic, B. 1990. “Financial Development, Growth, and the
Distribution of Income, Journal of Political Economy 98, pp. 1076–1107.

Guiso, L., Sapienza, P., Zingales, L. (2002). “Does local financial development matter?”.
National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 8922.

Gurley, J.G., and Shaw, E.S. 1955. “Financial Aspects of Economic Development.”
American Economic Review 45, pp. 515–538.

Haber, S.H. 2005. “Mexico's Experiment with Bank Privatization and Liberalization,
1991–2004”. Journal of Banking and Finance. In press.

Haber, S.H. 2004. “Political Competition and Economic Growth: Lessons from the
Political Economy of Bank Regulation in the United States and Mexico”. Stanford
University mimeo.

Haber, S.H., Maurer, N., and Razo, A. 2003. The Politics of Property Rights: Political
Instability, Credible Commitments, and Economic Growth in Mexico. Cambridge
University Press.

Hermes, N., and Lensink, R. 2003. “Foreign Direct Investment, Financial Development
and Economic Growth.” Journal of Development Studies 38.

Honohan, P. 2004. "Financial Development, Growth, and Poverty: How Close Are the
Links?" In Goodhart, C. (ed.), Financial Development and Economic Growth:
Explaining the Links. London: Palgrave.

Huybens, E., and Smith, R. 1999. “Inflation, Financial Markets, and Long-Run Real
Activity.” Journal of Monetary Economics 43, 283–315.

Jappelli, T., and Pagano, M. 2002. “Information Sharing, Lending and Defaults: Cross-
Country Evidence.” Journal of Banking and Finance 26:10, 2017-45.

Jayaratne, J., and Strahan, P.E. 1996. “The Finance-Growth Nexus: Evidence from Bank
Branch Deregulation.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 111, 639–670.

Kaminsky, G. and Reinhart, C.M. 1999. “The Twin Crises: The Causes of Banking and
Balance of Payments Problems.” American Economic Review 89, 473–500.

Kaminsky, G., and Schmukler, S. 2003. “Short-term Pain, Long-term Gain: The Effect of
Financial Liberalization.” NBER Working Paper 9787.

44
Kaminsky, G. and Schmukler, S. 2001. “On Financial Booms and Crashes: Regional
Patterns, Time Patterns, and Financial Liberalization.” Policy Research Paper. World
Bank.

Klapper, L. 2006. "The Role of Factoring for Financing Small and Medium Enterprises."
Journal of Banking and Finance, forthcoming.

King, R.G., and Levine, R. 1993. “Finance and Growth: Schumpeter Might Be Right.”
Quarterly Journal of Economics 108, 717-738.

Laeven, L., and Majnoni, G. 2005. “Does Judicial Efficiency Lower the Cost of Credit?”
Journal of Banking and Finance 29, 1791-812.

Lamoreaux, N. 1994. Insider Lending: Banks, Personal Connections, and Economic

Development in Industrial New England, New York:Cambridge University Press.

La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., and Shleifer, A. 2006. “What Works in Securities
Laws?” Journal of Finance, forthcoming.

La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A. 2002. “Government Ownership of

Commercial Banks.” Journal of Finance 57, 265–301.

La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., and Vishny, R.W. 1998. “Law and
Finance.” Journal of Political Economy 106, 1113–1155.

La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., Shleifer, A., and Vishny, R.W. 1997. “Legal
Determinants of External Finance.” Journal of Finance 52, 1131–1150.

Levine, R. 2005. “Finance and Growth: Theory and Evidence.” In Aghion, P. and
Durlaff, S. (eds.), Handbook of Economic Growth. Elsevier Science. The Netherlands.

Levine, R. 2002. “Bank-Based or Market-Based Financial Systems: Which is Better?”

Journal of Financial Intermediation 11, 398–428.

Levine, R. 1997. “Financial Development and Economic Growth: Views and Agenda,
Journal of Economic Literature 35, 688–726.

Levine, R., Loayza, N., and Beck, T. 2000. “Financial Intermediation and Growth:
Causality and Causes.” Journal of Monetary Economics 46, 31–77.

Levine, R., and Zervos, S. 1998. “Stock Markets, Banks, and Economic Growth.”
American Economic Review 88, 537–558.

Love, I. 2003. “Financial Development and Financing Constraint: International Evidence

from the Structural Investment Model.” Review of Financial Studies 16, 765–791.

45
Love, I., and Mylenko, N. 2004. "Credit Reporting and Financing Constraints." World
Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3142.

Lucas, R.E. 1988. “On the Mechanics of Economic Development.” Journal of Monetary
Economics 22, 3–42.

Merton, R.C., Bodie, Z. 2004. “The Design of Financial Systems: Towards a Synthesis of
Function and Structure.” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Number
10620.

Miller, M. 2003. Credit Reporting Systems and the International Economy. MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.

Morck, R., Wolfenzon, D., Yeung, B. 2005. “Corporate Governance, Economic

Entrenchment and Growth”. Journal of Economic Literature. In press.

Mundell, R. 1961. “A Theory of Optimum Currency Areas.” American Economic Review

51, 717–25.

Pagano, M., and Volpin, P. 2001. “The Political Economy of Finance.” Oxford Review of
Economic Policy 17, 502–519.

Raddatz, C. 2006. “Liquidity Needs and Vulnerability to Financial Underdevelopment.”

Journal of Financial Economics, forthcoming.

Rajan, R. (March) 2006. “Separate and Unequal.” Finance and Development,

International Monetary Fund, Washington D.C., 56-57.

Rajan, R.G., and Zingales, L. 2003. Saving Capitalism from the Capitalists. New
York:Random House.

Rajan, R.G., and Zingales, L. 1998. “Financial Dependence and Growth.” American
Economic Review 88, 559–586.

Robinson, J. 1952. The Rate of Interest and Other Essays. London:MacMillan (Chapter
“The generalization of the general theory”).

Roubini, N., and Sala-i-Martin, X. 1992. “Financial Repression and Economic Growth.”
Journal of Development Economics 39, 5–30.

Roubini. N., and Sala-i-Martin, X. 1995. “A Growth Model of Inflation, Tax Evasion,
and Financial Repression.” Journal of Monetary Economics 35, 275–301.

Rousseau, P.L., Sylla, R. 1999. “Emerging Financial Markets and Early U.S. Growth.”
National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 7448.

46
Stigler, G. 1971. “The Theory of Economic Regulation.” Bell Journal of Economics and
Management Science 2, 3-21.

Stulz, R.M., and Williamson, R. 2003. “Culture, Openness, and Finance.” Journal of
Financial Economics 70, 313-349.

World Bank. 2001. Finance for Growth: Policy Choices in a Volatile World. Policy
Research Report. Washington, DC.

Wurgler, J. 2000. “Financial Markets and the Allocation of Capital.” Journal of Financial
Economics 58, pp. 187–214.

Yagci, F. 2006. “Choice of Exchange Rate Regimes for Developing Countries.” In:
Bourguignon F. and Monga, C. (eds.), Macroeconomic Issues in Low-Income Countries.
Washington D.C., forthcoming.

47
Table 1. Financial Indicators : Summary Statistics by Income Group

Full Sample No. of Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Private Credit / GDP 156 0.447 0.416 0.008 2.067

Stock Market Capitalization 107 0.465 0.550 0.004 3.798
Net Interest Margin 156 0.053 0.034 0.009 0.240
M2 (mil. 2000 USD) 159 123,757 735,395 20 6,604,461
Number of Loans per 1000 People 44 200.02 222.50 4.44 771.80
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance 163 3.0 1.0 1.0 5.0

High Income Countries No. of Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Private Credit / GDP 37 0.997 0.379 0.294 2.067

Stock Market Capitalization 36 0.885 0.688 0.098 3.798
Net Interest Margin 45 0.025 0.009 0.009 0.051
M2 (mil. 2000 USD) 23 676,638 1,820,871 3,423 6,604,461
Number of Loans per 1000 People 10 450.50 247.99 48.75 753.98
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance 37 2.3 0.9 1.0 3.5

Upper Middle Income Countries No. of Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Private Credit / GDP 32 0.442 0.316 0.101 1.306

Stock Market Capitalization 25 0.374 0.395 0.019 1.470
Net Interest Margin 28 0.053 0.029 0.018 0.150
M2 (mil. 2000 USD) 35 25,293 37,628 112 162,953
Number of Loans per 1000 People 11 251.81 211.23 53.85 771.80
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance 29 2.6 0.9 1.0 5.0

Lower Middle Income Countries No. of Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Private Credit / GDP 40 0.307 0.207 0.029 1.018

Stock Market Capitalization 30 0.213 0.214 0.005 0.844
Net Interest Margin 41 0.062 0.028 0.011 0.127
M2 (mil. 2000 USD) 48 58,545 294,801 72 2,045,992
Number of Loans per 1000 People 18 74.41 54.00 4.44 249.60
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance 46 3.2 0.9 1.5 5.0

Low-Income Countries No. of Obs. Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Private Credit / GDP 47 0.137 0.091 0.008 0.399

Stock Market Capitalization 16 0.132 0.136 0.004 0.529
Net Interest Margin 42 0.075 0.039 0.025 0.240
M2 (mil. 2000 USD) 53 7,910 40,830 20 296,826
Number of Loans per 1000 People 5 37.33 39.73 4.50 98.11
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance 51 3.6 0.8 2.5 5.0

48
Figure 1. Private Credit / GDP
(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Private Credit / GDP
Sample size: 156 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

(b)
USA
2.00

CHE
1.50

MYS
Private Credit / GDP

1.00 THA

FIN
0.50
VNM
ETH
BDI PER
LBY

0.00 SDN

4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

Log of GDP per capita (2000 USD)
Sample size: 152 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

49
Figure 2. Stock Market Capitalization / GDP

(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 .2 .4 .6 .8
Stock Market Capitalization / GDP
Sample size: 107 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

(b)

4.00
HKG
Stock Market Capitalization / GDP

3.00

CHE

2.00

ZAFMYS

1.00

CRI ARE
0.00

4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

Log of GDP per capita (2000 USD)
Sample size: 105 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

50
Figure 3. Net Interest Margin

(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 .02 .04 .06 .08

Net Interest Margin
Sample size: 156 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

(b)
0.25
ZWE

0.20
Net Interest Margin

0.15 VEN

0.10

0.05
ETH
BGD
SYR
0.00
4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
Log of GDP per capita (2000 USD)
Sample size: 145 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Source: Index of Economic Freedom (Heritage Foundation, 2006)

51
Figure 4. Bank Loans per 1000 People

(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 100 200 300 400 500

Number of Loans per 1000 People
Sample size: 44 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Source: Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Martinez Peria. 2005. Reaching Out Dataset

(b)

800.00
POL
GRC
ISR

600.00
Number of Loans per 1000 People

400.00
MYS

200.00

VEN
SAU BEL

0.00

-200.00
5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
Log of GDP per capita (2000 USD)
Sample size: 44 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Source: Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Martinez Peria. 2005. Reaching Out Dataset

52
Figure 5. Money Supply

(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 5 10
Log of M2 (mil. 2000 USD)
Sample size: 159 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg.
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

(b)

1000000

100000
M2 (mil. 2000 USD)

10000

1000

100

< 1 bil. USD

1 - 10 bil. USD
> 10 bil. USD
Sample size: 159 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Note: All values are in 2000 USD
Source: Beck et. al. 2006. Financial Structure Database (The World Bank)

53
 Figure 6. Banking and Finance Freedom Index

(a)
Distribution by Income Group (mean)

1. High Income

2. Upper Middle Income

3. Lower Middle Income

4. Low Income

0 1 2 3 4
Freedom Score - Banking & Finance
Sample size: 163 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Source: Index of Economic Freedom (Heritage Foundation, 2006)

(b)

5.00 UZB SYR IRN LBY

Freedom Score - Banking & Finance

4.00

JPN

3.00

CIV

2.00

ARM

1.00 CZE

4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00

Log of GDP per capita (2000 USD)
Sample size: 156 countries
Time period: 2000-2004 Avg
Source: Index of Economic Freedom (Heritage Foundation, 2006)

54

View publication stats