The Electric and Magnetic Fields Together

Accelerating electrons produce electromagnetic waves. These waves are a combination of

electric and magnetic fields. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, and a
changing electric field produces a magnetic field. As accelerated electrons produce an electric
field of a wave, the varying electric field produces the wave’s magnetic field. Both the electric
field and the magnetic field oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the
propagating wave.

All electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium but unlike other types of waves, they
can also travel in vacuum. They travel in vacuum at a speed of 3X108 m/s and denoted as c,
the speed of light. The wave speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the following
equation:
v=λf
where v is the wave speed, or c (speed of light) expressed in meters per second, the frequency
f is expressed in Hertz and the wavelength λ is expressed in meters. Since all the EM waves
have the same speed and that is equal to the speed of light, as wavelength decreases, the
frequency of the wave increases. Through the years, the advancement on the knowledge about
electromagnetic waves led us to a modern technological world.
NOTE: USE THE EXCERCISES WE ANSWERED ABOUT HOW TO SOLVE FOR THE
FREQUENCY, ENERGY, AND WAVELENGTH OF EM WAVES ON YOUR NOTEBOOKS.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of electromagnetic waves arranged according to
frequency and wavelength. It is a gradual progression from the waves of lowest frequencies to
the waves of highest frequencies. According to increasing frequency, the EM spectrum includes:
radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. These
waves do not have exact dividing region. The different types of electromagnetic waves are
defined by the amount of energy carried by/possessed by the photons. Photons are bundles of
wave energy. The energy of a photon is given by the equation:
E=hf
where h is the Planck’s Constant and f is the frequency of the EM wave. The value of the
Planck’s constant is 6.63 x 10-34 joules per second. From among the EM waves, the gamma
rays have photons of high energies while radio waves have photons with the lowest energies.
With regards to wavelength, radio waves can be likened to the size of a football field while
gamma rays are as small as the nuclei of an atom.
Microwaves
Microwaves have smaller wavelengths than radio waves. They are used
in satellite communications, radar, television transmission and cooking.
Applications of Microwaves
Satellite Communications
Microwaves can penetrate the atmosphere of the earth. This is the
reason why they are used for satellite communications. Communication
satellites travel around the earth at an altitude of 35, 000 km above the equator.
They move at a speed of 11 300 km/h and revolve around the earth every 24
hours, the same rate as the rotation of the earth. This makes them appear
to be stationary when seen on Earth. Antennae are mounted to point in fixed
directions towards these satellites. Microwaves signals are transmitted by an
antenna to a satellite which amplifies and re-transmits the signal to an antenna
in other parts of the world. This is how we communicate with the rest of the
world.

Radar
 Microwaves have short wavelengths and are reflected by small objects.This property is
used in radars. Radar is the acronym of radio detection and ranging. A radar system is
consisting of an antenna, transmitter, and a receiver. The antenna whirls around continuously to
scan the surrounding area. The transmitter sends out a narrow beam of microwaves in short
pulses. A distant object reflects some of the signal back to the receiver. The direction to which
the signal was received gives the direction of the object. The distance of the object can be
calculated from the time lag between the transmitted pulse and the reflected pulse.

Terrestrial Communication
Microwaves are used to transmit television news coverage from mobile broadcast vehicles back
to the station. The news crew can also set up a small antenna to send signals to a
communication satellite. This is how news are broadcasted and watched live around the world.

A cell phone is a radio transmitter and receiver that uses microwaves. Cellular phones depend
on overlapping network of cells or areas of land several kilometres in diameter. Each cell has its
tower that receives and sends microwave signals. The figure below will give you further
understanding on the process.

Microwave oven
In a microwave oven, foods absorb certain microwave frequencies very strongly. The
microwaves penetrate the food being heated. It will agitate the water molecules within the food,
thus creating molecular friction which then produces heat that will cook it.
Infrared
Infrared radiation lies beyond the red end of the visible light. It is emitted
by all objects. The amount and wavelength of radiation depend on temperature.
Below 500oC, an object emits only infrared radiation. Above 500oC, an object
glows and emits both infrared and some visible light. Our bodies radiate infrared and under
infrared camera or a night vision goggle, our images appear in variety of colors. The differences
in color determine the differences in temperature. For example, shades of blue and green
indicate regions of colder temperature; and red and yellow indicate warmer temperature.

In Figure 9, the dog is covered with thick coat of fur that prevents the heat generated by the
dog’s body from escaping. Notice that the dog’s nose is cold while the eyes and mouth areas
are warm.

The following are some useful applications of IR radiation:

1. Infrared photographs taken from a satellite with special films provide
useful details of the vegetation on the Earth’s surface.
2. Infrared scanners are used to show the temperature variation of the
body. This can be used for medical diagnosis.
3. Infrared remote controls are used in TVs, video, cassette recorders,
and other electronic appliances.
4. Some night-vision goggles use IR.
5. Some autofocus cameras have transmitter that sends out infrared
pulses. The pulses are reflected by the object to be photographed
back to the camera. The distance of the object is calculated by the
time lag between the sending and receiving of pulses. The lens is
then driven by a built-in motor to adjust to get the correct focus of the
object.

The Visible Spectrum

When white light passes through a prism, it is separated into its constituent colors: the red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These colors do not distinctly separate but they
continuously change from red to violet. Red color has the longest wavelength from among these
colors and violet has the shortest.

Our eyes are sensitive to electromagnetic waves of wavelengths that ranges from 4x10-7 m to
7x10-7 m. This is the range of wavelengths of white light. Thus, the spectrum of white light is
therefore called the visible spectrum. Table 3 shows the wavelengths of the different colors that
constitute the white light.
Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet radiation lies just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Ultraviolet waves
have shorter wavelengths than the visible light and carry more energy.

Some Uses of UV Radiation

The sun is our main source of ultraviolet radiation but there are also artificial sources of UV light.
Ultraviolet radiation in UV lamps are used by banks to check the signature on a passbook. The
signature is marked on the passbook with fluorescent ink. It becomes visible when viewed under
an ultraviolet lamp. These lamps are also used to identify fake banknotes.

Ultraviolet radiation is also used in sterilizing water from drinking fountains. Some washing
powder also contains fluorescent chemicals which glow in sunlight. This makes your shirt look
whiter than white in daylight. Ultraviolet radiation in sunlight produces vitamin D in the skin and
gives us tanning effect. But since UV rays have high energy, it could be harmful to some extent.
It could burn the skin and hurt our eyes. Overexposure to UV radiation may cause skin cancer.
Suntan or sunscreen lotions serve as filters to protect the body from ultraviolet radiation.

X-rays
X-rays come just after the ultraviolet rays. They are of shorter wavelength
but carries higher energy than the UV. X-rays are produced using an X-ray tube. They are
emitted when fast moving electrons hit a metal target. X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen in 1895. Long wavelength X-rays can penetrate the flesh but not the bones.
They are used in X-ray photography to help doctors look inside the body. They are useful in
diagnosing bone fractures and tumors.

Short wavelength X-rays can penetrate even through metals. They are used in industry to
inspect welded joints for faults. All X-rays are dangerous because they can damage healthy
living cells of the body. This is the reason why frequent exposure to X-rays should be avoided.
Too much exposure to X-rays can damage body tissues and can cause cancer.

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays lie at the other end of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are shortest in
wavelength and highest in frequency. They carry the highest amount of energy; thus, they are
more dangerous. Gamma rays are emitted by stars and some radioactive substances. They can
only be blocked with lead and thick concrete. Gamma rays are very strong that they can kill
living cells. Gamma rays are used to treat cancer through the process called radiotherapy. They
are also used for sterilization of drinking water.

Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy.
• James Clerk Maxwell formulated the Electromagnetic Wave Theory
which says that an oscillating electric current should be capable of
radiating energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
• Heinrich Hertz discovered the Hertzian waves which is now known as
radio waves.
• Hertz is the unit used to measure the frequency of waves.
• Electromagnetic (EM) waves have unique properties.
►► EM waves can travel through a vacuum.
►► EM waves travel at the speed which is constant in a given medium
and has a value of c = 3.0 x 108 m/s in vacuum.
►► EM waves are disturbances in a field rather than in a medium.
►► EM waves have an electric field that travels perpendicular with
the magnetic field.
►► EM waves form when moving charged particles transfer energy
through a field.
• Most EM waves are invisible to the eye but detectable. Only the visible
light is seen by humans.
• Waves in the EM spectrum include the following from the longest
wavelength to the shortest wavelength.
►► Radio waves
►► Microwaves
►► Infrared waves
►► Visible light
►► Ultraviolet
►► X-rays
►► Gamma rays

The order also shows the increasing frequency and energy of the EM
waves.

• The waves in the various regions in the EM spectrum share similar

properties but differ in wavelength, frequency, energy, and method of
production.
• The regions in the EM spectrum have various uses and applications as
follows:

• Each type of EM wave poses a certain degree of risk and danger to

people and environment.

LIGHT: MIRRORS AND LENSES

In the previous module, you learned about electromagnetic spectrum. You gained an
understanding of the different electromagnetic waves and their benefits. One of the most common
among these electromagnetic waves is the visible light.
In this module, you will study two of the properties of visible light - reflection and refraction. A
closer look into these properties will be done through different observable examples and
experimentations using mirrors and lenses. As you walk through the pages of this module, you
will be able to use the laws of reflection and refraction to describe and explain how images are
formed by mirrors and lenses. You will also be able to solve problems pertaining to the position
and magnification of images formed by mirrors and lenses.
One of the thrusts of this module is to make you aware of the purposes of the different types of
mirrors and lenses so you can select the right type of
mirrors and lenses that you can use in your daily lives.

To learn more about reflection of light in plane mirrors, try the next activity. However, here are
some important terms which you need to understand first. Incident Ray. The ray of light
approaching the mirror represented by an arrow approaching an optical element like mirrors.
Reflected Ray. The ray of light which leaves the mirror and is represented by an arrow pointing
away from the mirror. Normal Line. An imaginary line (labeled N in Figure 3) that can be drawn
perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the point of incidence where the ray strikes the
mirror. The angle between the incident ray and the normal line is known as the angle of
incidence, Өi. The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is known as the angle of
reflection, Өr.

Types of Reflection:
1. Specular/ Regular Reflection. This is a reflection of light on smooth surfacessuch as
mirrors or a calm body of water. An example of this is the image of the Mayon volcano
on a calm water.

2. Diffused/Irregular Reflection. This reflects light on rough surfaces such as clothing,

paper, wavy water, and the asphalt roadway. An example of this is the image of a
mountain on a wavy body of water.
Reflection on Spherical Mirrors
Look at your reflection on a shiny metal spoon. Is your reflection the same on the two surfaces
of the spoon? How will you compare your reflection on the two surfaces of the spoon? This is a
reflection on curved mirrors. A curved mirror is a reflecting surface in which its surface is a
section of sphere. There are two kinds of curved mirrors, the concave and the convex mirrors. A
spoon is a kind of a curved mirror with both concave and convex surfaces.
Two Kinds of Spherical Mirrors:
1. The Concave Mirror
• It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges away from the light
source.
• It is called Converging Mirror because the parallel incident rays converge or meet/intersect at a
focal point after reflection.

2. The Convex Mirror

• It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges towards the light source.
• It is called Diverging Mirror because the parallel incident rays diverge after reflection. When
extending the reflected rays behind the mirror, the rays converge at the focus behind the mirror.
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors

Guidelines for Ray Diagramming on the Concave and Convex Mirrors

1. When a ray strike concave or convex mirrors obliquely at its pole, it is reflected obliquely.
2. When a ray, parallel to principal axis strikes concave or convex mirrors, the reflected ray
passes through the focus on the principal axis.

3. When a ray, passing through focus strikes concave or convex mirrors, the reflected ray will
pass parallel to the principal axis.
4. A ray passing through the center of curvature of the spherical mirror will retrace its path after
reflection.

Image Formation By Convex Mirror

The image formed in a convex mirror is always virtual and erect, whatever be the position of the
object. In this section, let us look at the types of images formed by a convex mirror.
When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the focus. The size of the
image is much smaller than compared to that of the object.
 When an object is placed at a finite distance from the mirror, a virtual image is formed
between the pole and the focus of the convex mirror. The size of the image is smaller than
compared to that of the object.

NOTE: REFER TO THE EXCERCISES WE PERFORMED ON UNDERSTANDING THE RAY

DIAGRAMS, MIRROR EQUATION, AND MAGNIFICATION (PROBLEM SOLVING) OF
CONCAVE AND CONVEX MIRRORS ON YOUR NOTEBOOK.
PRACTICAL USES OF CONVEX AND CONCAVE MIRRORS:
https://www.teachoo.com/10828/3118/Uses-of-Concave-and-Convex-
Mirrors/category/Concepts/

Refraction of Light in Lenses

You learned in Grade 8 that Refraction is the bending of light when it travels from one medium
to another of different optical densities. The ancient Greeks used the concept of light refraction
in their living like using a lens to focus light rays. A lens is a transparent material made of glass
or plastic that refracts light rays and focuses (or appear to focus) them at a point.

In the previous lesson, you explored about the qualitative characteristics of images formed by
mirrors both plane and curved mirrors. In this module, you now learn about basic information
about lenses and how they work? Just like in mirrors, you will also explore the qualitative
characteristics of images formed by lenses. Well, the most apparent distinction between mirrors
and lenses are: mirrors reflect light rays (light bounces back) while light rays are refracted
(pass-through) through a lens. A mirror has only one focal point. A lens has two focal points
each on either side.
Types of Lenses
1. Convex Lens

(A) (B)

Convex Lens. (a) Parallel light rays converge after refraction. (b) A converging lens
magnifying the words from a book

• It is thicker in the center than

edges.
• It forms real images and virtual images depending on position of the object.
• It is also called Converging Lens because the light that passes through it tends to converge at
a particular point called the focal point.

2. Concave Lens

A B

Concave Lens. (a) Parallel light rays diverge after refraction. (b) A diverging lens
demagnifying the words from a book.

• It is thicker at the edges and thinner in the center.

• It forms upright and reduced images.
• It is also called Diverging Lens because the light that passes through it tends to diverge at a
particular point called the focal point.
NOTE: REFER TO THE EXCERCISES WE PERFORMED ON UNDERSTANDING THE RAY
DIAGRAMS OF CONCAVE AND CONVEX LENSES ON YOUR NOTEBOOK.

Applications of Mirrors and Lenses in Optical Instruments

In your previous lesson you have learned about the qualitative characteristics of images formed
by plane, curved mirrors, and lenses. In this module you are going to study the different ways in
which the properties of mirrors and lenses determine their use in optical instruments.
When you look into a mirror, you see images of yourself and the objects nearby. If the surface of
the mirror is flat, the images look just like those in the real world except with the right and left
reversed. This type of mirrors is called plane mirror. On the other hand, if the surface of the
mirror is curved, the images can be larger or smaller than life size, or even upside-down. This
type of mirrors is called curved mirrors. In general, mirrors are objects that are good at reflecting
light waves.

Mirrors are part of our everyday life. We regularly use plane mirror in checking our physical
appearance every morning before we leave our homes. There are mirrors found in our vehicles.
While driving we use different-shaped mirrors to check on the position of vehicles on the next
lane.
A type of curved mirrors called convex mirrors are used for safety and security purposes suitable for
outdoor and indoor use in shops to prevent theft. This type of mirrors can also be placed in locations
where vehicles are risks of conflicts from blind corners and generally in places with limited visibility.

Curved mirrors (concave) are used in optical instruments such as ophthalmoscope. This instrument
consists of a concave mirror with a hole in the center. The doctor focuses through the small hole from
behind the concave mirror while a light beam is directed into the pupil of the patient’s eye. This makes
the retina visible and makes it easy for doctors to check.

Lenses, however are also essential in our daily lives. We are able to see because each of our eyes has a
lens that produces an image. In fact, all optical devices are part of our everyday life. Many people use
eyeglasses while doing their activities. Likewise, magnifying lenses, cameras, microscopes and
telescopes are important instruments used for specific purpose. Images are formed when using these
devices following the laws of reflection and refraction.

Just like how images are formed in our eyes, the camera is also simple application of a lens. The basic
element of a camera is a double convex lens that forms a real, upside down image on an optical sensor
usually a charge-coupled device (CCD) in a digital camera. To focus a camera, lens is moved either
toward or away from the optical sensor. The lens is moved toward the CCD to focus on a distant object
or away from the CCD to focus on close objects. The distances involved in moving the lens back and
forth in a camera are typically small.
Although a magnifying lens is a useful instrument, higher magnification and improved optical quality can
be obtained in using a microscope. The basic optical elements of a microscope are the object lens and
the eye piece lens. The objective lens is a converging lens with a relatively short focal length that is
placed near the object to be viewed. It forms a real, upside-down and enlarged image of the object. To
focus the microscope the precise location of this image is adjusted by moving the tube containing the
eyepiece lens and the objective lens up or down. The image formed by the objective lens serves as the
object of the second lens of the microscope which is the eye piece.

Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
• Reflection is the bouncing of light when it hits a surface.
• Two Laws of Reflection:
o The normal line, incident ray, and the reflected ray lie on the same
plane.
o The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• The reversal effect is the inversion of the image from left to right.
• Mirrors at an angle produce multiple images.
• Two Types of Reflection:
o Specular/ Regular Reflection – reflection of light on smooth
surfaces such as mirrors or a calm body of water.
o Diffuse/ Irregular Reflection – reflection of light on rough surfaces
such as clothing, paper, and the asphalt roadway.
• A curved mirror is a reflecting surface in which its surface is a section of
a sphere.
• Two Kinds of Spherical Mirrors:
o The Concave Mirror or Converging Mirror
o The Convex Mirror or Diverging Mirror
• Important Points in Ray Diagramming:
o Center of Curvature, C – the center of the sphere in which the
mirror is part. Its distance from the mirror is known as the radius.
o Vertex, V – the center of the mirror.
o Focal Point/ Focus, F – the point between the center of curvature
and vertex. Its distance from the mirror is known as the focal
length, f.
• The ‘Four Principal Rays’ in Curved Mirrors
o The P – F Ray is ray of light parallel to the principal axis, is
reflected passing through the principal focus, F (concave mirror),
and as if passing through the principal focus, F(convex mirror).
o The F – P Ray is a ray of light passing through F (concave mirror)
or directed towards F (convex mirror), is reflected parallel to the
principal axis.
o The C – C Ray is ray of light passing through the center of
curvature, C (concave mirror) or directed towards the center of
curvature, C (convex mirror) reflects back along its own path.
o V Ray is a ray of light directed to the vertex reflects at equal angle
from the principal axis
• A lens is a transparent material made of glass or plastic that refracts and
focuses (or that appears to focus) light rays at a point.
• Two Types of Lenses:
o Convex Lens or Converging Lens
o Concave Lens or Diverging Lens
• The ‘Three Most Useful Rays’ in Lenses:
o The P – F Ray is ray of light parallel to the principal axis is refracted
passing through the principal focus, F behind the lens (convex)
or as if passing through the principal focus, F in front of the lens
(concave).
o F – P Ray. A ray of light passing through F in front of the
lens(convex) or directed towards F behind the lens(concave) is
refracted parallel to the principal axis.
o V Ray. A ray of light passing through the exact center of the lens
(Vertex) continue to travel in the same direction.