HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOME BRANCHES OF MATHEMATICS.

Numbers and Numerations Systems.

All mathematics is based on the natural numbers. Every civilization developed its ideas of
number. The concept of number and the process of counting developed so long before the time
of recorded history. Counting was the earliest mathematical activity. Even in the most primitive
times, man had some sense of number. At least they could state more or less when objects were
added or taken from a group. Later simple counting became imperative – knowing how many
they were in the family, number of flocks one had, etc. Counting probably started with a simple
tally method on the principle of one-to-one correspondence, use of fingers, notches in woods,
scratches on stones, knots in strings. A vocal sound was later developed as a word tally against
the number of objects in a small group. Much later, an assortment of symbols was evolved for
these numbers. For instance, the number seven can be variously written as: 7, VII, //// //, etc.

The concept represented by each of these symbols is the same, but the symbols differ. The
concept or idea of “sevenness” is called a number; the written symbol used to represent the
concept are the numerals. The abstraction of a common property of “sevenness” represented by
some sound considered independently of any concrete association, took a long time to attain. The
association between sets of concrete objects and the number words may now seem lost to us.

A logically organized collection of numerals is called numeration system. A numeration system

is a set of basic symbols and some rules for making other symbols from them. The invention of a
precise and a workable system is one of the greatest inventions of humanity which enabled
human to carry the knowledge of one generation to the next. It took centuries to arrive at the
stage of symbolic representation. It probably won’t be the last system to be developed.

The earliest type of written numeration system developed was a ‘simple grouping system’ as
counting became more extensive, the counting process had to be systemized by arranging the
numbers into convenient basic groups. The matching process employed determined the size of
the group. Some number b was selected as a base (radix or scale) for counting, and names were
assigned to the numbers 1, 2, 3, …, b, Names for numbers larger than b were then given by
combinations of the numbers already selected. Primitive counting systems mostly used fingers of
one or both hands, as evidenced by the predominance of the number 5 and 10 as bases for most
number systems today. Thus, philologists say 11 is ‘ein lifon’ meaning ‘one left over’ or ‘one
over ten’; 12 is ‘twelif’ (two over ten); 13 is ‘three and ten’ etc. and 20 (twe-tig or two tens); 21
is two tens and one and 100 means ten times ten.

We have various ancient systems such as Egyptians, Babylonians, Vigesimalscale (based on 20)
widely used by the American Indians and the well-developed Mayans, (traces of these are also
found on Gaelic, Danish and Welsh and Greenlanders), Romans and the Hindu-Arabic systems
of numeration.

Egyptian Numeration System.

One of the earliest civilizations known to use numerals was the Egyptians. The Egyptians used a
system by the time of the first dynasty, around 2850 BC. The Egyptian mathematics symbols
were part of their ancient writing system called hieroglyphics. The Egyptians used mathematics
in many varied ways including astronomy for calendar reckoning which helped them to set the
times for religious holidays and to predict the annual flooding of the Nile.

There are two primary sources and a number of secondary sources on Egyptian Mathematics.
The primary sources are the Rhind (or Ahmes) Papyrus and the Moscow Papyrus, and between
them they contain 112 practical problems in arithmetic and geometry with solutions. Among the
secondary sources are three papyri from ~ 1800 BC: Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll (a
table of 26 decompositions of unit fractions); the Berlin Papyrus (two problems of simultaneous
equations – one of the 2nd degree;
The Reisner Papyrus (volume calculations).

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (RMP) which is also known as the Ahmes Papyrus, is the
major source of our knowledge of the mathematics of ancient Egypt. It is a very good example of
Egyptian mathematics. It is named after Alexander Henry Rhind a Scottish antiquarian, who
purchased the papyrus in 1858 in Luxor, Egypt. It was apparently found during illegal
excavations in it near the Ramesseum. It dates to around 1650 BC. The British Museum, where
the majority of papyrus is now kept, acquired it in 1864.

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus dates to the second Intermediate Period of Egypt. It was
copied by the scribe Ahmes from a now-lost text from the reign of king Amenemhat III (12th
 dynasty). Witten in the hieratic script, this manuscript is 33cm tall and consists of multiple parts
which in total make it over 5m long.

The first part of the Rhind papyrus consists of reference tables and a collection of 20 arithmetic
and 20 algebraic problems. The problems start out with simple fractional expressions, followed
by completion (sekhem) problems and more involved linear equations (aha problems). Then
second part of the Rhind papyrus consists of geometry problems, referred to as “mensuration
problems”. The Rhind Papyrus is larger than the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, while the latter
is older than the former.

Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (MMP), also known as the Golenschev Mathematical Papyrus
was copied by an unknown scribe (~ 1850 BC). The Moscow papyrus contains about 35, mostly
practical mathematics problems (simple equations) and solutions. It was purchased by V. S.
Golenishchev (d. 1947) and sold to the Moscow Museum of Fine Art. It is 15 feet long and about
3 inches wide. Problem 14 was on Volume of a frustum. The scribe directs one to square the
numbers two and four and to add the sum of these squares, the product of two and four. Multiply
this by one third of six. Check to see that it is 56.

The Egyptian numbering system was also based on units of 10 as in present system, but instead
of relying on the position of numbers to define their value, the Egyptians used different images
to represent different units of 10. The hieroglyphic numerals used to represent 1, 10, 100, 1000,
10 000, 100 000 and 1000 000:

Scroll Burbot fish or polliwog

Stroke Heelbone Lotus flower Pointed finger
100 100 000
One Ten 1000 10000

Astonished man
1000 000
The Egyptian system was based on the simple grouping system. The Egyptians used their
symbols additively to express any number. Each symbol is repeated the required number of
times, but no more than nine repetitions. For example, 432 was written as:

432=

432=

It was simply based upon addition. They just needed to add up the numbers represented by the
symbols. The position of the individual symbols is not important.

The system was not a place value system. It had no symbol for zero. The Egyptians did
repetitive type of arithmetic. They performed addition, subtraction by repeating the symbol and
by regrouping. E.g.

+ =
=
Babylonian Numeration System.

The system of numeration used by ancient Mesopotamia (Babylonia) differed from that of the
Egyptians in several respects. The Egyptians used a simple grouping system but the Babylonians
employed a much more useful positional system. The Babylonians used a well-preserved and
less pictorial clay tablet writing using wedge-shaped marks known as cuneiform. They
employed only two wedge-shaped characters, which date from about 3000 BC. These are:

For 1 (one) For 10 (ten)

The system is repetitive from 1 through 59. Here, the position of the symbols was important.
The symbol for ten must appear to the left any ones to represent numbers less than 60. For
numbers larger than 60, the symbol for ten and the symbol for one are to the left of ten, and any
symbol to the left of the symbol of ten have a value 60 times their original value. For example,

24 is written as

The Babylonian system is also called sexagesimal system. It is not fully positional since numbers
within each basic 60 group are written by a simple grouping system. It did not have 60 different
symbols. They had no symbol for zero, which led to some ambiguities.

The Babylonians went further to cover 602 for any numeral to the further left of the second 60
group. For example,
= 3(60) + 20 +5 = 180 + 25 = 205
The system is still in use when measuring time in units and seconds.

The Roman Numeration System = 2(60) + 40 +6 = 120 + 46 = 166

The Roman numeration system used the following basic symbols ‘I’ for one (1), ‘X’ for ten (10),
‘C’ for hundred (100) and ‘M’ for thousand (1000). These are augmented by ‘V’ for 5, ‘L’ for
50, and ‘D’ for 500. When a smaller unit is placed before a symbol for a larger unit, it means the
difference of the two units. This shows the subtractive principle. For example, we have IV for 4;
IX for 9; XL for 40; XC for 90; CM for 900. Thus, 99 may be written as XCIX in Roman
numerals and 1944 = MDCCCCXXXXIIII in ancient times, but now MCMXLIV.

Nothing mathematically significant was accomplished by the Romans. The Roman numeration
system was based on the Roman numerals, which were cumbersome for calculations. Despite
this drawback, the use of the Roams numeration system continued in some European countries
until 1600 and in bookkeeping for another century.

Hindu-Arabic Numeration System.

The Hindu-Arabic numeration system uses ten symbols (may be because we have ten fingers).
These are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Ancient forms of these figures were believed to have
originated from India in about 300 BC. The Hindus might have invented it and the Arabs
transmitted it to Western Europe. The earliest preserved examples of the numerals were found on
some stone columns erected in India about 250 BC by King Akosa. The original numerals did
not have a zero; zero probably originated from Babylon via the Greek to India. The Indians came
to be known to be the first to recognize zero as an integer and a place holder. By 750 AD, the
zero symbol and idea of positional system reached Baghdad and translated into Arabic. A
Persian mathematician al-Khowarizmi described such a completed Hindu system in a book in
825 AD.

These numerals were known to have entered Europe via Spain in the 18th century. Gilbert (later
called Pope Sylvester II) who studied in Spain was the first European scholar to have taught
these numerals. Because of their origin these numerals are called Hindu-Arabic numerals. It is
also called decimal numeration system because ten basic numerals are used.

The Arab mathematician al-Khowarizmi introduced the system into Europe in a book called
‘Liber Algorisms de Numero Indorum”.

The introduction of the system met with some controversy. There were two opposing fractions:
the ‘Algorists’ who favored the system and the ‘Abacists’ who favored status quo – using
Roman numerals and doing arithmetic on an abacus. This battle between the Algorists and the
Abacists lasted 400 years. The Abacists received the backing of the Roman Catholic Church.
They argued that the Roman numerals were easy to write and learn, and easier to add and
subtract than the Hindu-Arabic numerals.

However, the Hindu-Arabic system has lasted ever since because:

a) It uses ten symbols only;

b) Larger numbers are expressed in terms of powers of ten;
c) It is positional.
For positional systems, after the base b has been selected, basic symbols called digits are
adopted for 0, 1, 2, 3, --- b – 1. Thus a number A can be written uniquely in the form:
A = anbn – 1 + an – 1bn – 2 + an – 2bn – 3 + … + a2b2 + a1b1 + a0 where 0 < a < b, i = 0, 1, 2, …, n.

Thus, the number A in the base b can be represented by the sequence of basic symbols:
an an – 1 an – 2 an – 3 a2 a1 a0. For example, 7354 in base ten is written (7 × 103 ) + (3 × 102 ) +
(5 × 10) + 4.
A number written in this form is said to be in the expanded form. Thus, in the number 7354, the
number 7 stands for 7(1000), 3 for 3(100), 5 for 5(10) and 4 for 4(1). The symbol for zero is used
to indicate any missing powers of the base. The positional numeration system is a logical
outgrowth of the multiplicative grouping system.

A period called ‘decimal point’ in the decimal system is used to separate the fractional parts from
the whole number part. E.g. 857.453 may be expanded as 857.453 = 800 + 50 + 7 + 0.4 + 0.05 +
0.003

4 5 3
= 800 + 50 + 7 + 10 + 100 + 1000

= (8× 102 ) + (5 × 10) + (7 × 1) + (4 × 10−1 ) + (5 × 10−2 ) + (3 × 10−3 ).

Basic Properties of Natural Numbers.

1. Closure Property for addition and multiplication: when we add (or multiply) any two
natural numbers we will obtain a natural number. That is, if a, b ∈ 𝑁 then a + b = c ∈ N
and a × 𝑏 = 𝑘 ∈ 𝑁.
2. Property of Order.
a) The Commutative Property for addition states that then order in which two
numbers are added makes no difference. i.e. a + b = b+ a; a, b ∈ 𝑁. (To travel
back and forth from home to work).
The Commutative property for multiplication states that the order in which two
numbers are multiplied makes no difference. a × 𝑏 = 𝑏 × 𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁. (Three
groups of five oranges give the same result as five groups of three oranges).
b) The Associative Property: the order of adding or multiplying three or more
numbers does not affect the result. In adding three or more numbers, the
associative property states that no matter which two numbers are added first, the
final result is the same. i.e.
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) = a + b + c.
In multiplying three or more numbers, the associative property states that no
matter which two numbers are multiplied first, the final result is the same. That is,
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c) = a × b × c
 The associative property allows us to group numbers for addition and
multiplication. The parenthesis indicate the numbers to be added or multiplied
first.
3. Distributive Property if Multiplication over Addition and Subtraction.
Suppose there are 8 families each having 4 males and 5 females. There are two ways of
finding the total number of people in all the 8 families.
Method 1: First, find the total number of males and the total number of females in the 8
families separately and then later add the two results. This gives (8× 𝟒) males + (8× 𝟓)
females. That is, 32 + 40 = 72, giving 72 people in all.
Method 2: First, find the total number of people in each family and then add all. Each
family has (4 + 5) people and for the 8 families we have 8 × (𝟒 + 𝟓) = 𝟖 × 𝟗 = 𝟕𝟐.
Since the two results are the same we can conclude that: 8 × (𝟒 + 𝟓) = (8 × 𝟒) + (8 × 𝟓)
The Distributive property states that for any a, b, c ∈ 𝑁,

𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) + (𝑎 × 𝑐 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = (𝑎𝑏) + (𝑎𝑐 ), and;

𝑎 × (𝑏 − 𝑐 ) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) − (𝑎 × 𝑐 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 × (𝑏 − 𝑐 ) = (𝑎𝑏) − (𝑎𝑐).

The Distributive property allows us to simplify arithmetic such as:

9 × 73 = 9 × (70 + 3) = (9 × 70) + (9 × 3) = 630 + 27 = 657. Or as:

9 × 73 = 9 × (80 − 7) = (9 × 80) − (9 × 7) = 720 − 63 = 657.

Odd and Even Numbers.

The set of natural numbers can be split into two categories, even and odd.

Even Numbers are at every other position in the sequence of natural numbers. They leave no
remainder when divided by 2. These are 2, 4, 6, 8, … , Counters/objects representing these
numbers can be put into pairs.

Odd Numbers start from the first natural number and every other number in the sequence. They
leave a remainder of 1 when divided by the first even number, 2. These are 1, 3, 5, 7, … ,
Counters/objects representing these numbers cannot be put into pairs.

Prime and Composite Numbers

Every counting number greater than 1 has at least two distinct divisors, itself and one.
Classifying the counting numbers according to the number of divisors each has leads to the
following definition: A prime number is a counting number that has exactly two divisors. Any
positive integer greater than 1 which has no factors apart from 1 and itself is a prime number.
The counting numbers that have more than 2 divisors are called composite numbers. One is
neither a prime nor a composite number, why?

The sequence of prime numbers is 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, … Only the first prime number is
even, all others are odd. The sequence is highly irregular and there is no iterative method for
producing the next in the sequence.

Eratosthenes’ Method of Finding Prime Numbers.

A Greek Mathematician Eratosthenes first used a technique called Sieve of Eratosthenes (more
than 2000 years ago) to find the prime numbers smaller than a given number. That is, a method
for removing the composite numbers from the set of natural numbers, leaving the prime
numbers. The process is as follows:

1. List all the counting numbers up to the given number, say 100.
2. Cross out 1, since it not classified as a prime.
3. Draw a circle around 2, the smallest prime number. Cross out every following multiple of
2.
4. Draw a circle around 3, the next prime number. Then cross out each succeeding multiple
of 3.
5. Circle around the next open number, 5 and cross out all subsequent multiples of 5.
6. Circle around the next open number, 7 and cross out all subsequent multiples of 7. Since
7 is the largest prime number less than√100, we end the process and list all numbers left
as prime numbers.
In general, to find the prime numbers less than a natural number N

• Find the largest prime less than or equal to √𝑁

• Cross out the multiples of primes less than or equal to √𝑁
• All the remaining numbers in the chart are prime numbers.
Prime Twins (or twin primes) are pairs of consecutive odd numbers that are primes and differ by
2. Examples are 3 & 5, 5 & 7, 11 & 13, 17 & 19, 29 & 31, etc. The largest known twin primes
were 1,000,000,009,649 & 1,000,000,009,651 found in 1986.

A Prime Triplet is a set of three prime numbers that differ by 2. The only known set is 3, 5 & 7.

Integers

The primitive agricultural-type society needed only the natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …, }
when zero was discovered and annexed to the set of natural numbers we have the set of whole
numbers, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …, }. This satisfied society for several thousands of years.
Bookkeeping later advanced as society evolved and problems such as 3 – 5 = ? arose which
could not be solved using the whole numbers only. The opposite of the natural numbers were
introduced and annexed to the set of whole numbers to obtain the set of integers Z = {…, -3, -2, -
1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …, }.

Historically, the negative numbers were develop quite late. There are indications that the Chinese
had some knowledge of negative numbers as early as 200BC and in the 7th century AD the Hindu
Brahmagupta stated then rules for operations with positive and negative numbers. Chinese
represented negative numbers by putting them in red (compare with the present day accounting).
The Hindus represented the, by putting a circle or dot over the number. However, as late as the
16th century, some European scholars were calling numbers such as (zero minus one; 0 - 1)
“absurd”. In 1545, Cardano (1501 - 1576) an Italian scholar in presenting a paper on the
elementary properties of negative numbers referred to integers as “fictitious” numbers. The
positive numbers he referred to as “true” numbers. The word integer was derived from “number
with integrity”

Note all integers (except zero) consists of two parts – the signed part and the whole number part.
An Absolute value gives the numerical value of a quantity independent of direction or sign. The
absolute value of x is its undirected distance from zero (on the number line). We use the symbol
|x|; and |x| = -x, when x is negative or |x| = x when x is positive.

Perfect Numbers: A perfect number is a counting number that is equal to the sum of all its
divisors that are less than the number itself. The divisors of a number that are less than the
number itself are called proper divisors. For example, the proper divisors of 6 are 1, 2, and 3 and
1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Since the sum of the proper divisors of 6 is 6, we say 6 is a perfect number.
Equivalently, a perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors
excluding the number itself. Perfect numbers are rare and until recently only few had been found.
Verify that 28 and 240 are perfect numbers and find some more. All even numbers that are
perfect numbers are of the form 2(p – 1)(2p – 1), where p and (2p – 1) are prime numbers. It is not
known yet if an odd number exists. The 27th perfect number is 244,496 (244,496 – 1). It has 25, 000
digits.

Abundant Numbers: An abundant number has the sum of its proper divisors greater than the
number itself. For instance, 24 is an abundant number because the proper divisors are 1, 2, 3, 4,
6, and 12 and the sum of these divisors is 36 which is greater than 24.

Deficient Numbers: If the sum of the proper divisors of a given number is less than the number,
the number is said to be deficient. The number 8 has proper divisors 1, 2 and 4, and the sum is 7
which is less than 8. Therefore 8 is deficient number.

Amicable or Friendly Numbers: Two numbers are said to be amicable or friendly if each is
the sum of the proper divisors of the other. They are used friendly charms, in astrology and
sorcery. For example, 220 and 284 are friendly numbers because, proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2,
4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110 with sum 284. Proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142,
with sum 220.

In 1636, Fermat discovered the pair, 17, 296 & 18, 416. Check to verify. Find some more.

Polite numbers: polite numbers are natural numbers that can be expressed as a sum of two or
more consecutive natural numbers. Some examples are 9, 11, and 18.

e.g. 9 = 2 + 3 + 4 or 4 + 5; 11 = 5 + 6; and 18 = 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 or 18 = 5 + 6 + 7. Find some

more.

Other figurative numbers are: square numbers – these are formed by arranging counters to form
sides of squares. The numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, …,. They are numbers that have 2 equal factors.
Triangular numbers – these are formed by arranging counters to form the sides of a triangle.
The numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15.
The relationship between square numbers and triangular numbers is that the sum of two
consecutive triangular numbers gives a square number. E.g. 1 + 3 = 4 which is the 2nd square
number while 1 and 3 are the 1st and 2nd triangular numbers and 6 + 10 = 16 which is the 4th
square number while 6 and 10 are the 3rd and 4th triangular numbers.

Pentagonal numbers can be formed by arranging counters to form pentagons. The numbers are
1, 5, 12, 22, 35,
NUMBER SYSTEMS 1

CHAPTER 1

NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction
In your earlier classes, you have learnt about the number line and how to represent
various types of numbers on it (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 : The number line

Just imagine you start from zero and go on walking along this number line in the
positive direction. As far as your eyes can see, there are numbers, numbers and
numbers!

Fig. 1.2
Now suppose you start walking along the number line, and collecting some of the
numbers. Get a bag ready to store them!

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2 MATHEMATICS

You might begin with picking up only natural

numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on. You know that this list 58 1 N
goes on for ever. (Why is this true?) So, now your 16
0 5
71 31 652
bag contains infinitely many natural numbers! Recall 10 9 4 2
601 7 40
that we denote this collection by the symbol N. 4

Now turn and walk all the way back, pick up

zero and put it into the bag. You now have the
collection of whole numbers which is denoted by
the symbol W.
0
16 3 W
57440 2
9
601582

Now, stretching in front of you are many, many negative integers. Put all the
negative integers into your bag. What is your new collection? Recall that it is the
collection of all integers, and it is denoted by the symbol Z.
0
-4
-7

Z comes from the

57

-66-21 Why Z ?
-3 German word
16 71 58 “zahlen”, which means
0 53
31 2 Z 0 “to count”.
42 2 166 3
6017 40 -75 2 -40
4
22 1 9
Are there some numbers still left on the line? Of course! There are numbers like
1, 3 , −2005
or even . If you put all such numbers also into the bag, it will now be the
2 4 2006
17
–
981
20 006
05
2

–12
13
9
5 19 6 Q
3 7 14 –6 –6620 –
7 7
1 7 2 19
20 006

9
58
58

16 2
05
2

12 -65 99 14
9 99 1 – 9
3 3 81 13–672 60
89 0 1
4 6625 16 1 –1 12
27 – –5 4 9
–860

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 3

collection of rational numbers. The collection of rational numbers is denoted by Q.

‘Rational’ comes from the word ‘ratio’, and Q comes from the word ‘quotient’.
You may recall the definition of rational numbers:
p
A number ‘r’ is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. (Why do we insist that q ≠ 0?)
p
Notice that all the numbers now in the bag can be written in the form , where p
q

−25
and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, –25 can be written as ; here p = –25
1
and q = 1. Therefore, the rational numbers also include the natural numbers, whole
numbers and integers.
You also know that the rational numbers do not have a unique representation in
p 1 2 10 25
the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, = = =
q 2 4 20 50

47
= , and so on. These are equivalent rational numbers (or fractions). However,
94
p p
when we say that is a rational number, or when we represent on the number
q q
line, we assume that q ≠ 0 and that p and q have no common factors other than 1
(that is, p and q are co-prime). So, on the number line, among the infinitely many
1 1
fractions equivalent to , we will choose to represent all of them.
2 2
Now, let us solve some examples about the different types of numbers, which you
have studied in earlier classes.

Example 1 : Are the following statements true or false? Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every whole number is a natural number.
(ii) Every integer is a rational number.
(iii) Every rational number is an integer.
Solution : (i) False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.
m
(ii) True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form , and so it is a
1
rational number.

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4 MATHEMATICS

3
(iii) False, because is not an integer.
5
Example 2 : Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2.
We can approach this problem in at least two ways.
Solution 1 : Recall that to find a rational number between r and s, you can add r and
r+s 3
s and divide the sum by 2, that is lies between r and s. So, is a number
2 2
between 1 and 2. You can proceed in this manner to find four more rational numbers
5 11 13 7
between 1 and 2. These four numbers are , , and .
4 8 8 4
Solution 2 : The other option is to find all the five rational numbers in one step. Since
we want five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational numbers with denominator 5 + 1,
6 12 7 8 9 10 11
i.e., 1 = and 2 = . Then you can check that , , , and are all rational
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 4 3 5 11
numbers between 1 and 2. So, the five numbers are , , , and .
6 3 2 3 6
Remark : Notice that in Example 2, you were asked to find five rational numbers
between 1 and 2. But, you must have realised that in fact there are infinitely many
rational numbers between 1 and 2. In general, there are infinitely many rational
numbers between any two given rational numbers.
Let us take a look at the number line again. Have you picked up all the numbers?
Not, yet. The fact is that there are infinitely many more numbers left on the number
line! There are gaps in between the places of the numbers you picked up, and not just
one or two but infinitely many. The amazing thing is that there are infinitely many
numbers lying between any two of these gaps too!
So we are left with the following questions:
1. What are the numbers, that are left on the number
line, called?
2. How do we recognise them? That is, how do we
distinguish them from the rationals (rational
numbers)?
These questions will be answered in the next section.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 5

EXERCISE 1.1

p
1. Is zero a rational number? Can you write it in the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0?
2. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4.
3 4
3. Find five rational numbers between and .
5 5
4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every natural number is a whole number.
(ii) Every integer is a whole number.
(iii) Every rational number is a whole number.

1.2 Irrational Numbers

We saw, in the previous section, that there may be numbers on the number line that
are not rationals. In this section, we are going to investigate these numbers. So far, all
p
the numbers you have come across, are of the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0. So, you may ask: are there numbers which are not of this form? There are
indeed such numbers.
The Pythagoreans in Greece, followers of the famous
mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, were the first
to discover the numbers which were not rationals, around
400 BC. These numbers are called irrational numbers
(irrationals), because they cannot be written in the form of
a ratio of integers. There are many myths surrounding the
discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagorean,
Hippacus of Croton. In all the myths, Hippacus has an
unfortunate end, either for discovering that 2 is irrational
or for disclosing the secret about 2 to people outside the Pythagoras
secret Pythagorean sect! (569 BCE – 479 BCE)
Fig. 1.3

Let us formally define these numbers.

p
A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be written in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.

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6 MATHEMATICS

You already know that there are infinitely many rationals. It turns out that there
are infinitely many irrational numbers too. Some examples are:

2 , 3, 15,, π, 0.10110111011110...

Remark : Recall that when we use the symbol , we assume that it is the
positive square root of the number. So 4 = 2, though both 2 and –2 are square
roots of 4.
Some of the irrational numbers listed above are familiar to you. For example, you
have already come across many of the square roots listed above and the number π.
The Pythagoreans proved that 2 is irrational. Later in approximately 425 BC,
Theodorus of Cyrene showed that 3, 5, 6, 7 , 10 , 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
and 17 are also irrationals. Proofs of irrationality of 2 , 3 , 5 , etc., shall be
discussed in Class X. As to π, it was known to various cultures for thousands of
years, it was proved to be irrational by Lambert and Legendre only in the late 1700s.
In the next section, we will discuss why 0.10110111011110... and π are irrational.
Let us return to the questions raised at the end of
the previous section. Remember the bag of rational 17 9 R
numbers. If we now put all irrational numbers into 981
3 1471
20 006
05
2

the bag, will there be any number left on the number –12 36 0
58

16
-65 13 2 999
line? The answer is no! It turns out that the collection –66 89 3 0
of all rational numbers and irrational numbers together 19 26 27 4 –6625
-45 –6 8 60 –5
make up what we call the collection of real numbers, 7–

which is denoted by R. Therefore, a real number is either rational or irrational. So, we

can say that every real number is represented by a unique point on the number
line. Also, every point on the number line represents a unique real number.
This is why we call the number line, the real number line.

In the 1870s two German mathematicians,

Cantor and Dedekind, showed that :
Corresponding to every real number, there is a
point on the real number line, and corresponding
to every point on the number line, there exists a
unique real number.

R. Dedekind (1831-1916) G. Cantor (1845-1918)

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 7

Let us see how we can locate some of the irrational numbers on the number line.

Example 3 : Locate 2 on the number line.

Solution : It is easy to see how the Greeks might have discovered
2 . Consider a unit square OABC, with each side 1 unit in length
(see Fig. 1.6). Then you can see by the Pythagoras theorem that
Fig. 1.6
OB = 12 + 12 = 2 . How do we represent 2 on the number line?
This is easy. Transfer Fig. 1.6 onto the number line making sure that the vertex O
coincides with zero (see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

We have just seen that OB = 2 . Using a compass with centre O and radius OB,
draw an arc intersecting the number line at the point P. Then P corresponds to 2 on
the number line.

Example 4 : Locate 3 on the number line.

Solution : Let us return to Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.8
Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB (as in Fig. 1.8). Then using the

( 2)
2
Pythagoras theorem, we see that OD = + 12 = 3 . Using a compass, with

centre O and radius OD, draw an arc which intersects the number line at the point Q.
Then Q corresponds to 3.

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8 MATHEMATICS

In the same way, you can locate n for any positive integer n, after n − 1 has been
located.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) Every irrational number is a real number.

(ii) Every point on the number line is of the form m , where m is a natural number.
(iii) Every real number is an irrational number.
2. Are the square roots of all positive integers irrational? If not, give an example of the
square root of a number that is a rational number.

3. Show how 5 can be represented on the number line.

4. Classroom activity (Constructing the ‘square root
spiral’) : Take a large sheet of paper and construct
the ‘square root spiral’ in the following fashion. Start
with a point O and draw a line segment OP1 of unit
length. Draw a line segment P1P 2 perpendicular to
OP1 of unit length (see Fig. 1.9). Now draw a line
segment P2P3 perpendicular to OP2. Then draw a line
segment P3P4 perpendicular to OP3. Continuing in Fig. 1.9 : Constructing
this manner, you can get the line segment Pn–1Pn by square root spiral
drawing a line segment of unit length perpendicular to OPn–1. In this manner, you will
have created the points P2, P3,...., P n,... ., and joined them to create a beautiful spiral
depicting 2, 3, 4, ...

1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

In this section, we are going to study rational and irrational numbers from a different
point of view. We will look at the decimal expansions of real numbers and see if we
can use the expansions to distinguish between rationals and irrationals. We will also
explain how to visualise the representation of real numbers on the number line using
their decimal expansions. Since rationals are more familiar to us, let us start with
10 7 1
them. Let us take three examples : , , .
3 8 7
Pay special attention to the remainders and see if you can find any pattern.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 9

10 7 1
Example 5 : Find the decimal expansions of , and .
3 8 7
Solution :
3.333... 0.875 0.142857...
3 10 8 7.0 7 1.0
9 64 7
10 60 30
9 56 28
10 40 20
9 40 14
10 0 60
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1

Remainders : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1... Remainders : 6, 4, 0 Remainders : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,

Divisor : 3 Divisor : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
Divisor : 7

What have you noticed? You should have noticed at least three things:
(i) The remainders either become 0 after a certain stage, or start repeating themselves.
(ii) The number of entries in the repeating string of remainders is less than the divisor
1 1
(in one number repeats itself and the divisor is 3, in there are six entries
3 7
326451 in the repeating string of remainders and 7 is the divisor).
(iii) If the remainders repeat, then we get a repeating block of digits in the quotient
1 1
(for , 3 repeats in the quotient and for , we get the repeating block 142857 in
3 7
the quotient).

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10 MATHEMATICS

Although we have noticed this pattern using only the examples above, it is true for all
p
rationals of the form (q ≠ 0). On division of p by q, two main things happen – either
q
the remainder becomes zero or never becomes zero and we get a repeating string of
remainders. Let us look at each case separately.

Case (i) : The remainder becomes zero

7
In the example of , we found that the remainder becomes zero after some steps and
8
7 1 639
the decimal expansion of = 0.875. Other examples are = 0.5, = 2.556. In all
8 2 250
these cases, the decimal expansion terminates or ends after a finite number of steps.
We call the decimal expansion of such numbers terminating.
Case (ii) : The remainder never becomes zero

1 1
In the examples of and , we notice that the remainders repeat after a certain
3 7
stage forcing the decimal expansion to go on for ever. In other words, we have a
repeating block of digits in the quotient. We say that this expansion is non-terminating
1 1
recurring. For example, = 0.3333... and = 0.142857142857142857...
3 7
1
The usual way of showing that 3 repeats in the quotient of is to write it as 0.3 .
3
1 1
Similarly, since the block of digits 142857 repeats in the quotient of , we write as
7 7
0.1 42857 , where the bar above the digits indicates the block of digits that repeats.
Also 3.57272... can be written as 3.572 . So, all these examples give us non-terminating
recurring (repeating) decimal expansions.
Thus, we see that the decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices:
either they are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Now suppose, on the other hand, on your walk on the number line, you come across a
number like 3.142678 whose decimal expansion is terminating or a number like
1.272727... that is, 1.27 , whose decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring, can
you conclude that it is a rational number? The answer is yes!

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 11

We will not prove it but illustrate this fact with a few examples. The terminating cases
are easy.

Example 6 : Show that 3.142678 is a rational number. In other words, express 3.142678
p
in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q

3142678 ,
Solution : We have 3.142678 = and hence is a rational number.
1000000
Now, let us consider the case when the decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring.

p
Example 7 : Show that 0.3333... = 0.3 can be expressed in the form , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Since we do not know what 0.3 is , let us call it ‘x’ and so
x = 0.3333...
Now here is where the trick comes in. Look at
10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
Now, 3.3333... = 3 + x, since x = 0.3333...
Therefore, 10 x = 3 + x
Solving for x, we get

1
9x = 3, i.e., x =
3

p
Example 8 : Show that 1.272727... = 1.27 can be expressed in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 1.272727... Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to
get
100 x = 127.2727...
So, 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x
Therefore, 100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126

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12 MATHEMATICS

126 14
i.e., x= =
99 11

14
You can check the reverse that = 1.27 .
11

p
Example 9 : Show that 0.2353535... = 0.235 can be expressed in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 0.235 . Over here, note that 2 does not repeat, but the block 35
repeats. Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get
100 x = 23.53535...
So, 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x
Therefore, 99 x = 23.3

233 233
i.e., 99 x = , which gives x =
10 990

233
You can also check the reverse that = 0.235 .
990
So, every number with a non-terminating recurring decimal expansion can be expressed
p
in the form (q ≠ 0), where p and q are integers. Let us summarise our results in the
q
following form :
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-
terminating recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is
terminating or non-terminating recurring is rational.
So, now we know what the decimal expansion of a rational number can be. What
about the decimal expansion of irrational numbers? Because of the property above,
we can conclude that their decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
So, the property for irrational numbers, similar to the property stated above for rational
numbers, is
The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring
is irrational.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 13

Recall s = 0.10110111011110... from the previous section. Notice that it is non-

terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, from the property above, it is irrational.
Moreover, notice that you can generate infinitely many irrationals similar to s.
What about the famous irrationals 2 and π? Here are their decimal expansions up
to a certain stage.
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...
π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...

22 22
(Note that, we often take as an approximate value for π, but π ≠ .)
7 7
Over the years, mathematicians have developed various techniques to produce more
and more digits in the decimal expansions of irrational numbers. For example, you
might have learnt to find digits in the decimal expansion of 2 by the division method.
Interestingly, in the Sulbasutras (rules of chord), a mathematical treatise of the Vedic
period (800 BC - 500 BC), you find an approximation of 2 as follows:
1 1 1  1 1 1
2 = 1+ +  ×  −  × ×  = 1.4142156
3  4 3   34 4 3 
Notice that it is the same as the one given above for the first five decimal places. The
history of the hunt for digits in the decimal expansion of π is very interesting.

The Greek genius Archimedes was the first to compute

digits in the decimal expansion of π. He showed 3.140845
< π < 3.142857. Aryabhatta (476 – 550 C.E.), the great
Indian mathematician and astronomer, found the value
of π correct to four decimal places (3.1416). Using high
speed computers and advanced algorithms, π has been
computed to over 1.24 trillion decimal places!
Archimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)
Fig. 1.10

Now, let us see how to obtain irrational numbers.

1 2
Example 10 : Find an irrational number between and .
7 7
1 2
Solution : We saw that = 0142857
. . So, you can easily calculate = 0 .285714 .
7 7
1 2
To find an irrational number between and , we find a number which is
7 7

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14 MATHEMATICS

non-terminating non-recurring lying between them. Of course, you can find infinitely
many such numbers.
An example of such a number is 0.150150015000150000...

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Write the following in decimal form and say what kind of decimal expansion each
has :
36 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 4
100 11 8
3 2 329
(iv) (v) (vi)
13 11 400
1 2 3
2. You know that = 0142857
. . Can you predict what the decimal expansions of , ,
7 7 7
4 5 6
, , are, without actually doing the long division? If so, how?
7 7 7
1
[Hint : Study the remainders while finding the value of carefully.]
7

3. Express the following in the form p , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q
(i) 06
. (ii) 0.47 (iii) 0001
.

4. Express 0.99999 .... in the form p . Are you surprised by your answer? With your
q
teacher and classmates discuss why the answer makes sense.
5. What can the maximum number of digits be in the repeating block of digits in the
1
decimal expansion of ? Perform the division to check your answer.
17

6. Look at several examples of rational numbers in the form p (q ≠ 0), where p and q are
q
integers with no common factors other than 1 and having terminating decimal
representations (expansions). Can you guess what property q must satisfy?
7. Write three numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.

5 9
8. Find three different irrational numbers between the rational numbers and .
7 11
9. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :

(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii) 0.3796

(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 15

1.4 Representing Real Numbers on the Number Line

In the previous section, you have seen that any
real number has a decimal expansion. This helps
us to represent it on the number line. Let us see
how.
Suppose we want to locate 2.665 on the
number line. We know that this lies between 2
and 3.
So, let us look closely at the portion of the
number line between 2 and 3. Suppose we divide
this into 10 equal parts and mark each point of
division as in Fig. 1.11 (i). Then the first mark to Fig. 1.11
the right of 2 will represent 2.1, the second 2.2, and so on. You might be finding some
difficulty in observing these points of division between 2 and 3 in Fig. 1.11 (i). To have
a clear view of the same, you may take a magnifying glass and look at the portion
between 2 and 3. It will look like what you see in Fig. 1.11 (ii). Now, 2.665 lies between
2.6 and 2.7. So, let us focus on the portion between 2.6 and 2.7 [See Fig. 1.12(i)]. We
imagine to divide this again into ten equal parts. The first mark will represent 2.61, the
next 2.62, and so on. To see this clearly, we magnify this as shown in Fig. 1.12 (ii).

Fig. 1.12
Again, 2.665 lies between 2.66 and 2.67. So, let us focus on this portion of the
number line [see Fig. 1.13(i)] and imagine to divide it again into ten equal parts. We
magnify it to see it better, as in Fig. 1.13 (ii). The first mark represents 2.661, the next
one represents 2.662, and so on. So, 2.665 is the 5th mark in these subdivisions.

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16 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 1.13
We call this process of visualisation of representation of numbers on the number line,
through a magnifying glass, as the process of successive magnification.
So, we have seen that it is possible by sufficient successive magnifications to visualise
the position (or representation) of a real number with a terminating decimal expansion
on the number line.
Let us now try and visualise the position (or representation) of a real number with a
non-terminating recurring decimal expansion on the number line. We can look at
appropriate intervals through a magnifying glass and by successive magnifications
visualise the position of the number on the number line.

Example 11 : Visualize the representation of 5.37 on the number line upto 5 decimal
places, that is, up to 5.37777.
Solution : Once again we proceed by successive magnification, and successively
decrease the lengths of the portions of the number line in which 5.37 is located. First,
we see that 5.37 is located between 5 and 6. In the next step, we locate 5.37
between 5.3 and 5.4. To get a more accurate visualization of the representation, we
divide this portion of the number line into 10 equal parts and use a magnifying glass to
visualize that 5.37 lies between 5.37 and 5.38. To visualize 5.37 more accurately, we
again divide the portion between 5.37 and 5.38 into ten equal parts and use a magnifying
glass to visualize that 5. 37 lies between 5.377 and 5.378. Now to visualize 5. 37 still
more accurately, we divide the portion between 5.377 an 5.378 into 10 equal parts, and

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 17

visualize the representation of 5.37 as in Fig. 1.14 (iv). Notice that 5.37 is located
closer to 5.3778 than to 5.3777 [see Fig 1.14 (iv)].

Fig. 1.14
Remark : We can proceed endlessly in this manner, successively viewing through a
magnifying glass and simultaneously imagining the decrease in the length of the portion
of the number line in which 5. 37 is located. The size of the portion of the line we
specify depends on the degree of accuracy we would like for the visualisation of the
position of the number on the number line.

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18 MATHEMATICS

You might have realised by now that the same procedure can be used to visualise a
real number with a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion on the number
line.
In the light of the discussions above and visualisations, we can again say that every
real number is represented by a unique point on the number line. Further, every
point on the number line represents one and only one real number.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Visualise 3.765 on the number line, using successive magnification.

2. Visualise 4.26 on the number line, up to 4 decimal places.

1.5 Operations on Real Numbers

You have learnt, in earlier classes, that rational numbers satisfy the commutative,
associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we add,
subtract, multiply or divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get a rational
number (that is, rational numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). It turns out that irrational numbers also satisfy the
commutative, associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. However,
the sum, difference, quotients and products of irrational numbers are not always
17
irrational. For example, ( 6 ) + ( − 6 ) , ( 2) − ( 2 ) , ( 3 )⋅( 3 ) and 17
are

rationals.
Let us look at what happens when we add and multiply a rational number with an
irrational number. For example, 3 is irrational. What about 2 + 3 and 2 3 ? Since
3 has a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion, the same is true for

2 + 3 and 2 3 . Therefore, both 2 + 3 and 2 3 are also irrational numbers.

7 ,
Example 12 : Check whether 7 5 , 2 + 21, π − 2 are irrational numbers or
5
not.

Solution : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., π = 3.1415...

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 19

7 7 5 7 5
Then 7 5 = 15.652..., = = = 3.1304...
5 5 5 5

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., π – 2 = 1.1415...
All these are non-terminating non-recurring decimals. So, all these are irrational numbers.
Now, let us see what generally happens if we add, subtract, multiply, divide, take
square roots and even nth roots of these irrational numbers, where n is any natural
number. Let us look at some examples.

Example 13 : Add 2 2 + 5 3 and 2 – 3 3.

(
Solution : 2 2 + 5 3 + ) ( ) (
2 –3 3 = 2 2 + 2 + 5 3 –3 3) ( )
= (2 + 1) 2 + (5 − 3) 3 = 3 2 + 2 3

Example 14 : Multiply 6 5 by 2 5 .
Solution : 6 5 × 2 5 = 6 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Example 15 : Divide 8 15 by 2 3 .

8 3× 5
Solution : 8 15 ÷ 2 3 = =4 5
2 3
These examples may lead you to expect the following facts, which are true:
(i) The sum or difference of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
(ii) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number with an irrational number is
irrational.
(iii) If we add, subtract, multiply or divide two irrationals, the result may be rational or
irrational.
We now turn our attention to the operation of taking square roots of real numbers.
Recall that, if a is a natural number, then a = b means b 2 = a and b > 0. The same
definition can be extended for positive real numbers.
Let a > 0 be a real number. Then a = b means b 2 = a and b > 0.
In Section 1.2, we saw how to represent n for any positive integer n on the number

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20 MATHEMATICS

line. We now show how to find x for any given positive real number x geometrically.
For example, let us find it for x = 3.5, i.e., we find 3 .5 geometrically.

Fig. 1.15
Mark the distance 3.5 units from a fixed point A on a given line to obtain a point B such
that AB = 3.5 units (see Fig. 1.15). From B, mark a distance of 1 unit and mark the
new point as C. Find the mid-point of AC and mark that point as O. Draw a semicircle
with centre O and radius OC. Draw a line perpendicular to AC passing through B and
intersecting the semicircle at D. Then, BD = 3.5 .

More generally, to find x , for any positive real

number x, we mark B so that AB = x units, and, as in
Fig. 1.16, mark C so that BC = 1 unit. Then, as we
have done for the case x = 3.5, we find BD = x
(see Fig. 1.16). We can prove this result using the
Pythagoras Theorem. Fig. 1.16

Notice that, in Fig. 1.16, ∆ OBD is a right-angled triangle. Also, the radius of the circle
x+1
is units.
2
x+1
Therefore, OC = OD = OA = units.
2
 x + 1 x − 1
Now, OB = x −  = ⋅
 2  2
So, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
2 2
 x + 1  x −1 4x
BD = OD – OB = 
2 2 2
 −  = = x.
 2   2  4

This shows that BD = x.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 21

This construction gives us a visual, and geometric way of showing that x exists for
all real numbers x > 0. If you want to know the position of x on the number line,
then let us treat the line BC as the number line, with B as zero, C as 1, and so on.
Draw an arc with centre B and radius BD, which intersects the number line in E
(see Fig. 1.17). Then, E represents x.

Fig. 1.17
We would like to now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots,
and in general nth roots, where n is a positive integer. Recall your understanding of
square roots and cube roots from earlier classes.
What is 3
8 ? Well, we know it has to be some positive number whose cube is 8, and
you must have guessed 8 = 2. Let us try 5 243 . Do you know some number b such
3

that b5 = 243? The answer is 3. Therefore, 5 243 = 3.

From these examples, can you define n
a for a real number a > 0 and a positive
integer n?
Let a > 0 be a real number and n be a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0. Note that the symbol ‘ ’ used in 2 , 3 8, n
a , etc. is called the radical sign.
We now list some identities relating to square roots, which are useful in various
ways. You are already familiar with some of these from your earlier classes. The
remaining ones follow from the distributive law of multiplication over addition of real
numbers, and from the identity (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, for any real numbers x and y.
Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

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22 MATHEMATICS

(iii) ( a+ b )( )
a − b = a −b (
(iv) a + b ) (a − b) = a 2
−b

(v) ( a+ b )( )
c + d = ac + ad + bc + bd

( )
2
(vi) a+ b = a + 2 ab + b

Let us look at some particular cases of these identities.

Example 16 : Simplify the following expressions:

(i)(5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) (ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 − 5 )

(iii) ( 3 + 7 ) (iv) ( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 )
2

Solution : (i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) = 10 + 5 5 + 2 7 + 35

(ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 − 5 ) = 5 − ( 5 ) = 25 – 5 = 20
2
2

(iii) ( 3 + 7 ) = ( 3 ) + 2 3 7 + ( 7 ) = 3 + 2 21 + 7 = 10 + 2 21
2 2 2

(iv) ( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 ) = ( 11 ) − ( 7 ) = 11 − 7 = 4
2 2

Remark : Note that ‘simplify’ in the example above has been used to mean that the
expression should be written as the sum of a rational and an irrational number.
1
We end this section by considering the following problem. Look at ⋅ Can you tell
2
where it shows up on the number line? You know that it is irrational. May be it is easier
to handle if the denominator is a rational number. Let us see, if we can ‘rationalise’ the
denominator, that is, to make the denominator into a rational number. To do so, we
need the identities involving square roots. Let us see how.

1
Example 17 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2

1
Solution : We want to write as an equivalent expression in which the denominator
2

is a rational number. We know that 2 . 2 is rational. We also know that multiplying

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
NUMBER SYSTEMS 23

1 2 2
by will give us an equivalent expression, since = 1. So, we put these two
2 2 2
facts together to get

1 1 2 2
= × = ⋅
2 2 2 2
1
In this form, it is easy to locate on the number line. It is half way between 0 and
2
2!

1
Example 18 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2+ 3

1
Solution : We use the Identity (iv) given earlier. Multiply and divide by
2+ 3

1 2− 3 2− 3
2 − 3 to get × = =2 − 3.
2+ 3 2− 3 4−3

5
Example 19 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
3− 5
Solution : Here we use the Identity (iii) given earlier.

5 3+ 5 5 ( 3+ 5 ) =  −5 
So,
3− 5
=
5
3− 5
×
3+ 5
=
3−5
 
 2 
( 3+ 5 )
1
Example 20 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
7+3 2

1 1  7 −3 2  7 − 3 2 7− 3 2
Solution : = × = =
7 + 3 2 7 + 3 2  7 − 3 2  49 − 18 31
So, when the denominator of an expression contains a term with a square root (or
a number under a radical sign), the process of converting it to an equivalent expression
whose denominator is a rational number is called rationalising the denominator.

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
24 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 1.5
1. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational:

(i) 2− 5 (
(ii) 3 + )
23 − 23 (iii)
2 7
7 7
1
(iv) (v) 2π
2
2. Simplify each of the following expressions:

(i) ( 3 + 3) ( 2 + 2 ) (
(ii) 3 + )(
3 3− 3 )
( ) (iv) ( 2) ( )
2
(iii) 5+ 2 5 − 5+ 2

3. Recall, π is defined as the ratio of the circumference (say c) of a circle to its diameter
c
(say d). That is, π = ⋅ This seems to contradict the fact that π is irrational. How will
d
you resolve this contradiction?
4. Represent 9. 3 on the number line.
5. Rationalise the denominators of the following:
1 1
(i) (ii)
7 7 − 6

1 1
(iii) (iv)
5+ 2 7 −2

1.6 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

Do you remember how to simplify the following?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52 )7 =

2310
(iii) = (iv) 7 3 . 93 =
237
Did you get these answers? They are as follows:
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52 )7 = 514

2310
(iii) = 233 (iv) 7 3 . 93 = 633
237

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
NUMBER SYSTEMS 25

To get these answers, you would have used the following laws of exponents,
which you have learnt in your earlier classes. (Here a, n and m are natural numbers.
Remember, a is called the base and m and n are the exponents.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (a m) n = a mn
am
(iii) = am − n, m > n (iv) a m bm = (ab) m
an
What is (a) 0? Yes, it is 1! So you have learnt that (a) 0 = 1. So, using (iii), we can
1 −n
get n = a . We can now extend the laws to negative exponents too.
a
So, for example :
1
(i) 17 ⋅ 17 = 17 = 3
2 –5 –3
(ii) (5 2 ) –7 = 5 –1 4
17
23 –10
(iii) 7
= 23–17 (iv) (7)– 3 ⋅ (9)–3 = (63)– 3
23
Suppose we want to do the following computations:
4
2 1
 1
(i) 2 ⋅2
3 3 (ii)  3 5 
 
1
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 13 5 ⋅ 17 5
7 3

How would we go about it? It turns out that we can extend the laws of exponents
that we have studied earlier, even when the base is a positive real number and the
exponents are rational numbers. (Later you will study that it can further to be extended
when the exponents are real numbers.) But before we state these laws, and to even
3
make sense of these laws, we need to first understand what, for example 4 2 is. So,
we have some work to do!
In Section 1.4, we defined n
a for a real number a > 0 as follows:
n n
Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. Then a = b, if b = a and
b > 0.
1 1
n
In the language of exponents, we define n
a = a . So, in particular,
3
2 = 23 .
3
There are now two ways to look at 4 2 .

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
26 MATHEMATICS

3
3  1
4 = 4 2  = 2 = 8
2 3

 
3 1 1
4 2 = 43 ( ) = (64) 2 2 =8

Therefore, we have the following definition:

Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no
common factors other than 1, and n > 0. Then,
m

( a)
m
an = n
= n am
We now have the following extended laws of exponents:
Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then, we have
(i) a p . a q = a p+q (ii) (a p) q = a pq
ap p −q
(iii) q = a (iv) ap bp = (ab) p
a
You can now use these laws to answer the questions asked earlier.
4
2 1
 1
Example 21 : Simplify (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 3
(ii)  3 5 
1  
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 13 5 ⋅ 17 5
Solution : 7 3

2 1 4
2 1
3 +3
3
 1 4
(i) 2 ⋅2 = 2
3 3  
= 2 =2 =2 3 1
(ii)  3 5  = 3 5
 
1
1 − 1  3− 5 −2 1 1 1 1
75  3 
(iii) 1
= 75 =7 15 = 7 15 (iv) 13 5 ⋅ 17 5 = (13 × 17)5 = 2215
73

EXERCISE 1.6
1 1 1
1. Find : (i) 642 (ii) 325 (iii) 1253
3 2 3 −1
2. Find : (i) 92 (ii) 325 (iii) 164 (iv) 125 3
1
2 1 7 1 1
 1  112
3. Simplify : (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 5 (ii)  3 (iii) 1
(iv) 7 2 ⋅ 8 2
3 
114

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
NUMBER SYSTEMS 27

1.7 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:

1. A number r is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form p , where p and q are
q
integers and q ≠ 0.

2. A number s is called a irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form p , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.
3. The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-terminating recurring
is rational.
4. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring. Moreover,
a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is irrational.
5. All the rational and irrational numbers make up the collection of real numbers.
6. There is a unique real number corresponding to every point on the number line. Also,
corresponding to each real number, there is a unique point on the number line.

r
7. If r is rational and s is irrational, then r + s and r – s are irrational numbers, and rs and are
s
irrational numbers, r ≠ 0.
8. For positive real numbers a and b, the following identities hold:
a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b
(iii) ( a + b )( )
a − b = a−b (iv) a +( b ) ( a − b) = a 2
−b

( )
2
(v) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

1
, we multiply this by a −b,
9. To rationalise the denominator of where a and b are
a +b a −b
integers.
10. Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq

ap
(iii) = ap − q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
aq

2015-16 (28/10/2014)
 OPERATIONS AND PROPERTIES ON INTEGERS
Note :
Point out to pupils that the meaning of ‘plus’ and ‘minus’ are
different from those of ‘positive ‘ and “negative”
“positive” and “negative” tell us whether a number is greater
than or less than zero. “plus” and “minus” on the other hand ,
tell us to “add” and to “subtract” numbers. Thus ,pupils
should be taught -2 as “negative 2” and not “minus 2” .
Pupils should understand that when we write (-6)-(-3) we
mean “negative 6 minus negative 3”

Write down three practical ways you would use to distinguish between 3
and -3.
Cont…
• Three meters high above ground level for 3 and three meters deep
(below ground level ) for -3.
• 3 steps forward from a marked destination and three steps backwards
from the marked destination (spot).
• Having an amount of GH¢ 3.00 (credit) for 3 and owing GH¢3.00
(debt) for -3
• Temperature 3 degrees above zero and 3 degrees below zero degrees.
 Addition of integers
• Using number line:
• We can do addition of integers by associating it with movement on
the number line. Pupils are ask to draw number on the floor and
move along this model according to the specific direction.
• NOTE:
• In this model the operation of “ addition” is represented by a
“forward movement”
• Positive number indicates that you should “face right or positive
direction” while negative number means that they should “ face left
or the negative direction
Addition of integers
• (-3)+(-4)
• To find this sum, begin at 0, face left or the negative direction and
move to -3. Still facing the negative direction , move forward 4 units
,ending at -7

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

• Hence , pupils discover that (-3)+(-4)=-7

Cont…
• Consider the sum (-4)+(+3)
• Begin at 0 face negative direction and move to -4 . Now , face the
positive direction and move forward 3 units , ending at -1 .

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

• Hence pupils discover that (-4)+(+3)=-1

Addition of integers using charged particles
• Using charged particle model.( -2) + 3
• Guide pupils to take 2 negatives charge particles and 3 positives
charge particles.

+
+ +
+ +
+

− −

• Guide pupils to pair or combine the negative and positive charge

particles to form a circle, these circles represent neutral charges and
are considered as zeros
+ + +
+ + +
− -
Cont…
• Guide pupils to count the uncombined / unpaired charge particles
• Pupils realized that we are left with 1 positive charge particle.
• Therefore( -2) + (+ 3) = + 1
•

• TRY :: – 3 + (-6)
• 5 +(-4)
• -3 + 6
 Subtraction of integers
• Using number line :
• In this case the operation of “ subtraction” is represented by a
“backward movement” . A positive number denotes facing the
positive direction while a negative number means facing the negative
direction on the number line.
• Example : (+4) - (+6)
• Ask pupils to begin at 0 on the number line, face the positive
direction and move to +4 ,while still facing the positive direction ,the
pupils moves backwards 6 units, ending at -2 .
Cont…
•

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Try
• Example : 2
• ( +6 ) – ( -3)
• We begin at 0 , and since 6 is positive we face the positive direction
on the number line and move to +6 . Now -3 is negative , so face
negative direction and since we are expected to subtract this number
we move backward 3 units , ending at +9 .
Cont…
• Group Assignment
• Try : 3-5 using charge particles
• -2+(-6) using charge particles
-3 – (-5) using charge particles
Multiplication of an integer by a positive integer
• We can use the number line model to help explain integer
multiplication to pupils. (4) × +2 we can think if this as “(+2) four
times” or (+2)+(+2)+(+2)+(+2).
• Using number line
• Start at 0, face the positive direction and move two units to +2 ; still
facing the positive direction ,move forward again two units to 4, then
two more units and another two units ,ending at +8 . Hence 4× 2=8

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Using charge particles or positive and negative counters
• 4×2
• Guide pupils to take 4 groups of two charged positive particles .

+ + + + + + + +

• Guide pupils to realize that altogether , there are 8 positive charge

particles.
Cont…
• Multiplying a negative and a positive number ,
• -3 × 4 :: by the commutative property of multiplication
• This can be interpreted as four(4) groups of three (3) negative charge
particles

• Pupils put together the particles and get 12 negative charges.

Therefore -3 × 4 =-12
• use number line ..(Assignment)
Multiplying negative integer by a negative integer
• Using an intuitive method or pattern to solve -3 × -4
• Children already have a fair idea of multiplication of a positive and a negative
integer.
• Lead pupils through this activity :
• -3 × 4=-12
• -3 ×3=-9
• -3 × 2=-6
• -3 × 1=-3
• -3 × 0=0
• -3 × -1=3
• -3 × -2= 6
• -3 × -3=9
• -3 ×-4=12
Cont…
• Let pupils study the pattern and they can realize a pattern that
emerges in which each product is three more than its predecessor .
• This pattern yields the conclusion that the product of two negative
integers is positive.

• Group assignment
• How will you convince a basic child that any number multiply by one
gives the same example (hint: use pattern making) and
• Multiply any number by zero ,you will get zero.
 Division of integers
• To teach division of integers , revise with the children , grouping
(repeated subtraction ) and partition (sharing) approaches to whole
numbers with pupils .
• Example 8÷2
• Ask pupils to form a collection of eight positive charged particles and
use the sharing approach to determine the quotient.
• Sharing 8 among 2 will produce 4 in each group.
• This means 8÷2=4
• NB: use diagram to show the charge particles
• You can also use the grouping approach to get the same result.
Cont…
• -12 ÷ 3
• Ask pupils to collect twelve negative charged particles and use sharing
approach o determine .
• Guide pupils to interpret the problem as three pupils sharing 12
negative charged particles. How many will each get?
• Pupils will realize that each will get four negative charge particles (-4)
• Therefor -12÷3=-4

• Group assignment:
• using charge particles describe the steps you will use to guide a pupil
work 8÷(-2)
• -6 ÷ -2
 Properties of integers
• Commutative Property
• If we m and n are the numbers, then the general form will be m + n =
n + m for addition and m.n = n.m for multiplication.
• Addition: m + n = n + m. For example, 5 + 3 = 3 + 5, 2 + 4 = 4 + 2
• Multiplication: m × n = n × m. For example, 5 × 3 = 3 × 5, 2 × 4 = 4 × 2

• Test subtraction and division

Cont…
• Associative Property
• If we m, n and r are the numbers. The general form will be m + (n + r)
= (m + n) + r for addition(mn) r = m (nr) for multiplication.

• Addition: The general form will be m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r. An

example of additive associative property is 10 + (3 + 2) = (10 + 3) + 2.

• Multiplication: (mn) r = m (nr). An example of a multiplicative

associative property is (2 × 3) 4 = 2 (3 × 4).
Cont…
• Distributive Property
• For three numbers m, n, and r, which are real in nature, the
distributive property is in the form of :
• m (n + r) = mn + mr and (m + n) r = mr + nr.
• Example of distributive property is: 5(2 + 3) = 5 × 2 + 5 × 3. Here, both
sides will yield 25.

• Identity Property
• There are additive and multiplicative identities.
• For addition: m + 0 = m. (zero is additive identity)
• For multiplication: a × 1 = 1 × a = a. (1 is multiplicative identity)
•
Cont…
• Discuss : inverse property
• closure property
 TEJS 107
LECT : 4
TOPIC : CONCEPT OF SETS
FACILITATOR : Mr. MANASSEH CUDJOE
 SET OF NUMBERS
The concept of set :
• We often use the word ‘set’ to describe a collection of objects,
quantities or numbers
• A set is a well-defined collection of objects, quantities or numbers
that have a given property or properties in common
• For example ‘ set of beautiful girls in a class ‘ is not well defined, since
beauty they say lies in the eyes of the beholder.
• In other words, the word beautiful is relative.
• Hence ,set must always be well defined. For example
• ‘set of even numbers less than 12’ is well defined
• The objects that make up a set are called members or elements of
the set. The elements of a set may be named in a list or may be given
by a description enclosed in braces { }.
Cont…
Cont…
 Assignment
• Explain to Primary 6 pupils why ‘set of numbers’ is not well defined

• What will be your response if a primary 6 pupil asks you ‘sir/madam is

{a,a,a,a,b,b} a set’
 Types of sets
• Finite and infinite set
• a set is finite if the first and the last members can be found.
• A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, (ii) B = {a, b, c, d, …, x, y, z},
• (iii) C = {red, yellow, green, blue, black}.
• Infinite set : A set is infinite if the first or last members or both cannot
be found.
• For example, the following sets are infinite:
• (i) N = {1, 2, 3, 4,…}, (ii) Z = {…,–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…},
• (iii) P = {…,7, 9, 13, 15}
 Relations on set
• Equal set and equivalent sets
• The sets A = {6, 2, 1, 5, 3} and B = {3, 1, 2, 5, 6} contain the same
elements.
• Two sets are equal if they contain identical elements
Equivalent sets
• The two sets C = {a, b, c, d, e} and D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} are not equal. It
can be seen, however, that C and D has the same number of
elements, that is n(C) = n(D) = 5.
• Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements
Cont…
• Subsets
A set P is said to be the subset of the set Q if every elements of P
belong to the set Q
listing subset of a given set
• QUESTION :
• Show and explain clearly how you will guide JHS pupils to determine
the number of all the subset which could be formed from a set
containing n members
Cont…
• Suggested solution:
• : I will guide the child to write down all the subjects of the set
containing 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., members as shown below:
Cont…
• I will guide the pupils to write the number of members in each set and
number of members in the subset
No_ of Element. No_ of subsets Relations
•0 1 = 20
•1 2 = 21
•2 4 = 22
•3 8 = 23
•4 16 = 24
. .
. .
. .
•n 2n
Cont…
• I will guide the pupils to write the number of subsets in the index
form
• I will guide the pupils to observe the exponents; pupils will now
realize the exponents are the same as the number of the elements.
• I will lead the pupil to state in general, if a set has n elements, then its
number of subsets is given by 2n

• Group discussion: ‘Universal set’

 Compliment of set

• Properties of A and 𝐴′
• 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ = ∪
• 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′ = ∅ 𝑜𝑟 { }
• 𝐴′ ′ = A
• 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ’=∅
• ∅′ =∪
 Operations on set

•.
cont…
• Explain intersection of sets with examples to JHS pupil.
• Considering P = {2, 3, 4, 5}
Q = {3, 4, 6, 7}
• I will guide the pupil to form a set of members that can be found in P
and Q that is = {3, 4}
• I will explain to the pupils, that, the set {3 , 4} is the intersection of set
P and Q written as P∩Q = { 3, 4}
 Assignment
• Properties of operations on sets
 Venn diagram
•.
 Putting element into sets

•.
Cont…
Group assignment
 Word problem
•.
 cont…
•.
 Venn diagram (Three set problem)
•.
 Cont…
•.
 Cont…
•.
 Converting from English to Mathematics
•.
 Cont…
•.
 Group assignment
•.
 Using set to solve problems
•.
 Cont…
•.
 Trial work
•.
Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Algebraic Expressions
1. Introduction:
Definition: In algebra, we use letters such as x, y and z to represent unknown numbers.

For example 5x + 4y an algebraic expression. In this expression we call x the variable and 5
is called the coefficient of x. We can treat mathematical expressions in the same way as
numbers provided we obey certain rules of algebra. We can also translate information that is
given in English into an equivalent mathematical form using algebraic expressions?

If a statement is given in English that uses the four basic arithmetic operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division we can translate this information into an equivalent
algebraic expression.

For example.

p multiplied by 3 can be written as the expression 3p

11 added to x can be written as the expression 11 + x

8 subtracted from r can be written as the expression r – 8

m multiplied by 4 can be written as the expression 4m

4 multiplied by m can be written as the expression 4m

x divided by 4 can be written as the expression

4 divided by x can be written as the expression

When you combine more than one variable you can also express the information as algebraic
expressions

For example.

x added to y can be written as the expression x + y

x subtracted from y can be written as the expression y – x

a multiplied by b can be written as the expression ab

4 multiplied by m squared can be written as the expression 4m2

x divided by y can be written as

Page | 1
Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 1A: Express each of the following statements as and algebraic expression.

1. p multiplied by 10 2. 5 added to x

3. 3 subtracted from t 4. b multiplied by 2

5. a multiplied by c 6. p divided by q

7. r squared 8. z cubed

9. a added to d 10. 12 multiplied by r

11. n squared added to b 12. 5 divided by h

13. 8 multiplied by x 14. 4 multiplied by m squared

15. w divided by e 16. 7 subtracted from q

17. r squared take away 3 18. y to the power 9

19. d to the power 8 20. 30 multiplied by u plus 4

Exercise 1B:

1. Write an algebraic expression for the phrase 2 times the quantity q minus 3.

A. 2q – 3 B. 2(q – 3) C. 3 – 2q D.

2. Write an algebraic expression for the phrase 4 subtract x add y

A. x – 4 + y B. 4 – x – y C. 4–x+y D. 4 + x + y

3. Write an algebraic expression for the phrase x subtracted from y and the result is
divided by 5

A. B. C. D.

4. Write an algebraic expression for the product of w and d plus 3 times g

A. wd + 3 + g B. w(d + 3)g C. w(d + 3g) D. wd + 3g

5. Write an algebraic expression for the phrase square the quantity x and then double it.

A. (2x)2 B. 2x2 C. 2(2x)2 D. 2(2x2)

Page | 2
Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

2. Evaluation of an Algebraic Expression.

If we are told the value of a variable it is then possible to calculate the value of any
expression that contains this variable. The method used is to replace the variable with its
given value and to evaluate the expression that is formed by using the usual rules of
arithmetic, in particular PEMDAS will be used on some occasions.

For example.

If x = 4 The value of the expression 5x – 6 is.

5x – 6 = 5(4) – 6 Replace x with 4

= 20 – 6

= 14

If x = – 4 The value of the expression 5x – 6 is

5x – 6 = 5(–4) – 6 Replace x with – 4

= –20 – 6

= –26

If a = 5 The value of the expression 2a2 is

2a2 = 2(52) Replace a with 5

= 2(25) PEMDAS states that we square 5 first then multiply by 2

= 50

If a = 2 and b = 3 and c = 4 the value of the expression a + 2b – 3c is

a + 2b – 3c = 2 +2(3) – 3(4) Replace a with 2, b with 3 and c with 4.

= 2 + 6 -12

= –4

Page | 3
Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

If a = 2 and b = –2 and c = 5 the value of the expression

5ac – b2 = 5(2)( –2) – (5)2 Replace a with 2, b with – 2 and c with 5.

= –20 – 25 Use PEMDAS to perform the calculations in the

= – 45 appropriate order.

Evaluate 4x2 – 4x for x = 5

4x2 – 4x = 4(5)2 – 4(5) Replace x with 5

= 4(25) – 20 Use PEMDAS to perform the calculations in the

= 100 – 20 appropriate order.

= 80

Evaluate x2 – y2 for x = – 2 and y = – 3

x2 – y2 = (– 2 )2 – (– 3)2 Replace x with – 2 and y with – 3

= 4–9 Using PEMDAS as a guide we square the numbers – 2

= –5 and – 3 first then we subtract the result

Find the value of for a = 2 , b = 3 and c = 4

= Replace a with 2, b with 3 and c with 4.

= Using PEMDAS as a guide we calculate the Numerator

= 2.4 or and Denominators separately then divide the results

Page | 4
Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 2A If a = 2, b = 3, and c = 4 evaluate the following:–

1. 5a 2. 6b 3. 5c – 3 4. 7a + 10

5. 12b 6. 8c + 3 7. 9b – 5 8. 6a + 4

9. 10 – 2b 10. 4a + 6 11. 5b – 3 12. 3c–8

Exercise 2B If a = 2, b = 3, and c = 4 evaluate the following:–

1. a2 2. b2 3. ab 4. 5ac
c 9c
5. abc 6. 7. 8. 2c2
a 4a
9. 10b – 5c 10. 6bc+5 11. 5ac – 10 12. 6bc + 5

13. 4a + c 14. 7bc + a 15. 9ac 16. 8b + a

17. 2a2 + 7 18. 3ab – 6 19. 9bc + 3 20. abc + 3

Exercise 2C If a = 2, b = 3, c = – 4 and d = 0, evaluate the following:–

1. 4a – 3b 2. bcd 3. 2bc – 10ab

4. 5a – 4c 5. 6.

7. a2 – b2 8. d2 – c2 9. 4a2 – 5b2

10. abd – 11 11. abc + c 12. bcd + a

13. d – ac 14. ac – bd 15. 2a2c + b

16. 3ab – 5b 17. 9bc + 3c 18. ab + c

Exercise 2D Evaluate each expression for the given value of the variables.

(a) 2x2 - 4x for x = 5 (b) 2x2 - 4x for x = – 5

(c) x2 – y2 for x = – 5 , y = 2 (d) x2 – y2 for x = – 2 , y = – 1

(e) for x = 2 , y = – 4 (f) 2x2 – 4y2 for x = 2 , y =

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

3. Using and Evaluating a Formula

In many situations in science and business we use formulas. these formula are essentially just an
algebraic expression where the variables used have very specific meanings.
In order to evaluate a formula we essentially just evaluate the algebraic expression that is the formula
using the given values of the variables.

Example 1:

In electronics the formula V = IR will help you find the voltage V when you know the current I and the
resistance R. So if you had a circuit with a current of 5 amps and a resistance of 10 ohms then the
Voltage would be found by doing the following.

V = IR Write down the formula being used

V = (5)(10) Substitute I with 5 and R with 10

V = 50 volts Perform the calculation

Example 2:

The Volume of a Cuboid V with a Length L, a width W and a height H is given by the formual

V = LWH. What is the volume of a cuboid with length 10 cm , width 5 cm and height 8 cm?

V = LWH Write down the formula being used

V = (10)(5)(8) Substitute L with 5, W with 5 and H with 8

V = 400 cm3 Perform the calculation

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Example 3:

The first formula of motion states that

a=

where a is the acceleration, v is the final velocity , u is the initial velocity and t is time.

What is the acceleration of an object with an initial velocity of 10 ft/sec, a final velocity of 40
ft/sec that does this movement in 4 seconds?

a = Write down the formula being used

a = Substitute v with 40, u with 10 and t with 4

a = 7.5 ft/sec2 Perform the calculation

Example 4:

The second formula of motion states that

s = ut + ½at2

where s is the distance travelled , u is the initial velocity, a is the acceleration and t is time.

What is the displacement (distance travelled) for an object with an initial velocity of 5m/sec
travelling for 8 seconds and having an acceleration of 10 m/sec2.

s = ut + ½at2 Write down the formula being used

s = (5)(8) + ½(10)(8)2 Substitute u with 5, a with 10 and t with 8

s = 40 + 320 Use PEMDAS to perform the calculations in

s = 360 ft the appropriate order

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Example 5:

The simple interest I received when you invest an amount of money called the principal P, with
an interest rate r (written as a decimal) for t years is I = Prt.

What is the simple interest you would receive if you invested $400 for 3 years at a 2% interest
rate?

I = Prt Write down the formula being used

I = (400)(0.02)(3) Substitute P with 400, r with 0.02 and t with 3

I = $24 Perform the calculation

Notice that in this formula we needed to change the interest rate from 2% into the equivalent
decimal 0.02 before we could make the appropriate calculation.

Example 6:

The simple interest I received when you invest an amount of money called the principal P, with
an interest rate r (written as a decimal) for t years is I = Prt.

What is the simple interest you would receive if you invested $400 for 18 months at a 3%
interest rate?

I = Prt Write down the formula being used

I = (400)(0.03)(1.5) Substitute P with 400, r with 0.03 and t with 1.5

I = $18 Perform the calculation

Notice that in this formula we needed to change the interest rate from 3% into the equivalent
decimal 0.03 and that 18 months had to be changed into 1.5 years before we could make the
appropriate calculation.

The units used in much formula are important as they add meaning to the result and in many
practical situations you will need to know the appropriate units to use. In the last two examples
we needed to be careful to use the correct values in order to get a realistic result.

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 3A

1. In electronics the formula for calculating the voltage V across a circuit with a current I and a
resistance R is V = IR .

(a) What is the voltage across a circuit with a current of 12 amps and a resistance of
5 ohms?

(b) What is the voltage across a circuit with a current of 4.5 amps and a resistance of
12.2 ohms?

(c) What is the voltage across a circuit with a current of ½ amps and a resistance of
4¼ ohms?

2. The Volume of a Cuboid V with a Length L, a width W and a height H is given by the

Formula V = LWH.

(a) What is the volume of a cuboid with length 4 cm , width 8 cm and height 2 cm?

(b) What is the volume of a cuboid with length 15 cm , width 0.2 cm and height 1.5 cm?

(c) What is the volume of a cuboid with length 1½ ft, width 2¼ ft and height 8 ft?

3. The Surface area of a cuboid S with a Length L, a width W and a height H is given by the

Formula S = 2(LW + LH + WH)

(a) What is the Surface Area of a cuboid with length 6 ft , width 12 ft and height 4 ft?

(b) What is the Surface Area of a cuboid with length 0.5 m , width 0.2 m and height 0.3 m?

(c) What is the Surface Area of a cuboid with length 1½ ft, width 2 ft and height 3½ ft?

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

4. The first formula of motion states that a = where a is the acceleration, v is the final
velocity, u is the initial velocity and t is time.

(a) What is the acceleration of an object with an initial velocity of 4 ft/sec, a final velocity
of 8 ft/sec that does this movement in 2 seconds?

(b) What is the acceleration of an object with an initial velocity of 10 m/s, a final velocity of
110 m/s that does this movement in 10 seconds?

(c) What is the acceleration of an object with an initial velocity of 2.5 ft/sec, a final velocity
of 12.5 ft/sec that does this movement in 2.5 seconds?

5. The second formula of motion states that s = ut + ½at2 where s is the distance travelled , u is

the initial velocity, a is the acceleration and t is time.

(a) What is the displacement (distance travelled) for an object with an initial velocity of
4m/sec travelling for 6 seconds and having an acceleration of 8 m/sec2.

(b) What is the displacement (distance travelled) for an object with an initial velocity of
12ft/sec travelling for 4 seconds and having an acceleration of 5 ft/sec2.

(c) What is the displacement (distance travelled) for an object with an initial velocity of
0.5 m/sec travelling for 2 seconds and having an acceleration of 1.2 m/sec2.

6. The simple interest I received when you invest an amount of money called the principal P,
with an interest rate r, written as a decimal for t years is I = Prt.

(a) What is the simple interest you would receive if you invested $600 for 2 years at a
6% interest rate?

(b) What is the simple interest you would receive if you invested $200 for 6 mont6hs at a
3% interest rate?

(c) What is the simple interest you would receive if you invested $600 for 30 months at a
1.5% interest rate?

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

4. Simplifying an Expression
By “simplifying” an algebraic expression, we mean writing it in the most compact or efficient
manner, without changing the value of the expression. This mainly involves the process of
collecting like terms and then adding and subtracting them

What we mean when we say “like terms” is that we have terms which contain the same powers
of same variables. They may have different coefficients, but that is the only difference.

You probably know that if you have an expression like 4 + 3x you cannot add those terms to
simplify it in any way. That’s because one term in a constant (the 4) and the other term has a
variable (the x). We say that these are not like terms and cannot be combined. On the other
hand it is possible to simplify the expression 4x + 5x to get 9x as we do have like terms and can
therefore combine them in the usual way.

For Example:

3x, x, and –2x are like terms.

2x2, –5x2, and are like terms.

xy2, 3y2 x, and 3xy2 are like terms.

2x + 3y are NOT like terms, because they have two different variables x and y

xy2 and x2 y are NOT like terms, because the same variable is not raised to the same power.

Exercise 4A.

1. Which of the following terms are like terms and which are not.

(a) 6x, 3x, and –2 (b) x2, –x2, and

(c) xy2, y2 x, and 6xy2 (d) 2x and 2y

(e) x2y2 and 2x2 y2 (f) 3x and– 7

(g) y2 , y and y3 (h) 3x, 2x and 5x

(i) 2x, 4x and x (j) 3x and – 7x

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

There is no standard procedure for simplifying all algebraic expressions because there are so
many different kinds of expressions, but they can be grouped into three types:

 Those that cannot be simplified at all.

 Those that can be simplified by rearranging like terms and then simplifying.

 Those that require preparation before being we can rearrange like terms.

In some circumstances none of the terms are like any of the others, in theses circumstances we
cannot simplify the algebraic expression.

Example 1: The expression 4x – 5 y + 2z + 5 cannot be simplified as none of the terms are like
any of the others.

In other situations we can simplify the algebraic expression by Collecting like terms together by
rearranging the terms one variable at a time.

Example 2: Simplify the algebraic expression 3x + 4y + 2x – 5y

Solution: Look at the expression 3x + 4y + 2x – 5y

There are four terms 3x , 4y , 2x and – 2y.
Two of the terms involve the variable x while the other two terms involve the
variable y. We can re-order the terms in the expression so that the x terms are
together and the y terms are together 3x + 4y + 2x – 5y.
Now we can combine the x terms and combine the y terms to get:
3x + 4y + 2x – 5y = 3x + 2x + 4y – 5y = 5x – y

Example 3: Simplify the algebraic expression 2x + 3y - 2 + 3x + 6y + 7

Solution: This expression can be simplified by identifying like terms and then grouping and

combining like terms, so we have three groups of like terms

+ 2x and +3x are like terms, and can be combined to give +5x,
+ 3y and +6y are like terms, and can be combined to give + 9y,
and – 2 and +7 can be combined to give +5.

So after simplifying, this expression becomes:

2x + 3y – 2 + 3x + 6y + 7 = 2x + 3x + 3y+ 6y – 2 + 7 = 5x + 9y + 5

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 4B.

1. Combine like terms where possible and simplify the result.

(a) 3x – 3x + 7x – x

(b) 2 + 3x – 5x + 1

(c) 9x – 5x + 5 – 6

(d) 2x + 5 – 5 – 2x

3 1
(e) x xx
4 2

(f) 2x – 6y – c

2. Simplify the following algebraic expressions when possible.

(a) 2a + 3a + 5a (b) 4p + 5q + 6p + 3q

(c) 8t + 6 + 4d (d) 9w + 2x + 7w + 3x

(e) 7n + 5m – 8n + 3m (f) 3d + 8d + 6d

(g) 4k + 5a – 6a + 2k (h) d + j + 25d + 2j

(j) 32g – 30h + 7h + 2g (k) 3p + 6q + 5r + 10q + 2r

(l) 10a – 20b – 3c – 5a – 4c (m) 5z + 2y + x + 8x + 3y + z

(n) 0.7u – 9u – 0.5u + 1.6n + 7n (0) 1.5m + 2.4n + 3.3p – 4.4m+ 5.5n

3. Simplify the following algebraic expressions when possible.

(a) 4p + 5q – 2p + 3q (b) 7r + 4p + 3p – r

(c) 8t + 6s – 2t + 4s (d) 5I – 4I + 6j – 2j

(e) 13b + 8a – 3a + 4b (f) 3d + 8d – 6d

(g) 4k + 5a + 6a + 2k (h) 25d + j – 5d + 2j

(i) 32g + 30h – 7h – 2g (j) 3p + 6q + 5r – 3q – 2r

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

4. Simplify the following algebraic expressions when possible.

(a) 10a + 20b + 3c – 7a + 4c – 6b (b) 21w + 7f – 14w + f

(c) 9y + 7c – 5y – 2c (d) 7u + 9u – 5u + 7n – 6n

(e) 23k + 8h – 13k – 4h (f) 8a + 7b – 2a – 3b + 4c

(g) 12h + 8y – 9h + 6y – 2h (h) 14t + 19u – 10t – 12u

(i) 20p + 6q – 8p – 4q +2p (j) 31r – 15r + 16e + 2e – 12e

5. Simplify the following algebraic expressions when possible.

(a) 6p + 2r + 3p – 5r (b) 7e + 3e – 6f + 2f

(c) 7m – 3e (d) 5we + 6we – 5u + 2u

(e) 7ad + 8ty – 6ad – 9ty (f) 4a2 + 2a3 + 5a2 + 7a3

(g) 4x3 + 2x4 + 7x3 – x4 (h) 10x4 + 3x2 – 7x2 – 2x4

(i) 7y4 + 10y2 – 7y2 – y4 (j) 8as – 2as + as

(k) 2x2 + 3x2 (l) 5x3 + 10x3

(m) 8x4 – 3x4 (n) 7x8 + 6x8 – x8

(o) 3j5 +3j5 (p) 4r8 +5r8– 6r8

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

4. Using the Distributive Law to Simplify

an Algebraic Expression

The distributive law states that for all variables a,b and c

a(b + c) = ab + ac

The distributive law allows us a means of multiplying out parenthesis and to simplify the results.

Example 1: Use the distributive law to remove the parenthesis form the expression 5(x + 3).

Solution: 5(x + 3) = 5(x) + 5(3) Use the distributive Law

= 15x + 15

Example 2: Use the distributive law to remove the parenthesis form the expression 3(2x – 4y).

Solution: 3(2x – 4y) = 3(2x) + 3(– 4y) Use the distributive Law

= 6x – 12y

Example 3: Use the distributive law to remove the parenthesis form the expression – 5(4x – 3).

Solution: – 5(4x – 3) = (– 5)(4x) + (– 5)(– 3) Use the distributive Law

= – 20x + 15

Example 4: Use the distributive law to remove the parenthesis form the expression – 2( 4x + 3).

Solution: – 2( 4x + 3). = (– 2)(4x) + (– 2)(+ 3) Use the distributive Law

= – 8x – 6

Example 5: Use the distributive law to remove the parenthesis form the expression – (2x – 4).

Solution: – (2x – 4) = –1 (2x – 4)

= (– 1)(2x) + (– 1)(– 4)

= – 2x + 4

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 5A.
1. Which equation below shows a correct use of the distributive property?

A. – 2(2x – 5) = – 4x – 10

B. – 2(2x – 5) = – 4x + 5

C. – 2(2x – 5) = – 4x + 10

D. – 2(2x – 5) = – 4x – 5

2. Use the Distributive law to remove the parenthesis on the following expressions

(a) 2(y + 5) (b) 4(2x – 3) (c) 5(2y + 8)

(d) – 6(2g + 7) (e) 3(x + 5) (f) 4(x – 7)

(g) 4(2y + 8) (h) 6(3g – 7) (i) 2(3g – 7k)

(j) –5(x + 6) (k) – 4(y –2) (l) – 3(2x + 7y)

(m) –3(3y – 1) (n) – (x + 5) (o) – (–x – 8)

(p) 4(2x + 4y) (q) 3(2c + 7d) (r) – 4(–2x + 6)

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

When you simplify an algebraic expression you may also have to use the distributive law to
rearrange the expression first and then you can simplify the expression. In some cases, you may
have to perform other simplification before you can combine like terms.

Example 6: Simplify 3x + 2(x – 4)

Solution: 3x + 2(x – 4) = 3x + 2(x) + (2)( – 4) Use the distributive Law

= 3x + 2x – 8

= 5x – 8

However, if there is only a plus sign in front of the parentheses, then in these situations you must
recognize that this means that there is a + 1 in front of the parenthesis. However in these
circumstances you can simply remove the parentheses and get the required result.

Example 7: Simplify 4x + (5 – x)

Solution: 4x + (5 – x) = 4x + 1(5 – x)

= 4x + 1(5) + 1(– x) Use the distributive Law

= 4x + 5 – x

= 4x – x + 5 Rearrange like terms

= 3x + 5

This expression can also be simplified by just removing the parethesis as shown below.

Solution : 4x + (5 – x) = 4x + 5 – x Remove the parenthesis

= 4x – x + 5 Rearrange like terms

= 3x + 5

A special case of the distributive law is when a minus sign appears in front of parentheses such
as – (x – 6). At first glance, it looks as though there is no factor multiplying the parentheses, and
you may be tempted to just remove the parentheses to obtain the wrong result – (x – 6) = – x – 6
What you need to remember is in these situations is that the minus sign in front of the parenthesis
should always be thought of as the number – 1 and so – (x – 6) is equivalent to –1 (x – 6).

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

The following examples show us how to tackle similar problems.

Example 8: Simplify 4x – (5 – x)

Solution: 4x – (5 – x) = 4x + (–1)(6 – x)

= 4x + (–1)(6) + (–1)(–x) Use the distributive Law

= 3x – 6 + x

= 3x + x –6 Rearrange like terms

= 4x – 6

Another common situation is to simplify an algebraic expression that contains the subtraction of
two expressions such as (3x + 2) – (4x – 1). In these cases you can think of the subtraction as just
multiplying the second parenthesis by – 1 so (3x + 2) – (4x – 1) = (3x + 2) – 1(4x – 1).

Example 9: Simplify (7x + 6) – (2x – 5)

Solution: (7x + 6) – (2x – 5) = 7x + 6 – 1(2x – 5)

= 7x + 6 + (– 1)(2x) + (–1)(– 5) Use the distributive Law

= 7x + 6 – 2x + 5

= 7x – 2x + 6 + 5 Rearrange like terms

= 5x + 11

Example 10: Subtract (5x + 4) from (8x + 2)

Solution: (8x + 2) – (5x + 4) = 8x + 2 – 1(5x + 4)

= 8x + 2 + (– 1)(5x) + (–1)(+ 4) Use the distributive Law

= 8x + 2 – 5x – 4

= 8x – 5x + 2 – 4 Rearrange like terms

= 3x – 2

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Example 11: Simplify 4(2x – 3) – 4(x + 5)

Solution: 4(2x – 3) – 4(x + 5) = (4)(2x) +(4)(– 3) – 4(x) + (– 4)(5) Use the distributive Law

= 8x – 12 – 4x – 20

= 8x – 4x – 12 – 20 Rearrange like terms

= 4x – 32

Example 12: Simplify the algebraic expression 3b – 2(4b – 6b + 2) + 7

Solution: The brackets in this expression can be removed first, and then the expression
may be simplified.
3b – 2(4b – 6b + 2) + 7 = 3b – 8b + 12b – 4 + 7 Use the distributive Law
= 7b + 3

Example 13: Simplify the algebraic expression 3 – (2x – 6 ) + x

Solution: The brackets in this expression can be removed first, and then the expression
may be simplified.

3 – (2x – 6 ) + x = 3 – 2x + 6 + x

= 9–x

Notice we can more efficiently process the subtraction by also changing the sign of the terms
inside the parenthesis – (2x – 6 ) = – 2x + 6

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 5B.

1. Simplify the expression 4  x  3   5 x .

A. 17x

B. 21x

C. 9 x  3

D. 9 x  12

2. Use the distributive property to remove parentheses and simplify the expression:

(a) 2(3x – 7) + 6 (b) 4(3x – 7) + 4 (c) 5(3x – 7) – 6

(d) 10(3x – 7) + x (e) 2(3x – 7) + 2(x – 7) (f) 4(3x – 7) + 5(2x – 9)

(g) 2(3x – y) + 6(x + 3y) (h) 5(2x – 4) + 2(5x + 3) (i) 2(3x – 7) + 3(3x – 1)

(j) 2 + 6(x – 7) (k) 3x + 2(2x – 1) (l) 6x + 6(4 – x)

(m) 12 + 3(3x – 4) (n) 5(3x – 2y) + 4(2x – 3y) (o) 4(3x – 7) + 5(2x – 1)

3.(a) Subtract (2x + 3) from (5x + 1) (b) Subtract (5x + 1) from (2x + 3)

3.(c) Subtract (6x – 7) from (x + 7) (d) Subtract (4x – 4) from (4x + 2)

3.(e) Simplify (5x – 1) – (2x + 7) (f) Simplify (2x – 5y) – (5x + 3y)

4. Use the distributive property to remove parentheses and simplify the expression:

(a) 3(x + y) + 2y (b) (3y – 2) – 4(y – 3) (c) 5 – 1(2x + 7)

(d) 3 – 3(x + 6) (e) 2(3y – 2) + 5 (f) 5 – 4(2x + 6)

(g) 2 – 5(2x – 2) (h) 2 – 3(3 + 4x) + x (i) 6(2x + 3) – 2(2x – 7)

(j) – (x + 2) – 3(x – 2) (k) –3x + 2(3 + 4x) + 1 (l) 6(2x + 3) – 2(2x – 7)

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Solutions
Exercise 1A:

1. 10p 2. 5+x 3. t-3 4. 2b 5. ac

6. 7. r2 8. Z3 9. a+d 10. 12r
11. n2 + b 12. 13. 8x 14. 4m2 15.
16. 7 – q 17. r2 – 3 18. y9 19. d8 20. 30u + 4

Exercise 1B: 1.A 2.C 3.A 4.D 5.B

Exercise 2A

1. 10 2. 18 3. 17 4. 24 5 .36
6. 35 7. 22 8. 16 9. 4 10. 14
11. 12 12. 4

Exercise 2B

1. 4 2. 9 3. 6 4. 40 5. 24
6. 2 7. 4.5 or 8. 32 9. 10 10. 77
11. 30 12. 77 13. 12 14. 46 15. 72
16. 26 17. 15 18. 12 19. 111 20. 27

Exercise 2C

1. –1 2. 0 3. – 24 4. 26 5. 4
6. – 12 7. –5 8. – 16 9. – 29 10. – 11
11. – 26 12. 2 13. –6 14. – 8 15. – 29
16. 3 17. – 120 18. 2

Exercise 2D (a) 30 (b) 70 (c) 21 (d) 3 (e) (f) – 56

Exercise 3A 1.(a) 60 volts 1.(b) 54.9 volts 1.(c) 2.125 or volts

2.(a) 64 cm3 2.(b) 4.5 volts 2.(c) 27 cm 3

3.(a) 288 ft2 3.(b) 0.62 m2 3.(c) 30.5 or m2

4.(a) 2 ft/s2 4.(b) 10 ft/s2 4.(c) 4 ft/s2
5.(a) 168 m 5.(b) 88 ft 5.(c) 3.4 or m
6.(a) $72 6.(b) $3 6.(c) $22.50

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Olympic College Topic 1 – Algebraic Expressions

Exercise 4A. Like Terms (b),(c),(e),(h) and (i) Not Like Terms (a),(d),(f),(g) and (j)

Exercise 4B.

1.(a) 6x 1.(b) 3 – 2x 1.(c) 4x – 1 1.(d) 0 (e) x (f) 2x – 6y – c

2.(a) 10a 2.(b) 10p + 8q 2.(c) 8t + 6 + 4d 2.(d) 16w + 5x

2.(e) – n + 8m 2.(f) 17d 2.(g) 6k – a 2.(h) 26d + 3j
2.(j) 34g – 23h 2.(k) 3p + 16q + 7r 2.(l) 5a – 20b – 7c 2.(m) 6z + 5y + 9x
2.(n) –8.8u – 2n 2.(o) –2. 9m + 7.9n + 3.3p

3.(a) 2p + 8q 3.(b) 6r + 7p 3.(c) 10t + 10s 3.(d) I + 4j

3.(e) 17b + 5a 3.(f) 5d 3.(g) 6k + 11a 3.(h) 20d +3 j
3.(i) 30g + 23h 3.(j) 3p + 3q + 3r

4.(a) 3a + 14b + 7c 4.(b) 7w + 8f 4.(c) 4y + 5c 4.(d) 11u + n

4.(e) 10k + 4h 4.(f) 6a + 4b + 4c 4.(g) h + 14y 4.(h) 24t + 7u
4.(i) 18p + 2q 4.(j) 16r + 6e

5.(a) 9p – 3r 5.(b) 10e – 4f 5.(c) 7m – 3e 5.(d) 11we + 7u

5.(e) ad – ty 5.(f) 9a2 + 9a3 5.(g) 11x3 + x4 5.(h) 8x4 – 4x2
5.(i) 6y4 + 3y2 5.(j) 7as 5.(k) 5x2 5.(l) 15x3
5.(m) 5x4 5.(n) 12x8 5.(o) 6j5 5.(p) 3r8

Exercise 5A.
1. C

2.(a) 2y + 10 2.(b) 8x – 12 2.(c) 10y + 40 2.(d) – 12g – 42

2.(e) 3x + 15 2.(f) 4x – 28 2.(g) 8y + 32 2.(h) 18g – 42
2.(i) 6g – 14k 2.(j) –5x – 30 2.(k) – 4y + 8 2.(l) – 6x – 21y
2.(m) –9y + 3 2.(n) – x – 5 2.(o) x+8 2.(p) 8x + 16y
2.(q) 6c + 21d 2.(r) 8x – 24

Exercise 5B.

1. C

2.(a) 6x – 8 2.(b) 12x – 24 2.(c) 15x – 41 2.(d) 31x – 70 2.(e) 8x – 28

2.(f) 22x – 73 2.(g) 14x + 16y 2.(h) 20x – 14 2.(i) 15x – 17 2.(j) 6x – 40
2.(k) 5x – 2 2.(l) 24 2.(m) 9x 2. (n) 23x – 22y 2.(o) 22x – 33

3.(a) 3x – 2 3.(b) – 3x + 2 3.(c) – 5x + 14 3.(d) 6 3.(e) 3x – 8 3.(f) – 3x – 8y

4.(a) 3x + 5y 4.(b) – y + 10 4.(c) – 2x – 2 4.(d) – 3x – 15

4.(e) 6y + 1 4.(f) – 8x – 19 4.(g) – 10x + 12 4.(h) – 11x – 7
4.(i) 8x + 32 4.(j) – 4x + 4 4.(k) 5x + 7 4.(l) 8x + 32

Page | 22
 TEJS 107
LECT : 4

TOPIC : EVERYDAY AND COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC

FACILITATOR : Mr. MANASSEH CUDJOE

 RATIO
▪ Ratio is a pair of positive numbers that are used to compare two quantities or
two sets of the same unit or dimension

▪ Example :
▪ Ama is 9months and Mary is 3 years .The comparison could be 9months : 36
months
Cont…
Assignment
 Proportion
• An equality of ratios is called Proportion which is useful in problem
solving
• Note: We have two types of proportion:
• Direct proportion
• For example, if 1 pencil costs GH₵ 2.00
• 2 pencils cost GH₵ 4.00
• 3 pencils cost GH₵ 6.00
• This proportion shows that, if there is increase in the number of
pencils, we will have increase in the total amount of money.
 Cont…
• Everyday examples:
• The more hours a car spend on the road, more distance it cover
• The more we write with pen, the more ink we use.
• Inverse proportion (indirect)
For example, if we have a piece of work and every worker puts in the
same amount of energy, more people will take less time to do the
work. A small number of people will take more time to do the same
work.
• Everyday examples:
• The faster a lorry runs, the less time it will take to cover the given
distance.
• The slower the vehicle, the more the time it will take to cover the
given distance
 Solving problems on direct proportion
• We can employ two methods
• Unitary methods to solve the problem
• Use ratio method to solve the problem

• Example:

• Q. 8 pencils cost GH₵ 400.00. Find the cost of 5 pencils if the cost of a
pencil is the same for any number of pencils
 Cont…
• Unitary method 1
• Explain to pupils that for this method, we always find the value of a
unit or just one item after which we then multiply the result by the
number of the items that need to be worked out.
• 8 pencils cost GH₵ 400.00, therefore 1 pencil cost = 400Τ8 = GH₵ 50
• Hence, the cost of 5 pencils = 50 × 5 = GH₵ 250.00
 Cont…
• Method 2 (Ratio method)
• Use ratio to find the unknown
• Set the problem as two equal ratios with the unknown which we later find
• So here, 8 pencils cost GH₵ 400.0
• Let 5 pencils cost = 𝑋
• In the ratio form, we have 8:5 = 400: 𝑋
8 400
• =
5 𝑋
• 8(𝑋) = 5 (400)
8𝑋 5 (400)
• =
8 8
• 𝑋 = 5 (50)
• 𝑋 = GH₵ 250.00
• Therefore the cost of 5 pencils = GH₵ 250.00
Cont…
Assignment
 RATES
• Rates is the comparison of one measure with another of a different
dimension. For example , the rate of speed of a car is the distance
traveled compared to the time used to cover the distance, and it is
usually measured in kilometres per hour.
• Rates can also be expressed as a percentage as found in simple
interest, commission, and discount.
• Example , if kofi deposited $200 in her saving account at a simple
interest rate of 10% , it means that the bank will pay her 10% of $200
each year in addition to her principal amount.
• During reduction sales and promotion sales, prices of goods are
normally reduced by a given percentage of the original price.
• Which means sales price is 90% of the original price if rate of
reduction is 10%
 Work examples
• It takes a water pump 18 hours to fill a 2,025-litre capacity polytank.
How many litres of water were pumped into the polytank in each
hour?

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠

• Suggested solution: number of litre in 1 hour =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
2,025
• =
18
• = 112.5 litres per hour
Assignment
 SCALES
• Drawing an accurate but different-sized image of an object is called
scale drawing.
• In scale drawing, the ratio of the length on the drawing to the
corresponding length of the actual object is called the scale.
• Thus, if the scale of a map is 1:100; it means that 1 unit on the map is
the equivalent of 100 units on the actual site.
EXAMPLE:
Suggested solution
Group Assignment
 Percentages
• Reduction in the price of goods and services. ( DISCOUNT)
 Trials
A shop owner gives 20% discount on the marked price of all woolen
carpets in his shop. Mr. Brew paid GH₵ 250 for one such carpet . How
much was the marked price of the carpet?

• A wholesaler allows a total trade discount of 13% on goods purchased

up to GH₵ 6900.00 by a retailer. How much did a retailer pay for
goods worth: a). GH₵ 3400.00 b). GH₵ 12000.00 c). GH₵ 9550.00

• A manufacturer offers distributors a discount of 20.5% on any article

bought and a further discount of 2.5% for prompt payment .
• a.) if the marked price of an article is GH₵ 25,000 ; find the total
amount saved by a distributor for paying promptly
• b.) if a distributor pays GH₵ 11,700 promptly for an article , find the
marked price
 Commission
• Commission is an amount paid to shop assistant, salesmen or
representatives for his/her services. The commission paid to the
agent is usually calculated in percentages based on total sales or
quantity of goods sold/purchased by the agent.
• Example:
• A salesgirl has a commission of 5% on every GH₵ 10.00 worth of
items sold. Calculate her commission on a particular day, when she
made sales of GH₵ 570.50

5
• Commission= × 570.50= 28.525
100
• 𝐻𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑠 GH₵ 28.53
 Cont…
• An airline paid its travel agents GH₵ 72 for each plane ticket sold for
GH₵ 600. What was their rate of commission?
• Suggested solution:
• Let x% be the rate of commission paid by the airline.
𝑥
• × GH₵600= GH₵ 72
100

72 ×100
• X= = 12%
600
• The airline’s rate of commission is 12%
 Cont…
• Evelyn is a fee-paying university student and wants to raise GH₵ 72 to
pay for her second semester fees. She decides to work for Aunt Julie ,
who pays 7.5% commission to her sales staff. How much money must
Evelyn make on sales in order to earn her fees?

• Suggested solution
• Let GH₵ y be the total amount of money that Evelyn must make .
• Then the GH₵ 72 commission she wants will be earned by:
7.5
• GH₵72= ×𝑦
100
72 ×100
• 𝑦= = GH₵ 960
7.5
• Evelyn must make sales worth GH₵ 960 to earn her fees.
 Assignment
• Salesman of JOKA supermarket receives a basic salary of GH₵
1,100,000.00 . In addition , he receives 5% commission on sales up to
GH₵ 10,000,000.00 . For sales over and above GH₵ 10,000,000.00 he
receives 8% commission on the excess sales.
• Calculate the total income of a salesman who makes sales of GH₵
16,800,000.00
 Simple Interest
• The money paid by banks on amounts saved is called interest
• Interest is also paid on money borrowed by account holders from
banks or credit unions or from moneylenders.
• The amount saved or borrowed by a person is called the principal.
• The interest calculated on an initial principal at the end of a given
period of time is called simple interest .
• S I = P X R% X T
𝑷 ×𝑻 ×𝑹
• SI =
𝟏𝟎𝟎

• Amount = Principal + Interest

 Example
• Mr. Mensah invested GH₵ 2,500 at 21% per annum simple interest
• a.) Find the interest earned at the end of 4 years
• b) The total amount accrued at the end of four years.

• Suggested solution :
2500 ×21×4
• Interest =
100
• = GH₵ 2,100
• b) Total amount accrued = GH₵ 2500 + GH₵2,100
• = GH₵ 4,600
 Example 2
• A man borrowed a sum of money from a bank at an interest rate of
19% . After 1 year , he paid GH₵ 89.25 to settle the loan and the
interest. How much did he borrow from the bank?

• Suggested solution:
• Let 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙
𝑥 ×19 ×1
•𝐼=
100
• 𝐼 = 0.19𝑥
• But principal + interest =amount
• 𝑥 + 0.19𝑥 = 89.25
• 1.19𝑥=89.25
• 𝑥 = 75
 Hire Purchase
• This is a system under which someone may buy an item and pay by
instalments.
• Usually, the one buying the item is made to pay some deposit and pay
the rest in regular installments until the item is fully paid.
• Example:
• A man sold his car at GH₵ 8,800 to a friend under the following hire
purchase terms.
• An initial payment of 20% of the price and the balance paid at 15%
simple interest per annum in twelve monthly installments.
• Calculate
• a. the amount paid, every month by the friend
• b. the total amount the friend paid for the car.
 Cont…
• Suggested solution :
20
• a. initial payment= × 8,800
100
• = 1,760
• Balance to be paid = 8,800-1760
• = GH₵ 7040
• This was paid in simple interest : P=7,040 R=15% T= 1 year
7040 ×15×1
• Interest = = GH₵ 1,056
100
• Amount paid in twelve months= 7040 + 1,056
• = GH₵ 8,096
8096
• Amount paid every month = = GH₵ 674.67
12
• Total amount paid by friend= GH₵ 1760 + GH₵ 8,096
 Assignment
• The cash price of a freezer was GH₵ 600.00 . A man paid 30% of the
cash price as deposit. He then paid GH₵ 65.00 a month , for eight
months.
• a. How much did he pay altogether for the freezer?
• b. find the interest charged.
• c. find , also the approximate rate of interest
•
• A female teacher bought an electric sewing machine GH₵ 350.00
from a company on hire purchase. She made an initial payment of
35% of the price and the balance paid at 18% simple interest per
annum in twelve monthly instalments. Calculate :
• a. the amount she paid every month
• b. the total amount she paid for the machine.
 Compound interest
• Practical Examples:
• Calculate the compound interest on GH₵2,000, 000.00 for 2years at
1
3 % per using .
2
• Suggested solutions:
𝑅 𝑛
• Using Amount=P 1 +
100
1
• Given P= GH₵ 2,000,000.00 n= 2years R= 3 %
2
3.5 2
• A=2,000,000 1 +
100
• A=2,000,000 1 + 0.035 2
• A= GH₵ 2,142,450
• Compound interest= Amount – Principal
• Compond interest = 2,142,450 – 2,000,000 = GH₵142,450
 Profit and loss
• Basic concepts:
• Profit = Selling Price – Cost Price
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
• Profit % = × 100
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
• Example :
• A man makes a profit of 15% by disposing of an article at $1725.
What is his actual profit ?
• Suggested solution:
• Let cost price= 𝑥 SP=$1725 Profit = 1725 - 𝑥
15 1725−𝑥
• =
100 𝑥
• 15 × 𝑥 =172500 - 100𝑥
• 15𝑥= 172,500 115𝑥 = 172500 𝑥 = $1,500
• Profit = 1725 – 1500 = $225.00
 Assignment
• Bala sold an article for $6,900.00 and made a profit of 15%. If he sold
it for $6,600 how much will be the profit percent ?

• A man invested a certain amount of money in two separate projects

in the ratio 3:2 . His profit was calculated on interest rates of 5% and
4% simple interest, respectively . If after two years , he received a
sum of $9,200.00 as his profit for the two projects. Calculate the total
amount he invested in the two projects.
 Taxation( income Tax)
• In dealing with income tax , some basic definition must be well
understood .
• Tax free income(allowance): The amount of your income in which
you do not pay tax.
• Taxable income: Income – Tax free income
• Tax = Rate of tax × corresponding amount to be taxed.
• Total deduction = Tax + social security contributions
• Net annual income or take home pay = Annual salary – total
deduction
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
• Net monthly income=
12
 Cont…
• Example :
• Suppose this year :2008, income tax will be calculated according to
the following schedule:
Taxable (chargeable) income Rate of tax
First GH₵ 50.00 Free
Next GH₵ 30.00 5%
Next GH₵ 30.00 10%
Next GH₵ 60.00 15%
Next GH₵ 60.00 20%
Next GH₵ 60.00 30%
Next GH₵ 60.00 40%
Next GH₵ 350.00 50%
• Mr. Odum’s annual salary is GH₵ 520.00 . Calculate
• a. his chargeable income b. the annual tax he will pay
• c. the percentage tax he pays
 Cont…
Suggested solution :
Amount GH₵ Rate of tax Tax Remaining taxable
income GH₵
First GH₵ 50.00 Free 0 470 (i.e 520-50)
Next GH₵ 30.00 0.05 × 30 GH₵ 1.50 440.00 (i.e 470-30)
Next GH₵ 30.00 0.10 × 30 GH₵ 3.00 410.00
Next GH₵ 60.00 0.15 × 60 GH₵ 9.00 350.00
Next GH₵ 60.00 0.20 × 60 GH₵ 12.00 290.00
Next GH₵ 60.00 0.30 × 60 GH₵ 18.00 230.00
Next GH₵ 60.00 0.40 × 60 GH₵ 24.00 170.00
Rest GH₵ 170.00 0.50 × 170 GH₵ 85.00 -

a. Chargeable income(taxable income)= 520 – 50 = GH₵ 470.00

b. the annual tax = 1.5 +3+9+12+18+24+85 = GH₵ 152.50
520 −152.50
c. Net monthly income = = GH₵ 30.63
12
152.50
d. percentage tax = × 100 = 29.3%
520
Assignment
Cont..
Cont…
Cont…
 TEJS 107
LECT : 5

TOPIC : NUMBER BASES AND MODULAR ARITHMETIC

FACILITATOR : Mr. MANASSEH CUDJOE

 INTRODUCTION
• Number bases is a system of counting, where one could only count up
to a certain number known as the base.
• The system of numbers which are used today is based on ten symbols
namely zero, one, two,…nine. This system is called the ‘decimal
numeral’ because it is based on ten.
• In this system the values of a symbol depends on the position or place
in the numeral. This is known as ‘place value’
• Counting with only one hand, one might count in base five instead of
ten.
• Most electronic circuit operate with two state ‘on and of’ , the base
two or binary system
 Cont…
• Basically, if we want to work in base three, we use three symbols
0,1,2. Base four : four symbols: 0,1,2,3 etc.
• It can therefore seen that in any base the highest digit is one less
than the base. In base eleven and twelve , we use ‘T’ and ‘E’ to
represent ten and eleven respectively.

• OPERATIONS ON NUMBERS
• USING BUNDLES OF TEN AND SINGLE STICKS (BASE TEN)
• We describe below how we can use this to find the sum of 37 and 25
• Children are guided to represent 37 by taking three bundles of ten
sticks and seven single (loose) sticks.
 Cont…
•.

- guide the pupil to represent 25 by also taking two

bundles of ten sticks and 5 single sticks

• Guide pupils to put them together to obtain five bundles of sticks and
twelve single sticks
 Cont…
• Guide pupils to regroup the twelve single sticks to obtain one bundle
of ten sticks and two single sticks

• We now have altogether six bundles of ten sticks and two single sticks
 Cont…
•.

Explain to the pupil that the six bundles of ten sticks represent
60 and the two single sticks represent 2 ones altogether giving
us 62 the result
Therefore 37 + 25 = 62
 Using Dienes’ base ten blocks
• Cube /unit represents
•
Long = 10

Flat = 100

• Block = 1000
 Cont.…
• Note: 10 cubes = 1 long
• 10 longs = 1 flat
• 10 flats = 1 block
Using the example : 42 + 39
• children represent 42 by taking four longs and two units or cubes
 Cont…
• Guide pupils represent 39 by three longs and nine cubes

- Guide pupils to put them together to obtain seven longs

and eleven units
- Guide pupils to regroup the eleven units to obtain one long
and one unit’
- We now have altogether eight longs and one unit
 Cont…
Together

- Explain to pupils that the eight long represent 8tens and one
unit represents one which gives us 81
- Therefore 42 + 39 = 81
 Group Assignment
• Using base five multi-base material
• Find the sum of the following in base five
• 12 +24
• 13 + 33
• 14 + 11
 SUBTRACTION OF TWO OR MORE DIGIT WHOLE NUMBERS

• Problem: 34 – 18
using concrete material :: Dienes’ base ten blocks (materials).
• Guide the pupil to represent 34 by taking three longs and four
cubes/units
• Explain to the pupil that we cannot take away 8 cubes from the four
cubes, so there is the need to decompose (breakdown) one of the
longs in order to make it possible to take the 8 cubes
• Guide the pupil to note that, after the decomposition we now obtain
two longs and fourteen cubes
 Cont…
• Now guide the pupil to subtract 18 from 34 by taking 8 cubes from
the 14 cubes and one long from the two longs to obtain one long and
six cubes at the end

- Guide the pupil to note that, the one long represent 10 and 6
cubes represent 6 ones
- Therefore 34-18=16
 Cont…
• After developing the concept of number bases using the
manipulatives, we now guide them to come out with the algorithm.

Without using concrete materials ,compute the ff:

- Simplify 100110 + 11011 in base two
- Evaluate (111two + 101two)(111two −101two)
- Simplify 21𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 × 21𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒
- Find the base for addition 35+43=122
- 9𝑇𝐸212 + 79𝑇312
 Converting any numerals to base ten numerals
• Numbers written in any base use the place value system.
• This idea helps us to convert any number in any base to a number in
base 10, by expressing the number in expanded form.

• CONVERT THE FOLLOWING TO BASE 10

• 1. 10112 2. 2105

• 3. 75368 4. 𝑇𝐸9812

• 5. 11.0112
 Converting a base 10 numeral to other bases
• Any base 10 number can be changed into a number in another base
by applying repeated division by the number base required.

• CONVERT 128 as a number in each of the following bases.

• 1. base 2 2. base 5 3. base 8

• 4. base 12
 Conversion between non-decimal bases
• To convert between non-decimal bases, first convert to base ten and
then convert your results to the required base

• Trial :
• 1. Convert 10112 as a number in base eight
• 2. Simplify 10012

• EQUATIONS INVOLVING NUMBER BASES

• This approach is the same as converting from other base to base ten,
except here, the base itself may not be a numeral.
• After expansion, we may get linear equation or a quadratic equation
and then solve for the unknown
 Trials
• Find the number base x such that 35𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 43𝑥 = 61𝑡𝑒𝑛 .
• If 2Q47 = 15Q9 , find the value of Q
• Given that 3(14x) = 45x. Fine the value of x.
• Copy and complete the table below for addition base eight.

⊕ 1 3 5 7

1 2 4 6

3 6 10 12

5 6

7 12 14 16

• (ii) Use your table to solve the following

𝛼) 3⊕ 𝑥 = 12 𝛽) n⊕ 𝑛 = 6
 MODULAR ARITHMETIC
• Some events in real life are repetitive. For example , each week has
seven days , one day has 24 hours and every year has 12 months.
• We can think of this events as a cycle
• Using the example of the days of a week, the number of days in the
cycle is called its modulus and each day is called a cyclic variable.
• This type of circular arithmetic is called modular arithmetic
• Application :
• If we take Sunday as the starting point (0),
Monday as 1 , Tuesday as 2 etc
• Starting at Sunday, what day will it be in 15 days?
 Cont…
• We can think of modular arithmetic as a special base arithmetic in
which only the remainder is reported.
• The modular arithmetic base 7 is written as mod 7.
• In general, in any mod n arithmetic , the remainder will form a set
with elements {0, 1 , 2 , 3, … n-1}
• Trials :
• What day of the week is the 39th day after Friday.
• List all the elements of mod 5
• Simplify : 29 mod 5
 Operations in modular arithmetic
• In modular arithmetic , you can also add, subtract and multiply
• Example :
• Simplify 57 + 28 mod 6 ≡ 85 mod mod 6
• ≡ 1 mod 6

• Simplify 18 – 7 mod 4 ≡ 11 mod 4

• ≡ 3 mod 4
• Simplify -27mod 8
• NB: If a number is negative, add the simplest multiple of the modulus
that will make the result positive when added and simplify to arrive at
the answer
 Cont…
• Simplify -27 mod 8 ≡ -27 +(8× 4)mod 8 (the simplest multiple is 32)
• ≡ -27 + 32 mod 8
• ≡ 5 mod 8

• Equations in modular arithmetic

• We can also solve equations in modular arithmetic
• Example :
• Find x if 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒≡ 0 mod 5
• Solution:
• First find equivalent values of 0 in mod 5 i.e 0, 5, 10, 15 …
• 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒≡ 0 , 5, 10, 15, ….
• 𝟑𝒙 + ≡ 1 , 6 , 11 …
• 𝟑𝒙≡ 6 ( As 6 is divisible by 3)
• X= 2 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒≡ 0 mod 5 x=2
 Cont…
• Try :
• 𝑥 2 +1 ≡ 3 mod 7
 Assignment
•.
Cont…
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
In Chapter 1, you learnt that a set is any well defined collection of objects or numbers. In
this Chapter, we shall examine the connection or association between the elements of one
set with the elements of another set.
Consider the sets X = (a, b, c, d, e) and associated to the element of Y using arrow as
shown in Fig. 7.1. The arrow diagram suggests the relation ‘is double’.
Suppose the headmaster of Method High School, asked 10 teachers to stay after school for
a special meeting. Fig. 9.2 shows the names of the teachers and six soft drinks.
The arrows associate teachers with the soft drinks they prefer. For example, Mr. Kingsley
Osei and Mr. James Tetteh prefer Coca Cola Mr. Carl Kotei, does not like any of the six
soft drinks. It can be seen that there is a relation between the sets X of teachers and Y of
soft drinks. In Fig. 9.1 and Fig. 9.2, a relation is shown by a “one way” arrow elements of
another set Y. X Y
X Y
Mr. Kotei
a 2
Mr. Tetteh
Coca Cola
b 4 Mr. Osei
Mr. Hansen Fanta
c 6 Mr. Salifu
Mr. Osafo Malta
d 8
Mr. Gbekor Sprite
e 10 Mr. Takyi
Mr. Dompreh Pepsi
Fig. 7.11 Mr. Ofosu

The notation X → Y Fig 7.12

means that there is a relation between elements of X and element of Y. if an element
X is related to an element , we say that y is the image of . The domain of the relation
is made up of the element in the set X. The set called the co-domain. The set of all images
in Y is called the range of the relation. The range is therefore subset of the co-domain.
A relation refers to the existing connection or association between the elements of one set
with the elements of another set or a relation is a rule that associates the elements of one set
with the elements of another set (a set of ordered pairs).

Example 7.10
The sets A and B are defined by A = {cat, dog, lion, bird, cock, cow} and B ={purrs,
whistles, barks, crows, lows, roars, talks}
(a) State the relation from the first set A to the second set B.
(b) Use an arrow diagram to march the members of set A to that of set B.
(c) Write down the domain, the co-domain, and the range of each relation
 A B

Solution cat purrs

(a) Creature sound it makes dog barks
(b) The arrowed diagram which marches set A to set B lion roars
is as give in Fig. 9.3 bird whistles
(c) Domain = { cat, dog, lion, bird, cock, cow} cock crows
Co-domain = { purrs, barks, roars, whistles, crows, cow talks
lows, talks}
Range = { purrs, barks, roars, whistles crows,
lows} Fig. 7.13

Example 7.12
Determine the domains and ranges of the following relations.
b) X Y Y
a) X Y c) X
-2 -1
1 2 4 1

5 1
2 4 2
-3 9 -2
3 6 16
3 10 2
4 8

Solution
a) The domain = {1,2,3,4} and the range = {2,4,6,8}
b) The domain = {-3,-2,2,3} and the range = {4,9}
c) The domain = {1,6} and the range = {-2, -1, 1, 2}

Types of Relations X Y
(a) One –to –one relations
x1 y1
y1
In Fig. 9.4, it can be seen that each x2 y2
element of the domain X has a district x3 y2
y3
image in the co-domain Y. It is an x4 y4
example of one –to –one relation. y3
Fig. 7.14
y4
X Y
(ii) Many – to-one relations x1 y1
A relation is said to be many-to-one if x2 y2
at least two distinct elements of the x3 y3
domain X have the same image in the x4 y4
co-domain Y. Fig. 9.5 illustrates a
many – to- one relation Fig. 7.15
(iii) One – to –many relations X Y
A relation is said to be one –to – many x1 y1
if at least one element in the domain X
x2 y2
has more than one image in the set co-
domain Y. Fig. 9.6 illustrates a one – x3 y3
to – many relation
x4 y4

Fig. 7.16

(iv) Many – to – many relations X Y

A relation is said to be many –to- x1 y1
many if at least one element in the
domain X relates to more than one x2 y2
image in the co-domain Y and at least y3
x3
two distinct elements of X share the
same image in Y. Fig. 9.7 illustrates a x4
many –to-many relation.
Fig. 7.17
Example 7.13
In each of the following pairs of sets, the relation from the set X to the set Y is stated. Use
an arrow diagram to match the members and identify the type of relation.
(a) X = { worship, business, sports},
Y = { church, mosque, stadium, factory}
(b) X = {bang, beat, blast, bubbling, ringing, slam} 1 1
Y = { door, drum, explosion, water, bell} 2 4
(c) X = {1,2,3,4,5}, 3 9
Y = {1,4,9,16,25} 4 16
5 25

Solution
Fig. 7.19
Worshi One-to-one relation
Church
p Mosque
Factory
Busines
s Stadium Bang Door
Slam Drum
Beat Explosion
Blast Water
Fig. 7.18 Bubbling bell
One-to-many relation Ringing

Fig. 7.110
Many-to-one relation
Exercise 7.1
For each of the following pairs of sets, the relation from the first set to the second set is
stated. Match the numbers and identify the type of relation.
a) A = {father, man, pig, dog, lion, hen}, B = {pup, chicken, piglet, child, cub}
Creature → The young.
b) M = {convict, king, priest, soldier, monk}, N = {barracks, palace, temple, monastery,
prison}
Person → Traditional home.
c) K = {army, band, bench, board, choir}, L = {musicians, ants, singers, soldiers, bishops,
magistrates, directors}
Term → ‘Group of’
d) P = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, Q = {1, 1, 4, 9}
Number → Square of number
e) S = {36, 48, 52}, T = {3, 4, 6, 9, 12}
Number → Factor of number.
f) U = {Kojo, Kwabena, Kwaku, Yaw, Kofi, Kwame, Kwasi},
V = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday}
Name → Day of birth. A B

Mappings -2 -4
A student in AcCE was asked to draw the -1 -2
arrow diagram of multiplication by 2 on 0 0
the members of the set A = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 1 2
3}. He obtained the results in the set B = 2 4
{-4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6}. The arrow diagram is 3 6
shown in Fig 7.21.

Fig. 7.21
Another student in the same class was asked A B
to square the members in set A and drew the
arrow diagram as in Fig. 7.22 -2 0
-1
0 1
In both cases, each element in set A has an image in set B. 1
This is a special kind of relation called MAPPING. 2 4
A mapping is a relation in which each member of the first 3
set has one and only one image in the second set. 9
The type of relation in Fig. 7.15 is many-to-one. Therefore
the mapping is called many-to-one mapping. Can you Fig. 7.22
name the type of mapping in Fig. 7.16 and 7.17?
The rule of a mapping is the relation or statement connecting the two sets. The rule shows
how the two sets are related. Example the rule for the mapping in Fig 7.22 is number →
square of number etc.
The domain of the mapping is made up of elements in the first set. The range of the
mapping is the set of images of the domain. Example the domain of the mapping in Fig.
7.21 is {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3} and the range is {-4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6}. Write the domain and range of
the mapping in Fig. 7.22.

Example 7.20
Make a table of the mapping defined by the rule x → 3x – 2 on the domain {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1,
2, 3}

Solution
The image of x = -3, for instance, is given by y = 3(-3) -2 = -11. The following is the table
of the mapping relating the values in the domain to that of the co-domain.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
3x – 2 -11 -8 -5 -2 1 4 7

Example 7.21
Make a table of the mapping defined by each of the following rules on the domain
{-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
a)
b)
c)

Solution
a) x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2x + 1 -3 -1 1 3 5 7

b) x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 -1 -2 -1 2 7

c) x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½

Find the rule of a mapping

Determining the rule of a mapping depends on whether the mapping is linear or
exponential.

1) Linear mapping
A mapping is said to be linear if the difference between consecutive images is constant.
Consider the two sets X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14}. The first term of the set
X is denoted by a whilst that of the set Y is denoted by b. Each element in X (denoted by x)
can be associated to the elements of Y (denoted by y) using arrows as follows:
 x 0 1 2 3 4
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 2 5 8 11 14
The common difference between consecutive images in Y = d

The first term of the set X = a = 0 and the first term of the set Y = b = 2.
y can be expressed in terms of x by . Thus the rule for the mapping is
.

Example 7.22
Find the rule for the mapping x 4 5 6 7 8
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 3 7 11 15 19

Solution
a = 4, b = 3, d = 7 – 3 = 11-7 = 4
The rule for the mapping becomes

Example 7.23
Find the rule for the mapping x -10 -9 -8 -7 -6
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 8 6 4 2 0

Solution
a = -10, b = 8, d = 6 – 8 = 4 – 6 = -2
The rule for the mapping becomes

Example 7.24
Find the rule for the mapping x 9 10 11 12 13
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y -4 1 6 11 16
Solution
a = 9, b = -4, d = 1 – (-4) = 6 – 1 = 5.
The rule for the mapping becomes
Generally, if the value of x have first term a and common difference of k and the y value
have first term b and common difference d, then the rule for the mapping is

2) Exponential mapping
A mapping is said to be exponential if there is a common ratio between consecutive
images. Consider the two sets X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {3, 6, 12, 24, 48}. The first term
of the set X is denoted by a whilst that of the set Y is denoted by b. Each element in X
(denoted by x) can be associated to the elements of Y (denoted by y) using arrows as
follows:
 x 0 1 2 3 4
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 3 6 12 24 48
The common ratio of the elements
The first term of the set X = a = 0 and the first term of the set Y = b = 3. y can be expressed
in terms of x by . Hence the rule for the mapping is
Example 7.30
Find the rule for the mapping x 4 5 6 7 8
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 2 6 18 54 162

Solution

The rule for the mapping is given by:

Exercise 7.31
Find the rule for the mapping x -2 -1 0 1 2
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 64 32 16 8 4
Solution

The rule for the mapping is given by:

Exercise 7.32
Find the rule for the mapping x 1 2 3 4 5
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y 1 4 16 64 256
Solution

The rule for the mapping is given by:

Exercise 7.2
1) Make a table of mapping defined by each of the following rules on the domain {-2, -1,
0, 1, 2, 3}
a) b) c)
a) e) f)
g) h) i)
2) Find the rules for the following mappings
a) 1 2 3 4 b) 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 4 7 10 4 9 14 19
 c) 4 5 6 7 d) 3 4 5 6
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
7 5 3 1 1 7 13 19
e) 0 1 2 3 f) 1 2 3 4
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 2 4 8 3 6 12 24
g) 3 4 5 6 h) 4 5 6 7
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
5 10 20 40 12 6 3 1½
i) 5 6 7 8 j) 0 1 2 3
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
-4 -1 2 5 7 14 28 56
k) 0 2 4 6 l) 1 3 5 7
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 3 5 7 2 5 8 11
m) -3 -1 1 3 n) 8 6 4 2
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 8 14 20 1 2 3 4
0) 3 4 5 6 p) 4 5 6 7
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
3 12 4

Functions
Definition of a Function
Given a relation in x and y, we say “y is a function of x” if for every element x in the
domain, there corresponds exactly one element y in the range.

Relation Vs. Function

Recall: A relation is a set of ordered pairs. A relation produces one or more output numbers for
every valid input number. eg. {(–2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 7), (–2, 6)}
A function is also a set of ordered pairs, however, for every valid input number, there is only
ONE output number. eg. {(0, 2), (2, 6), (3, 8), (4, 10)

Example 7.40
Determine which of the relations define y as a function of x. X Y
X Y X Y
1 3
1 2 1
2 4
2 -1 2 4
-1
3
3 4 3 -2

Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5

Solution:
a. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs {(1, 4), (2, -1), (3, 2)}.
Notice that for each x in the domain there is only one corresponding y in the range.
Therefore, this relation is a function.
When x = 1, there is only one possibility for y: y = 4
When x = 2, there is only one possibility for y: y = -1
When x = 3, there is only one possibility for y: y = 2
b. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs
When x = 1, there are two possible range elements: y = 3, and y = 4.
Therefore, this relation is not a function.
c. This relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
When x = 1, there is only one possibility for y: y = 4
When x = 2, there is only one possibility for y: y = 4
When x = 3, there is only one possibility for y: y = 4
Because each value of x in the domain has only one corresponding y value, this relation
is a function.

Example 7.41
A function is defined by on the domain {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}.
a) Find the image of the element -2
b) What element of the domain satisfies the equation ?

Solution
a) b)

x=3

Example 7.42
By drawing an arrow diagram, determine whether or not the following relations are
functions
a) b)

Solution X f g
Y X Y
a)
0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

2 4 2 4

6 6
3
3 9
4 8
4 12

f defines a function since each element g does not define a function, since an element
of the domain maps unto one and only (i.e. 2) in the domain has two images in the
one element in the co-domain. co-domain.

Example 7.42
The relation is defined on the domain {-1, 0, 1, 2}. By the use of an arrow
diagram, determine whether or not the relation is a function.

Solution
When x = 0, -1 0
When x = -1,
0 1
When x = 1, undefined
When x = 2, 1

2 3
The relation does not define a function since an
element x = 1 in the domain has no image in the
co-domain.

Example 7.43
The relation is defined on the domain {-1, 0, 2, 3}. By the use of an arrow
diagram, determine whether or not the relation is a function.

Solution
When x = 0, -1 0
When x = -1,
0 1
When x = 2,
When x = 3, 2 3

The relation defines a function since all the 3 2

elements in the domain have one and only one
image in the co-domain.

Example 7.44
The relation is defined on the domain {0, 2, 5, 10}. Determine whether or
not the relation defines a function.

Solution
When x = 0, undefined.
Since the square root of a negative number is not a real number, it follows that the element
x = 0 in the domain has no image in the range.
When x = 2, 0
When x = 5,
When x = 10, 2 1

The relation does not define a function since an 5 2

element x = 0 in the domain has no image in the co-
domain 10 3

Example 7.45
The function is defined on the domain X = {-2, -1, 2}. By using an arrow
diagram, determine whether or not is one-to-one
Solution

The function is not one-to-one since two distinct elements -2 and 2 in the domain x have
the same image 4 in the co-domain.
-1 1
Example 7.46
A function f is given by -2
a) For what value of x is the function undefined? 2 4
b) Find the image of the element 2
c) Find the value of x such that,

Solution
a) The function is undefined when the denominator is zero (0). That is,

Hence, the value of x for which is undefined is .

b) The image of
c)

Exercise 7.3
1) A function is defined by on the domain {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 35}
i. Find the image of the following elements of the domain.
a. -1 b. 2 c. 5
ii. What elements of the domain correspond to these images?
a. 19 b. 3 c. 9
2) A function f is defined by on the domain {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 3, 4}. Find the
a) images of the following elements of the domain.
i. -3 ii. 1 iii. 4
b) i. Is the function f defined for all real numbers?
ii. For what real number would f be undefined?
 3) By drawing an arrow diagram, determine whether or not the following relations are
functions

i.

ii.

4) The relation is defined on the set of positive real numbers. Determine

whether or not the relation defines a function
5) The function is defined on the domain X= {-3, 1, 2, 3}. By using an arrow
diagram, determine whether or not f(x) is one-to-one.

Inverse of a given function

THE INVERSE of a function reverses the action of that function.

Example
If 𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 + 3, find 𝑓−1 : 𝑥
Solution

Let y = 2x + 3
x Multiply by 2 2x Add 3 2x+3

Inverse function goes the other way. That is

𝑦−3
y-3 y
2 Divide by 2 Subtract 3

𝑥−3
Hence the inverse of 2𝑥 + 3 = 2

The inverse is usually shown by putting a little "-1" after the function name, like this:
f-1(x), We say "f inverse of y"
𝑥−3
So, the inverse of f(x) = 2x+3 is written as f-1(x) = 2

Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2

Solution
𝑥+2
Let y = f(x) ⟹ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 , 𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 2, 𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑦 =𝑦
3

𝑥+2
The inverse of the function, 𝑓−1 (𝑥) =
3
Example 3
The function f is defined on the set of real numbers by
4𝑥+3
𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥−4 Find:
i. 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ii. 𝑓 −1 (3)

Solution
4𝑥+3
i. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥−4 this means 𝑦(𝑥 − 4) = 4𝑥 + 3
𝑦𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 that means 𝑦𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 4𝑦 + 3
𝑥(𝑦 − 4) = 4𝑦 + 3 therefore
4𝑦+3
𝑥 = 𝑦−4
4𝑥+3
Hence 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = ,𝑥≠4
𝑥−4

4(3)+3 12+3 15
ii. 𝑓 −1 (3) = (3)−4
= = −1 = −15
−1

Composite functions
If we let 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑦 and 𝑔: 𝑦 → 𝑧 denote two functions, then the function which assigns each of x
into z is called a composite function denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑔(𝑓) (f followed by g).
Then, (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). This means the function g operates on the outcome or results of f.

Example1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3, find
i. 𝑔 ∘𝑓 ii. 𝑓 ∘𝑔

Solution
i. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(4𝑥) = (4𝑥)2 + 3 = 16𝑥 2 + 3
ii. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 3) = 4(𝑥 2 + 3) = 4𝑥 2 + 12

Example 2
Two functions f and g are defined as the set of real numbers by 𝑓: 𝑥 → 7𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔: 𝑥 →
3𝑥−1
, 𝑥 ≠ 2. Find
𝑥−2
i. 𝑔 ∘𝑓 ii. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 iii. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(2)
Solution
3(7𝑥+4)−1 21𝑥+12−1 21𝑥+11
i. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(7𝑥 + 4) = (7𝑥+4)−2
= =
7𝑥+4−2 7𝑥+2
3𝑥−1 3𝑥−1 21𝑥−7 25𝑥−15
ii. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = 7( )+4= +4=
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2
21(2)+11 42+11 53 5
iii. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(2) = = = 16 = 3 16
7(2)+2 14+2

Example 3
The function f and g are defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2 where x is a real number.
Find 𝑔−1 (𝑥) hence find 𝑓(𝑔−1 (𝑥))
Solution
i. Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑦+2 𝑥+2
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 ⟹ 3 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 3
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 5𝑥+10 5𝑥+10+6 5𝑥+16
ii. 𝑓(𝑔−1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = 5( )+2 = +2= =
3 3 3 3 3

Exercise 7.4
1. Find the inverse of the following functions
8 7+4𝑥 8−2𝑥
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 9−3𝑥 b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6−5𝑥 c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥+3
2. Given that the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3. Find
i. 𝑓 ∘𝑔
ii. 𝑔∘𝑓
iii. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(2)
iv. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(12)