Stresses in Soils

Geotechnical Engineering 268 − Dr Mohamed Shahin Curtin University − Page 1

 Introduction
 Any civil engineering structure, such as a foundation, imparts load onto the
ground that supports it, and this load applies stress to the soil called induced
stress. This stress spreads out with depth, or distance from the foundation, so
that as the depth increases, the induced stress is resisted by a wider area of soil,
and the resulting stress decreases with depth. In order to estimate the soil
compressibility (settlement) due to induced stress, the stress change with depth
needs to be calculated throughout the compressible layer. In our course, we will
consider the induced stress caused by various shapes of surface loads, including
point load, line load, circular area carrying uniform load, rectangular area
carrying uniform load, strip area carrying uniform or triangular load and irregular
area carrying uniform load.
 Another source of stress in a soil mass is caused by the self weight of overlying
soil and is called geostatic stress. This stress is also important and needs to be
estimated.
 In the analysis that follows, each kind of applied stress (induced or geostatic) will
be discussed separately, then they will be combined using superposition.

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 Induced Stresses of Point Loads
 In a soil mass, stresses that apply to a soil element below the ground surface are
shown in Figure 1. However, in most geotechnical engineering problems, the
plane strain conditions apply and thus only the stresses in x and z directions are
important. Moreover, only the vertical and horizontal compressive stresses
(σz and σx or σv and σh ) are those used most frequently and will be considered in
our course.
 The classic solution of this problem is developed by Boussinesq (1885) using the
elastic theory and assuming the soil mass to be homogeneous, infinite elastic
half-space. This means that the linear elastic soil extends infinitely in all
directions beneath the ground surface. In reference to Figure 2, the induced
compressive stresses acting on a soil element due to a point load, Q, acting at the
ground surface are calculated as follows:
3Qz 3
Vertical stress:  v  (1)
2R 5
3Q  x 2 z 1  2  1 (2 R  z ) x 2 z 
Lateral stress: h   5     3  (2)
2  R 3  R ( R  z ) R 3
( R  z ) 2
R 

Where: compression is +ve, tension is –ve and ν is the Poisson’s ratio of soil
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 Equation (1) can be simplified and rewritten as follows:
5/ 2
Q 3  1 
v  2 I p where: Ip    (3)
z 2 1  (r / z ) 2 

The parameter Ip is known as the influence factor and its values in terms of r/z are
given in Table 1.

GS X
r x y
2 2

x
z
σz = σv
R r z
2 2

τzy
Y τzx τxy
σx = σh
τyx
τxz
τyz
Z σy

Figure 1: Induced stresses on a soil element due to a point load

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 Table 1: Influence factor Ip for induced vertical stress due to a point load

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 The form of the variation of σv with z and r is illustrated in Figure 2. The left-
hand side of the figure shows the variation of σv with the depth z on a vertical line
immediately below the point load where r = 0. The right-hand side of the figure
shows the variation of σz with radial distance r at three different depths.

Figure 2: Variation of induced stresses due to a point load with depth and radial distance

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 Worked Example (1)
 The footing shown in the figure below carries a uniform load of 250 kPa over the
shaded area and 150 kPa over the unshaded area. Determine the induced vertical
stress at Point (A) 3 m below the ground surface using the point load method.
[Answer: 82 kPa]

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 Q
GS X
r  x2  y 2
y
x
z
σz = σv
R  r2  z2
τzy
Y τzx τxy
τyx σx = σh
τxz
τyz
Z σy

Q
z  I
2 p
z

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 Induced Stresses of Line Loads
 In reference to Figure 3, for a line load Q per unit length applied at the ground
surface, the induced compressive stresses acting on a soil element below the
ground surface can be calculated as follows:
Q/m

GS X

z3 2Q
Vertical stress:  v   z  (4)
 ( x2  z 2 )2 σz
z
τzx
τxz
σx σx
τxz
x2 z
2Q
Horizontal stress: h x  (5) x
τzx
 ( x2  z 2 )2 σz
Z

Figure 3: Induced stresses due to a line load

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 Induced Stresses of Strip Area Carrying Uniform Pressure
 The strip area is that whose length is very long compared to its width. In
reference to Figure 4, the induced compressive stresses acting on a soil element
at point A due to the strip uniform pressure q of width B and infinite length are as
follows:

Vertical stress:  v 
q
  sin  cos(  2 ) (6)


 h    sin  cos(  2 )
q
Lateral stress: (7)


 Equation (6) can be simplified and rewritten as follows:

 v  qI s (8)

where the influence factor Is can be obtained from Table 2.

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 B = 2b

q
GS σv= σz
X

τzx
z τxz
σh= σx σh= σx
α
β τxz

τzx
A
x
σv= σz
Z

Figure 4: Induced stresses of strip area carrying uniform pressure

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 Table 2: Influence factor Is for vertical stress due to a strip footing carrying uniform pressure

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Induced Stresses of Strip Area Carrying Triangular Pressure
 In reference to Figure 5, the induced compressive stresses acting on a soil
element at point A due to a triangular pressure increasing linearly from zero to q
of a strip area of width B and infinite length are as follows:

q  x 1 
Vertical stress:  v    sin 2  (9)
C 2 

q  x z  R1  1 
2
Lateral stress:  h   ln  2   sin 2  (10)

  C C  R2  2 


 Equation (9) can be simplified and rewritten as follows:

 v  qI t (11)

where the influence factor It can be obtained from Table 3.

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 C

q σv = σz
GS
X

R2 τzx
R1
z τxz
σh= σx σh= σx
α τxz
β
τzx
A
x
σv = σz

Z
Figure 5: Induced stresses of strip area carrying linearly increasing pressure

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 Table 3: Influence factor It for induced vertical stress due to a strip footing carrying triangular pressure

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 Worked Example (2)
 In the figure below, the cross-section of a proposed embankment is shown. The
unit weight of the placed soil is 20kN/m3. Calculate the induced vertical stresses
at points A and B. [Answers: 120.4 kPa & 52.8 kPa]

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 Worked Example (2)

c B = 2b

q
q
GS GS X
X

R2
R1 σv σv
z z

α α
β β

x
x

Z  v  qI t Z  v  qI s
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Induced Stresses of Rectangular area Carrying Uniform Pressure
 The induced compressive stresses at a depth z under the corner of a rectangular
area of plan dimensions B × L carrying a uniform pressure q are:

q  1 LB LBz 1 1 
Vertical stress:  v   tan  ( 2  2 ) (12)
2  zR3 R3 R1 R2 

q  1 LB LBz 
Lateral stress: h   tan  2  (13)
2  zR3 R1 R3 

where; R1 = (L2 + z2)1/2, R2 = (B2 + z2)1/2, and R3 = (L2 + B2 + z2)1/2.

 Fadum (1948) simplified the solution for the vertical stress as follows:

 v  qI r (14)

where; Ir is an influence factor that can be obtained from Table 4 in terms of L/z
and B/z.
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 It should be noted that Fadum’s method can also be used to determine the
induced vertical stress underneath a corner of a strip area carrying a uniform
pressure by considering the strip area as a rectangular area of infinite length.

Table 4: Influence factor Ir of Fadum’s method

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 When the point at which the induced stress is required does not fall below the
corner of the loaded area, the area is adjusted into rectangles so that corners
become located over the point in hand. Superposition is then used to obtain the
vertical stress under any point, within or outside the area. Figure 6 shows
different locations of a point relative to the loaded area.

Figure 6: Adjusted rectangles of Fadum’s method

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 An approximate method is also available for estimating the induced vertical
compressive stress acting on a soil mass below a rectangular loaded area carrying
a uniform load. The method is based on the assumption that the surface load on
an area, B  L, is dispersed at a depth z over an area (B + z)  (L + z), as shown in
Figure 7. Accordingly, a distribution ratio of 1 : 2 (horizontal : vertical) may be
assumed so that the loaded area increases linearly with respect to the slope. The
induced vertical stress at depth z below the centre of the surface loaded area can
then be calculated as follows:
qBL
v  (15)
( B  z )( L  z )

 For a square footing of plan dimensions B × B, Equation (24) simplifies to:

qB 2
v  (16)
(B  z)2

 This technique should only be used to give a preliminary estimate, but the method
is reasonably accurate when z > B.

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 q

σz

B+z

Figure 7: Approximate method of determining induced vertical stress

under the centre of rectangular loaded area

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 Worked Example (3)
 Using the same data shown in worked Example (1), determine the induced
vertical stress using the rectangular loading formula (Fadum’s method) on a soil
element located at a point 3 m below the corner (A). [Answer: 82.1 kPa]

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 J K L

150 kPa
F G
H

D I
E

250 kPa

C B

q = 150 kPa q = 250−150 = 100 kPa

ABCD + ADJK + AKLI + AEFG + AGHI

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 Induced Stresses of Circular Area Carrying Uniform Pressure
 When load is applied over a circular area, the most critical stress occurs under the
centre of the circular area. The vertical stress at depth z under the centre of a
circular loaded area of diameter D = 2R, carrying a uniform pressure q is given as
follows (see Figure 8a):

  1  
3/ 2

Vertical stress:  v  q 1   2
  qI c (17)
  1  ( R / z )  

Ic is an influence factor that can be obtained from Figure 8b.

q 2(1  ) 1 
Horizontal stress:  h  (1  2 )    (18)
2  1  (R / z)2 
1/ 2

1  (R / z) 
2 3/ 2


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 D = 2R
q
GS

σv = σz

σh

(a)

(b)

Figure 8: Induced vertical stress under the centre of a circular footing carrying uniform pressure:
(a) geometry; and (b) influence factor Ic

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 The general solution for the induced vertical stress of a circular area carrying
uniform pressure at any point (O) is as follows (see Figure 9):

 v  q ( A  B) (19)

where A and B are influence factors obtained from Table 5.

2a
q
GS

σv

r
O

Figure 9: Geometry of induced vertical stress under a circular footing carrying uniform pressure

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 Table 5: Influence factors A and B for induced vertical stress under a circular footing carrying a uniform pressure

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 Worked Example (4)
 A circular foundation of diameter 10 m has a uniform contact pressure of 150
kPa. Plot the induced vertical stress distributions in the following cases:
(a) Beneath the centre of the footing and down to a depth of 5 m; and
(b) At a horizontal plane 6 m below the foundation, between the centre and 12 m
from the centre.

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 D = 10 m
q = 150 kPa

5m

σv = σz

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 2a = 10 m
q = 150 kPa

Z=6m

 v  q ( A  B)

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 Induced vertical stress for irregular shaped area
 Newmark (1942) constructed an influence chart, based on Boussinesq solution,
to enable the induced vertical compressive stress to be determined at any point
for a loaded area of any shape carrying a uniform pressure q. The chart is
known as Newmark’s influence chart (see Figure 10) and to calculate the
induced vertical compressive stress at a depth z below a loaded area carrying a
uniform pressure q, the following procedure is used:
1. Draw the loaded area to scale on the Newmark’s chart such that the point at
which the vertical stress is required is at the centre of the chart. The scale
should be such that the length of the scale line on the chart (distance AB in
Figure 10) represents the depth z at which the induced vertical stress is required.
2. Count the number of influence segments, N, covered by the loaded area.
3. Calculate the induced vertical stress σz at depth z as follows:

v  I  N q (20)

where I is the influence factor, which will be given with the chart, as shown in
Figure 10.

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 Figure 10: Newmark’s influence chart

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 Worked Example (5)
 A concrete raft foundation generates the load shown in the figure below. Use
Newmark’s chart to determine the induced vertical compressive stress at a depth
equal to 10 m below Point A. [Answer: 81.6 kPa]

uniform load on uniform load on

shaded area = 180 kPa unshaded area = 100 kPa

8m

A 4m

8m

10 m 10 m 8m

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 uniform load on uniform load on
shaded area = 180 kPa unshaded area = 100 kPa

8m

A 4m

8m

10 m 10 m 8m

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 Geostatic Stresses
 Geostatic stresses are stresses caused by the self weight of soil (also called
overburden pressures). The vertical geostatic stress is caused by gravity, whereas
the lateral geostatic stress is due to soil confinement. As mentioned previously, only
the vertical and lateral compressive stresses are of interest in geotechnical
engineering problems. If the ground surface is horizontal, no geostatic shear stress
will be produced on the horizontal and vertical planes of a soil element. However, if
the ground surface is inclined, geostatic shear stress will develop but it is complex to
calculate and is beyond the scope of this course.
 It is usual to assume that the total vertical stress due to geostatic pressure, σvo, at a
given point in a soil mass is a combination of the weight of soil and weight of water
above that point and can be calculated as follows:
σvo = γz (21)
where; γ is the bulk (total) unit weight of soil and z is the depth from the ground
surface to the point of interest. If the soil is saturated, then the saturated unit weight,
γsat, should be used in Equation (21).
 In layered soils or when the unit weight of soil varies with depth due to changes in
moisture content, σvo at a point below the ground surface is equal to the sum of
stresses of all layers above this point, that is:
n
 vo  ∑ i zi (22)
i 1

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 In geotechnical engineering problems, we are primarily interested in the stress
transmitted through the soil particles (solids) at the points of contact, which is
known as the effective stresses. The total stress acting on a soil mass is carried
partially by the solids (i.e. effective stress) and partially by the pore (void) water
(i.e. pore water pressure). Consequently, the total geostatic stress, σvo, is divided
into two distinct components: the effective stress, σvo’, and the pore water
pressure, u, that is (Terzaghi, 1923):

σvo = σ’vo + u (23)

The pore water pressure is the pressure of water which is situated in the soil pores
and in the steady water condition (hydrostatic), it can be calculated at any point
below the groundwater table as follows:

u = γwzw (24)

where, γw is the unit weight of water (= 9.81 kN/m3) and zw is the depth from the
point of interest to the groundwater table above that point.
 The effective stress, σvo’, is thus can be calculated as follows:
σ’vo = σvo − u (25)

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 The effective horizontal geostatic stress, σho’, is usually calculated from the
effective vertical geostatic stress using the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K,
as follows:
 ho
  K vo
 (26)
 There is no direct relationship between the total horizontal geostatic stress and total
vertical geostatic stress and the total horizontal geostatic stress is usually obtained
after calculating the effective horizontal geostatic stress and adding the pore water
pressure.

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 Overall Stresses by Superposition
 Since we now know how to determine separately the induced stresses and
geostatic stresses acting on a soil element within a soil mass, we can take
advantage of the principle of superposition to compute the overall applied stresses.
 The overall total stresses can then be calculated as follows:

σv-overall = [σvo + σv-induced]

σh-overall = [σho + σh-induced]

 In calculation of the overall effective stresses, first the superposition is applied to

the total stresses (as above) and then the pore water pressure is subtracted to find
the effective stress, as follows:

σ’v-overall = [σvo + σv-induced] – u

σ’h-overall = [σho + σh-induced] – u

Please do not attempt to combine the effective stresses using superposition.

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 Worked Example (6)
 For the proposed vertical point load applied at the ground surface shown below, calculate the total
and effective compressive stresses (geostatic, induced and overall) acting on the vertical and
horizontal planes of a soil element located at Point A. Consider the coordinate system shown in the
figure below. [Answers: 44.3 kPa; 31.98 kPa; 85 kPa; 39.4 kPa; 27.1 kPa; 80.1 kPa]

2m 1500 kN

GS
x

1.5 m γ = 18 kN/m3
y

1m γ = 16 kN/m3

WT

0.5 m
γsat = 21
A kN/m3

K = 0.6
 = 0.3

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 Capillary Effects on Geostatic Stresses
 Figure 11 shows a typical soil profile that can be found in most soils. Based on the
location of the ground water table, three zones can be created, including:
1. Zone of 100% saturation, below the water table, due to the gravitational water.
2. Zone of 100% saturation, above the water table, where the capillary action due
to the surface tension forces between water and soil particles draws the water
above the water table.
3. Zone of partial saturation, which is the water in the moisture film around the
soil grains, due to the downward percolation of water.
 Most geotechnical analyses assume zero pore water pressure above the ground
water table and thus, effective stress equal to total stress. However, a soil in the
capillary zone has a negative pore water pressure, uc, known as soil matric suction
which increases the effective stress of soil above the water table (i.e. σ’ = σ − u = σ
− (−uc) = σ + uc). The soil suction, uc, is estimated in terms of the capillary height,
hc, as follows:
u c = – γw h c ( 27)
 The capillary height, hc, can be estimated in terms of the soil void ratio, e, and
soil particle size D10 (refer to the grain size distribution) as follows:
0.0447
hc (m)  (28)
eD10 (mm)
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 GS

Partially saturated zone Downward percolation

uc = γwhc

Capillary rise – ve
Saturated capillary zone hc

WT

Saturated zone below water table

hw
+ ve

u = γwhw
Pore water pressure distribution

Figure 11: Typical soil profile showing the effect of capillary rise

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 For a sandy soil with e = 0.6 and D10 = 0.1 mm, hc = 0.75 m
For a silty soil with e = 0.8 and D10 = 0.01mm, hc = 5.6 m

Table 6 shows approximate capillary heights for some soils

Table 6: Approximate capillary heights in different soils

Soil in loose state Soil in dense state

hc (m) hc (m)
Coarse sand 0.03 to 0.12 0.04 to 0.15
Medium sand 0.12 to 0.5 0.35 to 1.1
Fine sand 0.3 to 2 0.4 to 3.5
Silt 1.5 to 10 2.5 to 12
Clay  10  10

 Soil suction can also be expressed in terms of pF, where:

u (kPa)
pF  log10[ c ] (29)
0.0981
thus a pF of 1 corresponds to 10 cm of water or 0.981 kPa. A dry soil has a
greater affinity for water, that is higher suction, and conversely, a wet soil has a
lower suction. Suction varies between pF 0 (wet) and  6 (dry) and usually
between pF 2 and 5.

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 Worked Example (7)
 Plot the variation of total and effective vertical geostatic stresses, and pore water
pressure with depth for the soil profile shown in the figure below, with and
without the consideration of capillary action.

GS
Gravelly sand
γsat = 18.5 kN/m3; γ = 17.8 kN/m3 4m
e = 0.59; D10 = 0.15 mm WT

2m

Sand 3m
γsat = 19.5 kN/m3

Sandy gravel 5m
γsat = 19.0 kN/m3

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 References:
 Budhu, M. (2007). “Soil mechanics and foundations”, John Wiley & Sons,
NJ.
 Craig, R. F. (2004). “Craig’s Soil Mechanics”, Spon Press, London.
 Coduto, D. P. (1999). “Geotechnical engineering principles and practices”,
Prentice-Hall, NJ.
 Smith, G. N. and Smith, I. G. N. (1988). “Elements of Soil Mechanics”,
Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
 Whitlow, R. (1995). “Basic Soil Mechanics”, Longman Science & Technical,
NY.

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