MODULE

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY(MCON01)
Basic Chemistry

Ma. Jaika Franchesca V. Villarin, PTRP

Contributor

2020
Title Page:
The Human Body: An Orientaion

- J.Villarin, PTRP

Purpose, nature, and scope of this module

The focus deals with the basic chemistry in relation to the normal
physiology of the body.Written in modular form, the course covers the
entire basic chemistry that will aid them in the future lessons in the
anatomy and physiology and arranged into units sequenced in order they
are normally presented in class.
This will ensure safe, appropriate and holistic learning in the
course of anatomy and physiology.
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to the following:

To my family for supporting me to all of my endeavors in life.

To my mentors and co faculty members in CvSU-College of
Nursing for always guiding me in this profession.
To my college professors for honing and molding me to who I am
today.
To Almighty God for always giving me the strength and wisdom in
all the things I do. Glory are all yours!
 Table of Contents
Concepts of Matter and Energy
 Matter
 Energy
Composition of Matter
Molecules and Compounds
Chemical Bonds and Reactions
Biochemistry
Learning Objectives
1. Differentiate matter from energy
2. Define element, and list four element that form the bulk of the body
matter.
3. List the subatomic particles and describe their relative masses, changes
and position in the atom.
4. Define molecule and explain how molecules are related to compounds.
5. Recognize the chemical reactions involve the interaction of electrons to
make and break bonds.
6. Distinguish organic and inorganic compounds.
 Matter and Energy
 Matter—anything that occupies space and has mass
 Matter may exist as one of three states
 Solid: definite shape and volume
 Liquid: definite volume; shape of container
 Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume
 Matter may be changed
 Physically
 Changes do not alter the basic nature of a substance
 Examples include changes in the state of matter (solid, liquid,
or gas)
 Chemically
 Changes alter the chemical composition of a substance
 Energy—the ability to do work
 Has no mass and does not take up space
 Kinetic energy: energy is doing work
 Potential energy: energy is inactive or stored
 Forms of energy
 Chemical energy is stored in chemical bonds of substances
 Electrical energy results from movement of charged particles
 Mechanical energy is energy directly involved in moving matter
 Radiant energy travels in waves; energy of the electromagnetic
spectrum
 Composition of Matter
 Elements—fundamental units of matter
 96 percent of the body is made from four elements:
1. Oxygen (O)—most common; 65% of the body’s mass
2. Carbon (C)
3. Hydrogen (H)
4. Nitrogen (N)
 Periodic table contains a complete listing of elements
 Atoms
 Building blocks of elements
 Atoms of elements differ from one another
 Atomic symbol is chemical shorthand for each element

The Basic Atomic Sub particles

 Protons (p+) are positively charged
 Neutrons (n0) are uncharged or neutral
 Electrons (e–) are negatively charged

 All atoms are electrically neutral

 Number of protons equals numbers of electrons in an atom
 Positive and negative charges cancel each other out
 Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons
Planetary and Orbital Models of an Atom
 Planetary model
 Portrays the atom as a miniature solar system
 Protons and neutrons are in the atomic nucleus
 Electrons are in orbitals around the nucleus
 Orbital model
 Electrons are depicted by an electron cloud, a haze of negative charge,
outside the nucleus
Identifying Elements
 To identify an element, we need to know the:
 Atomic number
 Atomic mass number
 Atomic weight
 Atomic number—equal to the number of protons that the atom contains
  Unique to atoms of a particular element
 Indirectly tells the number of electrons in an atom
 Atomic mass number—sum of the protons and neutrons contained in an
atom’s nucleus
 Atomic weight—approximately equal to the mass number of the element’s
most abundant isotope (to be discussed in a moment)
Molecules and Compounds
 Molecule—two or more atoms of the same elements combined chemically
 Example of a chemical reaction, shown as a chemical equation, resulting in a
molecule:
H (atom) + H (atom) → H2 (molecule)
 The reactants are the atoms on the left
 The product is the molecule on the right, represented by a molecular
formula
 Compound—two or more atoms of different elements combined chemically
to form a molecule of a compound
 Example of a chemical reaction resulting in a compound:
4H + C → CH4 (methane)

Chemical Bonds and Chemical Reactions

  Chemical reactions occur when atoms combine with or dissociate from other
atoms
 Chemical bonds are energy relationships involving interactions among the
electrons of reacting atoms
Role of Electrons
 Electrons occupy energy levels called electron shells (or energy levels)
 Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted to its positive
charge
 Distant electrons further from the nucleus are likely to interact with other
atoms
 Each electron shell has distinct properties
 How to fill the atom’s electrons shells
 Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
 Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
 Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18 electrons
 Subsequent shells can hold more electrons
 Bonding involves interactions only between electrons in the outermost
(valence) shell
 Atoms with full valence shells do not form bonds

 Rule of eights
  The key to chemical reactivity
 Atoms are considered stable when their outermost (valence) shell has
8 electrons
 Atoms with 8 electrons in the valence shell are considered stable and
chemically inactive (inert)
 The exception to this rule of eights is shell 1, which can hold only 2
electrons
 Reactive elements
 Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their outermost
orbitals when fewer than 8 electrons are in the valence shell
 Chemical bonding helps atoms achieve a stable valence shell
Types of Chemical Bonds
 Covalent bonds can be described as either nonpolar or polar
 Nonpolar covalent bonds
 Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
 Electrically neutral as a molecule
 Example: carbon dioxide
 Covalent bonds can be described as either nonpolar or polar (continued)
 Polar covalent bonds
 Electrons are not shared equally between the atoms of the
molecule
 Molecule has a positive and negative side, or pole
 Example: water
 Hydrogen bonds
 Extremely weak chemical bonds
 Formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to the negative portion,
such as an oxygen or nitrogen atom, of a polar molecule
 Responsible for the surface tension of water
  Important for forming intramolecular bonds, as in protein structure

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

 Synthesis reaction (A + B → AB)
 Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex
molecule
 Energy is absorbed for bond formation
 Underlies all anabolic (building) activities in the body
 Decomposition reaction (AB → A + B)
 Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules
 Chemical energy is released
 Underlies all catabolic (destructive) activities in the body
 Exchange reaction
AB + C → AC + B
and
AB + CD → AD + CB
 Involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions as
bonds are both made and broken
 Switch is made between molecule parts, and different molecules are
made
Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of Living Matter
  Inorganic compounds
 Lack carbon
 Tend to be small, simple molecules
 Include water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases
 Organic compounds
 Contain carbon
 All are large, covalent molecules
 Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Inorganic Compounds
 Water
 Most abundant inorganic compound in the body
 Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s weight
 Vital properties include:
 High heat capacity
 Polarity/solvent properties
 Chemical reactivity
 Cushioning
 High heat capacity
 Water absorbs and releases a large amount of heat before it changes
temperature
 Prevents sudden changes in body temperature
 Polarity/solvent properties
 Water is often called the “universal solvent”
 Solvents are liquids or gases that dissolve smaller amounts of solutes
 Solutes are solids, liquids, or gases that are dissolved or suspended by
solvents
  Solution forms when solutes are very tiny
 Colloid forms when solutes of intermediate size form a translucent
mixture
 Chemical reactivity
 Water is an important reactant in some chemical reactions
 Reactions that require water are known as hydrolysis reactions
 Example: water helps digest food or break down biological molecules
 Cushioning
 Water serves a protective function
 Examples: cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain from physical trauma,
and amniotic fluid protects a developing fetus
 Cushioning
 Water serves a protective function
 Examples: cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain from physical trauma,
and amniotic fluid protects a developing fetus
Salts (continued)
 All salts are electrolytes
 Electrolytes are ions that conduct electrical currents
Acids
 Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydrogen ions
(H+)
 Proton (H+) donors
 Example: HCl → H+ + Cl–
 Strong acids ionize completely and liberate all their protons
 Weak acids ionize incompletely
Bases
  Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydroxyl ions
(OH–)
 Proton (H+) acceptors
 Example: NaOH → Na+ + OH–
Organic Compounds
 Polymer: chainlike molecules made of many similar or repeating units
(monomers)
 Many biological molecules are polymers, such as carbohydrates and proteins
 Dehydration synthesis—monomers are joined to form polymers through the
removal of water molecules
 A hydrogen ion is removed from one monomer while a hydroxyl
group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with
 Water is removed at the site where monomers join (dehydration)
Carbohydrates
 Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Include sugars and starches
 Classified according to size and solubility in water
 Monosaccharides—simple sugars and the structural units of the
carbohydrate group
 Disaccharides—two simple sugars joined by dehydration
synthesis
 Polysaccharides—long-branching chains of linked simple
sugars
Monosaccharides—simple sugars
 Single-chain or single-ring structures
 Contain three to seven carbon atoms
 Examples: glucose (blood sugar), fructose, galactose, ribose,
deoxyribose
Disaccharides—two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
 Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose
 Too large to pass through cell membrane
Polysaccharides: long, branching chains of linked simple sugars
 Large, insoluble molecules
 Function as storage products
 Examples include starch and glycogen
Lipids
 Most abundant are the triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
 Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
 Insoluble in water, but soluble in other lipids
Triglycerides, or neutral fats
 Found in fat deposits
 Source of stored energy
 Composed of two types of building blocks—fatty acids and one
glycerol molecule
 Saturated fatty acids
Fatty acid chains of triglycerides
 Saturated fats
 Contain only single covalent bonds
 Chains are straight
 Exist as solids at room temperature since molecules pack
closely together
Unsaturated fats
 Contain one or more double covalent bonds, causing chains to
kink
 Exist as liquid oils at room temperature
 “Heart healthy”
Trans fats
 Oils that have been solidified by the addition of hydrogen atoms at
double bond sites
 Increase risk of heart disease
Omega-3 fatty acids
 Found in cold-water fish and plant sources, including flax, pumpkin,
and chia seeds; walnuts and soy foods
 Appear to decrease risk of heart disease
Phospholipids
 Contain two fatty acids chains rather than three; they are hydrophobic
(“water fearing”)
 Phosphorus-containing polar “head” carries an electrical charge and is
hydrophilic (“water loving”)
 Charged “head” region interacts with water and ions while the fatty
acid chains (“tails”) do not
 Form cell membranes

Steroids
 Formed of four interlocking rings
 Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones
 Some cholesterol is ingested from animal products; the liver also
makes cholesterol
 Cholesterol is the basis for all steroids made in the body
Proteins
 Account for over half of the body’s organic matter
 Provide for construction materials for body tissues
 Play a vital role in cell function
 Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
 Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
 Built from building blocks called amino acids
Amino acid structure
 Contain an amine group (NH2)
 Contain an acid group (COOH)
 Vary only by R-groups
 COLLEGE OF NURSING
CRITERIA Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning Score

 Directly relevant  Somewhat  Remotely  Totally unrelated

Topic 20 pts
relevant related
 Good  Organized;  Some  Poorly organized;
organization; points are organization; no logical
Organization
points are somewhat points jump progression;
of ideas
logically jumpy; sense around; beginning and
being
ordered; sharp of beginning beginning and ending are vague
reflected
sense of and ending ending are
30 pts
beginning and unclear
end
 Supporting  Some details  Details are  Unable to find
Quality of
details specific are non- somewhat specific details
Information
to subject supporting to sketchy. Do not
10 pts
the subject support topic
Grammar,  No errors  Only one or  More than two  Numerous errors
Usage, two errors errors distract from
Mechanics, understanding
Spelling
10 pts
 Vocabulary is  Vocabulary is  Vocabulary is  Basic vocabulary;
varied; varied; unimaginative; needs descriptive
Interest Level
supporting supporting details lack words
10 pts
details vivid details useful “color”

 Typed; clean;  Legible writing,  Legible writing,  Illegible writing;

neatly bound in well-formed some ill-formed loose pages
Neatness a report cover; characters; letters, print too
10 pts illustrations clean and small or too
provided neatly bound in large; papers
a report cover stapled together
 Report on time  Report one  Report two class  Report more than
Timeliness
class period periods late one week late
10 pts
late
Final Score:

Rubric for Assessing Written Output

REMARKS:
---------------------------------------------

Name & Signature of Evaluator

 CoN-Rubric form 03

`
 COLLEGE OF NURSING
CRITERIA Below Needs Improvement Satisfactory Exceeds Score
Expectation Expectations
Organization o No apparent o There is some o The o The presentation is
30 points organization. organization, but the presentation has carefully organized.
o Evidence is speaker occasionally a focus. o Speaker provides
not used to goes off topic. o Student convincing evidence
support o Evidence used to provides some to support
assertions. support conclusions is reasonable conclusions.
weak. evidence to
support
conclusions.
Content o The content is o The content is o The content is o The content is
20 points inaccurate or sometimes inaccurate generally accurate and
overly general. or incomplete. accurate and comprehensive o
o Listeners are o Listeners may learn reasonably Listeners are likely to
unlikely to learn some isolated facts, complete. gain new insights
anything or may but they are unlikely o Listeners may about the topic.
be misled. to gain new insights develop a few
about the topic. insights about the
topic.
Delivery o The speaker o The speaker o The speaker is o The speaker is
40 points appears anxious occasionally appears generally relaxed professional, relaxed,
and anxious or and comfortable. and comfortable.
uncomfortable uncomfortable, and o Listeners are o The speaker
and reads notes, may occasionally read generally interacts effectively
rather than notes, rather than recognized and with listeners.
speaks. speak. understood.
o Listeners are o Listeners are often
ignored. ignored or
misunderstood.
References o Speaker fails o Speaker integrates o Speaker o Speaker integrates
10 points to integrate 1 or 2 relevant journal integrates 3 or 4 5 or more relevant
relevant journal articles into the journal relevant journal articles into
articles into the speech. articles into the the speech.
speech. speech.
Final Score:

Rubric for Assessing Oral Presentation

REMARKS:

---------------------------------------------
Name & Signature of Evaluator

CoN-Rubric form 01
Reference:

E. Marieb & S. Keller (2018) Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology Twelfth Edition