CIT 212

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
COURSE OUTLINE
GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
The course in Curriculum development is designed to assist prospective educators to:
i) Develop and promote an awareness of the aims and goals of education in a developing society.
ii) Enhance their understanding and ability for analysis and development of educational programmes
geared towards meeting the needs of learners and the society.
iii) Develop skills and abilities for constant assessment, revision and development of appropriate
curriculum and syllabus material to meet changing times and demands.
iv) Inculcate professionalism, motivation and insights necessary for leadership in curriculum
development, change and innovation.

COURSE EVALUATION
a) CATS will account for 30% of the final grade in the course.
b) The final examination will account for 70% of the final grade in the course.
WEEKLY TOPIC DESCRIPTION
1. Introduction
a) Definition of terms
 Curriculum,
 Curriculum development,
 Curriculum planning, curriculum implementation and
 Curriculum maintenance
 Education
b) Functions and aims of education
c) Education and Schooling
2. Understanding Curriculum
a) Concepts of Curriculum
b) The K.I.C.D Concept of Curriculum
 The three (3) elements
 The three (3) dimensions
c) Factors influencing curriculum
3. Components of curriculum as a Programme of Instruction
 Aims, goals and objectives
 Content and learning experiences
 Evaluation
4. Foundations of Curriculum
Implications of each of the following for Curriculum Planning:
a) Philosophical foundations
 b) Historical foundations
c) Psychological foundations
d) Sociological foundation
5. Curriculum Planning and Design
a) Distinction between Curriculum Planning and Design
b) Principles of curriculum design
c) Patterns of curriculum design
6. Models of Curriculum Development
a) The Tyler model
b) The Taba model
c) The Hunkins model
7. Principles and Procedures in Curriculum Development
I) Principles of Curriculum development:
a) Principe of Simple to Complex
b) Principle of Association
c) Principle of Practice
d) Principle of Effect
e) Principle of Balance
II) Stages in Curriculum Development
a) Situational analysis
b) Formulation of objectives
c) Setting up the curriculum project
d) Programme building
e) Piloting the programme
f) Improving the programme
g) Implementation in schools
h) Evaluation
i) Curriculum maintenance
8. Curriculum Development in Kenya
a) Brief description of functions of K.I.C.D.
b) Related agencies in Curriculum Development
c) The curriculum development process at K.I.C.D.
9. Curriculum Change and Innovations in Kenya
I) Curriculum change
a) Meaning and types of curriculum change
b) Agencies of Curriculum change
c) Importance of Curriculum change
II) Curriculum innovations in Kenya
a) Meaning and Criteria for judging the value of Curriculum innovation
b) Models of Curriculum innovations

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REFERENCES
Glatthorn, A. (1987) Curriculum Leadership. Glenview, II: Scott, Freeman.
Goodson, I.F. (1994) Studying Curriculum. NY: Teachers College Press.
Henson, K.T. (2003) Curriculum Planning. Long Grove, II: Waveland Press.
Hunkins, F.P. (1980) Curriculum Development: Program Improvement. Colombus:
Charles E. Mermil Publishing Co.
Kenya Institute of Education. (2008) Curriculum Development Cycle. Nairobi: KIE Marsh, C.J. & Willis, G.
(2007) Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, On-going Issues.
NJ: Pearson Merril Prentice Hall. Oluoch, G.P. (1982) Essentials of Curriculum Development. Nairobi:
Elimu Bookshop Ltd. Ondiek, P.E. (1986) Curriculum Development: Alternatives in Educational Theory.
Kisumu: Lake Printers and Publishers. Omstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (2004) Curriculum: Foundations,
Principles, and Issues.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Republic of Kenya (1981) Report of the Presidential Working Party on a Second
University in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printer.
…………. (1984) The 8-4-4 System of Education. Nairobi: Government Printer.
…………. (1988) Report of the Presidential Working Party on Education and
Manpower Training for the Next decade and Beyond. Nairobi: Government
Printer.
Shiundu, J.S. & Omulando, SJ. (1992) Curriculum Theory and Practice in Kenya.
Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. NY: Harcourt Brace. Tanner, D. & Tanner, L.
(2007) Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice. NJ:
Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Tyler, R.W. (1949), Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Urevbu, A. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Hong Kong: London Group Limited.
Wiles, J. & Bondi, J. (1998), Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
N.B Students are advised as much as possible to read and investigate further sources outside the references
given in this course outline as this list is not exhaustive.
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION
a) The Concept of Education
Education has different meanings for different people. In common language, it means civilization, development,
enlightenment, instruction, knowledge, schooling, teaching training etc. These however have little relation to
what education really means. Scholars in education have tried to define the term education adopting either a
narrow or a broad conception such as the following: -
i) Education is the act of attending an institution of formal learning on a regular basis and going through
various classes and levels that make up the cycle of schooling i.e primary secondary and tertiary. This refers
 to any physical presence at an educational institution regardless of the benefits a person gets. This is a very
loose definition of education.
ii) Education is a conscious effort by a social institution (system of education) to promote certain approved
ideals and values of the community. Defined this way, education is conceived as the process of acquiring
and developing desired knowledge, skills and attitudes (Oluoch 1982). Education thus aims at promoting a
culture, a way of life.
iii) Education is a process of developing a person's sensitivity to his/her total environment. Defined this way,
education is the process by which people are prepared to live effectively in their environment. Therefore,
the purpose of education from this definition is to prepare a person.
Education is the acquisition of knowledge or information as well as the understanding of the principles behind
such knowledge. It is the acquisition of skills, attitudes, knowledge and societal ideals and values in preparation
for the roles awaiting the individual in society. Education is thus the total process of human learning, which
imparts knowledge and skills, the emotionally stable, and also be versatile.
This is a broader definition/conception of education. This view is shared by Shiundu and Omulando (1992) who
say that "education involves comprehensive exposure to opportunities and challenges in life aimed at achieving
an all-round preparation of the individual for challenges and roles awaiting him/her as a member of the
immediate society".
In this conception, education seeks to promote what is desirable and acceptable. It therefore concerns itself with
the big question of human existence i.e what is real, what is good? What is bad? Education is thus an essential
process of human development and is a universal practice engaged in by all societies at all stages of
development.
Acquisition of Education
Education is acquired in a variety of forms, but basically 3 forms are identifiable i.e
i) Formal education
ii) Informal education
iii) Non-formal education
 Formal Education: This refers to the learning that takes place in learning institutions such as schools
and colleges. This is formal class work. It involves those experiences provided within the subject areas
such as maths, Eng, History etc. It is carefully structured, systematically presented and evaluated.
 Non-formal education: These are organized learning activities that go on outside the structure of the
formal education system e.g scouting, football, clubs and societies etc.
 Informal education: This is learning which takes place when a person by exposure learns from family,
friends, experiences and the environment. This kind of education is more haphazard, unorganized but
more permanent and goes on throughout a person's life e.g mannerisms, dressing, way of talking,
gesturing, organizational skills, work ethics etc.
Education acquired in whatever form should help the learner develop the abilities, which are essential for
becoming an efficient learner and useful member of the community/society. Such a Earner should be able to
acquire knowledge, use the knowledge acquired, and generate/produce new knowledge.
b) Functions and Aims of Education
Education is a process which involves the realization of certain individual and social ideals such 35 honesty,

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respect for truth and other individuals, self-discipline, capacity to identify right from wrong, good or bad etc. In
serving these ideals, education fulfills both the individual and social functions. These ideals can be referred to as
the aims of education. Aims indicate the specific direction that education must follow in all or parts of the
education system.
The main purpose of education is to socialize the individual. Education prepares individuals to live and
participate in society. According to Kocchar (1985) a society is a group of organized individuals who think of
themselves as a unique group with things in common and have a culture, a way of life. Education thus helps
individuals to acquire ways, beliefs and standards of society.
Taba (1962) in her book "Curriculum Development, Theory and Practice" summarizes the functions of
education under three main headings as:
 Education is a process of preservation and transmission of cultural heritage.
 Education is an instrument for transforming culture,
 Education is a means of individual development.
Education aims therefore can be perceived at different levels and considered in terms of:
 Personal development including intellectual and spiritual growth.
 Vocational preparation in terms of the acquisition of necessary practical skills and character qualities.
 Social training in which young people are initiated into society at local and national levels.
These general aims of education are translated by various systems of education to suit the
Circumstances in which the individuals and social systems operate. Individual nations define their own aims of
education as influenced by the social, economic and political contexts that are specific to them.
In a nutshell, aims of education are broad purposes of intent to be achieved after going through spectrum of
education. They are governed by the whole system of the particular groups of people (e.g Kenyans) to which
education is to be provided.
Current Goals/Aims of Education in Kenya
1. To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
2. To promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development.
3. To promote individual development and self-fulfillment.
4. To promote sound moral and religious values
5. To promote social equality and responsibility.
6. To promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
7. To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
8. To promote positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection.
From the broad aims of education system, education planners in the MOE and curriculum planners at K.I.E
derive the school wide goals of education for various cycles of education (primary, secondary and tertiary)
levels; and types of education in the country e.g special education, early childhood education, etc.
Importance of outlining aims of education
This helps to:
1. Specify the qualities that are more desirable to develop among the citizens of the country.
2. Assist those concerned with the country's education to organize relevant and appropriate programmes
 of study.
Education and Schooling
Education goes on in schools and beyond; and has no rigid plans e.g from parents, siblings, peers, community
leaders, politicians etc. As educators however, we are more concerned with learning tat takes place in learning
institutions (planned education).Schooling refers to the act of attending an institution of formal learning
(primary, secondary, tertiary etc) with the hope of gaining something worthwhile. Schooling therefore facilitates
education i.e formal, non-formal and informal education. The systematically planned programme in learning
institutions (formal education) is what is generally referred to as curriculum. School is an institution that
facilitates education and curriculum is an important instrument of education.
TOPIC 2: UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM
a) Conceptions of Curriculum
The term curriculum is borrowed from a Latin word, 'currere' which originally meant 'racecourse' or to run in a
race and complete the course. In most cases it is associated with school and education. Its meaning is not
definite both to the general public and scholars. To most lay people it is known from only one perspective and
that is an instructional programme or a course of study. To curriculum specialists, this term also refers to a field
of study.
As a result, curriculum may be conceived as:
i) As a discipline, or a field of study i.e. the curriculum field of study.
ii) As an instructional programme, a course of study, subjects or a plan for the education of learners’ e.g
the curriculum in the school includes maths, English Kiswahili etc i.e. all the subjects that are taught in
an institution of learning.
(i) is a broad conception while (ii) is a narrow conception. When conceived in the broad perspective, it is called
'curriculum', while in the narrow perspective, it is called 'a curriculum' or 'the curriculum' (plural - 'curricula').
The broad conception encompasses such concepts as:
 Curriculum theory
 Curriculum design
 Curriculum development
 Curriculum evaluation
On the other hand, the narrow conception may be characterized in a number of ways. One is by differentiating
the various types of curricula such as:
 The early childhood development curriculum
 The primary school curriculum
 The secondary school curriculum.
 The teacher education curriculum
Curriculum can also be distinguished by individual subject names such as:
 The History curriculum
 The Geography curriculum
 The Mathematics curriculum
 The Social Studies curriculum etc
Curriculum can also be identified and discussed at the grade level where one may refer to

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  The standard one curriculum
 The standard eight curriculum
 The form one curriculum
 The form four curriculum etc
Here are some examples of both broad and narrow conceptions of curriculum:
 Curriculum is what examiners require teachers to emphasize in their teaching.
 Curriculum is that which is taught in school (Oliva, 1997).
 Curriculum is what should be taught in a particular subject
 Curriculum is a plan for learning (Taba, 1962)
 Curriculum is the sum total of the syllabuses of the school
 Curriculum encompasses all learning opportunities provided by the school (Saylor and Alexander,
1966).
 Curriculum consists of activities necessary for translating educational goals into concrete activities
materials and observable behavioral change. SB Curriculum is all the experiences a pupil undergoes
under the guidance of the school(Bishop, 1985)
 Curriculum is all the experiences, both planned and unplanned, that enhance the (and sometimes
impede) the education and growth of students (Packay & Stanford, 1998).
 Curriculum is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling (Oliva, 1997).
 Curriculum is all the planned learning outcomes for which a school is responsible(Popham and Baker,
1970).
 Curriculum is a course of study (Oliva, 1997)
 Curriculum is a plan for learning whereby objectives determine what learning isimportant.
 Curriculum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose
purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a
framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice (Packay & Hass, 2000).
 Curriculum is a combination of classroom and out-of-classroom activities carried out under the
guidance of the school.
Tasks: a) From these conceptions, identify those that are broad and those that are narrow. b)
Develop your own conception of curriculum.
Whatever conception of curriculum one adopts, it is important to note that every school has a planned, formal
acknowledged curriculum, but it also has an unplanned, informal and hidden one.
 The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter, and organization of
instruction.
 On the other hand, the unplanned, informal curriculum deals with social-psychological interaction
among students and teachers, especially their feelings, attitudes, and behaviors.
b) The KICD Concept of Curriculum
The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) conceives curriculum as an integrated plan for
educating learners that contains three elements and three dimensions.
The three elements are:
 a) Objectives of the curriculum
b) Learning experiences
c) Evaluation
*These elements will be discussed in detail in Topic three.
The three dimensions relate to element (ii) 'learning experiences'. They are:
a) Formal dimension
b) Non-formal dimension
c) Informal dimension
i) The Formal Dimension:
This comprises the formal courses of study e.g. Maths, Eng, Kisw etc. In each of these subjects are objectives,
content, methods, learning activities, learning resources, evaluation procedures, and qualified teachers to teach
them.
ii) Non- Formal Dimension:
This is traditionally referred to as "extra curricula" or "Co-curricular" activities e.g. games, sports, athletics,
clubs, societies etc. These bring students together in terms of interests across the classes. They facilitate the
formal dimensions.
ii) The Informal Dimension:
This is sometimes referred to as the "hidden curricula". Its composed of those unplanned and spontaneous
experiences at school that influence the learner's behaviour e.g. students imitating the desirable behaviour of
their teachers, fellow students, parents etc.
SUMMARY OF THE KICD CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUM
I) OBJECTIVES
II) LEARNING EXPERIENCES
(i)Formal dimension (ii)Non formal dimension (iii) Informal dimension
The regular schools prescribed Organized learning activities not School environment including all the
in the syllabus and presented
restricted to any class level. E.g. unplanned activities and happenings which
to various class levels. E.g.
maths, chemistry,…etc. games, athletics, clubs, societies. influence the learning behavior of students.
E.g. school rules, interaction of school
community, guests, etc.

III. EVALUATION.
[Source: Shiundu and Omulando (1992:102)].
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CURRICULUM
Curriculum planning and development is influenced by various factors as follows:-
1. Political Forces
Among the pressure groups in society which influences educational policy, politicians and their political groups
are perhaps the most influential. The curriculum planners should take into consideration the political function of
education. The curriculum planned should develop in children the ability to cope with competitive systems of
values, ideas and beliefs.
2. Economic Factors

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Economic factors greatly determine the shape and direction of the curriculum e.g. a school in a region with a
strong economic support system is likely to have better facilities than one in a poorer region or environment e.g
schools in urban centers vis-a-vis those in rural areas.
3. Social or Cultural Forces
Curriculum is inevitably influenced by the developments taking place in society. These changes include
demographic, economic and psychological shifts e.g introduction of socials and ethics curriculum in 8.4.4
system of education was a response to the degeneration of morals in the society. Demographic changes like
increased enrollment with free primary education for example also affect effective curriculum implementation.

4. Special Interest Groups

There are various organizations in society which disseminate policies that have a bearing on education and
curriculum issues e.g religious organizations, employers, manufacturing, professional organizations, teachers'
unions, parent-teacher associations etc.
5. Changes in Nature of Knowledge
Shifts in educational thinking lead to new theories regarding educational practice and these eventually influence
what goes into the curriculum. Currently, new approaches to educational practice include:
 Individualization assisted instruction
 Computer assisted instruction
 Team teaching
 Programmed learning
 Performance based teacher education.
6) Technological Advancement
Effects of technology on the curriculum manifest themselves at two levels:
a) At the level of the school in terms of the strategies employed by teachers in curriculum implementation
e.g. use of mass media, teaching machines etc. like overhead projectors, computer assisted instruction.
b) At the planning stage in curriculum development when decisions are made concerning various courses
of study e.g introduction of computer studies in primary, secondary and college institutions.
Sources of Curriculum Authority
 Legal Authority: Through this authority, those acting for and on behalf of the government influence
the education system. In Kenya this is done by the MOE.
 Moral Authority: This authority draws its strength from fundamentals of right and wrong in the
society.
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM AS A PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION.
Components refer to elements or parts found in a curriculum. The components of curriculum as a programme of
instruction are:
a) Aims, goals and objectives
b) Content and learning experiences
c) Evaluation
i) Aims, Goals and Objectives
These are used to refer to some terminal (end) point towards which we are traveling or working. They determine
the shape of the curriculum; provide the direction and focus of the entire education programme. They control the
process of planning and all other curricular activities including implementation and evaluation.

Curriculum Aims: These are broad statements that describe expected life outcomes based on a value system.
They do not directly relate to school or classroom outcomes. Their achievements are determined after
completion of school. Curriculum workers are concerned about translating these remote aims into more
immediate specific school outcomes. Aims of education comprise philosophical dispos itions of educational
functioning. They are starting points, or statements of ideas of aspirations that express views of educators,
politicians and policy makers, interest groups in society, the lay public, and students.
Aims of education serve a visionary function. They enable individuals in society to rally or act with uniformity
of purpose. Aims of education have a global quality. They help in guiding individual schools or educational
systems in the process of planning educational content. Because of their global nature, educational aims are few
in number and clearly stated. Educational aims should address the following dimensions of schooling:
1) Intellectual Dimension: This deals with issues of acquisition of knowledge, comprehension of
knowledge, love and desire for knowledge.
2) Social Dimension: Aims in this area deal with the physical, emotional and psychological aspects of the
individual and aspects of persons with regard to home, family and job.
3) Personal Dimension: Schooling is charged with the responsibility to furnish opportunities for
individuals to become self-actualized and humane.
4) Productive Dimension: Schooling should help individuals to become productive members of the
society.

Task: Relate the National Aims of Education in Kenya to the dimensions of schooling.
Educational aims provide a broad framework of what should be put into the educational programme. They also
express the kind of values society generally expects from those who benefit from education. They constitute the
first stage at which the objectives of an educational programme or curriculum are planned.
Curriculum Goals: At a lower level than aims are curriculum goals to guide curriculum planning. Curriculum
goals are also known as educational purposes. Goals are deduced from various aims statements. They provide
the teachers with broad and general statements of what they expect to accomplish in learning as a result of a
particular course or total school year. Goals can be grouped according to whether they relate to social or
individual purposes as followed:
Types of educational goals
 Programme goals
 Course specific goals
 Specific subject goals
 Specific instructional objective.

Importance of Curriculum Goals

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Goals help both the curriculum planner and the teacher in decision-making in various ways:
a) To select the general programme content.
b) To decide on relevant subject areas for the courses identified.
c) To decide on specific subject content and experiences in various subject areas.
d) To decide on specific instructional experiences for a single lesson, in the school timetable.
Curriculum Objectives: These refer to the most immediate specific outcomes of classroom interaction. They
are also called instructional objectives or lesson objectives. They refer to the everyday business of the
curriculum in operation. They describe specific behavioural changes in students as a result of participating in a
unit of learning activities. This is seen in lesson preparation. Curriculum objectives facilitate the achievement of
curriculum goals and aims. Curriculum objectives will be discussed in further detail in Topic Seven (7).
ii) Content and Learning Experiences
Content refers to the facts, ideas, concepts, generalizations, principles, skills, theories and values that constitute
an area of knowledge. Such an area of knowledge may be disciplined, e.g mathematics, or non-disciplined, e.g
environmental education. Content also includes methods of processing information or subject matter.
Traditionally, curriculum content is concerned with transmitting established knowledge rather than creating new
knowledge. This is a weakness that needs to be addressed.

Criteria for selecting content

I. Self-sufficiency: The content selected should enable students to learn and advance their knowledge on their
own. Thus it should encourage self-driven learning and individual initiative in the learners as a means of
actualizing their potential and crystallizing their identities.
II. Significance: Content should contribute to the overall aims of the curriculum. It should also contribute to
the meaningful learning experiences of the learners. Content should also relate to the cultural context so as
to be deemed significant.
 Validity: This is the authenticity of the content selected. In this time of information explosion,
knowledge selected for school content can quickly become obsolete and even incorrect. This
necessitates regular verification of the validity of the content in the school curriculum.
 Interest: The content of the curriculum must be selected with learners' interests in mind. This is a
learner-centered criterion which argues that a person will learn best that which interests him/her most.
This criterion of learners' interests must be weighted and adjusted to allow for the learners' maturity,
entry behavior, the educational and social value of their interests, and the way they are supposed to
interact within society.
 Utility: The content selected should be useful to the learner him/herself, and, ultimately, his/her
community. The content should contribute to making the person a better human being and therefore
position him/her to become a proactive and productive member of the society.
 Learnability: The content selected should be within the intellectual range on the intended learners.
vii. Feasibility: Selection of content should consider the resources and other factors that will support or
impede the curriculum. The most significant of such factors include: the time available, the teaching-learning
resources available, the educational infrastructure in place, the competence of the current staff, the funding
available, the nature of the political climate, and the existing legislation. Content selection must be done within
the context of the existing reality, which usually boils down to economics and politics.
Learning Experiences are also referred to as curriculum experiences. Learning experiences is a generic term
which encompasses all the activities, strategies and procedures for content delivery. Learning experiences refer
to the interaction between the teacher, the learner, the content, and the educational environment. These
experiences consist of teaching methods and learner activities that take place under the direction of the school
for the purpose of attaining the schools' goals.
Some of the teaching methods include:
(a) Activity methods e.g. role-playing, project etc.
(b) Discovery methods e.g. experimentation
(c) Expository methods e.g. lecture demonstration etc.

On the other hand, some of the learner activities include: listening, reading, writing, discussing, experimenting
etc.
Content and learning experiences complement each other. They may be separated on paper, but in the actual
delivery of the curriculum, they coexist inextricably. For example, in a typical lecture situation, the lecturer uses
a teaching method (expository - lecture) to deliver knowledge (content) to students who are listening and
probably writing (learner activities).
iii) Evaluation
It is the process of determining the extent to which curriculum objectives are being or have been achieved. This
should be a continuous activity throughout the curriculum development process.
This involves:
 Assessment of the curriculum package/plan.
 Assessment of the appropriateness and effectiveness of content and other materials.
 Assessment of the appropriateness and efficiency of the teaching/ learning methods.
 Analysis of the performance of students using the curriculum (exams). - Assessment of the equipment
and personnel used in implementing the curriculum.
There are two major types of evaluation:
I. Formative evaluation: The type of evaluation that goes on throughout the curriculum development
process.
II. Summative evaluation: After the curriculum package has been used/ implemented, summative
evaluation is carried out throughout the school system. This is meant to determine the effectiveness of
the curriculum after implementation.
Formative evaluation provides useful data for summative evaluation.
Assignment: How does the work of the teacher relate to the three components of the curriculum?
TOPIC 4: FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Foundations of curriculum are also referred to as the bases of curriculum, which determine the quality of
curriculum decisions. They are defined as the values, traditions, factors, and forces which influence the kind,
quantity and quality of the experiences students are offered in schools. There are four major foundations of
curriculum namely:

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  Historical Foundation.
 Philosophical Foundations.
 Psychological Foundations.
 Sociological Foundations.
Historical Foundations
These are past events that have had influences on the curriculum, historical landmarks. They include:
a) Early Christian Education
Early Christian education was influenced by Greek, Roman and Hebrew ideals. Early Christian schools had a
curriculum, which inducted believers in the church. The subjects taught included: discipline, church doctrine,
moral standards, Christian theology, science, maths and astronomy. These are still important subjects in current
curriculum planning, which upholds moral standards.
b) The Renaissance
Took place in the 14thcentury in Italy. It was a period of revival or rebirth especially in culture and learning.
During that time there was increased guest for knowledge and the thirst for adventure. There was the desire to
open up education to the masses. Curriculum in schools included: good manners, morals, rhetoric, composition,
sports, games and dance, vocational studies. Vocational studies were emphasized because of interaction and
communication between various countries hence need for skills such as book keeping, correspondents studies,
e.t.c. There was the development of the university, which established faculties of studies in liberal arts, law,
medicine, theology, etc. These have influenced current curriculum planning in schools and universities around
the world.
c)The Reformation
This was a religious and political movement of the 16m century Europe. It began as an attempt to reform the
Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of the protestant churches. Through the campaigns of
Martin Luther, there was publication of biblical and other materials in vernaculars so that every person could
read for themselves and interpret the Bible. This contributed to education in primary, secondary and higher
education. The results of this movement are apparent in our education systems- Christian ideals are in education
systems today and the multiplication of churches is still ongoing.
d) The Scientific Movement in Education
The educators and philosophers of the 16 thcentury were concerned more with observations regarding the
working of the universe. This led to the philosophy of realism. They believed that objects exist as seen in the
real world divorced from the human mind and perception. This has had a lot of influence on education, i.e. the
application of the principles of scientific management of education.
e) The Progressive Movement in Education
Studies and researchers by famous European scholars regarding the appropriate curriculum for pupils had great
influence on the nature and type of curriculum in the U.S.A. One of the famous scholars in this movement was
John Dewey (1920). This resulted in learner-centered education, which was more of a reaction to the traditional
school system, which was teacher-centered. This has effects today as we consider the learner to be the most
important in any learning situation, i.e. instructional objectives are formulated in terms of what the learner is
expected to achieve.
Importance of History in Curriculum Planning
a) Provides insights into past events that have influenced current curriculum plans.
b) Enables curriculum planners to anticipate the future.
c) Enables the curriculum planners to avoid mistakes made in the past.
d) Enables the curriculum planners to be aware of events that continue to shape the curriculum.
Philosophical Foundations.
These are value foundations because they deal with values and beliefs that make up philosophies of life and
education. The curriculum planner seeks to establish ideals and notions that indicate Priority values in selecting
experiences for the curriculum. The major contribution from these foundations relate to the issue of selection of
subject matter in the curriculum. There are two broad philosophical schools, which relate to the issue of subject
matter (content) in the curriculum:
a) The traditionalist school e.g. perennialists and essentialists.
b) The progressivist school e.g. Pragmatists and Reconstructionists; Theories of Subject Matter.
The two schools of thought have advanced the following three theories of subject matter namely:
a) Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.
b) Subject matter should be taught for use.
c) Subject matter should be taught as a medium for teaching life processes and skills. Subject Matter
should be taught for its own sake.
This was proposed by perennialists. They believe in the permanence of curriculum content and experiences.
They assert that regardless of the changes in society, curriculum content should remain me same throughout
since the value of something does not change with time. The education system should be stable and its purpose
study. Perennialists have two main approaches to subject matter in the curriculum:
 They emphasize classical subjects because they believe they are valuable in their own right and any
educated person should be exposed to them, i.e. art, literature, history, music, discipline, e.t.c. For
perennialists, vocational education is not important because it does not involve rite use of the mind.
 Emphasize the desire to make children literate and moral to enable them earn a living as well as find
a useful place in the society.
Therefore, all should have a common curriculum. The schools also emphasize authority of the teacher i.e. me
teacher is master of the subject and therefore learner's interests are irrelevant. Perennialists emphasize the testing
of learners on the content received.
Guiding principles emanating from the perennialists' view include the following:
 That human nature remains the same everywhere; therefore, that education should be same for
everyone as knowledge is permanent and truth does not change with the environment (every student
has access to computer and internet services is true in U.S.; is it so in Kenya?).
 Man is rational and should be guided by this towards their goals, therefore students have to learn to
cultivate reason and control their emotions, and teachers should assist them towards these.
 Students should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint them with the world's basic and
which will make them refrain from regarding modern changes as being the most important.
Implications for Curriculum Planners in Kenya
 There is emphasis on some subjects in curriculum, which are considered important, e.g. Maths,

14
 Sciences, and Languages.
 There is a common curriculum for all students in different parts of the country.
 There are uniform and vigorous examinations in the various levels of education.
 The teacher is central in the implementation of the curriculum and he is seen as the authority in the
subject matter.
 There is emphasis on preservation of our cultural heritage done through drama, music and oral
literature.
Subject matter should be taught for use
This was advanced by essentials, who emphasize on training the intellect or mental abilities of the learners.
They believe that the value of a subject in the curriculum depends upon the use that is made of that subject and
therefore that value is operational. They agree with the perennialists on certain basic principles. They maintain
that there are certain essential subjects that each student in school must be taught. They concentrate on:
a) Re-examining curricular matters.
b) Differentiating the essentials from non-essentials in school programmes.
c) Re-establishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom.
Therefore subjects that are not useful in the society should not be included in the curriculum and if they are, they
should be given less time. They emphasize examinations and maintenance of high academic standards.
Implications for curriculum planners
a) Curriculum planners should make clear objectives and clarify the use of any subject that is planned for.
This is seen in the syllabi for the various levels where the objectives are clearly set out.
b) In Kenya curriculum, various subjects are taught because of their usefulness in die achievement of
national goals of education.
c) Only subjects that are relevant are included in the curriculum.
d) The essential or the core subjects are allocated more time in the school timetable unlike other subjects.
Subject matter as a medium for teaching life processes and skills
This theory was advocated by the progressivists who believe that change is the essence of reality, nothing
remains permanent. They believe that we live in a dynamic world and therefore education as well as curriculum
is subject to change. Educators therefore must be ready to modify methods and policies in the light of new
knowledge and changes in the environment. The curriculum, and specifically the subject matter, should be seen
as a means of managing and handling situations of life.
For progressivists, the curriculum must be interdisciplinary (various subjects put together). Subject matter is part
of the learning process rather than the source of knowledge. They consider the learner as the major source of
objectives i.e. interest, problems and needs of the learners.
Progressivists Advocate for the Following Principles Regarding the Nature of Education:
a) Education should be life itself and not a preparation for life.
b) Learning should be directly related to the needs and interests of the learners, the teacher is better
placed/ prepared to guide the learners.
c) Learning through problem solving should be given priority.
d) Teachers have to advise and not direct the learners because teachers have superior and richer
 experiences but it is the students' own needs and interests who determine what they learn. The teacher
is only important as a guide and co-coordinator.
e) The school should encourage cooperation and not competition. This is so because man is by nature
social and derives more satisfaction from relating to other, cooperating. However, that competition is
necessary for selection in specialized opportunities.
Implications for curriculum planners
a) Has led to learner-centered curriculum where the learners play an active role in the learning process.
b) Has led to the change in the role of the teacher in the classroom, where the teacher guides the pupils
through various learning experiences.
Psychological foundations
Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human behaviour so as to be able to understand and
predict behaviour. They look for determinants of behaviour in hereditary characteristics and environmental
influences. Psychological foundations of the curriculum make it possible for teachers to make appropriate
decisions in relation to classroom behaviour of learners when it is effective and most useful to that learner. In
presenting learning experiences to learners, we must consider:
a) Capabilities of the learners
b) Maturational levels of the learners
c) Learners' rate of learning as well as how they learn.
Psychology offers principles that govern the process of learning which are useful to the teacher and the
curriculum planner/design to make decisions on the following:
a) Sequence - this considers the stages of development and therefore learning experiences that are
appropriate at each stage.
b) Organization -Organizing or grouping of learning experiences for effectiveness.
c) Methodology-Selection of appropriate methods and approaches in promoting and guide learning.
d) Formulation of appropriate educational goals and instructional objectives.
e) Decisions regarding the scope of the curriculum.
An understanding of basic psychological principles is important in curriculum development in the following in
the following ways:
a) In meaningful selection and guidance of experiences in order to contribute to maximum development
of the learner.
b) Organizing and implementing the curriculum in relation to varying rates of mental growth.
c) Providing flexible curriculum to allow for diversity of character and learning readiness among the
learners.
Psychology contributes to curriculum design and development of general principles of learning thus:
a) Learning is most effective when the student is actively involved in the learning situation.
b) An effective learning situation should recognize and provide for the purposes of the learner (clear
objectives).
c) Learning is influenced by the individual's past experiences, attitudes and values (entering behaviour).
d) Learning is most effective when the student is permitted to work in a tension-free atmosphere (threats
deter learning).

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Sociological Foundations
These are mainly concerned with influences of the curriculum from the society. Life in society influences the
school system. Schools guide and prepare the youth for life in society. Society ' influences the expectations of
youth in life and partly determines the ideals that the youth go to school with.
Sociological foundations therefore are concerned with systematic types of groups and institutions with reference
to their contribution to process and growth of the educational system and curriculum.
In curriculum planning and development, study of society indicates:
 The kind of knowledge, skills and competencies the youth require to be able to cope withtasks and
roles in that society.
 The problems prevalent in society for which education should provide answers e.g tribalboundaries and
ethnic clashing, HIV/AIDS, population explosion, terrorism, wars,poverty, unemployment,
environmental degradation, e.t.c
In examining sociological foundations, the curriculum designer will be dealing with the cultural values, societal
needs and learner backgrounds.
The relationship between sociological foundations and the curriculum can best be established at three levels
namely:
a) The purposes of the curriculum. School is an agent of social growth and development In this respect,
curriculum should perform the following:
Assist to preserve and transmit cultural heritage-those aspects that are important and distinguish that society
from others.
 Transform culture/reconstruct it
 Be an instrument for individual development-help the learners to realize their potential, determine and
attain their individual goals.
b) Pressures in society influencing the curriculum. Society uses both formal and informal means to
exert pressure on the school system, i.e formal complaints directed at the school programmes and
personnel influence curriculum development at the school level. Informally, gossip and rumour
regarding current practice in the education system influence teachers' approaches to curriculum
implementation.
c) Characteristics of students experiencing the curriculum. There are individual differences among
schools therefore there should be differentiated approaches in designing and implementing the
curriculum e.g
 There should be differentiation between students from urban and rural areas.
 Students also have differentiated aspiration and curriculum should facilitate individual students to
realize their aspiration. This will depend on the social setting and resources available.
 Creation of suitable learning environment to improve academic performance of students.
Other Social Institutions that Influence the Curriculum are:
The family: Family data help in curriculum planning and implementation by providing them with background
information of individual learners.
Religious institutions: Religious education is part of the school curriculum. This contributes to the moral
development of learners and quality of life. Religious institution helps learners to develop a sense of self-respect
and respect for life.

TOPIC 5: CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DESIGN

a) Distinction between Curriculum Planning and Design
CURRICULUM PLANNING
Curriculum planning is the process that outlines policies, objectives and programmes for instruction. Curriculum
planning is just one aspect of educational planning that needs to be closely coordinated with other types of
planning like physical planning, financial planning, manpower planning etc without which education cannot
effectively achieve its objectives. Curriculum planning precedes design and it sets a stage for all other
curriculum activities, design, development, implementation and evaluation. Curriculum planning involves two
processes i.e:
1. Setting the objectives to be achieved
2. Establishing an efficient procedure for attaining the objectives e.g. by: Selecting appropriate content/subject
matter and learning experiences.
 Establishing a proper environment to achieve the objectives.
 Establishing sound methodology.
 Allocation of resources required attaining the objectives -financial, technical, intellectualetc.
 Appropriate time allocation.
 Identifying the characteristics of the student population.

Like any other type of planning, curriculum planning is done at two main levels:
 Long term planning.
 Short term planning.
The long-term plan takes into consideration what should happen in education at all levels. It takes into account
the economic and social implications over a long period of time. The short term-plan is concerned with specific
aspects of the curriculum requiring immediate attention of actions. Within the long-term plan are short-term
plans. These are monthly or weekly unit plans and daily lesson plans.
All curriculum planning is based on the following:
 The existing nature of knowledge, subject matter or content.
 The needs and interests of learners.
 The social and physical environment.
 The nature of learning process.
v) The facilities/ resources available e.g. man power, classrooms, equipments etc.
N/B: Curriculum planners are usually concerned with three categories of people: students, teachers and the lay
public.
Curriculum Plan: This is a document or a package indicating the curriculum aims, goals and objectives,
content and learning activities, teaching methods and suggested evaluation procedures.
Who plans the curriculum?
Students, parents, the general public, curriculum developers/planners, church leaders, teachers etc. Ideally

18
everybody in the society is involved in one way or another. Curriculum planning is a united effort by all those
responsible in the organization of an education system and has, at every stage, financial and material
implications.
CURRICULUM DESIGN
Curriculum design generally refers to the way in which the component parts or elements of the curriculum are
arranged in order to facilitate instruction. It is the structure, pattern or organization of the curriculum.
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
The selection and organization of content poses several key problems, which should be addressed with the view
of minimizing the problems of curriculum design. There are 5 key characteristics, which curriculum planners
must take into account when developing a curriculum. These are also known as problems of curriculum design
and include:

i) Scope
ii) Sequence
iii) Continuity
iv) Integration and Articulation
v) Flexibility
vi) Balance
i) Scope:
This raises questions related to the breadth and depth of contents e.g. what content should be included in the
curriculum? What content should be considered as either core or electives? Howmuch content can be learnt in
one subject area in one year, in a topic/ theme, in a single lesson etc. How much detail and how much emphasis
should be given to particular curriculum content? All these issues related to scope of curriculum have to be
addressed in the light of various social, economic, psychological, philosophical, historical and professional
factors.
ii) Sequence:
Sequence deals with the order in which the content and experiences in the curriculum are organized. Curriculum
planners order the content based on such principles as simple to complex, whole to part, and chronological
learning, prerequisite learning etc.
iii) Continuity:
Continuity is related to sequence. It refers to the many occasions on which individuals will experience content at
various levels within an education system. It refers to the occasions on which certain experiences will be
scheduled during consecutive periods of time. Curriculum specialists often extend themes vertically throughout
an entire curriculum to ensure that there is a recurring and continuing opportunity for a skill to be practiced and
developed. This concept is also known as spiral curriculum.
iv) Integration and articulation
This refers to the horizontal relationships between various curricula areas in an attempt to interrelate content or
learning experiences in order to enable the students to perceive knowledge in unity. Content from one field can
be linked meaningfully to content in another field e.g. what is learned in English linked to what is learned in
Geography etc. In instructional situations, a teacher may integrate a real life scenario with the content being
covered.
v) Flexibility
In order to make the curriculum suitable and profitable to the widest variety learners possible, rigidity must be
avoided. The content and learning experiences should be selected and designed to accommodate several
approaches, strategies, and paths of learning. The curriculum should promote a self-motivated learning system
which will be responsive to the learners' needs and the contextual requirements. This implies offering increased
subject/specialization choice to learners, flexibility of teaching methods and teaching-learning materials, and
flexibility of demonstrating acquisition of learning outcomes through employing a variety of assessment
methods/strategies.
vi) Balance:
Line a well-balanced diet, a well-balanced curriculum contributes to educational health. A balanced curriculum
implies structure and order in its scope and leads to the achievement of educational objectives. If a learner
enjoyed a balanced curriculum at any time, this curriculum would completely suit him/her in terms of his/her
particular educational needs at that time.
A balanced curriculum should develop all major areas of human competence e.g. communication, problem
solving, understanding concepts and the environment, healthcare, etc. To cultivate this competence effectively
education should ensure the physical, mental, and affective development of the child. Besides individual
development, a balanced curriculum should address all the national goals of education.
PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
The process of curriculum organization is very complex. The simplest way of understanding it is by
understanding the organizing structures. These are the main structural elements in which learning experiences
are to be organized. There are two main patterns/categories of curriculum design as follows:
a) The Subject-centered designs
b) The Learner-centered designs
These vary according to the objectives the philosophical orientation and values that surround particular
educational system. Whatever pattern educational planners decide to adopt they need to decide on the scope of
what is to be learnt or the centers of organization around which to build learning experiences.
A) SUBJECT CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGNS

This is where the curriculum is organized in terms of subject matter or content. They utilize the subject structure
hence the Mathematics curriculum, English curriculum, Geography curriculum etc. The emphasis is on the
content or subject matter unlike the other components or elements. Examples of subject-centered curriculum
designs include:
i) The traditional subject designs
ii) The broad fields/fused design
iii) The core curriculum
i) The Traditional Subject Design
This is the oldest and most widely used form of curriculum organization. It has its origins in Western education
that emphasizes the seven (7) liberal arts of early Greece and Rome i.e theearly subjects considered essential

20
knowledge for any educated person.
The curriculum is organized in different specific subjects without combining knowledge acrossthe subjects.
Emphasis is placed on separate academic areas such as English, Mathematics,History, and Geography etc.
The scope of this design is determined by the range of subjects considered to be important to be included in the
curriculum, and by the content in each subject.
The academic subjects are considered superior to practical subjects. Exams are also considered important hence
competition in both teaching and learning.
Strengths
Taba (1962) points out various arguments in favour of this design thus:
a) It is the most systematic and effective organization for acquainting the youth with the essentials of
cultural heritage.
b) Teachers feel more comfortable with this kind of arrangement because they are trained in subject
curriculum especially secondary school teachers.
c) Textbooks and other forms of learning materials are organized in terms of subjects.
d) This design has the support of parents because they are familiar with it. They feel that it is an
academically sound system.
e) It allows for specialization hence full development of one's intellectual powers through the study of
logically organized subject matter.
f) The planning, implementation and evaluation of the curriculum is easier in subject design.
g) Students can learn most economically and efficiently by studying the organized bodies ofsubject
matter.
Weakness
a) It fragments knowledge and therefore fragment the understanding of the learners.
b) Relationships between subjects is not provided for, yet naturally knowledge exists as an integrated
whole.
c) Subjects tend to be detached from the reality of students i.e concerns and events of the realworld.
d) It puts excessive stress on the content and ignore the needs, interests and experiences of the students i.e
focuses on intellectual performance at the expense of other aspects of human development e.g emotions
social etc.
e) Tends to advocate the importance of knowledge and recall of subject matter. This leads to recitation,
rote and passive learning process with the teacher as the center of activity.
f) Tends to lean towards certain valued subjects hence the rewarding system is differentiated.
g) Leans heavily on verbal activities and is exam oriented which tests memorization rather than
understanding.
h) The many subjects to be taught leads to a strain on the available resources.
i) The time available is not enough for learning all the subjects.
These limitations led to modifications of the traditional subject design leading to other designs,
ii) The Broad Fields/Fused Design
In this design, several subjects are put together i.e. margin different but related subjects into a single course of
study as an attempt to overcome the problem of fragmentation e.g Social Studies resulting from Civics, History,
Geography, Sociology, Social Ethics, Anthropology etc or Science resulting from Physics, Chemistry, Biology,
Agriculture, etc or Creative Arts resulting from Art, Craft, Music etc. This design is most evident in the primary
schools. Strengths
a) Provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the essentials of the culture.
b) Allows for a meaningful integration of related content hence the learners can see the relationship
between the various elements of the curriculum.
c) Easy to administer in terms of planning and evaluation because the subjects are not too many.
d) Provides for general education which is appropriate for general life in that it widens one's perspective
for the world.
e) Furnishes the students with diverse experiences hence meeting their needs and interests.
Weaknesses
a) The content is superficial of lacks depth of coverage.
b) Without competent planning, the content can still be fragmented and fail to relate to the actual world of
the learner.
c) Also places a lot of emphasis on content coverage at the expense of other aspects of human
development.
iii) The Core-Curriculum
This is commonly used to mean the areas of knowledge that are considered essential hence common learning for
everybody i.e. the compulsory subjects unlike the electives or optional subjects. This is the approach used in
Kenya in the secondary schools.
The core subjects are selected based on the national philosophy and the goals of education. The core curriculum
thus helps to:
 Develop integration of knowledge to serve the needs of the students.
 Promote active learning and a relationship between life and learning.
 Serve the needs of the society.
 Give the students an opportunity to make choices through electives.
Strengths
 Emphasizes a core of social values
 It combines subject matter with the realities and challenges of life.
 Aims at integrating learning by unifying subject matter for purposes of studying social issues, which
are related to individuals as well as society.
 Takes care of social needs and interests of the learner
 Provides for equity in education. Differentiation only comes in selecting the other subjects (Electives)
to be learnt.
 Gives the student an opportunity to make choices through the electives thus student's interest is catered
for.
Weaknesses
 Fails to offer significant and systematic knowledge to the learners.
 Poses organization problems in schools e.g time table.

22
  Teachers have not been trained to arrange content on focuses or issues thus posing problems on
teachers.
 It requires many teachers with varied specialties, and many materials.
 It is quite expensive since learners can choose any subject.
 It does not cater for differentiated abilities
B) THE LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGNS
These are not content free but emphasize on individual development of the learners, their needs and interests.
The learner is taken to be the center of the curriculum process. The learner's active participation in the learning
process is the main focus.
The design was promoted by the progressivists, the greatest promoter being John Dewey. According to Dewey,
the child should be allowed to develop the capacity for individual self-expressions hence should be allowed to
have freedom, active involvement in the learning process and creativity instead of the domination of the teacher.
The curriculum should be adapted to the child.
General characteristics of learner-centered designs include:
i) Consider learner's needs and interests in selecting and organizing the learning experiences.
ii) The child is an active participant in the learning process.
iii) Makes knowledge relevant to the learner.
iv) The learner is encouraged to work out solutions to problems and to overcome challenges.
v) Learners are instructed individually at some points.
Examples of Learner Centered Designs Include:
 Activity, experience or child centered designs.
 Social and life designs - this link content to real life i.e. to prevailing social problems,
a) The Activity Designs:
These have their origin in the 18mC Europe and in the work of Rousseau and Pestalozzi. The argument behind
this design is that people only learn what they want to learn. The learners' experience and not the content is thus
important.
Characteristics
i) The structure of the curriculum depends on the learners' needs and interests which the teacher must
find out and select the most significant.
ii) Curriculum cannot be pre-planned.
iii) Curriculum should focus on problem solving procedures.
iv) Stresses on active participation by students; socialization of the student in the world around him
and greater school -community linkages.
Strengths
i) Learning is real and meaningful coz it is relevant to the learner's interests and needs.
ii) Provides for individual differences of the various learners.
iii) Provides learners with the experiences they need in order to cope with life outside the schoole.g
individual problem solving.
Weaknesses
 i) It cannot provide for an adequate preparation for life since it is based on the needs and interests of
the learners.
ii) Lacks continuity and sequence since its based on students' needs and interests.
iii) Places a lot of demand on the teacher thus need for extra-ordinary teachers to fulfil the needs and
interests of learners.
iv) Costly in terms of support materials and personnel,
b) The Social and Life Designs
They link content to real life. They attempted to overcome situations in which some of the academic disciplines
were divorced from reality and were thus of little use in solving everyday life problems. Curriculum content
should thus be organized around persistent life situations like:-
 Health
 Moral choices
 Natural Phenomena
 Technological phenomena
 Economic, social and political structures etc.
Strengths
i) Prepares learners adequately for everyday life.
ii) Learning is real because it is linked to real life.
Weaknesses
 Teachers have not been trained adequately to handle content in terms of persistent life situations.
 Doesn't cater for different abilities of learners
TOPIC 6: MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is the process of choosing and refining the content of the instructional programme. It is
an aspect of curriculum planning which involves the whole process of choosing what children should learn and
translating that choice into action. The process starts from the first attempt to make a selection and justify it, to
the final adoption of the new materials.
In a nutshell therefore, curriculum development can be defined as planning for and provision of learning
opportunities intended to bring about certain changes in the learners. It also involves the assessment of the
extent to which these changes have taken place. Specifically, it involves the writing, trial and testing of
instructional plans and educational materials.
*The process of curriculum development will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

Curriculum scholars have advanced various theoretical models in an attempt to explain a the process of
curriculum development. Some of these models are:
i) The Tyler model (1949)
ii) The Taba model (19S2)
iii) The Hunkins' Decision-Making model (1980)
i) The Tyler Model (1949)
Tyler starts by asking four fundamental questions which have to be answered if the process of curriculum
planning is to proceed these are:

24
 i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
The four questions raised by Tyler may be formulated into a simple four-step process by which a curriculum is
planned and developed as follows:
Step I: Objectives

Step II: Selection of Learning experiences

Step III: Organization of learning experiences

Step IV: Evaluation

The 1st step is the most crucial one in this model since all the others proceed from and are regulated by the
statement of objectives. Because of its emphasis on objectives, this model is sometimes referred to as the
"objectives" model and is a prototype of all other subsequent models.
There are 3 sources of these objectives:
i) Study of the learners: This is done to establish the needs of the learners so as to determine the changes
in behaviour that the school should bring about in the learners.
ii) Study of Contemporary Life in Society: the school is supposed to prepare the youth for life in the
society. The curriculum offered in schools should address the persistent problems in the society outside
the school.
iii) Suggestions from Subject Specialists: subject specialists represent their conception of objectives;
write books on their subjects etc.
The objectives arrived at from these three sources is then filtered through philosophical and psychological
'screens' in order to arrive at the final, refined objectives. Once the first crucial step of stating the objectives are
accomplished, the mode proceeds through the steps of selection and organization of learning experiences as a
means of achieving the already stated objectives orno: objectives have been achieved.
Evaluation according to Tyler is essentially the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives
are actually realized by the programme of curriculum and instruction. Tylers model has had significant impact
on subsequent curriculum activities worldwide.
Criticisms of Tyler's Model
Places a lot of emphasis on objectives at the expense of other elements of curriculum
It is too simple and linear and does not show the interrelatedness of the separate elements.
Puts evaluation at the end but evaluation occurs throughout the curriculum developmentprocess.
ii) The Taba Model (1962)
Hilda Taba (1962) perceives curriculum as containing certain basic elements as follows:
  Aims and objectives
 Content
 Learning experiences
 Evaluation
In any curriculum design, these must be selected on the basis of certain considerations such as the principles of
learning and ideas about the nature of the learners and knowledge. Taba's model can be presented in a diagram
as follows;
This model is basically the same as Tyler's because Taba also emphasized on objectives. Taba however makes
content conspicuous. Taba also emphasizes on interrelatedness or interrelationships among the elements, which
Tyler assumes in her model. A simple relationship between the elements in this model is that type of content and
learning experiences to select and will influence the nature and process of evaluation.
Taba suggests a participatory approach to curriculum design in which teachers should participate in making the
curriculum. She suggests seven major steps in which teachers should have an input in curriculum development.
i) Diagnosis of Seeds - The teacher identifies the needs of the learners for whom the curriculum is to
be planned.
ii) Formulation of Objectives - The teacher specifies the objectives to be achieved based on the
identified needs of the learners.
iii) Selection of Content - The objectives selected suggest the content of the curriculum unit thusits
validity and significance.
iv) Organization of the Content - The teacher organizes the content in some kind of sequence taking
into consideration the maturity of the learners their academic achievement and theirinterests.
v) Selection of Learning Experiences - The students must engage in an interaction with the content
hence the teacher must identify and use the instructional methodology that will involve the
students with the content.
vi) Organization of Learning Experiences -Must be sequenced keeping in mind the particular
students who will be taught.
vii) Evaluation and means of evaluation to determine what objectives have been accomplished
achieved. Taba suggests that evaluation procedures be considered by both students and teachers.
Criticisms of Taba's Model
i) Though she emphasizes the participatory approach to curriculum design, the procedures suggested
are technical and complex and not every teacher can do.
ii) Taba advocates that teachers should participate in making the curriculum and by so doing assumes
that they have the necessary expertise.
iii) She assumes the availability of resources in the curriculum development process.

iii) The Hunkins' Decision-making Model

Francis Hunkins' model of curriculum development has seven major steps: curriculum conceptualization and
legitimization, diagnosis, content selection, experience selection, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance.
Each of these steps is discussed below:
Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization: This is the most unique aspect of this model. It requires

26
that participants in curriculum development engage in deliberation in order to agree on what curriculum is to
mean in their school system. There should be a deliberate search for an understanding of curriculum as well as
its value to individuals and society. Only when such a negotiated understanding has been reached can the
ensuing curriculum be a legitimate reflection of the educational wishes of the people.
Curriculum Diagnosis: This involves the identification of need with the concept of curriculum agreed adopted
in step one above. Once the needs are identified, then curriculum goals and objectives are generated to satisfy
the needs. Such goals and objectives serve as frameworks for selecting content.
Content Selection: This deals with 'what' is to be taught, and what the students will learn. Content refers to
facts, concepts, principles, theories, and generalizations. Content also refers to cognitive processes that learners
employ when thinking about or studying the content. It may also refer to the procedures students learn to use to
apply their knowledge and skills and to communicate what they know to others.
Experience Selection: This step deals with how the content is to be delivered to students or experienced by
them. Some of the questions to be asked here are: What teaching methods will be used? What educational
activities will e designed to make learning effective and enjoyable? How will the content of the curriculum be
experienced so that the stated goals and objectives are attained? Etc.
Implementation: This is putting the curriculum into use in the school system. More about implementation will
be discussed in the subsequent topics.
Evaluation: This is conducted throughout the life of the curriculum to provide data so that decisions can be
made to continue, modify, or discontinue the program.
Maintenance: This refers to the methods and means by which the implemented curriculum is managed to
assure its continued effective functioning.
TOPIC 7: STEPS IN THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS.
A. Situational analysis / Need assessment.
Through the two terms are used synonymously there is some difference between them. Situational analysis is
situation where a completely new curriculum is being planned. Needs assessment on the other hand is done
where the curriculum/ current curriculum/ aspects of its regime undergo improvement or change. Situational
analysis involves finding out the context in which the curriculum process is to take place. It's an attempt to
reconcile the existing position with the ideal requirements of the curriculum planners. It is therefore involves the
collection of basic data in two main areas.
 The need of the learners.
 The social economic circumstances in to the needs.
There are various factors, which must be considered in order to get a true picture of what exists in a society and
how it will effect decisions on the farmland structure of the curriculum. These are categorizedinto two main as
follows.
1. Factors within the school system they include:
a) Pupils
Their aptitudes, interests, values, attitudes, life experiences and their educational needs.
b) Teachers
Can effectively implement only what they know, understand and are capable of doing. There is therefore a need
to be aware of the teacher's skills, attitudes, values, knowledge, experiences, strengths and weaknesses.
These will help in finding out what should be provided in the pre-service teacher education, as well as in-service
programs. Determining the number of teachers is important requirement in curriculum.
c) The School
Implementation of the curriculum occurs in schools the schools must therefore be ready in terms of the
infrastructure and resources of e.g. classrooms, labs, workshops, equipment textbooks etc.
d) Status of the Existing Curriculum.
This concerns the problems and shortcomings as well as the success of the existing curriculum. This will form
the basis for any useful changes.
e) Support Systems.
They include T.T.C's Resource centres, universities, Exam and Research Institutes. This can be the primary
source of information and guidance, which can become barrier to the development and implementation of the
intended curriculum or not utilized.
2. Factors from Outside the School System.
This refers to the environment outside the school is situated and from which it draws its pupil and resources.
The following social factors, which are likely to affect the changes in the curriculum, must be considered.
a) Changes and trends in the society
This will either indicate the tasks for the school ?or> they may affect- the functioning of the school. They
include industrial and economic development of the community political situations.
b) Culture and Ideologies
A curriculum that is contrary to the cultural norms and practices would be rejected.
c) Community Values
These are expectations of the society, which must be known in order to avoid future conflicts and even
resistance to the curriculum. The products of the school must be able to fit on the society.
d) The Changing Nature of Knowledge
New theories, ideas and concepts are constantly emerging through research and technology. This leads to new
knowledge, which has to be considered when introducing a new curriculum or changing some aspects of the
curriculum.
e) The Flow of Resources into the School.
The economic conditions in the society hence the society's ability to support and finance a planned curriculum.
Situational analysis therefore is more than just collecting information. It involves identifying tasks and
problems, seeking possible solutions anticipating the difficulties and possible areas of resistance, planning the
resources and organizational changes that will be needed.
Situational analysis is done differently in different systems of education. In Kenya the educational system is
centralized and situational analysis is therefore carried out by education commissions e.g Ominde (1964),
Gachathi (1976), Mackay (1981), and Koech (1999) etc.
Ideally situational analysis should involve not only the experts but also the general interested public. However
this is not always the case, and only select groups and individuals usuallypresent their prevalent views. The
teacher is particularly crucial in situation analysis especially on issues relating to curriculum balance since
she/he is the implementer.

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Example of situational Analysis i.e. 1998 Commission of inquiry into the education system in Kenya
Background information:
The aim of the commission was to look into the 8.4.4 system of education, which was aimed at fee giving a
broad based education particularly-making it practical. However these objectives were not fully achieved due to
various constraints as revealed by various evaluation reports e.g in 1990 formative evaluation of the primary and
secondary school curriculum indicated the following:
i) Curriculum was too broad and too demanding to the teachers and students.
ii) There were unnecessary overlaps across subjects and levels (content repeated).
iii) Families were finding it difficult to provide facilities equipments and material required for
effective implementation.
iv) Teachers were not adequately prepared to handle the practiced subjects.
Based on these reports the following intervention measures were put into place: the primary and secondary
curriculum was reversed and new syllabuses were introduced in schools in (1992). These revisions entailed the
reduction and reorganization of the content. The number of subjects examined at K.C.S.E was reduced from
minimum of ten to a minimum of 8. There was another evaluation in 1995 and its finding indicated the
following:
i) The curriculum was still overloaded in terms of the subjects taken and the content in each of the
subjects.
ii) Some of the objectives were unrealistic and not easily attainable within the given time and
resources.
iii) There were unnecessary overlaps across levels and subjects.
iv) Some content was beyond the scope of the learners in some subjects. The curriculum continued to
be too expensive to implement.
v) Many were finding it difficult to afford education leading to high dropouts and low completion
rates.
However the recommendations were not focused enough to guide curriculum revision. In 1998 a commission of
inquiry into the education system in Kenya was appointed.
In January (1999) a needs assessment survey was done nationally. The findings were as follows:

a) The primary and secondary education curriculum was overloaded in:

 The number of taught and examined subjects.
 The content in each subject at every level.
b) There were unnecessary overlaps within subjects and across levels.
c) The cost of education was very high due to the number of book required per pupil for the various subjects.
d) Most of the schools were not adequately equipped for the implementation of the curriculum especially in
the practical subjects.
e) The majority of the teachers were not adequately prepared to implement the curriculum especially on the
practical subjects.
f) The curriculum was not satisfactory preparing its graduates for further education, training and the world of
work.
g) The curriculum failed to adequately address the emerging issues such as individual transformation of the
country by the year 2020, information communication technology, environmental education, wealth
creation education, human rights, children's rights, moral values and social responsibilities.
R. Formulation of Objectives.
These follow after the intensive situational analysis / needs assessment. This is an important stage in that there
can't be curriculum without educational objectives. The objectives define the educational destination i.e. the end
especially since there are several problems and needs of all of which the school cannot deal with.
Objectives are important because of the following reasons.
i) They assist curriculum planners in developing purposeful instructional programs (give direction).
ii) They justify the need for providing educational programmes and therefore solicit support for it
(Reasons why education is given).
iii) They guide the educational process i.e. the selection of content learning experiences and teaching
methods.
iv. They provide a basis for evaluation of the educational process.
The appropriate objectives are derived from the broad aims of education and the national goals of education.
These will form a guidance, which will be used by the curriculum project team in the drawing up the activities
of the curriculum development process.According to Benjamin Bloom (1964) in his taxonomy of educational
objectives, the objectives should be in the three basic domains.
 The cognitive.
 Psychomotor.
 Effective domain.
The cognitive domain
This contains the knowledge, comprehension, application analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
The affective domain
Includes receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization
The psychomotor domain
Encompasses observing, imitating, practicing, and adapting
The objectives for the curriculum should be SMART i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time
bound
C. Setting up the curriculum project.
These refers to daily curriculum development activities such as making reviews for effecting minor changes that
are done by the full time curriculum developers. These may include members drawn from among the teachers
and others educators representing relevant institutions who will make-up the select panels. However when major
changes have to be effected specific curriculum development project has to be set for that purpose. This will
involve the full time curriculum developers and other educators as well as those who may be directly involved
in education for example sociologists, economists, religious, personnel, anthropologists and other interested
group.
The project team is usually presented with the following:

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 v. The aims goals and objectives of education.
vi. The terms of reference i.e. what they are required to look into.
vii. The objectives of the project.
viii. The necessary faculties to enable them execute their duties effectively.

NB: However they are never trained because it's assumed that they are experienced.

The main task of the team is to draw-up the curriculum plan i.e. to design an appropriate curriculum in Kenya
there have been various curriculum projects that have had significant impact on education. An example is the
Primary Education Project (P.E.P) of 1979. This was a major project launched by KIE to examine and improve
the school curriculum in Kenya. This was after the Gachathi Report of 1976. Other projects are the secondary
school and the pre-school educational project both of 1985.
The membership of the project teams include:
 Classroom teachers.
 University lecturers
 Publishers.
 Educational administrators.
 The then inspectors of schools
 Curriculum developers at KIE.
 Personnel from Kenya National examination council.
 Teacher trainers.
d). Program Building
This is also referred to as the curriculum construction. This is the main work of project teams i.e. writing up a
curriculum plan in consultation with a broad cross section of stakeholders. The main activities that should be
given special attention at these stages are:
i) Selection of content for particular/ specific group of learners.
ii) Selection of learner's and teacher's activities
iii) Selection of relevant facilities and resources.
All these activities are referred to as learning opportunities and experiences and they must be selected and
organized. There are certain criteria for selecting these learning experiences: -
Validity
This is the consistency with developments in the subject or knowledge area.
Conformity with the Objectives.
It should give the learners the opportunity to practice the kind of behaviour implied by the objectives.
Significance
It must be meaningful in contributing to the process of learning.
Learners Ability
It should be adjusted to the ability of the learner and individual differences. This includes the background the
present attainment, the mental age etc.
Interest
It affects the rate at which learning will take place depending on how motivating the experiences are.
Satisfaction
The pupils must derive satisfaction through the learning experiences if the desired learning is tooccur.
Relevance
Relevance to the life of the learner outside the school i.e. it should enable the learner to deal with life situations.
Consistency with Social Reality.
They should not contradict the actual situation in the society.
Economy in the Use of Time.
Those experiences that can achieve multiple objectives at ago should be preferred.
Reinforcement
Is that experience should reinforce previous and others experiences in order to achieve the objectives.
N/B: The learning experiences may not measure up to all these criteria but they should satisfy asmany as
possible with the emergency of progressivism. There's emphasis that learningexperiences should be activity
based (Learners should be active but not passive).
After the selection of learning experiences and opportunity they have to be organized so that thedesired learning
can take place. In Kenya the organization is usually according to subjects,which form the medium through
which the objectives are achieved.The subject must beorganized into school programs and this involves the
sequence of presentation the time and approaches for instruction.
Within a subject the learning experience can be organized at three levels.
i) The lesson.
ii) The topic (various lessons are derived).
iii) The unit (covers several topics).
The units must have the knowledge, skills and attitudes clearly defined i.e. the learning outcomes. The content,
the methods and the learning activities as well as the means for evaluating the unit must also be defined. The
teaching and learning materials must be development these include the syllabuses, the teacher's guides and
handbooks and the textbooks learning Aids used in pilot school etc.
Example of Curriculum Development Activities.
Following the approval of the curriculum size based on the needs assessment of 1999, thefollowing activities
were undertaken.
 Development of curriculum design by different working committees for both primaryand secondary
education. These were approved by the subject (committee) panels at KIE in 2002.
The development of syllabus. Using the approved curriculum design subject panel's development syllabus for
each subject between March and April 2002. These were approved by the course panels and the Academy board
in April 2002.
Development of the handbooks and teachers preparation guides. These were done by subjectpanels in June
2002.
Piloting the New Programme in Selected Schools.
This is trial of the programme in a few schools to see or test how it works. The selected schools should be a
representative of those that will be affected by the final implementation. This helps in establishing validity of

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the curriculum (effectiveness). Information from the piloting may be used to make decisions and improve the
curriculum. Teachers and all other personnel involved must be trained to ensure that they are thoroughly
familiar with the new programme. Piloting provides feedback about the programme in terms of:
 How teachers and students react and deal with programme.
 Teacher performance.
 Availability of physical learning space facilities e.g. materials, availability of furniture etc.
 Availability of time.
 The general attitude towards the programme.
The feedback obtained helps to determine whether the goals can be realized and to make a decision whether to
adopt, modify or dismiss the programme. Most of the times modification is done and the programme is adopted.
Improving the New Programme.
Here, suggestions from the pilot exercise are used to modify the programme to make it appropriate to the real
school and instructional situation i.e. the number of students with diverse backgrounds teachers and the general
education environment. The modifications must address the deficiencies discovered during piloting. Usually
every new programme even the most carefully planned needs some revisions and modifications. If necessary,
several piloting sessions may be carried out to ensure that the programme is satisfactory.
Implementation of the new programme in schools
This is the process of using the developed curriculum in the schools on a widespread basis. The teachers and the
learners use the curriculum. Other people like parents, administrators and thelay public also come into contact
with the new curriculum. Implementation is thus the process of affecting the new curriculum. Implementation
involves two important processes; namely:
 Changing the altitudes of the people- Policy makers, administrators, teachers, teacher trainers school
supervisors, parents the lay public and the learners themselves.
 Providing the materials and administrative means to make the process possible.

To carry out these two processes a number of activities have to be undertaken:

1. Persuading people to accept the new curriculum, i.e. policy makers, teachers, parents and the learners.
2. Informing the public about the new curriculum; through mass media, seminars, public lecturers etc.
3. Obtaining the necessary personnel to perform various roles in the process.
4. Placing professionally qualified personnel at appropriate points.
5. Training of teachers to use the new curriculum.
6. Educating other personnel who are likely to take part in the implementation, e.g. teacher trainers,
educational administrators, school inspectors, etc.
7. Providing the necessary faculties, equipment and materials in schools.
8. Preventing the new curriculum and support materials
9. Devising relevant evaluation methods
10. Providing continuous support for the new curriculum.
H. Evaluation.
This is the process of generating data, which is used to assign value in order to make a decision whether to
accept, improve or reject the new curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is the process used to weigh the relative
merits of educational alternatives of curriculum practice. The decision may be to accept, improve or reject any
of the educational alternatives. Curriculum evaluation goes on throughout the process of curriculum
development. There are two types of curriculum evaluation:
a) Formative Evaluation:
This begins at the inception of a curriculum development project and continues through all the development
stages. This provides information that is required for re-examination, revision and improvement of the
educational programme. It is basically concerned with the merits of the planand how to make the plan effective.
b) Summative Evaluation.
This occurs at the end of curriculum implementation in schools to find out the overall success of the completed
programme. It is mainly concerned with the achievements at the end of the curriculum project and what happens
to learners as a result of instruction. It gives an overall view and makes judgments about the programmes
effectiveness and worthiness. Curriculum evaluation as a process in curriculum development refers to
summative evaluation. It is the process of finding out how far the instructional plans are actually producing the
desired results, in what areas it is effective and in what respect it needs improvement. It involves finding out the
strengths and weaknesses of the plans.
NB: The simplest and clearest distinction between formative and summative evaluation is that informative
evaluation; one is dealing with an incomplete educational programme while insummative evaluation, one is
attempting to judge a completed educational programme.
I) Curriculum Maintenance.
Curriculum development is a continuous process because there are emerging issues that require continuous
alternation e.g. conditions or circumstances change, student's characteristics change, new material and
educational media appear etc. Due to these changes, there's a need to monitor the curriculum plan through the
years in order to maintain its effectiveness and worth before a drastic change becomes necessary.
Curriculum maintenance refers to the activities and procedures that allow the operations of the programmes to
continue. It focuses on: actions of the administrator's actions of teachers, students, parents and others in
response to the ongoing programme.
 To maintain a programme, curriculum leaders try to stabilize it and to keep operational the content,
experiences and environments. Small problems are sorted out before they become big issues.
 Maintaining a programme requires a steady flow of accurate information in order to assess continuous
programme performance. Curriculum maintenance means managing the curriculum and support
systems.
 The major curriculum elements to be monitored include objectives, content environments,
educational personnel, school organization, students, school community, parents arid the programmes
budget.
 Maintenance is a vital stage in curriculum development. It ensures that the programme is effectively
operational.
TOPIC 8: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA
Curriculum Development in Kenya at all levels except the university is mainly conducted by the Kenya Institute
of Education (K.I.C.D.). The KICD is a curriculum development and research centre, which develops materials

34
for use in education at all levels below the university in Kenya,
a) Functions of the KIE.
The functions of KIE today as a curriculum development centre are as follows:
1. To conduct research and prepare curricula and syllabus for:
 Pre-school education
 Primary education
 Secondary education
 Teacher education
 Special education
 Business education
 Technical education
 Post school education
 Adult Education.
2. To conduct research and prepare teaching and evaluation materials, books, mass media programme etc to
support appropriate syllabi.
3. To conduct research and prepare correspondence courses for students and teachers.
To organize:
a) In-service courses and workshops for teachers involved in the experimentation of any syllabuses and
teaching materials.
b) Seminars and orientation courses for guiding teachers, educational administrators, and teacher
educators on syllabi and other teaching materials.
c) Orientation courses for educational officers on up to date developments in schools and teacher college's
curricula i.e. updating courses.
5. To organize and conduct curriculum evaluation.
N/B: KIE also acts as the eye of the government or watchdog on all curriculum matters in the country. It advices
the government on matters related to both public and private educational programmes: i.e. whether they are
legitimate and meet the requirements of Kenya as a nation or
Examination panels whose duties include: -
 To discuss, derive and recommend policy with regard to test development.
 To discuss and recommend criteria and methods of award.
 To examine draft syllabuses from KIE and make recommendations.
 To advice on appointment of senior examiners.
 The council secretariat executes the day-to-day functions of the council.
Religious organizations
Mainly involved in the development of religious education curriculum. These include:
a) Kenya Catholic Secretariat (KCS) for Catholics.
b) ChrisTiaxi Churches Education Association (CCEA) or the National Council of Churches of Kenya
(NCCK).
c) The Seventh Day Adventists.
 d) Moslems
e) Others
These develop the religious education syllabuses and textbooks?
They are represented in the governing council the academic board; the course panels and religious education
panels in both primary and secondary education at the KIE. Below are stages of approval of religious education
syllabuses and textbooks.
Church Panels (Approvals).
Joint Church Panels (Approvals).
KICD Subjects Panels (Approvals).
KICD Course Panels (Approvals).
KICD Academic Board (Approvals).
The religious organizations advise the schools on implementation of the syllabuses.
 They offer in-service courses for the CRE teachers.
 They train teachers to teach in the primary school etc.
The Teacher centres
NB: The inspectorate has the authority to inspect any school at any time without notice. They can request the
head teacher to provide records to facilitate inspection.
ii) The Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT)
This is a trade union whose main concern is the improvement of terms of service for teachers in the country.
Functions
 It protects members from victimization and harassment by the employer (T.S.C).
 Encourage and improve morale and efficiency of teachers.
 Provides a code of behaviour for guidance of teachers.
 Provides guidance on what ought to be done in education.
 Participate in curriculum development process through representation at KICD.
 Approves and encourages subject panels at KICD.
 Organizes seminars related to the professional life of a teacher.
iii) The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC).
KNEC is concerned with the implementation of appropriate measurement tools in the learning process
(summative evaluation). The data gotten on students' performance is used by curriculum developers in
curriculum appraisal. The KNEC is concerned with conduct and administration of public examinations in the
country. The specific functions of KNEC are:
 To conduct academic, technical and professional examinations e.g. KCPE, KCSE, business exams,
technical exams teacher exams etc.
 To award diplomas and certificates to successful candidates in these exams.
 To make rules regulating the conduct of exams structure and organization.
 To advice bodies from outside Kenya on how to adapt their exams to fit the requirements of Kenya and
to assist such bodies in conducting exams.
The Structure and Organization of KNEC
 The governing council.
 The finance and general purposes committee.
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  The examinations security committee.
 Professional committees for each broad area of exam e.g. primary examinations committee.
A teacher centre is a form of resource centre set to benefit a number of local schools and the teachers. It
organizes resources for learning so that the students and teachers have access to such resources more easily. KIE
often disseminates new curriculum information and approaches through such teacher centres.

TOPIC 9: TEACHER EDUCATION

a) Meaning and scope of teacher education.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) define teacher education as "such institutionalized educational procedures that
are aimed at the purposeful organized preparation or further education of teachers who are engaged directly or
indirectly in educational activity as their life work. Teacher education is carried out in colleges of education who
have vocational as well as educative objectives. The colleges are charged with the professional preparation of a
specific type of personnel e.g. B. ED (arts) hence teacher education includes the study of academic disciplines
i.e. subject areas necessary for equipping the trained teacher with subject matter content for imparting to the
pupils in their area of specialization. Students to colleges of education are chosen/selected on their suitability for
teaching and are supposed to have chosen the teaching profession as their future career.
Some of the specific national goals of teacher education as outlined by the Ministry of Education (1987)
include:
 To develop the ability to communicate effectively
 To develop professional attitudes and values.
 To develop in teachers the ability to identify and develop the education needs of the learner.
 To create initiative a sense of professional commitment and excellence in education.
 To enable the teacher to adapt to the environment and society.
Variants of Teacher Education Programmes.
Teacher training occurs both in pre service and in-service education.
i) Pre-service Teacher Education.
This is a scheme of training in which teacher trainees attend their training on teacher education before they start
practicing as trained teachers. It can be on full time mode or part time mode. There are two approaches to pre
service teacher training:
a) Concurrent Programmes.
b) Consecutive Programmes.
Concurrent programmes:
This is where both professional courses and subject area content are studied over the training period. For
example, at the undergraduate level, one or two subject areas, professional courses and practice teaching are
studied. This programme was started in 1964 at Makerere University and later at the University of Nairobi for a
Bachelor of Education degree (B. ED).
Consecutive programmes.
This is used to convert an essentially general based graduate into a professional teacher through a one year or
more professional course e.g. post graduate Diploma in Education.
ii) In-service Teacher Education
This may take place at any time either as full time or part time study, during the continuous professional life of
the teacher.
In-service education may consist of a carefully planned sustained work over a lengthy period leading to further
qualification in the form of an advanced certificate, diploma, degree etc e.g. diploma course in special
education. It may equally involve short courses for acquainting the practicing teacher with the latest
innovations in the curriculum in particular subject areas e.g. new approaches methodology etc. It keeps teachers
abreast with new developments in knowledge.
d) Issues in Teacher Education and the Teaching Profession
The main issues in teacher education include the following:
a) Wastage or attrition - leaving the teaching profession for other better paying employment.
b) Feminization in teaching especially at the pre-school level and primary level.
c) Teacher mobility i.e. transfers from station to station.
d) Issues of policy in recruitment into the teaching profession; most of those recruited may not be
committed and may find it hard to cope with challenges of the job.
e) Schemes of service of teachers are such that upward mobility and professional development of teachers
is not always achievable as desired.
f) Posting and transfer of teachers - teachers especially newly employed may be posted to unfamiliar
places and may be required to stay in those places for a long period without am allowance to opt for
transfer.
g) Balance and integration i.e. between the professional and academic courses.
h) The issue of many unemployed trained teachers. Sometimes these teachers get employed in our
neighbouring countries.
i) The issue of high teacher student ratios especially in primary level of education. This affects quality
teaching.
j) The issue of unresolved teachers' salary increments. The debate on whether to increase teachers'
salaries is still ongoing between the teachers and the government.

CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Definition of Terms and Concepts
a) Curriculum evaluation – Process of establishing the extent to which curriculum objectives have been
achieved.
b) Assessment – Process to check if there is a change in learner’s behavior.
c) Measurement – Means of determining the degree of achievement of a particular objective.
d) Testing – Use of instruments for measuring achievement.
Meaning of Evaluation
Let us start by examining the meaning of the term evaluation.
As with most terms in curriculum studies, there are a variety of definitions given to evaluation. Evaluation,
simply described, is the process of establishing the extent to which the objectives of a program have been
achieved. It can be also be defined as “an objective process for determining the performance of a program.”
Thus, evaluation is a judgemental process, aimed at decision – making. Doll (1992) also defines evaluation as a
broad and continuous effort to inquire into the effects of utilizing educational content and process to meet

38
clearly defined goals.
Yet another definition states that “evaluation is a process of collection and provision of data for the sake of
facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development. (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992, p. 185)
Thus, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data in a systematic manner for the purpose of
assessing quality, effectiveness and worth of a program. The process of curriculum development and
implementation should raise issues like:-
ü What are the objectives of the program? Are these objectives relevant to the needs of the individual and
society?
ü Can these objectives be achieved?
ü What are the methods being used to achieve these objectives?
ü Are the methods the best alternatives for achieving these objectives?
ü Are there adequate resources for implementing a curriculum?
Let us now examine other terms associated with evaluation.
There are certain terms that are closely related with evaluation. These include assessment, measurement and
testing.
Assessment, Measurement and Testing in relation to Evaluation
The above four terms are closely related. It is necessary for you to be able to distinguish between them.
Following is a brief explanation for each term.
Assessment: is that process which will show whether there has been a change in students behaviour. (Note:
Learning can be defined as change of behaviour in a desired direction).
The change revealed through assessment can be given a value by quantifying procedures that can be referred to
as educational measurement.
Measurement: is the means of determining the degree of achievement of a particular objective or competency. It
therefore refers to the determination of the actual educational outcomes and comparing these with intended
outcomes as expressed in the objectives of the program.
Measurement gives a quantitative value to the change in students behaviour.
Testing, on the other hand is the use of instruments for measuring achievement.
Measurement and testing are ways and tools of collecting information for assessment and evaluation.
Evaluation: In the above context is the process of giving value judgement based on the information gathered
through measurement and testing.

Monitoring versus Evaluation

We shall now highlight the difference between the two terms, which are closely related.
What is monitoring? It is the continuous review of progress of planned activities. Put differently, it is the
routine, daily, weekly or monthly assessment of ongoing activities and progress. Monitoring focuses on what is
being done.
It is centred on two questions:
1) Is the curriculum project reaching the specified target population?
2) Are the various practices and intervention efforts undertaken as specified in the curriculum project design?
Monitoring is important in examining the inputs and outputs. Indeed it can be considered as “Process
evaluation”. Monitoring thus helps to ensure that the implementation is on course.
Evaluation, in relation to monitoring is the episodic assessment of the overall achievement. It examines what has
been achieved, or what impact has been made.
Purposes of the Evaluation
Evaluation should serve the following purposes:
a) Individual Students
- To discover what the students have learnt (knowledge, skills, attitudes and adjustment etc)
- The child status in class.
- To discover where the child needs help, the nature of the help, his/her areas of strength.
- Data necessary to guide each child’s all round growth and development.
b) Classroom Purposes
Evaluation should provide data enabling the teacher to determine the effectiveness of teaching. It should help in
answering questions such as:
- Which of the objectives have been achieved?
- Are the methods and activities relevant and practicable?
- Is re-teaching necessary?
c) Curriculum Materials
Are they relevant, usable, appropriate and affordable?
d) Schools - Wide Purposes
- Asses the overall effectiveness of the institutional program.
- Reveal over and under- emphasis in individual classrooms.
- Reveal learning areas needing more attention throughout the school.
- Assist the school administration and staff in planning for institutional improvement.
- Provide data useful for school wide guidance program.
e) Community
What are the attitudes and inputs of the community to the curriculum and to the curriculum development
process?
Essentially, evaluation ensures that strengths and weaknesses are detected at an early stage thus saving time,
resources and frustration and increase the chances of success of a program.

11.4 Types of Evaluation

As pointed out in the summary, there are various types of evaluation. Let us examine some of them, pre-
assessment, formative, summative evaluation and impact evaluation.
Brief details of each of them follow.
Pre-assessment
This is the process that helps to determine whether the students possess the prerequisite knowledge and skills to
enable them proceed with new material. This is useful at the beginning of a new course; beginning of a new year
in school. It is also useful for a new teacher posted in a class he/she has not handled before.

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Formative Evaluation
Formation evaluation is that which takes place during the implementation of a curriculum project or program. It
therefore guides and promotes the development of the program, by providing data for its improvement.
Note: Formative evaluation should take place at all stages of curriculum development and implementation.
Summative Evaluation refers to evaluation carried out at the end of a program. It facilitates major decisions
about whether to continue with the program as it is; expand it, modify it or stop it all together depending on the
extent of success or failure of the program.
Impact evaluation is an aspect of summative evaluation; it establishes the impact of the program on the
beneficiaries or recipients of the program, and the community in general.
Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation
There are a variety of proposals in curriculum literature on what constitutes criteria for evaluation. Following is
one example. Curriculum evaluation can be judged by: consistency of evaluation with objectives of project;
comprehensiveness, validity and reliability, and continuity. Each of those criteria is briefly discussed hereafter.
Consistency with objectives i.e. Curriculum evaluation should assess and measure the attainment of the
objectives of the curriculum. The various levels of learning objectives need to keep in mind as per blooms
taxonomy, i.e. knowledge; comprehension; application; analysis; synthesis; and evaluation.
Also, the various domains need to be kept in mind i.e. cognitive, affective and psychomotor. For example, from
a ‘civic education curriculum, one affective domain objective could be “Learners should display appropriate
attitudes towards national patriotism.”
The process of evaluation should look for evidence that such attitudes have been developed e.g. Concept of
education for good citizenship is often evaluated in terms of knowledge of the government structure or
knowledge of civics. This is inadequate.
Also, practical skills (psychomotor) in Home Science, Agriculture, Biology etc. are often evaluated through
checking for knowledge of facts on the topics; not the actual practice. This again is inadequate.
Comprehensiveness
All the objectives of the curriculum should be evaluated. Often only the cognitive domain is tested; through
recall of facts. To test for comprehensiveness, one could carry out:
• An evaluation of the broad administrative and general aspects of the education systems with the aim
of finding out how good the education system is; how relevant the program is.
• Evaluation pertaining to course improvement through assessment of instructional methods instructional
materials to establish those that are satisfactory and those which are not;
• Evaluation related to individuals learners; to identify their needs and to help one plan better for the learning
process.
• Feedback to the teachers, to find out how well they are performing;
Evaluation thus serves as a diagnostic tool for remedial teaching to improve pupils learning.
Validity and reliability
Validity: This criterion answers the question “Do the evaluation instruments used e.g. examinations and tests
measure the function they are intended to measure?”
Reliability: Consistency with respect to time i.e. reliable instruments should give same results when
administered at different times.
Continuity
Evaluation should be a continuous process; an integral part of the curriculum development process and
classroom instruction. Hence, provide continuous feedback on weaknesses and strengths; for remedial action to
be taken.
Another set of widely shared evaluation criteria that is applicable in any field are:
Relevance, Efficiency, Effectiveness, Impact and Sustainability
Relevance: This indicates the value of the intervention or program in relation to other
Stakeholders need, national priorities, international partners’ policies, including the millennium development
goals, National development plans in the various countries etc.
Efficiency – answers the question; “Does the program use the resources in the most economical manner to
achieve its goals.”
Effectiveness – Is the activity achieving satisfactory results in relation to stated objectives?
Impact – What are the results of the intervention, intended and unintended; positive and negative – including
social, economic, environmental effects on individuals, institutions and communities?
Sustainability – This addresses the issue: “Are the activities and their impact likely to continue when external
support is withdrawn, and will it be more widely replicated and adopted.” For example if a country institutes
“Free Primary Education” as is currently the case in Kenya and many other African countries, with heavy donor
support, is this likely to continue in the future.
11.5 The Role of Teachers in Curriculum Evaluation
As pointed out earlier, curriculum evaluation refers to the process of collecting data in a systematic manner for
the purpose of assessing quality, effectiveness and worth of a program. For evaluation to be carried out
effectively the teacher has to be involved in the process. Teachers should provide data on the progress of
students and of materials. Teachers are best placed to judge the quality of materials, the depth to which the
topics have been or should be dealt with and the sequencing of the topics. They should be required to document
their experiences and those of the learners. Teachers should therefore have skills for observing and documenting
their observations, constructing appropriate tests and examinations, and reporting their findings in a systematic
manner. These skills need to be provided during pre-service or teacher development programs, which are
discussed in Activity VI.
Field officers and educational administrators also have a key role to assist the teachers and to coordinate the
teachers’ contributions in the area of evaluation. The subject panels that are organized at local levels in some
countries can, if properly utilized, be a very effective system of initiating and sustaining teacher participation in
this process. Through subject panels many more teachers can be incorporated in curriculum development and
evaluation than is possible through the National panels operated at curriculum development institutions in the
various countries. A few questions can be discussed on the role of teachers in curriculum development and
evaluation. These are:
i) How effectively are the teachers involved in curriculum evaluation?
ii To what extent are teachers providing feedback to the curriculum Coordinators at the national curriculum
development institutions?
iii) Are curriculum coordinators seeking information from the teachers?

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iv)To what extent is the feedback from the teachers incorporated in the curriculum and curricular materials?
v) Do teachers have adequate skills, time and resources for observing, testing, measuring, gathering other
relevant data and documentation?
vi How well are teachers prepared for developing curriculum and implementing new curricular?
vii) How coordinated is the flow of information between teachers, field officers, inspectorate, teacher training
institutions and the National Examination Bodies?
Involvement of teachers in curriculum development and evaluation could, in the long-run lead to relevant, cost
effective and self –sustaining education programs.
CURRICULUM INNOVATION
What is Curriculum Innovation?.
This is planned deliberate introduction of something new Idea, item or practice) to the curriculum to make it
more relevant and appropriate to the user. It is normally done systematically in order to achieve specific goals.
Factors leading to curriculum innovation
Social Factors
Certain social factors may lead to curriculum innovation. Tribal intolerance in a society could lead to
introduction of certain values in the curriculum to enhance tribal tolerance. In Kenya for example, the study of
contemporary issues was introduced.
In all subjects taught in primary schools, in the year 2003 under this topic issues such as tribalism and
corruption are discussed.
Other social problems addressed in the current curriculum in Kenya include HIV/AIDS, Single parenthood,
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Drug Abuse, Prostitution, Street families among others.
Economic Factors
The economic factors in a country have a significant impact on its curriculum.
The main reason behind the introduction of 8-4-4 system of education
In Kenya in 1981 was to solve unemployment. In this system of education vocational subjects were to be
emphasized in order to lead to self-reliance
Thus, reducing the unemployment rates in Kenya.
However, despite the good intensions, other economic factors inhibited the implementation of the 8-4-4 system.
The economic status of Kenya at the time did not allow adequate budgetary allocation for provision of relevant
facilities and equipment for the teaching of vocational subjects therefore; parents had to dip their hands dipper
into their pockets to pay more school fees to allow the facilities to be put into place. This made the system very
unpopular right from its inception.

Political Will
There is a strong relationship between political will and curriculum innovation.
For any innovation to be undertaken successfully, the political leaders must be in favour of it as they determine
the budgetary allocation for such an innovation to be implemented.
There is therefore need for curriculum developers to seek to work harmoniously with the politicians in order to
introduce specific changes in the curriculum successfully.
Technological Factors
Technology advancements necessitate curriculum innovation. The Kenyan Government is currently encouraging
the use of information communication technology sectors. This has led to the introduction of computers at all
levels of education. The learning of computer has been introduced in secondary schools to ensure learners are up
to date with current advancement in information communication Technology. The form four candidates in
Kenya are also allowed to use a calculator, which was not allowed in earlier years. This is due to
acknowledgement of advancement in technology
Epistemological Factors
There is more knowledge which is being discovered on a daily basis. This knowledge
Influences what is taught, why it is taught how it is taught and how what is taught is evaluated.
For example, the increased knowledge in Information Communication Technology has led to the teaching of
computers in educational institutions, the use of computers in teaching is being introduced, and soon,
examinations will be done and assessed through the internet, once various educational institutions introduce
electronic learning.
Physical Environment
The rapid changes in the physical environment may necessitate curriculum innovation. The decrease in
vegetation cover and deforestation has enlarged desertification in Kenya. Such changes lead to introduction of
specific topics in
Curriculum to deal with these rapid changes. Some of the new innovations include the deliberate focus on ways
of enhancing farming in Arid and Semi Arid Areas and specific ways of addressing other challenges faced in
these areas.
Models of Curriculum Innovation
There are several approaches or models which can be used in innovating a curriculum.
We will discuss four of such models proposed by Havelock(1969)
1. Research Development and Diffusion Model
This is a highly organized and rational approach to innovation in which activities are done in a logical and
sequential manner. A good example of such a model is Kenya Institute of Education.
This model has the following characteristics:
(a) A basic research unit with a project team responsible for collecting data concerning the need for
innovation and producing prototype materials.
(b) Field Trials (piloting) in a number of schools to find the effectiveness of the innovation and the
prototype materials,
(c) Mass production of materials offer the assessment of field trial process,
(d) The implementation of the innovation which involves the use of protested materials.
In this kind of a model, the basic research unit plays a critical role of determining the kind of innovation to be
introduced after which dissemination to the rest of the country occurs.
The advantage of this model is that the research unit is talents and with expertise, therefore quality is
guaranteed. The field trials relevant and reliable.
The main disadvantage is that there is a high initial cost of research, production of material, and training of
teachers. Also, due to high centralization teachers and other stakeholders are involved in a limited way.

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 Implementation

Research Mass
Development Mass Diffusions
protype materials production

Fig 9: Research Development and Diffusion Model.

2. Social Interaction Model (SIM)

Social Interaction Model emphasizes the diffusion of massages or information
from person to person. A person becomes aware of something new information, spreads to his colleagues who
also gets interested and finally the administrators are corned to adopt the innovation .The innovation is spread
through the natural process of hear an idea and spread it.
However, the approach is slow, unplanned for and unreliable.
3. Problem Solving Model
This approach is based as the principle that innovation is necessitated by a need to solve a problem. The user is
the teacher, who identifies a problem, translates it into a program, the problem is diagnosed solutions evaluated,
then the innovation which seems to offer best solutions is implemented.
The advantage of this approach is that it user friendly, it is flexible and innovation is geared towards
meeting the specific needs of the user.
The disadvantage is that it is local, limited in size, material and quality. It may not be
Based on sound theory of education. It may be cumber one and may consume much of the teacher's time.
4. Linkage Model
This model is an effort to draw the strengths of the three above mentioned models. It combines all aspects of the
3 models by using linkages agencies between teachers and curriculum developers. The linkages include
teachers, centers, colleges, university, regional resource centres among others.
In these linkages, teachers are supported through seminar workshops and conferences. Feedback is also gotten
from them.
How does Curriculum change differ from Curriculum Innovation?
Curriculum change refers to general alteration of curriculum due to various factors such as social, economic,
physical, political technological, epistemological, among others.
However, curriculum innovation refers to specific planned introduction of ideas or practices to the curriculum.

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