DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING SKILLS PRACTICALS LAB

MANUAL (R2021)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AARUPADAI VEEDU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Vinayaka Nagar,

Rajiv Gandhi Salai, (Old Mahabalipuram Road),

Paiyanoor-603 104.
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING SKILLS PRACTICALS LAB

MANUAL (R2021)

Prepared by
B. SELVA BABU
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING/AVIT
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING SKILLS PRACTICALS LAB (UG)

A. BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Buildings:
1. Study of plumbing and carpentry components of residential and industrial buildings, Safety aspects.
Plumbing Works:
2. Study of pipeline joints, its location and functions: valves, taps, couplings, unions, reducers, elbows in
household fittings.
3. Preparation of plumbing line sketches for water supply and sewage works.
4. Hands-on-exercise: Demonstration of plumbing requirements of high-rise buildings.
Carpentry using Power Tools only:
5. Study of the joints in roofs, doors, windows and furniture.
6. Hands-on-exercise: Wood work, joints by sawing, planning and cutting.
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING SKILLS PRACTICALS LAB (UG)

B. BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Tee – Fitting.
2. Vee – Fitting.
3. Preparation of a mould for a single piece pattern.
4. Preparation of a mould for a split piece pattern.
5. Half- Lap Joint in Carpentry.
6. Dove Tail Joint in Carpentry.
7. Lap Joint – Welding.
8. Butt Joint – Welding.
ENGINEEERING SKILLS PRACTICES LAB
A.BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING
CARPENTRY
EX :1 - CARPENTRY DATE:
INTRODUCTION
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden articles and
components such as doors, windows, Furniture etc. Carpentry involves cutting, shaping
and fastening wood and other materials together to produce a finished product.
Preparation of joints is one of the important operations in wood work.
Joinery denotes connecting the wooden parts using different points such as lap
joints, mortise and tenan joints, bridle joints, etc.

TIMBER
Timber is the material used for carpentry. It is the name given to the wood
obtained from well grown trees called exogenous trees. Timber is made suitable for
engineering purposes by sawing into various sizes.

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER
 It is easily available
 It is lighter and stronger to use
 It responds well for polishing and painting
 Suitable for sound proof construction
 It is easy to work with tools
 It is very economic

Classification of Timber
1. SOFT WOOD
 It is obtained from trees having long needle shaped leaves
 It is light in weight
 It is easy to work
 It is relatively less durable
 It has good tensile resistance and poor shear resistance
 It has straight fibers and fine texture
 It is widely used for construction
2. HARD WOOD
 It is obtained from trees having broad leaves
 It is heavier in weight and dark in colour
 It is difficult to work
 It is highly durable
 Its fibres are quiet close and compact
 It has both tensile and shear resistance
 It widely used for doors, windows and furnitures
 STUDY OF CARPENTRY TOOLS
Carpentry tools are used to produce components to an exact size. The types of carpentry tools
are as follows.

1. Marking tools 2.Measuring tools 3. Holding tools

4. Cutting tools 5.Planning tools 6.Boring tools
7. Striking tools 8.Miscellaneous tools

MARKING TOOLS
Accurate marking is important in carpentry to produce components to exact
size.
1. Marking gauge
It consists of a square wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock on it. On the
stem, a marking pin is attached which is made up of steel. This stem is provided with
a steel nail to scratch the surface of the work.

Marking gauge

2. Mortise gauge
It consists of two pins; the distance between the pins is adjustable. It is used to
draw parallel lines on the stock.

Mortise gauge
3. Try Square
The engineer’s try-square is composed of two parts, the stock and the blade. They
are usually made from mild steel with blade being hardened and tempered to resist
damage. The try square is pushed against a straight side of the material. An engineer’s
scriber is then used to scratch a line onto the surface of the material.

4. Scriber
A Scriber is a hand tool used to mark lines on workpieces. This is used instead
of pencil. They consist simply of a rod of high carbon steel with a sharpened point.

5. Spirit level
Spirit levels are used for testing the position of large surfaces. It is used for
testing horizontal position of the workpieces. It is having a glass tube with air bubble.

Spirit level
MEASURING TOOLS
The carpentry measuring tools are used to measure the dimensions in the wood
for exact measurement in cutting.

1. Carpenter’s steel rule

Large measurements can be made by steel rule. It is also suitable for measuring
circumference of curved surfaces.

Steel Ruler
HOLDING TOOLS
The carpentry holding tools are shown in figure

1. Carpentry vice or Bench vice

A carpentry vice is the common work holding device. It consists of one fixed
jaw and one movable jaw. It’s one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other
is movable by means of a screw and a handle.

2. Bench stop
It is a simple straight flat plank of wood having two projected rectangular
sections of wood screwed on opposite side of the plank. The work is placed in such a
way that it is always butting against the projected portion so as to resist the work from
moving.

3. G-clamp
G-clamp is made up of malleable iron with acme threads of high quality steel
.It can be used for clamping small work when gluing up.
CUTTING TOOLS
1. Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There is different type of saws, designed
to suit different purpose. A saw is specified by the length of its tooled edge. The
following saws are used in the carpentry section.

Rip Saw
The blade of rip saw is either straight or skew-backed. The teeth are so set that
0
the cutting edge of this saw makes a steeper angle about 60
Cross Cut saw
This is similar in shape of a rip saw. It is used to cut across the grain of the stock.
0
The correct angle for cross cutting is 45 .The teeth are so set that the saw kerfs is wider
than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut without sticking.

Tenon or back saw

A tenon saw is used for fine and accurate work. It consists of a very fine blade,
which is reinforced with a rigid steel back. The teeth are shaped like those of cross cut
saw.
2. Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made
in various blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50mm. Most of the wood chisels are made
into tang type, having a steel shank which fits inside the handle.

Firmer chisels
These are general purpose chisels and are used either by hand pressure or by a
0
mallet. The blade of a firmer chisel is flat and their sloping face is at an angle 15 to
0
52 .
Mortise Chisels
These are general purpose chisels and are used for cutting mortises above 9mm
wide. The blade of a firmer type is in which they have a thicker section and a stronger
neck. By means of this chisel we can apply more Leverage to remove waste wood from
the mortise.

Bevel chisels or Dove tail chisel

A bevel chisel is similar in construction to the firmer chisel. Its edges are
bevelled to allow access to difficult corners. It has a blade with a bevelled back due to
which it can enter sharp corners for finishing in dove tail joints.

PLANNING TOOLS

In general, planes are used to produce flat surfaces on wood. The cutting blade
used in a place is very similar to a chisel. The blade of a plane is fitted in a wood or
metallic block at an angle.

1. Jack plane
Jack plane which is about 35 cm long is used for general planning. A Jack
plane that is about 20 to 25cm long is used for smoothening the stock. It can follow
even the slight depressions in the stock better than the jack plane. Smooth plane is
used after using the jack plane.
 Jack plane

2. Rebate plane
A rebate plane is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of
a piece of wood which to generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors. A
plough plane is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix handle in a door.

BORING TOOLS
Boring tools are used to make holes in wood. Common types of boring tools
are as follows.
1. Gimlet
It has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for boring holes with the hand
pressure.

2. Hand drill
A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight and may
be conveniently used. The drill bit is clamped in the end.

3. Ratchet brace
It consists of crank made of steel, wooden handle in the middle, head at the top
and chuck at the bottom. The bit rotates when the crank is rotated by hand.
STRIKING TOOLS

1. Hammers
The cross peen hammer is mostly used for positioning small nails. The head is
tightly held in the handle with the help of iron wedges. The claw hammer is effective
in removing very large nails and also for driving the nails using the other end of the
hammer.

2. Mallet
A mallet is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied,
which may be the case in making deep rough cuts. A steel hammer should not be used
for this purpose, as it may damage the chisel.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

1. Pincers
They are made up of steel with a hinged joint and are used for pulling out small
nails from wood.

2. Screwdrivers
Screwdriver is used for driving wood screws into wood or unscrewing them.
The screwdriver used in carpentry is different from the other common types.
3. Rasp file
A rasp file is a file used for finishing the surface of wood. The rasp has sharp
cutting teeth on its surface for this purpose. The file is used for removing rasp marks
end finally the scratches left by the fix are removed with the scraper and glass paper.

4. Oil stone
This is an essential flat used for providing sharp edges on cutting tools. The oil
stones may be artificial or natural stones. The carborundum is the best artificial stones
where as the Arkansas are the natural stones.
 CARPENTRY PROCESSES

In a carpentry shop, a number of operations are performed to get the finished

workpiece. The different types of process performed in a carpentry shop can be
classified as follows.

1. Marking and Measuring

It is the process of setting of dimensions on wooden pieces to obtain the
required shape. This is the first step for further carpentry operations. The marking
operation is done with use of marking tools. Before marking, one end is planed for
reference.

2. Sawing
Sawing is the process of cutting wood to the required shape and size such as
straight, inclined or curved. Sawing can be done along the grains or across the grains.
In sawing, wooden work is fixed in a vice and wood is moved up to prevent vibrations
during sawing.

3. Planning
Planning is an operation of obtaining, smooth, dimensionally true surface of
wood by using a planer. It is done along the grains. So, smooth surface is achieved. This
process can be also called facing or edging.

4. Chiseling
It is the process of cutting a small stock of wood to produce required shapes.

5. Mortising and Tenoning

Mortising is the process of producing a mortise, i.e. a rectangular or square holes
and recesses in wooden pieces. A tenon is a projected piece of wood that fits into the
corresponding mortise. This process is done by using mortise chisels and a mallet.

6. Boring
Boring is the process of producing through holes or blind holes in wooden piece.
This process can be done straight or inclined according to the type of work. The small
holes are produced by using bradawl and gimlet, whereas large holes are produced by
using braces, drills.

7. Grooving
Grooving is the process of making grooves tonguing is the process of producing
corresponding projections of wood for fitting into grooves. Grooving and tonguing
operation can be seen in drawing boards, floor boards and partitions. Grooving is done
with a plough plane tool, and tonguing is done with a moulding plane tool.
PLANING
Ex.No: 2 PLANING Date:

Aim
To plane the given work piece for the required shape.

Material Required
Soft wood of size 305x55x55 mm.

Tools Required
1. Jackplane
2. Bench vice
3. Try square
4. Marking gauge
5. Steel rule
6. Tenon saw
7. Rip saw
8. Firmer chisel
9. Mallet

Procedure
1. The given work piece is firmly clamped in the bench vice and any two
adjacentsurfaces are planed to get right angles using the jack plane.
2. Using the try square, the right angles of planed faces are checked.
3. Now the other two surfaces are planed to get smooth surface.
4. Based on the planed surfaces, the markings are made on the two sides by using
marking gauge.
5. After marking, the work piece is planed such that it should have
requireddimensions.
6. Finally, the finished job is checked for required size using the steel rule and try
square.

Result
Thus the required Dimension is obtained by planing.
 TEE LAP - JOINT

All dimensions in ‘mm’

Ex. No:3 TEE LAP - JOINT Date

Aim
To make a Tee lap –joint from the given work piece.

Material Required
Soft wood of size 300x50x50 mm.

Tools Required
1. Jackplane
2. Bench vice
3. Try square
4. Marking gauge
5. Steel rule
6. Tenon saw
7. Rip saw
8. Firmer chisel
9. Mallet

Procedure
1. The given work piece is firmly clamped in the carpentry vice and any two
adjacentsurfaces are planed to get right angles using the jack plane.
2. Using the try square, the right angles of planed faces are checked.
3. Now the other two surfaces are planed to get smooth surface.
4. The work piece is cut into two pieces by using the rip saw.
5. Using the steel rule and marking gauge, marking is done for T-joint on the two
halves.
6. In one half, the unwanted portions of wood are removed by using the tenon saw and
firmer chisel. The same procedure is done for the other half of work piece.
7. Using the jack plane, the other two faces of work piece is planed to the
requiredsize.
8. The finished two pieces are assembled to getter to form the T-joint.
9. Finally, the finished job is checked for required size and shape using the steel rule
and try square.

Result
Thus the required Tee lap -joint is obtained.
 CROSS LAP JOINT

All dimensions in ‘mm’

Ex. No:4 CROSS LAP JOINT Date

Aim
To make a Cross lap joint from the given work piece.

Material Required
Soft wood of size 300x50x50 mm.

Tools Required
1. Jackplane
2. Bench vice
3. Try square
4. Marking gauge
5. Steel rule
6. Tenon saw
7. Rip saw
8. Firmer chisel
9. Mallet

Procedure
1. The given work piece is firmly clamped in the Bench vice and any two
adjacentsurfaces are planed to get right angles using the jack plane.
2. Using the try square, the right angles of planed faces are checked.
3. Now the other two surfaces are planed to get smooth surface.
4. The work piece is cut into two pieces by using the rip saw.
5. Mark the dimensions for the Cross lap joint on the two pieces using the steel rule
and marking gauge.
6. Remove the unwanted portions as per the drawing and assemble to check proper
fitting.

Result
Thus the desired Cross lap joint is obtained.
DOVETAIL HALVING JOINT

All dimensions in ‘mm’

Ex.No:5 DOVETAIL HALVING JOINT Date

Aim
To make a dovetail halving joint from the given work piece.

Material Required
Soft wood of size 300x50x50 mm.

Tools Required
1. Jackplane
2. Bench vice
3. Try square
4. Mortise gauge
5. Mallet
6. Firmer chiesel

Procedure
1. The given work piece is firmly clamped in the Bench vice and any two
adjacentsurfaces are planed to get right angles using the jack plane.
2. Using the try square, the right angles of planed faces are checked.
3. Now the other two surfaces are planed to get smooth surface.
4. The work piece is cut into two pieces by using the rip saw.
5. Mark the dimensions for the dovetail joint on the two pieces using the steel rule and
marking gauge.
6. Remove the unwanted portions as per the drawing and assemble to check proper
fitting.

Result
Thus the desired dovetail halving joint is obtained.
PLUMBING
EX:6 PLUMBING DATE:
INTRODUCTION
Plumbing deals with the laying of a pipeline. A craftsman may be perfectly
proficient with the hammer, saw and other tools, but the faces difficulties with leaking
pipes and overflowing toilets. Many people rush to a plumber on seeking a tripping pipe,
but a person with a little knowledge of the sanitary system can control this problem
easily, saving time and, one with help of few tools.

STUDY OF PLUMBING TOOLS

The tools used by a plumber can be classified as follows
1. Pipe wrench 2. Pipe vice 3. Pipe cutter
4. Hacksaw 5. Dies

1. Pipe wrench
A pipe wrench is used for holding and turning the pipes, rods and machine parts.
Wrenches are classified as follows.1. Fixed wrenches 2. Adjustable wrenches.

2. Pipe vice
A pipe vice is fitted on the work bench. This has a set of jaws to grip the pipe
and prevent it from turning while cutting, threading and fitting of bends, couplings
etc. The yoke vice is commonly used in plumbing used in plumbing practice.
3. Pipe cutter
The pipe cutter mainly consists of three wheels which are hardened with sharp
cutting edges along their periphery. Of these three wheels, one can be adjusted to any
desired distance to accommodate different size of pipes. After adjusting the cutter on a
pipe, it is around the pipe, so that the cutter wheels cut the pipe along a circle as shown
in the figure.

4. Hack saw
A hacksaw is used for cutting metal rods, bars, pipes, etc.

5. Dies
It is used for cutting external thread on pipes. Threads are produced in various
shape and sizes which are used for fitting inside a handle.
PIPE FITTINGS
Pipe fittings are made up of wrought iron. The size of pipe fitting is designated
by the size of the pipe on which it fits. Some of the common pipe fittings are shown
in figure

1. Coupling
It is a short a cylindrical sleeve with internal threads throughout. A couplings is
used for joining two pipes in a straight and bend where at least one pipe can be turned.

2. Union
A union is used for joining two pieces of pipes, where either can be turned. It
consists of three parts, two parts joint can be screwed, in to two pipe ends, and the third
on for tightening called centre part.
 3. Nipple
A nipple is a short piece of pipe with external threads at both ends. It is used to
make up the required length of a pipe line.

4. Elbow
An elbow is to make an angle between adjacent pipes.

5. Tee
A tee is a fitting that has one side outlet at a right angle to the run. It is used for
a single outlet branch pipe.

6. Reducer
It is used to connect two different sized of pipes

7. Plug
It is used to screw on to a threaded opening, for closing it temporarily.

VALVES
Valves are used for regulating the flow of fluid through a pipe. The commonly
used valves in plumbing’s are
1. Gate valve 2.Globe valve 3. Plug valve
4. Check valve 5. Air relief valve.
TYPES OF PIPE JOINTS

1. Bell and spigot joints

A connection between two sections of pipe i.e. the straight spigot end of one
section is inserted into the flared out end of the adjoining section. The joint is sealed by
a sealing component.

2. Flanged joints
A flanged joint helps to connect and disconnect two pipes as per the need. A
similar example is as shown in figure.

3. Threaded joints
Threads are formed in a pipe, flange coupling to connect them with each other
and these joints are called threaded joints.
4. Flexible joints
The flexible joints are generally used to connect between a washbasin and an
angle valve.

5. Expansion joints
Expansions joints are specially designed in pipeline where a small extension of
pipe is required.
LAYOUT OF A SIMPLE PIPE CONNECTION
PIPE THREADING
Ex.No:7 PIPE THREADING Date

Aim
To cut the threads at the end of the given PVC pipe by using a pipe die and to
make the Plumbing.

Material Required
1. PVC pipe
2. Elbows
3. Tap
4. Valve
5. Clamps

Tools Required
1. Pipe vice
2. Die
3. Die stock
4. Measuring scale

Procedure
1. The required diameter pipes were picked and cut to the desired length
2. The cut pipe is securely clamped in the pipe vice
3. Proper size of die stock and die is selected. It is inserted and aligned into the stock
4. The die is positioned at one end of the pipe, Pressure is applied and at the same
time die is slowly turned by turning stock handle
5. Once the threading is started, applying pressure is stopped and die is continued to
turn till one thread projects through the die
6. In the same manner the ends of the pipes are threaded and checked with an elbow
7. Then the elbow and tap are fitted and clamped on the wall

Result
Thus the threads cut at the ends of PVC pipe to make plumbing
PIPE LINE TO WASH BASIN
Ex.No:8 PIPE LINE TO WASH BASIN Date

Aim
To prepare a pipe line connection to the wash basin.

Material Required
1. PVC pipe
2. Elbows
3. Flexible pipe
4. Valve
5. Clamps
6. Wash basin with tap
7. Tee Joint

Tools Required
1. Pipe wrench
2. Hammer
3. Screw driver
4. Hack saw

Procedure
1. Mark location of the wash basin and fix it
2. Fix the wash basin tap in the required position
3. Make the tee and elbow connections in the main pipe line to connect it to the wash
basin and taps
4. Fix the gate valve near the water tank
5. Connect all the pipe fittings as per the diagram
6. The water tank was filled with water and the gate valve was opened slowly to
supply water into the pipe line
7. The tap were opened to check its function

Result
Thus the pipe line connection to the wash basin is made.
 ENGINEEERING SKILLS PRACTICE LAB
B. BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1
 1. FITTING

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions when
components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair
component which must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This involves a certain
amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain amount of
bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter.

The term ‘bench work’ refers to the production of components by hand on the bench, where as
fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the required fit.

Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and
considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping, scraping,
sawing drilling, and tapping.

1.2 HOLDING TOOLS

1.2.1 Bench vice

The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most commonly used vice in a fitting shop.
The bench vice is shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Bench Vice

It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw
and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces the
work against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel.

Serrations on the jaws ensure a good grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect
finished surfaces, gripped in the vice. The size of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws.

The vice body is made of cast Iron which is strong in compression, weak in tension and so
fractures under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.

1.2.2 V-block

V-block is rectangular or square block with a V groove on one or both sides opposite to each
other. The angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V-block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical work
securely, during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for this the bar is faced
longitudinally in the V groove and the screw of V-clamp is tightened. This grip the rod is firm with its
axis parallel to the axis of the V groove.
1.2.3 C-Clamp

This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v-block or any other surface, when gripping is
required.
Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round in shape and
directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end. The working principle of this clamp is the same as that of
the bench vice.

Figure 1.2: V-block Figure 1.3: C-clamp

1.3 MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

1.3.1 Surface plate

The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work
piece. It is also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking table. The degree
of the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop or for using in an
inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or Granite stone. It is specified
by length, width, height and grade. Handles are provided on two opposite sides, to carry it while shifting
from one place to another.

Figure 1.4: Surface plate Figure 1.5: Angle plate

1.3.2 Try square

It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle. In practice, it is used for checking the squareness
of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required. The blade of the Try square is
made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is specified by the
length of the blade.
1.3.3 Scriber

A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally ground at 12 oto 15o. It is
generally available in lengths, ranging from 125mm to 250mm.It has two pointed ends the bent end is
used for marking lines where the straight end cannot reach.

Figure 1.6: Try square Figure 1.7: Scriber

1.3.4 Odd leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel liners
from a finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed like a divider
and the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the hinge point.

1.3.5 Divider

It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the
measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting lines. It
is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size is specified by
the length of the leg.

Figure 1.8: Odd leg caliper and divider

1.3.6 Trammel

Trammel is used for drawing large circles or arcs.

1.3.7 Punches

These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly. These
are made of high carbon steel.

A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as 150’ 12.5mm). It consists of a
cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the top of it. At the other end, it is ground to
a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened over a length of 20 to 30mm.

Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to
provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conical
point having 60° included angle.

Centre punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having
90°included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

Figure 1.9: Punches

1.3.8 Calipers

They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are used
with the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of Case
hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the legs of the caliper
are set against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance between the legs is
measured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another desired place. These are
specified by the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper, the legs are bent inwards and in the case
of inside caliper, the legs bent outwards.

Figure 1.10: Calipers

1.3.9 Vernier Calipers

These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also be
used as a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the other jaw
is made part of a vernier scale.

Figure 1.11: Vernier caliper

1.3.10 Vernier Height Gauge

The Vernier Height gauge clamped with a scriber. It is used for Lay out work and offset scriber
is used when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is standing. The
accuracy and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier calipers. It's size is
specified by the maximum height that can be measured by it. It is made of Nickel Chromium Steel.

Figure 1.12: Vernier Height gauge

1.4 CUTTING TOOLS

1.4.1 Hack Saw

The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin
blade, firmly in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter. Hacksaw
blades have a number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having lesser number of
teeth per cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze. Blades having larger
number of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel and cast Iron.
Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all hard blades are made
of H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used to cut
hard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting and forcing them into the
work while sawing. Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only the teeth are hardened
and the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by unskilled or semiskilled
persons.

Figure 1.13: Hacksaw frame with blade

The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a ‘set of teeth’. These
make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.
 Figure 1.14: Set of teeth

1.4.2 Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from
0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened and
tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internal stresses in a
metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.

Figure 1.15: Flat chisel

1.4.3 Twist Drill

Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High speed steel. Both straight and
taper shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary self – centering
drill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits into a corresponding tapered bore provided in the drilling
machine spindle.

Figure 1.16: Twist drills

1.4.4 Taps and Tap wrenches

A tap is a hardened and steel tool, used for cutting internal thread in a drill hole. Hand Taps are
usually supplied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a tapper tap,
intermediate tap and plug or bottoming tap. Taps are made of high carbon steel or high speed steel.
 Figure 1.17: Taps and tap wrench

1.4.5 Dies and die holders

Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or split
type. They are fixed in a die stock for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of Steel or High
Carbon Steel.

Figure 1.18: Dies and die holder

1.4.6 Bench Drilling Machine

Holes are drilled for fastening parts with rivets, bolts or for producing internal thread. Bench
drilling machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose. Twist drills, made
of tool steel or high speed steel are used with the drilling machine for drilling holes.

Following are the stages in drilling work

1. Select the correct size drills, put it into the check and lock it firmly

2. Adjust the speed of the machine to suit the work by changing the belt on the pulleys. Use high speed
for small drills and soft materials and low speed for large diameter drills and hard materials.

3. Layout of the location of the pole and mark it with a centre punch.

4. Hold the work firmly in the vice on the machine table and clamp it directly on to the machine table.

6. Put on the power, locate the punch mark and apply slight pressure with the Feed Handle. Once
drilling is commenced at the correct location, apply enough pressure and continue drilling. When
drilling steel apply cutting oil at the drilling point.

7. Release the pressure slightly, when the drill point pierces the lower surface of the metal. This
prevents the drill catching and damaging the work or drill.

8. On completion of drilling retrace the drill out of the work and put off the power supply.

Figure 1.19: Bench drill

1.5 FINISHING TOOLS

1.5.1 Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting tool
called reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of which is
slightly smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is used for finishing
the hole to the correct size.
Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left hand spiral flutes so that, it is
prevented from screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made straight
so that it can be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on the square end
of the reamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is given a slight tapper at
its working end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is rotated only in clock wise
direction and also while removing it from the whole.

Figure 1.20: Reamers

1.5.2 Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a metal
part. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surfaces.
On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to fit into a
wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel in width and
tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double cut teeth. On the faces, single
cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known as a safe edge.

Figure 1.21: Parts of a hand file

 Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth. The
figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

Figure 1.22: Single and double cut files

Needle file

Figure 1.23: Types of files

1.6 MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS

1.6.1 File card

It is a metal brush, used for cleaning the files, to free them from filings, clogged in between the
teeth.

Figure 1.24: File card

1.6.2 Spirit level

It is used to check the leveling of machines.

1.6.3 Ball Peen Hammer

Ball Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their
weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end, particularly
used for riveting.

Figure 1.25: Ball peen hammer

1.6.4 Cross Peen Hammer

It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,
riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.

1.6.5 Straight Peen Hammer

This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in line with the hammer handle. It is used
for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.

Figure 1.26: Cross peen hammer Figure 1.27: Straight peen hammer
1.6.6 Screw driver
A screw driver is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in
different lengths and diameters. The grinding of the tip to the correct shape is very important.
A star screw driver is specially designed to fit the head of star screws. The end of the blade is
fluted instead of flattened. The screw driver is specified by the length of the metal part from handle to
the tip.

Figure 1.28: Screw drivers

1.6.7 Spanners

A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.
There are many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size of the
spanner denotes the size of the bolt on which it can work.

Figure 1.28: Spanners

1.7 Safe Practice

The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in bench work and fitting shop, with
respect to the tools used

1. Keep hands and tools wiped clean and free of dirt, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer to use than
slippery tools.

2. Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.

3. Wear leather shoes and not sandals.

4. Don’t wear loose clothes.

5. Do no keep work tools at the edge of the table.

6. Position the work piece such that the cut to be made is close to the vice. This practice prevents
springing, saw breakage and personal injury.

7. Apply force only on the forward (cutting) stroke and relieve the force on the return stroke while
sawing and filing.

8. Do not hold the work piece in hand while cutting.

9. Use the file with a properly fitted tight handle.

10. After filing, remove the burrs from the edges of the work, to prevent cuts to the fingers.

12. Do not use vice as an anvil. While sawing, keep the blade straight; otherwise it will break

13. Do not use a file without handle.

14. Clean the vice after use.

1.8 Models for Practice

Prepare the models, as per the dimensions and fits shown in below.

Figure 1.30: Dovetail Fitting Figure 1.31: V fitting

Figure 1.32: Half round fitting Figure 1.33: Cross fitting

Figure 1.34: Drilling and Tapping

Ex.No: SQUARE FILING
Date :

Aim: -
To file the given two Mild Steel pieces in to a square shape of 48 mm side as shown in Figure 1.35.

Tools required: -
Bench vice, Set of Files, Steel rule, Try‐square, Vernier caliper, Vernier height gauge, Ball peen
hammer, Scriber, Dot punch, Surface plate, Angle plate and Anvil.

Sequence of operations: -
1. The dimensions of the given piece are checked with the steel rule.
2. The job is fixed rigidly in a bench vice and the two adjacent sides are filed, using the rough flat file
first and then the smooth flat file such that, the two sides are at right angle.
3. The right angle of the two adjacent sides is checked with the try‐square.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surface of the work piece.
5. The given dimensions are marked by scribing two lines, with reference to the above two datum sides
by using Vernier height gauge, Angle plate and Surface plate.
6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
7. The two sides are then filed, by fitting the job in the bench vice; followed by checking the flatness of
the surfaces.
As the material removal through filing is relatively less, filing is done instead of sawing.

a. Raw material b. Finished job

Figure 1.35: Square filing

Result: -
The square piece of 48 mm side is thus obtained by filing, as discussed above.
Ex.No: SQUARE -JOINT
Date :

Aim: -
To make a Square fit from the given mid steel pieces.

Tools required: -
Bench vice, Set of Files, Steel rule, Try square, Vernier caliper, Vernier height gauge, Ball peen
hammer, Scriber, Dot punch, Surface plate, Angle plate and Anvil.

Sequence of operations: -
1. The dimensions of the given piece are checked with the steel rule.
2. The job is fixed rigidly in a bench vice and the two adjacent sides are filed, using the rough flat
file first and then the smooth flat file such that, the two sides are at right angle.
3. The right angle of the two adjacent sides is checked with the try square.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surface of the work piece.
5. The given dimensions are marked by scribing two lines, with reference to the above two datum
sides by using Vernier height gauge, Angle plate and Surface plate.
6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
7. The two sides are then filed, by fitting the job in the bench vice; followed by checking the
flatness of the surfaces.
As the material removal through filing is relatively less, filing is done instead of sawing.

Figure 1.36: Square filing

Result: -
The required square fitting is thus obtained, by following the stages, as described above.
Ex.No: T-FITTING
Date :

Aim
To make a T-fitting from the given mid steel pieces.

Tools required: -
1. Bench vice
2. Steel rule
3. Try square
4. Ball peen hammer
5. Scriber
6. Hack saw with blade
7. Dot punch and Centre punch
8. Surface plate
9. Vernier height gauge
10. Rough and smooth flat files
11. Flat chisel and triangular file

Material required: -
Mild steel (M.S) plate of size 48 x 34–2 Nos.

Sequence of Operations: -
1. Filing
2. Checking flatness and square ness
3. Marking and measuring
4. Punching
5. Sawing
6. Chipping
7. Finishing
 Figure 1.37: T-Fitting

Procedure: -
1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked with a steel rule.

2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and the outer mating edges are filed by using rough
and smooth files.

3. The flatness, straightness and squareness i.e. right angle between adjacent sides are checked with
help of Try-square.

4. Chalk is then applied on the surfaces of the two pieces.

5. The given dimensions of the T-fitting are marked with help of vernier height gauge carefully.

6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.

7. Using the hack saw, the unwanted portions are removed.

8. Using the flat chisel, the unwanted material in the piece Y is removed.

9. The cut edges are filed by the half round file.

10. The corners of the stepped surfaces are filed by using a square or triangular file to get the sharp
corners.

11. The pieces (X and Y) are fitted together and the mating is checked for the correctness of the fit.

Safety precautions: -
1. Care is taken to see that the marking dots are not crossed, which is indicated by the half of the
punch dots left on the pieces.

2. Apply pressure in forward direction during hack sawing.

3. Don’t rub steel rule on the job.

4. Fix blade in hack saw frame with correct tension.

5. During hack sawing the coolant like water or lubricating oil is to be used.

6. Use precision instruments like vernier calipers and vernier height gauge carefully.

7. Files are to be cleaned properly after using.

Result: -
The T –fitting is done successfully.
Ex.No: V FITTING
Date :

Aim: - To make a V-Fit from the given mid steel pieces.

Materials required:
Mild steel flat (40*40*3mm)

Tools and equipment required:

1. 6”try square
2. 6”scriber
3. Odd leg caliper
4. Blades (12 TPI)
5. 10”rough file
6. 10”smooth file
7. 10”triangle file
8. Knife Edge file
9. Dot punch
10. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib)
11. Steel Rule
12. 12”hack saw Frame

Sequence of Operations:
1. Filling
2. Marking
3. Punching
4. Sawing
5. Filling
6. Finishing

Procedure:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled with rough and smooth files and checked with try square for straightness.
3. An adjacent edge is also filled such that it is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of the
marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.
 Figure 1.38: V Fitting

Result:
The V –fitting is done successfully
Ex.No: DOVE TAIL FITTING
Date :

Aim:-
To make a Dove Tail-Fit from the given mid steel pieces.

Materials required:
Mild steel flat (40*40*3mm)

Tools and equipments required:

1. 6”try square
2. 6”sriber
3. Odd leg caliper
4 Blades (12 TPI)
5.10”rough file
6.10”smooth file
7.10”triangle file
8. Knife Edge file
9. Dot punch
10. Ball peen hammer (0.5 Ib)
11. Steel Rule
12. 12”hack saw Frame

Sequence of Operations:
1. Filling
2. Marking
3. Punching
4. Sawing
5. Filling
6. Finishing

Procedure:
1. The given mild steel flat piece is checked for given dimensions.
2. One edge of given is filled with rough and smooth files and checked with try square for straightness.
3. An adjacent edge is also filled such that it is square to first edge and checked with try square.
4. Wet chalk is applied on one side of the flat and dried for marking.
5. Lines are marked according to given figure, using odd leg caliper and steel rule.
6. Using the dot punch, punches are made along the marked lines.
7. The excess materials removed from the remaining two edges with try square level up to half of the
marked dots.
8. Finally buts are removed by the filling on the surface of the fitted job.

Precautions:
1. The perpendicularity of face ends edges is checked perfectly by using try square.
2. Finishing is given by using only with smooth files.
3. Marking is done without parallax error.
 Figure 1.39: Dove Tail Fitting

Result:
The Dove Tail–fitting is done successfully.
FITTING VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Name the work piece material?

2. In how many ways you can classify fitting tools?
3. What is hacksaw blade material?
4. What is the purpose of Triangular file?
5. Name different types of files?
6. What is difference between chipping and Filing?
7. Name different types of Chisels?
8. What is C-clamp?
9. What is the importance of Try – square?
10. Mention the difference between dot punch and centre punch?
11. What is the difference between inside and outside calliper?
12. What is the purpose of Round file?
13. What is difference between single and double cut files?
14. Why dot punching is necessary?
15. What is the purpose of using scriber?
16. Compare Hand saw & Hack saw?
17. Where we can use half round file?
18. Material removal takes place while moving the hack saw in (forward / backward)
which direction?
19. When & where smooth and rough files are used?
20. Name the tools used to perform chipping & Filing operations?
21. In how many ways you can classify files?
22. Name the sequence of operations in fitting?
23. What are the tools used to perform above operations?
 2.CARPENTRY

2.1 Introduction
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a
marketable form of wood and ends with finished products. It deals with the building work, furniture,
cabinet making. Etc. joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all wood
works. It deals with the specific work of carpenter like making different types of joints to form a
finished product.

2.2 Timber
Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn
into various sizes to suit building purposes.
The word, ‘grain’, as applied to wood, refers to the appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut
surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and to make it strong, the timber must be so cut,
that the grains run parallel to the length.

2.2.1 Timber Sizes

Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the common shapes
and sizes. a. Log b. Balk c. Post d. Plank e. Board f. Reapers
1. A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in thickness.
2. Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non‐standard sizes, which do not confirm to the above
shapes and sizes.

2.2.2 Classification of Timber

Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in
general are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and Hard woods.
Soft woods are obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal. Woods obtained
from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are known as hard wood, but it is
highly durable.
Another classification of woods is based on the name of the trees like teak, babul, shisham,
neem, kair, chir, etc.

2.2.3 Seasoning of Wood

A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed, the timber is
likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content under
controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned wood should be
used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter. Further, it ensures that the
wood will not distort after it is made into an object.
2.2.4 Characteristics of Good Timber: -
The good timber must possess the following characteristics:
a. It should have minimum moisture content, i.e., the timber should be well seasoned.
b. The grains of wood should be straight and long.
c. It must retain its straightness after seasoning.
d. It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
e. It should be free from knots or cracks.
f. It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g. It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h. During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.
2.3 Marking and Measuring Tools
Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to
exact size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring tools
that are required in a carpentry shop.

2.3.1 Steel Rule and Steel Tape

Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked
scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large
measurements, such as marking on boards and checking the overall dimensions of the work.

Figure 2.1: Steel rule and Steel tape

2.3.2 Marking Gauge
It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a square
wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted a marking pin, made of
steel. The stock is set at any desired distance from the marking point and fixed in position by a screw. It
must be ensured that the marking pin projects through the stem, about 3 mm and the end are sharp
enough to make a very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In this, it is possible to adjust the
distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.

a. Marking gauge b. Mortise gauge

Figure 2.2: Marking gauges

2.3.3 Try square
It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of planed surfaces. It consists
of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for checking the planed surfaces for flatness.
Its size varies from 150 to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less accurate when
compared to the try square used in the fitting shop.

Figure 2.3: Try square

2.3.4 Compass and divider

Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces of the wood.
2.3.5 Scriber or marking knife
It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel having one end pointed and the other end
formed into a sharp cutting edge.

2.3.6 Bevel
It is used for laying out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is adjustable and may be
held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it can be used in much the same way
as a try square. A good way to set it to the required angle is to mark the angle on a surface and then
adjust the blade to fit the angle.

Figure 2.4: Compass and Divider Figure 2.5: Scriber and Bevel

2.4 Holding Tools

2.4.1 Carpenter's vice

Figure 2.6 shows the carpenter's bench vice, used as a work holding device in a carpenter shop.
Its one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the other is movable by means of a screw and a handle.
The Carpenter's vice jaws are lined with hard wooden' faces.

Figure 2.6: Carpenter’s vice Figure 2.7: C-clamp

2.4.2 C-clamp

Figure 2.7 shows a C-clamp, which is used for holding small works.

2.4.3 Bar cramp

Figure 2.8 shows a bar cramp. It is made of steel bar of T-section, with malleable iron fittings
and a steel screw. It is used for holding wide works such as frames or tops.

Figure 2.8: Bar cramp

2.5 Planing Tools

Planing is the operation used to produce flat surfaces on wood. A plane is a hand tool used for
this purpose. The cutting blade used in a plane is very similar to a chisel. The blade of a plane is fitted in
a wooden or metallic block, at an angle.

2.5.1 Jack Plane

It is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is about 35 cm long. The cutting iron
(blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature. It is used for quick removal of material on rough
work and is also used in oblique planning.

2.5.2 Smoothing Plane

It is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should have a straight cutting edge. It is about
20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight depressions in the stock, better than the jack
plane. It is used after using the jack plane.

2.5.3 Rebate Plane

It is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of a piece of wood, which is
generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.
2.5.4 Plough Plane
It is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a door. Figure 2.9 shows the various
types of planes mentioned above.

Figure 2.9: Types of planes

2.6 Cutting Tools

2.6.1 Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to suit
different purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.

2.6.1.1 Cross cut or hand saw

It is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerf will be
wider than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut, without sticking.

2.6.1.2 Rip saw

It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw makes a steeper
angle, i.e., about 60° whereas that of crosscut saw makes an angle of 45° with the surface of the stock.
2.6.1.3 Tenon saw
It is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains. It is used for cutting tenons and
in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and thin cuts. The blade of this saw is very thin and
so it is stiffened with a thick back steel strip. Hence, this is sometimes called as back saw. In this, the
teeth are shaped like those of cross cut saw.

2.6.1.4 Compass saw

It has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is used for heavy works. It is mostly
used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an open type wooden handle.

Figure 2.10: Types of saws

2.6.2 Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made in various
blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in different blade lengths. Most of the wood
chisels are made into tang type, having a steel shank which fits inside the handle. These are made of
forged steel or tool steel blades.

Figure 2.11: Parts of chisel

2.6.2.1 Firmer chisel

The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger than other chisels. It is a
general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure or by a mallet. The blade of a firmer chisel is
flat, as shown in below figure.
2.6.2.2 Dovetail chisel

It has a blade with a beveled back, as shown in below figure, due to which it can enter sharp
comers for finishing, as in dovetail joints.

2.6.2.3 Mortise chisel

It is used for cutting mortises and chipping inside holes, etc. The cross section of the mortise
chisel is proportioned to withstand heavy blows during mortising. Further, the cross section is made
stronger near the shank.

a. Firmer b. Dovetail c. Mortise

Figure 2.12: Types of chisels

2.7 Drilling and Boring Tools

2.7.1 Carpenter’s brace

It is used for rotating auger bits, twist drills, etc., to produce holes in wood. In some designs,
braces are made with ratchet device. With this, holes may be made in a corner where complete
revolution of the handle cannot be made. The size of a brace is determined by its sweep.

2.7.2 Auger bit

It is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During drilling, the lead screw of
the bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate pressure on the brace. The helical flutes on the
surface carry the chips to the outer surface.

2.7.3 Hand drill

Carpenter's brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill is used for
drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight and may be
conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is clamped in the chuck at its end and is rotated by a
handle attached to gear and pinion arrangement.
2.7.4 Gimlet
It has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large diameter holes with the hand
pressure.

Figure 2.13: Drilling tools

2.8 Miscellaneous Tools

2.8.1 Mallet
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, which may be the case in
making deep rough cuts. Steel hammer should not be used for the purpose, as it may damage the chisel
handle. Further, for better control, it is better to apply a series of light taps with the mallet rather than a
heavy single blow.

2.8.2 Pincer
It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling out small nails
from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are beveled and the outer faces are plain. The end of one
arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The beveled jaws and the claw are used for pulling out small
nails, pins and screws from the wood.

2.8.3 Claw Hammer

It has a striking flat face at one end and the claw at the other, as shown in figure. The face is
used to drive nails into wood and for other striking purposes and the claw for extracting relatively large
nails out of wood. It is made of cast steel and weighs from 0.25 kg to 0.75 kg.

2.8.4 Screw Driver

It is used for driving screws into wood or unscrewing them. The screw driver of a carpenter is
different from the other common types, as shown in below figure.
The length of a screw driver is determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the blade
increases, the width and thickness of the tip also increase.

2.8.5 Wood rasp file

It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, finish fillets
and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose. This file is
exclusively used in wood work.

2.8.6 Bradawl
It is a hand operated tool, used to bore small holes for starting a screw or large nail.
 a. Mallet b. Pincer c. Claw hammer d. Bradawl

e. Wood rasp file f. Screw driver

Figure 2.14: Miscellaneous tools

2.9 Wood Joints

There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite use and
requires lay in out, cutting them together. The strength of the joint depends upon amount of contact area.
If a particular joint does not have much contact area, then it must be reinforced with nails, screws or
dowels. The figure 2.15 shows some commonly used wood joints.

a. Butt b. Dowell c. Dado d. Rabbet

e. Lap f. Mortise and Tenon g. Miter

Figure 2.15: Common wood joints

2.9.1 Lap joints

In lap joints, an equal amount of wood is removed from each piece, as shown in figure 2.16. Lap
joints are easy to layout, using a try square and a marking gauge. Follow the procedure suggested for
sawing and removing the waste stock. If the joint is found to be too tight, it is better to reduce the width
of the mating piece, instead of trimming the shoulder of the joint. This type of joint is used for small
boxes to large pieces of furniture.

Figure 2.16: Lap joints

2.9.2 Mortise and Tenon Joints

It is used in the construction of quality furniture. It results in a strong joint and requires
considerable skill to make it. The following are the stages involved in the work.
a. Mark the mortise and tenon layouts.
b. Cut the mortise first by drilling series of holes within the layout line, chiseling out the waste stock
and trimming the corners and sides.
c. Prepare the tenon by cutting and chiseling.
d. Check the tenon size against the mortise that has been prepared and adjust it if necessary.

Figure 2.17: Mortise and Tenon joints

2.9.3 Bridle Joint
This is the reverse of mortise and tenon joint in form. The marking out of the joint is the same
as for mortise and tenon joint. This joint is used where the members are of square or near square section
and unsuitable for mortise and tenon joint.

Figure 2.18: Bridle joint

2.10 Safe Practice

The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in carpentry shop, with respect to the
tools used
1. Tools that are not being used should always be kept at their proper places.
2. Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp edged tools while you are using them.
3. Use only sharp tools. A dull tool requires excessive pressure, causing the tool to slip.
4. Wooden pieces with nails, should never be allowed to remain on the floor.
5. Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in cross cutting and ripping.
6. Test the sharpness of the cutting edge of chisel on wood or paper, but not on your hand.
7. Never chisel towards any part of the body.
8. Do not use chisels where nails are present. Do not uses chisel as a screw driver.
9. Do not use a saw with a loose handle.
10. Always use triangular file for sharpening the teeth.
11. Do not use a saw on metallic substances.
12. Do not use mallet to strike nails.
13. Do not use plane at the places, where a nail is driven in the wood.
Ex.No: T LAP JOINT
Date :

Aim: -
To make a T lap joint as shown in Figure 2.19, from the given reaper of size 50 x 35 x 250 mm.

Tools required

Carpenter's vice, steel rule, jack plane, try square, marking gauge, 25 mm firmer chisel, cross cut saw, tenon
saw, scriber and mallet.

Sequence of operations: -

1. The given reaper is checked to ensure its correct size.

2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenter's vice and any two adjacent faces are planed by the
jack plane and the two faces are checked for squareness with the try square.
3. Marking gauge is set and lines are drawn at 30 and 45 mm, to mark the thickness and width
of the model respectively.
4. The excess material is first chiseled out with firmer chisel and then planed to correct size.
5. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using scale and marking gauge
6. Using the cross‐cut saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces, followed by
chiseling and also the parts X and Y are separated by cross cutting, using the tenon saw
7. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to the exact lengths.
8. A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is obtained.
9. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.

Figure 2.19: T Lap Joint

Result: -
The T Lap Joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
Ex.No: DOVE TAIL LAP JOINT
Date :

Aim: -

To make a dovetail lap joint as shown in Figure 2.20, from the given reaper of size 50 x 35 x 250 mm.

Tools required: -

Carpenter’s vice, steel rule, jack plane, try square, marking gauge, 25 mm firmer chisel, cross cut saw,
tenon saw, scriber and mallet.

Sequence of operations; -

1. The given reaper is checked to ensure its correct size.

2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenter's vice and any two adjacent faces are planed by the
jack plane
3. And the two faces are checked for squareness with the try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are drawn at 30 and 145 mm, to mark the thickness and width of
the model respectively.
5. The excess material is first chiseled out with firmer chisel and then planed to correct size.
6. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using scale and marking gauge.
7. Using the cross cut saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces, followed by chiseling
and also the parts X and Yare separated by cross cutting, using the tenon saw.
8. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to exact lengths.
9. A fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is obtained.
10. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.

Figure 2.20: Dove Tail Lap Joint

Result: -
The dovetail lap joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
Ex.No: HALF LAP JOINT
Date :

Aim: -
To make a half lap joint as shown in Fig, from the given reaper of size 50 x 35 x 250 mm.

Tools required: -
Carpenter's vice, steel rule, jack plane, try square, marking gauge, 25 111m firmer chisel, 6 mm
mortise chisel, Cross cut saw, tenon saw, scriber and mallet.

Sequence of operations: -
1. The wooden pieces are made into two halves and are checked for dimensions.
2. One side of pieces is planned with jack plane and for straightness.
3. An adjacent side is planned and checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 40-50 mm to make the thickness and width according to given
figure.
5. The excess material is planned to correct size.
6. Using tenon saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces.
7. The excess material in X is chiseled with mortise chisel.
8. The excess material in Y in chiseled to suit X.
9. The end of both the pieces is chiseled to exact lengths.

Precautions: -
1. Reaper should be free from moisture.
2. Marking is done without parallax error.
3. Care should be taken while chiseling.
4. Matching of x and y pieces should be tight.

Figure 2.21: Half Lap Joint

Operation to be Carried Out:
1. Planning
2. Marking
3. Sawing
4. Chiseling
5. Finishing

Result:
The cross half lap joint is made success fully.
Ex.No: Mortise and Tenon joint
Date :

Aim: -
To make a mortise and tenon joint as shown in Fig. 2.22, from the given reaper of size 50 x 35 x 250 mm.

Tools required: -
Carpenter's vice, steel rule, jack plane, try square, marking gauge, 25 111m firmer chisel, 6 mm
mortise chisel, Cross cut saw, tenon saw, scriber and mallet.

Sequence of operations: -
1. The given reaper is checked to ensure its correct size.
2. The reaper is firmly clamped in the carpenter's vice and one of its faces are planed by the jack plane and checked for
straightness.
3. The adjacent face is then planed and the faces are checked for squareness with the try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are drawn at 30 and 45 mm, to mark the thickness and width of the model
respectively.
5. The excess material is first chiseled out with the firmer chisel and then planed to correct size.
6. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Yare then marked using the scale and marking gauge.
7. Using the cross cut saw, the portions to be removed in part Y (tenon) is cut, followed by chiseling.
8. The material to be removed in part X (mortise) is carried out by using the mortise and firmer chisels.
9. The parts X and Yare separated by cross cutting with the tenon saw
10. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to exact lengths.
11. Finish chiseling is done wherever needed so that, the parts can be fitted to obtain a near tight joint.

Figure 2.22: Mortise and Tenon joint

Result: -
The mortise and tenon joint is thus made by following the above sequence of operations.
CARPENTARY VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Classification of Timber?
2. What are the applications of wood?
3. What are the defects in wood?
4. Which tool is used to check squareness?
5. What is the difference between marking and mortise gauge?
6. Which type of saw is used for small and mortise gauge?
7. Which is C-clamp? What are the applications of C-clamp?
8. Give the name of Chisel for making Dove – tail joints?
9. What type of hammer is used for removing nails?
10. What issued for making small holes?
11. What issued for making big holes?
12. Which type of file is used for carpentry for finishing?
13. To strengthen the joints which is used?
14. Which point is used for construction of quality furniture?
15. In lap points how much amount of wood is removed from each piece?
16. Which point is used for widening points?
17. Which are used for alignement?
18. What is the application of carpenter’s vice?
19. What is Bar Comp?
20. What is Mortise gauge?
21. What is jackplane?
22. What is difference between Ripsaw and tenon saw?
23. For making holes in wood how many types of drills are uses?
24. Claw hammer is used for which purpose?
25. Bevel is used for which purpose in carpentry shop?
 3. WELDING
3.1 Introduction

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different metals/alloys,
with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal
takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc,
electric resistance or by chemical reaction.

Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components. It is
therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most of the critical components. The
welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing process in industries. Some of the typical
applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore
platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one

type of welding process or the other. However,
some are easier to weld than others. To compare
this ease in welding term ‘weldability’ is often
used. The weldability may be defined as property
of a metal which indicates the ease with which it
can be welded with other similar or dissimilar
metals.

Elements of welding process used with common Terminology of welding process

welding joints such as base metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening toe and root are depicted
in Figure.

3.2 Edge preparations

For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge preparations may be
used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.

3.3 Welding joints

Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two major kinds
namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under.
1. Lap weld joint

2. Single-Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is
not recommended for most work. The single lap has very
little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily for
joining two cylinders that fit inside one another.
3. Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the
disadvantage that it requires twice as much welding.

4. Tee Fillet Weld

This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an alternative design is possible.

5. Butt weld joint

a. Single-Vee Butt Weld
It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the technique being used,
the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
b. Double-Vee Butt Weld
It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on both sides of the plate.
The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending on the technique
being used.

3.3 Welding Positions

As shown in Figure, there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
a. Flat or down hand position
b. Horizontal position
c. Vertical position
d. Overhead position

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the upper side of
the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

Horizontal Welding Position

In horizontal position, the plane of the work piece is vertical and the deposited weld head is horizontal.
This position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.

Vertical Welding Position

In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a vertical
surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of the force of gravity
on the molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position
The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here the
pull of gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

3.4 Arc Welding Processes

The process, in which an electric arc between
an electrode and a work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base metals, is called
an arc welding process. The basic principle of arc
welding is shown in Figure1. However, the basic
elements involved in arc welding process are
shown in Figure2. Most of these processes use
some shielding gas while others employ coatings or
fluxes to prevent the weld pool from the
surrounding atmosphere. Fig1.The basic principle of arc welding

11) Channel for cable

1) Switch box. protection.
2) Secondary terminals 12) Welding cable.
3) Welding machine. 13) Chipping hammer.
4) Current reading scale. 14) Wire brush.
5) Current regulating hand 15) Earth clamp.
wheel. 16) Welding table
6) Leather apron. (metallic).
7) Asbestos hand gloves. 17) Job.
8) Protective glasses strap
9) Electrode holder.
10) Hand shield
Fig2.The basic elements of arc welding

3.5 Arc Welding Equipment

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure. However, some
common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure. Few of the important components of
arc welding setup are described as under.
3.5.1 Arc welding power source
Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc welding, each having its
particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained from generators driven by electric motor
or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are
predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity supply is available. They have to
step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit welding voltage (50-90
volts). The following factors influence the selection of a power source:

a. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded

b. Available power source (AC or DC)
c. Required output
d. Duty cycle
e. Efficiency
f. Initial costs and running costs
g. Available floor space
h. Versatility of equipment
3.5.2 Welding cable

Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the electrode
holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are insulated copper or
aluminum cables.

3.5.3Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and
conducting current to it. These are usually matched to the size of the
lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of the arc welder.
Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Fig. Electrode Holder
Amps.
3.5.4 Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or
alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is set up
between electrode and work piece. Welding
electrodes are classified into following types-

(i) Consumable Electrodes Fig. Parts of a electrode

(a) Bare Electrodes
(b)Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b)Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode starts
melting when arc is struck between the electrode and work piece. Thus consumable electrode itself acts
as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them.
Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This
coating on melting performs many functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination,
arc stabilizers etc.

Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure tungsten or
alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the electrode
length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the
electrode material during welding.

The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure
tungsten, throated or zirconated tungsten.

3.5.5 Hand Screen

Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.

3.5.6 Chipping hammer

Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.

3.5.7. Wire brush

Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. Earth Clamp Fig. Chipping Hammer Fig. WireBrush

3.5.8. Protective clothing

Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat to the
body.

3.6 Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these general safety
recommendations which are given as under.

1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe lines
containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors
shall not be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall be
mechanically strong and electrically adequate for the required current.

2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light
also; consequently the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a
special filter glass to protect eyes

3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the welder

4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by
sparks and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:

5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.

6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk and
thighs while seated he is doing welding.

7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required

8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.

9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.

10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe

working order at all times

11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.

12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the
usual service conditions.
EXPT NO: BUTT JOINT

Aim:
To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S pieces by arc welding.

Material Required:

Mild steel plate of size 100X50X5 mm – 2 No’s

Welding Electrodes:
M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm

Welding Equipment:
Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350

Tools and Accessories required:

1. Rough and smooth files
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer

Sequence of operations:

1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. One edge of each piece is believed, to an angle of 300, leaving nearly ¼ th of
the flat thickness, at one end.
3. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated
slightly for better penetration of the weld.
4. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper
value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the
two pieces together; first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
7. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform
movement. During the process of welding, the electrode is kept at 15 0 to 250
from vertical and in the direction of welding.
8. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
9. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
DRAWING:

Result:
The single V-butt joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned
above.
EXPT NO: LAP JOINT

Aim:
To make a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.

Material Supplied:

Mild steel plate of size 100X50X5 mm – 2 No’s

Welding Electrodes:
M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm

Welding Equipment:
Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V, 3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps

Tools and Accessories required:

1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces
overlapped one over the other as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a
proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work
pieces are tack-welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
 Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

DRAWING:

Result:
The Lap joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned.
EXPT NO: CORNER JOINT

Aim:
To make a corner joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.

Material Supplied:

Mild steel plate of size 100X50X5 mm – 2 No’s

Welding Electrodes:
M.S electrodes 3.1 mm X350 mm

Welding Equipment:
Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V 3 phase supply, amps up to 350

Tools and Accessories required:

1. Rough and smooth files.
2. Protractor
3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder
5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs
7. Face shield
8. Apron
9. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping
9. Cleaning

Procedure:

1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the L shape is
formed. The tongs are made use of for the purpose.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a
proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work
pieces are tack-welded at both the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the corner joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
 8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

Result:
The corner joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned
WELDING SECTION VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by welding?

Welding is the process of joining metals or nonmetals (plastics) together using filler metal or
without filler metals/materials

2. What is the name of item coated over a welding rod?

Flux (Flux consists of cellulose, mineral silicates, iron powder, Rutile, Potassium aluminum
silicate)

3. What is the purpose of it?

In order to reduce the atmospheric action on molten metal pool

4.What is the name of tool to remove the slag from welded portion?
Chipping hammer

5. Can you tell the approximate temperature while welding Mild steel item?
Above 2000 degree Celsius

6. What is meant by straight line welding?

Welding on a straight line over a metal (only for the study purpose)

7. What is meant by Butt welding?

Butt welding is the process by which metals are joined together to the edges.

8. What is the advantage of 'V' Butt joint?

V butt welding is done to avoid projection over the surface

9. What is the difference between welding and soldering?

Welding is the process of joining the metals together usually the same parent metals, but in
the case of soldering the filler material is usually a compound of lead, tin and small amount of
zinc. The soldering is done below 400 degree Celsius whereas the welding is done above 800
degree Celsius the joining process in between 400 and 800 degree Celsius is called brazing.

10. What is the approximate voltage for welding in AC welding set?

20 to 80 V

11.What are the accessories used in the welding shop?

Hand gloves, Face shield, apron, goggles

12. Name the main tools used in the welding shop?

Chipping hammer, clamps, tongs, wire brush, grinder, punches measuring tools, etc

13.What type of transformer is used in welding shop?

(Step down or step up)- Step down transformer

14. What are the safety precautions to be followed in welding shop?

15. Tell how to weld a petrol tank to prevent the leak?

 FOUNDRY

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Pattern
A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in molding sand and
suitable ramming of molding sand around the pattern is made. The pattern is then withdrawn for
generating cavity (known as mold) in molding sand.

4.1.2 Common Pattern Materials

The common materials used for making patterns are wood, metal, plastic, plaster, wax or Mercury.

4.1.3 Types of Pattern

The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.

1. One piece or solid pattern 2. Two piece or split pattern 3. Cope and drag pattern 4. Three-piece or
multi- piece pattern 5. Loose piece pattern 6. Match plate pattern 7. Follow board pattern 8. Gated
pattern
9. Sweep pattern 10. Skeleton pattern 11. Segmental or part pattern
1. Single-piece or solid pattern: Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints, partings lines
or loose pieces. It is the simplest form of the pattern. Typical single piece pattern is shown in Fig.
4.1.

2. Two-piece or split pattern: When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity,
then solid pattern is split in two parts. Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the
parting line by means of dowel pins. The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the
withdrawal of the pattern. A typical example is shown in Fig. 10.2

Fig 4.1 Single Piece Pattern Fig 4.2 Two Piece Pattern

4.2 Molding Sand

The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of
rocks, and deserts.

Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands contain sufficient
binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable equipments.
4.2.1 Binder
In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance. The inorganic group includes clay
sodium silicate and port land cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite,
Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite. Binders included in the organic group are
dextrin, molasses, cereal binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc.
Organic binders are mostly used for core making.

Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the most common. However, this clay alone
cannot develop bonds among sand grins without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
4.2.2 Additives
Additives are the materials generally added to the molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand. Some common used additives for enhancing the properties of molding and core
sands are discussed as under.
1. Coal dust: Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing atmosphere during casting.
2. Corn flour: It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is used to increase the
collapsibility of the molding and core sand
3. Dextrin: Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that behaves also in a manner similar
to that of the corn flour. It increases dry strength of the molds.
4. Sea coal: Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which positions its place among the
pores of the silica sand grains in molding sand and core sand
5. Wood flour: This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand; its relatively
long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from making contact with one another.
6. Silica flour: It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up to 3% which increases
the hot strength and finish on the surfaces of the molds and cores.

4.2.3 Kinds of Moulding Sand

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are described
below.

1. Green sand: Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay
and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous.
2. Dry sand: Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and
core is called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability.
3. Loam sand: Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water.
4. Facing sand: Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to
the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial
coating around the pattern and hence for mold surface is given by this sand. This sand is subjected
severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high strength refractoriness.
5. Backing sand: Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill
the whole volume of the molding flask.
6. Parting sand: Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to
stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate
without clinging
7. Core sand: Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This
is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil,
resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.

4.2.4 Properties of Molding Sand

The basic properties required in molding sand and core sand are described as under.

1. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high

temperatures without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly
important characteristic of molding sands. Refractoriness can only be increased to a limited extent
2. Permeability: It is also termed as porosity of the molding sand in order to allow the escape of
any air, gases or moisture present or generated in the mould when the molten metal is poured into
it. All these gaseous generated during pouring and solidification process must escape otherwise
the casting becomes defective
3. Cohesiveness: It is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other within the molding sand.
 4. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient strength
and toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould. For this, the sand grains must be
adhesive, i.e. They must be capable of attaching themselves to another body
5. Dry strength: As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mould, the moisture in the sand
layer adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand layer must have sufficient
strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion of mould wall during the flow of molten metal
6. Flowability or plasticity: It is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It
will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming pressure
evenly all around in all directions
7. Adhesiveness: It is property of molding sand to get stick or adhere with foreign material such
sticking of molding sand with inner wall of molding box.
8. Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified,
the sand mould must be collapsible so that free contraction of the
metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or cracking
of the contracting metal.

4.2.5 HAND TOOLS USED IN FOUNDRY SHOP

Hand riddle: It consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh
equipped with circular wooden frame. It is generally used for
cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as nails, shot
metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power operated riddles are
available for riddling large volume of sand.
Shovel: It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It
is used in mixing, tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by Fig. Showel
hand. It is also used for moving and transforming the molding sand to
the container and molding box or flask.

Fig. Sprue Pin

Fig. Rammers

Rammers: Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand mass in the
molding box to pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
Sprue pin: It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold cavity while
the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.
Trowels: These are used for finishing flat surfaces and comers inside a mould. Common shapes of
trowels are shown as under. They are made of iron with a wooden handle.

Lifter: A lifter is a finishing tool used for repairing the mould and finishing the mould sand. Lifter is also
used for removing loose sand from mould.

Fig. Lifter
Strike off bar: It is a flat bar, made of wood or iron to strike
off the excess sand from the top of a box after ramming.
Fig. Strike off bar
It’s one edge made beveled and the surface perfectly smooth
and plane.
Vent wire: It is a thin steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge
at one end and a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After
ramming and striking off the excess sand it is used to make small Fig. Vent Wire
holes, called vents, in the sand mould to allow the exit of gases and steam during casting.

Slicks: They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are generally used for
repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the pattern
Fig. Slicks
Swab: Swab is shown in Fig. It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening
the edges of sand mould, which are in contact with the pattern surface before
withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away the molding sand from the
mold surface and pattern.
Fig. Swab
Gate cutter: Gate cutter Fig. It is a small shaped piece of
sheet metal commonly used to cut runners and feeding gates
for connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.
Fig. Gate Cutter
Bellows: Bellows gun is shown in Fig. It is hand operated leather made device equipped with compressed
air jet to blow or pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the
surfaces of mold cavities.

Draw spike: Draw spike is shown Fig. It is a tapered steel rod

having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the other.
It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it
withdrawal from the mold.

Sprue Pin: It is a tapered wooden pin, used to make a hole in the

cope through which the molten metal is poured into the mould.

4.2.6 Molding Box:

Moulding box is also called molding flask. It is frame or box of wood or metal. It is made of two parts
cope and drag as shown in figure.
 MOULD FOR A SOLID
EXP: PATTERN Date:

Aim:
To prepare a sand mold, using the given single piece pattern.
Raw Material Required:
Moulding sand, Parting sand, facing sand, baking sand, single piece solid pattern, bottom board,
moulding boxes etc.
Tools Required:
1. Molding board
2. Drag and cope boxes
3. Molding sand
4. Parting sand
5. Rammer
6. Strike-off bar
7. Bellows
8. Riser and sprue pins
9. Gate cutter
10. Vent rod
11. Draw spike
12. Wire Brush
Sequence of operations:

1. Sand preparation
2. Placing the mould flask(drag) on the moulding board/ moulding platform
3. Placing the pattern at the centre of the moulding flask
4. Ramming the drag
5. Placing runner and riser
6. Ramming the cope
7. Removal of the pattern, runner, riser
8. Gate cutting
Procedure:

Mould Making

1. First a bottom board is placed either on the molding platform or on the floor, making the
surface even.
2. The drag molding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag part of the
pattern at the centre of the flask on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Freshly prepared molding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the pattern
to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.
5. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to
compact the sand.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scraped using a flat bar to
the level of the flask edges.
7. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end, vent holes are in
the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases
during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag.
8. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired
10. The cope flask on the top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins of the drag
box.
11. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance of about 50
mm from the pattern. The sprue base, runners and in-gates are also located as shown risers are
also placed. Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the pattern.
12. The moulding sand is then poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess sand
is scraped and vent holes are made all over in the cope as in the drag.
13. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask
14. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
15. The cope is separated from the drag any loose sand on the cope and drag interface is blown off
with the help of the bellows.
16. Now the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and rapping
the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity so that the walls are not spoiled by the
withdrawing pattern.
17. The runners and gates are to be removed or to be cut in the mould carefully without spoiling
the mould.
18. Any excess or loose sand is applied in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the
bellows.
19. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface finish.
20. A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the
mould cavity.
21. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the pins.
22. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal. The liquid metal is allowed to cool and become
solid which is the casting desired.
Result:
The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Single /solid Pattern.
 EXP: MOULD FOR A SPLIT PATTERN

Aim:
To prepare a sand mold, using the given Split-piece pattern.
Raw Material required:
Moulding sand, Parting sand, facing sand, baking sand, pattern, bottom board, moulding boxes.
Tools Required:
1. Molding board
2. Drag and cope boxes
3. Molding sand
4. Parting sand
5. Rammer
6. Strike-off bar
7. Bellows
8. Riser and sprue pins
9. Gate cutter
10. Vent rod
11. Draw spike
12. Wire Brush
Sequence of operations:
1. Sand preparation
2. Placing the mould flask(drag) on the moulding board/ moulding platform
3. Placing the split pattern at the centre of the moulding flask
4. Ramming the drag
5. Placing the pattern at the centre of the moulding flask (Cope box)
6. Placing runner and riser
7. Ramming the cope
8. Removal of the pattern, runner, riser
9. Gate cutting
Procedure:

Mould Making
1. First a bottom board is placed either on the molding platform or on the floor, making the surface even.
2. The drag molding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the drag part of the
pattern at the centre of the flask on the board.
3. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Freshly prepared molding sand of requisite quality is now poured into the drag and on the split-
pattern to a thickness of 30 to 50 mm.

5. Rest of the drag flask is completely filled with the backup sand and uniformly rammed to compact
the sand.
6. After the ramming is over, the excess sand in the flask is completely scraped using a flat bar to
the level of the flask edges.
7. Now with a vent wire which is a wire of 1 to 2 mm diameter with a pointed end, vent holes are in
the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases
during casting solidification. This completes the preparation of the drag.
8. Now finished drag flask is rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
9. Using a slick, the edges of sand around the pattern is repaired and cope half of the pattern is
placed over the drag pattern, aligning it with the help of dowel pins
10. The cope flask on the top of the drag is located aligning again with the help of the pins of the drag
box.
11. Dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern
12. Sprue of the gating system for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance of about 50 mm
from the pattern. The sprue base, runners and ingates are also located as shown risers are also placed.
Freshly prepared facing sand is poured around the pattern.
13. The moulding sand is then poured in the cope box. The sand is adequately rammed, excess sand
is scraped and vent holes are made all over in the cope as in the drag.
14. The sprue and the riser are carefully withdrawn from the flask
15. Later the pouring basin is cut near the top of the sprue.
16. The cope is separated from the drag any loose sand on the cope and drag interface is blown off with
the help of the bellows.
17. Now the cope and the drag pattern halves are withdrawn by using the draw spikes and rapping
the pattern all around to slightly enlarge the mould cavity so that the walls are not spoiled by the
withdrawing pattern.
18. The runners and gates are to be removed or to be cut in the mould carefully without spoiling
the mould.
19. Any excess or loose sand is applied in the runners and mould cavity is blown away using the bellows.
20. Now the facing paste is applied all over the mould cavity and the runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface finish.
21. A dry sand core is prepared using a core box. After suitable baking, it is placed in the mould cavity.
22. The cope is placed back on the drag taking care of the alignment of the two by means of the pins.

23. The mould is ready for pouring molten metal. The liquid metal is allowed to cool and become solid
which is the casting desired.
Step-1: Place Drag part of the pattern on mould board and filled with mould sand

Step -2: Turn drag box upside down and Place cope box over drag box

Step -3: place cope part of the pattern, riser, Sprue, runner in position and filled with
mould sand.
 Step-4: Finally the Mould cavity is produced by removing the pattern.

Result:
The required mould cavity is prepared using the given Split Pattern.
FOUNDRY SECTION VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the main ingredients of good moulding sand?

Silica sand, clay, coal dust/saw dust and traces of magnesium potassium etc

2.What are the main properties required for a good molding sand?
Cohesiveness, adhesiveness, collapse-ability, refractoriness, porosity, flow ability, plasticity, permeability etc

3. Can you tell the name of bottom and top parts of the moulding box?
Drag and cope

4. What are the defects found in a casting?

Blow holes, sand spots, swell, shrinkage, hot tear gas porosity, run outs, shifts etc

5. What is meant by foundry?

Foundry is the place where casting is being done

6. What is the name of item used to smooth the mould cavity?

Graphite powder and plumbago.

7. What is the name of tool used to blow off the loose particles from the mould cavity?
Bellow

8.What is meant by sprue pin?

Sprue pin is used to provide the runner hole through which molten metal is being poured into the mould cavity

9. What is the tool used to compact the moulding sand?

Hand Rammer and peen rammer

10. What is the purpose of draft in pattern?

Draft is the taper provided in the pattern for the easy removal of the pattern from the molding sand.

11. What are the materials to be charged in a cupola furnace?

Coke, lime stone, cast iron, scrap iron etc

12. What is the purpose of laddle in a foundry shop?

Laddle is used to collect the molten metal from the cupola furnace.

13. Why a tapering is provided on the sprue pin?

Sprue pin the portion through which the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, when the molten metal
is poured the velocity of the liquid metal will be going on increasing so a negative pressure will be created around
the liquid metal and the air will be rushing to the mould cavity. This can be avoided if we provide taper on the
sprue pin.

14. What are the main tools used in the Foundry shop?
Shovel, Trowel, Riddle, Gate cutter, Slick, Scooping spoon, Lifter, vent rod, Draw spike,

15. Explain the term Gate related to mould?

Gate is the path way of molten metal to the mould cavity usually cut on the top face of the drag.

16. What is meant by green sand moulding?

17. What is the optimum water content for making a mould cavity.7%

18. What is meant by core and core print?

Core is used for making void space in a casting. core print is the impression in mould cavity where the core
has to be placed
 5. PLUMBING

5.1 Introduction

Plumbing is a skilled trade of working with pipes or tubes and plumbing fixtures. The process is
mainly used for the supply of drinking water and the drainage of waste water, sometimes mixed with
waste floating materials in a living or working place. A plumber is someone who installs or repairs
piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment such as valves, washbasins, water heaters, water
closests, etc. Thus it usually refers to a system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building for the
distribution of water and the removal of waterborne wastes.

The latin word plumbum, means metal lead pipe, is the origin for developing the term
plumbing. Plumbing process was originated during the ancient civilizations such as the greek, Roman,
Persian, Indian and Chinese civilizations as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable
water, and drainage of wastes carried by water.
5.2 Pipes and Their Joints:
Pipes are manufactured by using different types of materials like steel, cast iron, galvanized
iron, brass, copper, aluminum, lead, plastic, concrete, asbestos, etc. They are usually classified
according to the material. They are also grouped as cast, welded, seamless, extruded, etc. For conveying
large quantity of water, cast iron, steel or concrete pipes having large diameter are usually used.
Galvanized iron pipes (GI pipes) are popular for medium and low pressure water supply lines.

Plastic pipes are preferred for household uses at low pressure. Pipes are generally specified by
their inner diameter (Nominal diameter specified in inches). Hence, the pipe fitting size is also based on
this dimension. But for plastic pipes, this rule is not strictly followed because threading is not usually
required for them. For engineering uses, along with the nominal diameter, the pipe thickness is also
specified as light, medium or heavy.

5.2.1 Types of pipe joints:

According to the pipe material, size and application, different methods are used to join pipes. The most
common types of pipe joints are:
1. Screwed pipe joint – For GI Pipes
2. Welded pipe joint – for steel, copper, aluminum and lead pipes
3. Flanged pipe joint – for cast iron and steel pipes
4. Soldered pipe joint – for brass and copper tubes
5. Glued or cemented pipe joint – for PVC pipes

Pipes made of iron (GI Pipes) and brass of small and medium diameters (10 mm to 100 mm) are usually
joined by screwing the pipe specials with internal or external threads. Welding is used to make
permanent joint of medium and large diameter steel pipes. Flanged pipe joints are common in medium
and large diameter pipes of cast iron and steel, along with rubber/CAF (Compressed asbestos fibre)
gaskets. The flanged are screwed to the pipe for smaller diameter but made integral for large diameters.
Pipes of copper and brass are usually joined by soldering.

PVC (poly Vinyl Chloride) pipe is the most popular choice in plastic group. It is rigid and uses thread
and solvent weld (glue) connections. It also can be heat fused. PVC pipes are available in various
pressure ratings for water supply, and are a very choice for landscape irrigation. The reasons for the
popularity are the economy, no corrosion and easiness to work. CPVC is a different type of plastic,
which has an extra chlorine atom in the compound, can be used for the hot water supply, and in
industry.

To join plastic pipes, gluing or cementing method is used. Solvent cement is the gluing material and it
partially melts the surface of the plastic pipe to make the joint. As the glue evaporates within two
minutes, a strong joint is obtained.
Screwed pipe fittings, (pipe specials) are removable or temporary pipe connections which permit
necessary dismantling or reassembly for the purpose of installation, maintenance, cleaning, repair, etc.
The functions of pipe fittings can be broadly classified as:
1. To join two or more pipe lines together
2. To effect change in diameter or direction
3. To close the end of a pipe line

The most common types of screwed pipe fittings used in galvanized iron (GI) pipe lines and plastic
(PVC) pipe lines are shown in Figure 1 (I to 17). A brief description of these fittings is given below

1. Coupler (coupling): Two pipe lines of equal diameter and in axial alignment can be joined by a
coupler (coupling). It is a short sleeve with internal thread.
2. Reducer coupler (Reducer coupling): This is a coupler to join two pipe lines of different diameters
in axial alignment.
3. 900 Elbow: This is a pipe special used or effecting abrupt change in direction through 90°. Internal
threads are provided on both ends. An elbow brings twice the head loss than a bend.
4. 900 Reducer elbow: This is an elbow with outlet diameter less than that of inlet diameter It is used to
join two pipe lines having different diameters and meeting at right angle.
5.Bend: This is a pipe special used to effect gradual change in direction (usually 90°). The two ends of
the bend are externally threaded.
6. Return hand: This bend is used to return the direction of pipe line through 180°.The ends are
internally threaded for fitting the pipe lines.
7. Tee: This pipe special is used to make a branch connection of same diameter to the main pipe line a
right angle. A Tee is internally threaded and it connects three ends of pipes.
8. Reducer Tee: This is a pipe special similar to Tee used to take a branch connection of reduced
diameter from the main pipe line.
9, Cross: This pipe special is used to take two branch connections at right angles to the main pipe line.
The threads are provided internally,
10. Close nipple: A nipple is a short straight piece of pipe with external thread on both ends. A close
nipple is the shortest one of this category with external thread for the full length. They are used to join
two internally threaded pipe specials and valves.
11. Short nipple: A short nipple has the same shape and function of a close nipple, but it has a short
unthreaded portion at the middle of its length for gripping.
12. Short nipple with hexagonal grip: This nipple has an additional hexagonal nut shape at the middle
portion for easy screwing with spanner. It is similar to an ordinary short nipple, except that difference.
13. Hose nipple: A hose nipple is used to connect a hose (flexible pipe-usually plastic or rubber) to a
pipe line. One end of the hose-nipple has a stepped taper to fit the hose, while other end has thread. A
hexagonal nut shape is given to the middle portion for gripping with a spanner.
14. Male plug: A male plug is used to close an internally threaded end of a pipe line or pipe special. It
has external thread and a grip of square shape at the end.
15. Female plug (cap): A female plug is used to close an externally thread end of a pipe or pipe special.
It has internal thread and a grip of square shape at the end.
16. Screwed union: II consists of three pieces as shown in the drawing. The two end pieces have
internal threads at their ends which are connected to the pipe ends. The central hexagonal (or octagonal)
piece (union nut) has internal thread at one end and a collar at the other end. After the end pieces are
screwed on to the pipes, the central piece (union nut) is tightened to draw the end pieces together to get
a water tight joint.
17. Flange: This is a disc type pipe special having threaded hole at the centre for screwing to the
externally threaded end of a pipe line. It will have holes around the central hole at equal angular spacing
(3, 4, 6f or 8 Nos.) for joining to another similar flange or flat surface using bolt or stud.
Example for the use of various pipe fittings in pipe line is given in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1: Various pipe joints.
 Figure 5.2: Application of various joints in the pipe fittings

5.3 Valves and Meters

Valves are used in piping systems to control or stop the flow of liquid or gas. The most common types
of valves used in low pressure water pipe line are:
1. Water tap
2. Water cock
3. Globe valve
4. Gate valve
5. Ball valve
6. Non-return valve
7. Foot valve

5.3.1 Water tap

To collect water from low pressure pipe line, water tap (screw-
down valve) is commonly used. Figure gives the cross section of
the tap. Its leather or rubber faced valve disc is lifted or lowered
by rotating the spindle. Brass or gun-metal is the material used
for the valve body and the size is specified by the pipe to which
it is fitted, usually ranging from 10 mm to 25 mm.

5.3.2 Water cock

This is the simplest and smallest form of a valve in which a
conical plug called cock is inserted into a conical hole having a matching taper. A rectangular hole is
provided at the centre across the conical potion so that, in one position it permits flow of water as shown
in Figure. A half turn of the handle will bring the solid portion of
the cock to the water ways preventing the flow. Cocks are used for
low rate of water flow' or for tapping pressure line to a manometer
etc.

5.3.3 Globe valve

Globe valves are used as control valves in fluid (gas and liquid)
pipe lines. Figure shows the simplest and smallest type of globe
valve used in water pipe lines. Basically, the valve is a variable
opening flow device. The design of a globe valve also creates a
slight retardation to the flow because the fluid is forced to make a
double turn and passes through the opening at 90° to the axis of the pipe. The valve plug is raised or
lowered to stop or regulate the flow through a circular opening. A globe valve can be identified by the
spherical body and the arrow mark for the direction of flow. These valves are used in water pipe lines
from 12 mm to 100 mm or even larger diameter for the flow control purpose.

5.3.4 Gate valve: A gate valve is on-off type valve. It allows a straight-line movement of fluid and offer
very little resistance to the flow in fully opened position. The central disc moves completely out of the
passage and leaves a full opening. Figure shows a simple type of gate valve partially opened in position.
These valves are very widely used in water pipe lines of diameter
ranging from 12 mm to higher values. A gate valve can be identified
by its slim body. It is to be noted that there will be no arrow mark or
the body of valve because it can be used in both ways.
5.3.5 Foot valve: Foot valve is a kind of non-return valve used in
centrifugal pumps. It is fitted at the bottom most end of the suction
pipe (Foot) to stop flow in the downward direction for priming
purpose. The strainer restricts the entry of floating materials to the
pipe line. Figure gives the details of the foot valve. The material used
may be cast iron, brass, or PVC.
PLUMBING VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How the pipes are specified?

ANS: (i) Material (ii) Inside diameter (iii) Wall thickness (iv) Length

2. Which is the common pipe used nowadays?

ANS: (i) C pvc (ii) U pvc

3. Which vice used in plumbing?

ANS: Pipe vice

4. Name only five fittings?

ANS: (i) Elbow (ii) Tee (iii) Union (iv) Coupling (v) Reducer

5. What is B.S.P?
ANS: British Standard Pipe
 6. POWER TOOLS
6. Introduction

Power tool is a powered by an electric motor, a compressed air motor, or a gasoline engine.
Power tools are classified as either stationary or portable, where portable means handheld. They are
used in industry, in construction, and around the house for cutting, shaping, drilling, sanding, painting,
grinding, and polishing.
Stationary power tools for metalworking are usually called Machine tools.
The lathe is the oldest power tool, being known to the ancient Egyptians. Early industrial
revolution-era factories had batteries of power tools driven by belts from overhead shafts. The prime
power source was a water wheel or a steam engine.

Stationary power tools are prized not only for their speed, but for their accuracy. A table saw
not only cuts faster than a hand saw, but the cuts are smoother, straighter and more square than even the
most skilled man can co with a handsaw. Lathes produce truly round objects that cannot be made in any
other way.
An electric motor is the universal choice to power stationary tools. Portable electric tools may
be either corded or battery-powered.

Common power tools include the drill, various types of saws, the router, the electric sander, and
the lathe.
The term power tool is also used in a more general sense, meaning a technique for greatly
simplifying a complex or difficult task.

6.1. Power Hacksaw

A power hacksaw is a type of hacksaw that is powered either by its own electric motor (also
known as electric hacksaw) or connected to a stationary engine. Most power hacksaw is stationary
machines but some portable models do exist. Stationary models usually have a mechanism to lift up the
saw blade on the return stroke and some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from
overheating.

While stationary electric hacksaw are reasonably uncommon they are still produced but saws
powered by a stationary engines have gone out of fashion. The reason for using one is that they provide
a cleaner cut than an angle grinder or other types of saw.

Figure 6.1 Power Hacksaw

6.2 Hand-Held circular saw

The term circular saw is most commonly used to refer to a hand-held electric circular saw designed for
cutting wood, which may be used less optimally for cutting other materials with the exchange of specific blades.
Circular saws can be either left or right handed, depending on the side of the blade where the motor sits and which
hand the operator uses when holding a saw.

Figure 6.2 Circular saw (Portable)

6.3 Drill

A drill is a tool with a rotating drill bit used for drilling holes in various materials. Drills are commonly
used in woodworking, metalworking. Special designed drills are also used in medical and other applications such as
in space missions.

The drill bit is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill and rotated while pressed against the target
material. The tip of the drill bit does the work of cutting into the target material, either slicing off thin shavings
(twist drills or auger bits), grinding of small particles (oil drilling), or crushing and removing pieces of the work
piece (masonry drill).

6.4 Bench Grinder

A bench grinder or pedestal grinder is a machine used to drive an abrasive wheel (or wheels). Depending on the
grade of the grinding wheel it may be used for sharpening cutting tools such as lathe tools or drill bits.
Alternatively, it may be used to roughly shape metal prior to welding or fitting.
A wire brush wheel or buffing wheel can be interchanged with the grinding wheels in order to clean or
polish