UNIT:I

CHAPTER II:

LESSON 4

ARGANDS DIAGRAM

Now that we have an idea about the basic building blocks of electrical circuits we
proceed ahead to learn about the complex numbers .We need to understand these
numbers as they define various A.C electrical parameters very well and completely. To
begin with if I needed to describe the distance between two cities, I could provide an
answer consisting of a single number in miles, kilometers, or some other unit of linear
measurement. However, if I were to describe how to travel from one city to another, I
would have to provide more information than just the distance between those two cities; I
would also have to provide information about the direction to travel, as well.

The kind of information that expresses a single dimension, such as linear distance, is
called a scalar quantity in mathematics. Scalar numbers are the kind of numbers you've
used in most all of your mathematical applications so far. The voltage produced by a
battery, for example, is a scalar quantity. So is the resistance of a piece of wire (ohms), or
the current through it (amps).

However, when we begin to analyze alternating current circuits, we find that quantities of
voltage, current, and even resistance (called impedance in AC) are not the familiar one-
dimensional quantities we're used to measuring in DC circuits. Rather, these quantities,
because they're dynamic (alternating in direction and amplitude), possess other
dimensions that must be taken into account. Frequency and phase shift are two of these
dimensions that come into play. Even with relatively simple AC circuits, where we're
only dealing with a single frequency, we still have the dimension of phase shift to
contend with in addition to the amplitude.

In order to successfully analyze AC circuits, we need to work with mathematical objects

and techniques capable of representing these multi-dimensional quantities. Here is where
we need to abandon scalar numbers for something better suited: complex numbers. Just
like the example of giving directions from one city to another, AC quantities in a single-
frequency circuit have both amplitude (analogy: distance) and phase shift (analogy:
direction). A complex number is a single mathematical quantity able to express these two
dimensions of amplitude and phase shift at once.

Complex numbers are easier to grasp when they're represented graphically. If I draw a
line with a certain length (magnitude) and angle (direction), I have a graphic
representation of a complex number which is commonly known in physics as a vector:

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Like distances and directions on a map, there must be some common frame of reference
for angle figures to have any meaning. In this case, directly right is considered to be 0o,
and angles are counted in a positive direction going counter-clockwise:

The idea of representing a number in graphical form is nothing new. We all learned this
in grade school with the "number line:"

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We even learned how addition and subtraction works by seeing how lengths (magnitudes)
stacked up to give a final answer:

Later, we learned that there were ways to designate the values between the whole numbers
marked on the line. These were fractional or decimal quantities:

Later yet we learned that the number line could extend to the left of zero as well:

These fields of numbers (whole, integer, rational, irrational, real, etc.) learned in grade
school share a common trait: they're all one-dimensional. The straightness of the number
line illustrates this graphically. You can move up or down the number line, but all
"motion" along that line is restricted to a single axis (horizontal). One-dimensional, scalar
numbers are perfectly adequate for counting beads, representing weight, or measuring
DC battery voltage, but they fall short of being able to represent something more
complex like the distance and direction between two cities, or the amplitude and phase of
an AC waveform. To represent these kinds of quantities, we need multidimensional
representations. In other words, we need a number line that can point in different
directions, and that's exactly what a vector is.

• . Sometimes the word phasor is used in electrical applications where the angle of
the vector represents phase shift between waveforms.

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Vectors and AC waveforms
Okay, so how exactly can we represent AC quantities of voltage or current in the form of
a vector? The length of the vector represents the magnitude (or amplitude) of the
waveform, like this:

The greater the amplitude of the waveform, the greater the length of its corresponding
vector. The angle of the vector, however, represents the phase shift in degrees between
the waveform in question and another waveform acting as a "reference" in time. Usually,
when the phase of a waveform in a circuit is expressed, it is referenced to the power
supply voltage waveform (arbitrarily stated to be "at" 0o). Remember that phase is always
a relative measurement between two waveforms rather than an absolute property.

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The greater the phase shift in degrees between two waveforms, the greater the angle
difference between the corresponding vectors. Being a relative measurement, like
voltage, phase shift (vector angle) only has meaning in reference to some standard
waveform. Generally this "reference" waveform is the main AC power supply voltage in
the circuit. If there is more than one AC voltage source, then one of those sources is
arbitrarily chosen to be the phase reference for all other measurements in the circuit.

This concept of a reference point is not unlike that of the "ground" point in a circuit for
the benefit of voltage reference. With a clearly defined point in the circuit declared to be
"ground," it becomes possible to talk about voltage "on" or "at" single points in a circuit,
being understood that those voltages (always relative between two points) are referenced
to "ground." Correspondingly, with a clearly defined point of reference for phase it
becomes possible to speak of voltages and currents in an AC circuit having definite phase

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angles. For example, if the current in an AC circuit is described as "24.3 milliamps at -64
degrees," it means that the current waveform has an amplitude of 24.3 mA, and it lags 64o
behind the reference waveform, usually assumed to be the main source voltage
waveform.

• When used to describe an AC quantity, the length of a vector represents the

amplitude of the wave while the angle of a vector represents the phase angle of
the wave relative to some other (reference) waveform.

Simple vector addition

Remember that vectors are mathematical objects just like numbers on a number line: they
can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Addition is perhaps the easiest vector
operation to visualize, so we'll begin with that. If vectors with common angles are added,
their magnitudes (lengths) add up just like regular scalar quantities:

Similarly, if AC voltage sources with the same phase angle are connected together in
series, their voltages add just as you might expect with DC batteries:

Please note the (+) and (-) polarity marks next to the leads of the two AC sources. Even
though we know AC doesn't have "polarity" in the same sense that DC does, these marks
are essential to knowing how to reference the given phase angles of the voltages. This
will become more apparent in the next example.

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If vectors directly opposing each other (180o out of phase) are added together, their
magnitudes (lengths) subtract just like positive and negative scalar quantities subtract
when added:

Similarly, if opposing AC voltage sources are connected in series, their voltages subtract
as you might expect with DC batteries connected in an opposing fashion:

Determining whether or not these voltage sources are opposing each other requires an
examination of their polarity markings and their phase angles. Notice how the polarity
markings in the above diagram seem to indicate additive voltages (from left to right, we
see - and + on the 6 volt source, - and + on the 8 volt source). Even though these polarity
markings would normally indicate an additive effect in a DC circuit (the two voltages
working together to produce a greater total voltage), in this AC circuit they're actually
pushing in opposite directions because one of those voltages has a phase angle of 0o and
the other a phase angle of 180o. The result, of course, is a total voltage of 2 volts.

We could have just as well shown the opposing voltages subtracting in series like this:

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Note how the polarities appear to be opposed to each other now, due to the reversal of
wire connections on the 8 volt source. Since both sources are described as having equal
phase angles (0o), they truly are opposed to one another, and the overall effect is the same
as the former scenario with "additive" polarities and differing phase angles: a total
voltage of only 2 volts.

The resultant voltage can be expressed in two different ways: 2 volts at 180o with the (-)
symbol on the left and the (+) symbol on the right, or 2 volts at 0o with the (+) symbol on
the left and the (-) symbol on the right. A reversal of wires from an AC voltage source is
the same as phase-shifting that source by 180o.

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Complex vector addition

If vectors with uncommon angles are added, their magnitudes (lengths) add up quite
differently than that of scalar magnitudes:

If two AC voltages -- 90o out of phase -- are added together by being connected in series,
their voltage magnitudes do not directly add or subtract as with scalar voltages in DC.
Instead, these voltage quantities are complex quantities, and just like the above vectors,
which add up in a trigonometric fashion, a 6 volt source at 0o added to an 8 volt source at
90o results in 10 volts at a phase angle of 53.13o:

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Compared to DC circuit analysis, this is very strange indeed. Note that it's possible to
obtain voltmeter indications of 6 and 8 volts, respectively, across the two AC voltage
sources, yet only read 10 volts for a total voltage!

There is no suitable DC analogy for what we're seeing here with two AC voltages slightly
out of phase. DC voltages can only directly aid or directly oppose, with nothing in
between. With AC, two voltages can be aiding or opposing one another to any degree
between fully-aiding and fully-opposing, inclusive. Without the use of vector (complex
number) notation to describe AC quantities, it would be very difficult to perform
mathematical calculations for AC circuit analysis.

In the next section, we'll learn how to represent vector quantities in symbolic rather than
graphical form. Vector and triangle diagrams suffice to illustrate the general concept, but
more precise methods of symbolism must be used if any serious calculations are to be
performed on these quantities.

• DC voltages can only either directly aid or directly oppose each other when
connected in series. AC voltages may aid or oppose to any degree depending on
the phase shift between them.

Polar and rectangular notation

In order to work with these complex numbers without drawing vectors, we first need
some kind of standard mathematical notation. There are two basic forms of complex
number notation: polar and rectangular.

Polar form is where a complex number is denoted by the length (otherwise known as the
magnitude, absolute value, or modulus) and the angle of its vector (usually denoted by an
angle symbol that looks like this: ). Here are two examples of vectors and their polar

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notations:

Standard orientation for vector angles in AC circuit calculations defines 0o as being to the
right (horizontal), making 90o straight up, 180o to the left, and 270o straight down. Please
note that vectors angled "down" can have angles represented in polar form as positive
numbers in excess of 180, or negative numbers less than 180. For example, a vector
angled 270o (straight down) can also be said to have an angle of -90o. The above vector
on the right (5.4 326o) can also be denoted as 5.4 -34o.

Rectangular form, on the other hand, is where a complex number is denoted by its
respective horizontal and vertical components. In essence, the angled vector is taken to be

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the hypotenuse of a right triangle, described by the lengths of the adjacent and opposite
sides. Rather than describing a vector's length and direction by denoting magnitude and
angle, it is described in terms of "how far left/right" and "how far up/down."

These two dimensional figures (horizontal and vertical) are symbolized by two numerical
figures. In order to distinguish the horizontal and vertical dimensions from each other, the
vertical is prefixed with a lower-case "i" (in pure mathematics) or "j" (in electronics).
These lower-case letters do not represent a physical variable (such as instantaneous
current, also symbolized by a lower-case letter "i"), but rather are mathematical operators
used to distinguish the vector's vertical component from its horizontal component. As a
complete complex number, the horizontal and vertical quantities are written as a sum:

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The horizontal component is referred to as the real component, since that dimension is
compatible with normal, scalar ("real") numbers. The vertical component is referred to as
the imaginary component, since that dimension lies in a different direction, totally alien to
the scale of the real numbers.

The "real" axis of the graph corresponds to the familiar number line we saw earlier: the
one with both positive and negative values on it. The "imaginary" axis of the graph
corresponds to another number line situated at 90o to the "real" one. Vectors being two-
dimensional things, we must have a two-dimensional "map" upon which to express them,
thus the two number lines perpendicular to each other:

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Either method of notation is valid for complex numbers. The primary reason for having
two methods of notation is for ease of longhand calculation, rectangular form lending
itself to addition and subtraction, and polar form lending itself to multiplication and
division.

Conversion between the two notational forms involves simple trigonometry. To convert
from polar to rectangular, find the real component by multiplying the polar magnitude by
the cosine of the angle, and the imaginary component by multiplying the polar magnitude
by the sine of the angle. This may be understood more readily by drawing the quantities
as sides of a right triangle, the hypotenuse of the triangle representing the vector itself (its
length and angle with respect to the horizontal constituting the polar form), the horizontal
and vertical sides representing the "real" and "imaginary" rectangular components,
respectively:

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To convert from rectangular to polar, find the polar magnitude through the use of the
Pythagorean Theorem (the polar magnitude is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, and the
real and imaginary components are the adjacent and opposite sides, respectively), and the
angle by taking the arctangent of the imaginary component divided by the real
component:

• Polar notation denotes a complex number in terms of its vector's length and
angular direction from the starting point. Example: fly 45 miles 203o (West by
Southwest).
• Rectangular notation denotes a complex number in terms of its horizontal and
vertical dimensions. Example: drive 41 miles West, then turn and drive 18 miles
South.

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 • In rectangular notation, the first quantity is the "real" component (horizontal
dimension of vector) and the second quantity is the "imaginary" component
(vertical dimension of vector). The imaginary component is preceded by a lower-
case "j," sometimes called the j operator.
• Both polar and rectangular forms of notation for a complex number can be related
graphically in the form of a right triangle, with the hypotenuse representing the
vector itself (polar form: hypotenuse length = magnitude; angle with respect to
horizontal side = angle), the horizontal side representing the rectangular "real"
component, and the vertical side representing the rectangular "imaginary"
component.

Complex number arithmetic

Since complex numbers are legitimate mathematical entities, just like scalar numbers,
they can be added, subtracted, multiplied, divided, squared, inverted, and such, just like
any other kind of number. Some scientific calculators are programmed to directly
perform these operations on two or more complex numbers, but these operations can also
be done "by hand." This section will show you how the basic operations are performed. It
is highly recommended that you equip yourself with a scientific calculator capable of
performing arithmetic functions easily on complex numbers. It will make your study of
AC circuit much more pleasant than if you're forced to do all calculations the longer way.

Addition and subtraction with complex numbers in rectangular form is easy. For addition,
simply add up the real components of the complex numbers to determine the real
component of the sum, and add up the imaginary components of the complex numbers to
determine the imaginary component of the sum:

When subtracting complex numbers in rectangular form, simply subtract the real
component of the second complex number from the real component of the first to arrive
at the real component of the difference, and subtract the imaginary component of the
second complex number from the imaginary component of the first to arrive the
imaginary component of the difference:

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For longhand multiplication and division, polar is the favored notation to work with.
When multiplying complex numbers in polar form, simply multiply the polar magnitudes
of the complex numbers to determine the polar magnitude of the product, and add the
angles of the complex numbers to determine the angle of the product:

Division of polar-form complex numbers is also easy: simply divide the polar magnitude
of the first complex number by the polar magnitude of the second complex number to
arrive at the polar magnitude of the quotient, and subtract the angle of the second
complex number from the angle of the first complex number to arrive at the angle of the
quotient:

To obtain the reciprocal, or "invert" (1/x), a complex number, simply divide the number
(in polar form) into a scalar value of 1, which is nothing more than a complex number
with no imaginary component (angle = 0):

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These are the basic operations you will need to know in order to manipulate complex
numbers in the analysis of AC circuits. Operations with complex numbers are by no
means limited just to addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and inversion,
however. Virtually any arithmetic operation that can be done with scalar numbers can be
done with complex numbers, including powers, roots, solving simultaneous equations
with complex coefficients, and even trigonometric functions (although this involves a
whole new perspective in trigonometry called hyperbolic functions which is well beyond
the scope of this discussion). Be sure that you're familiar with the basic arithmetic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and inversion, and you'll
have little trouble with AC circuit analysis.

• To add complex numbers in rectangular form, add the real components and add
the imaginary components. Subtraction is similar.
• To multiply complex numbers in polar form, multiply the magnitudes and add the
angles. To divide, divide the magnitudes and subtract one angle from the other.

More on AC "polarity"

Complex numbers are useful for AC circuit analysis because they provide a convenient
method of symbolically denoting phase shift between AC quantities like voltage and
current. However, for most people the equivalence between abstract vectors and real
circuit quantities is not an easy one to grasp. Earlier in this chapter we saw how AC
voltage sources are given voltage figures in complex form (magnitude and phase angle),
as well as polarity markings. Being that alternating current has no set "polarity" as direct
current does, these polarity markings and their relationship to phase angle tends to be
confusing. This section is written in the attempt to clarify some of these issues.

Voltage is an inherently relative quantity. When we measure a voltage, we have a choice

in how we connect a voltmeter or other voltage-measuring instrument to the source of
voltage, as there are two points between which the voltage exists, and two test leads on
the instrument with which to make connection. In DC circuits, we denote the polarity of
voltage sources and voltage drops explicitly, using "+" and "-" symbols, and use color-
coded meter test leads (red and black). If a digital voltmeter indicates a negative DC

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voltage, we know that its test leads are connected "backward" to the voltage (red lead
connected to the "-" and black lead to the "+").

Batteries have their polarity designated by way of intrinsic symbology: the short-line side
of a battery is always the negative (-) side and the long-line side always the positive (+):

Although it would be mathematically correct to represent a battery's voltage as a negative

figure with reversed polarity markings, it would be decidedly unconventional:

Interpreting such notation might be easier if the "+" and "-" polarity markings were
viewed as reference points for voltmeter test leads, the "+" meaning "red" and the "-"
meaning "black." A voltmeter connected to the above battery with red lead to the bottom
terminal and black lead to the top terminal would indeed indicate a negative voltage (-6
volts). Actually, this form of notation and interpretation is not as unusual as you might
think: it's commonly encountered in problems of DC network analysis where "+" and "-"
polarity marks are initially drawn according to educated guess, and later interpreted as
correct or "backward" according to the mathematical sign of the figure calculated.

In AC circuits, though, we don't deal with "negative" quantities of voltage. Instead, we

describe to what degree one voltage aids or opposes another by phase: the time-shift
between two waveforms. We never describe an AC voltage as being negative in sign,
because the facility of polar notation allows for vectors pointing in an opposite direction.
If one AC voltage directly opposes another AC voltage, we simply say that one is 180o
out of phase with the other.

Still, voltage is relative between two points, and we have a choice in how we might
connect a voltage-measuring instrument between those two points. The mathematical
sign of a DC voltmeter's reading has meaning only in the context of its test lead
connections: which terminal the red lead is touching, and which terminal the black lead is
touching. Likewise, the phase angle of an AC voltage has meaning only in the context of
knowing which of the two points is considered the "reference" point. Because of this fact,
"+" and "-" polarity marks are often placed by the terminals of an AC voltage in
schematic diagrams to give the stated phase angle a frame of reference.

Let's review these principles with some graphical aids. First, the principle of relating test
lead connections to the mathematical sign of a DC voltmeter indication:

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The mathematical sign of a digital DC voltmeter's display has meaning only in the
context of its test lead connections. Consider the use of a DC voltmeter in determining
whether or not two DC voltage sources are aiding or opposing each other, assuming that
both sources are unlabeled as to their polarities. Using the voltmeter to measure across
the first source:

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This first measurement of +24 across the left-hand voltage source tells us that the black
lead of the meter really is touching the negative side of voltage source #1, and the red
lead of the meter really is touching the positive. Thus, we know source #1 is a battery
facing in this orientation:

Measuring the other unknown voltage source:

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This second voltmeter reading, however, is a negative (-) 17 volts, which tells us that the
black test lead is actually touching the positive side of voltage source #2, while the red
test lead is actually touching the negative. Thus, we know that source #2 is a battery
facing in the opposite direction:

It should be obvious to any experienced student of DC electricity that these two batteries
are opposing one another. By definition, opposing voltages subtract from one another, so
we subtract 17 volts from 24 volts to obtain the total voltage across the two: 7 volts.

We could, however, draw the two sources as nondescript boxes, labeled with the exact
voltage figures obtained by the voltmeter, the polarity marks indicating voltmeter test
lead placement:

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According to this diagram, the polarity marks (which indicate meter test lead placement)
indicate the sources aiding each other. By definition, aiding voltage sources add with one
another to form the total voltage, so we add 24 volts to -17 volts to obtain 7 volts: still the
correct answer. If we let the polarity markings guide our decision to either add or subtract
voltage figures -- whether those polarity markings represent the true polarity or just the
meter test lead orientation -- and include the mathematical signs of those voltage figures
in our calculations, the result will always be correct. Again, the polarity markings serve
as frames of reference to place the voltage figures' mathematical signs in proper context.

The same is true for AC voltages, except that phase angle substitutes for mathematical
sign. In order to relate multiple AC voltages at different phase angles to each other, we
need polarity markings to provide frames of reference for those voltages' phase angles.

Take for example the following circuit:

The polarity markings show these two voltage sources aiding each other, so to determine
the total voltage across the resistor we must add the voltage figures of 10 V 0o and 6 V
45o together to obtain 14.861 V 16.59o. However, it would be perfectly acceptable to
represent the 6 volt source as 6 V 225o, with a reversed set of polarity markings, and
still arrive at the same total voltage:

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6 V 45o with negative on the left and positive on the right is exactly the same as 6 V
225o with positive on the left and negative on the right: the reversal of polarity markings
perfectly complements the addition of 180o to the phase angle designation:

Unlike DC voltage sources, whose symbols intrinsically define polarity by means of short
and long lines, AC voltage symbols have no intrinsic polarity marking. Therefore, any
polarity marks must by included as additional symbols on the diagram, and there is no
one "correct" way in which to place them. They must, however, correlate with the given
phase angle to represent the true phase relationship of that voltage with other voltages in
the circuit.

• Polarity markings are sometimes given to AC voltages in circuit schematics in

order to provide a frame of reference for their phase angles.

Some examples with AC circuits

Let's connect three AC voltage sources in series and use complex numbers to determine
additive voltages. All the rules and laws learned in the study of DC circuits apply to AC
circuits as well (Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, network analysis methods), with the
exception of power calculations (Joule's Law). The only qualification is that all variables
must be expressed in complex form, taking into account phase as well as magnitude, and
all voltages and currents must be of the same frequency (in order that their phase
relationships remain constant).

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The polarity marks for all three voltage sources are oriented in such a way that their
stated voltages should add to make the total voltage across the load resistor. Notice that
although magnitude and phase angle is given for each AC voltage source, no frequency
value is specified. If this is the case, it is assumed that all frequencies are equal, thus
meeting our qualifications for applying DC rules to an AC circuit (all figures given in
complex form, all of the same frequency). The setup of our equation to find total voltage
appears as such:

Graphically, the vectors add up in this manner:

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The sum of these vectors will be a resultant vector originating at the starting point for the
22 volt vector (dot at upper-left of diagram) and terminating at the ending point for the 15
volt vector (arrow tip at the middle-right of the diagram):

In order to determine what the resultant vector's magnitude and angle are without
resorting to graphic images, we can convert each one of these polar-form complex
numbers into rectangular form and add. Remember, we're adding these figures together
because the polarity marks for the three voltage sources are oriented in an additive
manner:

In polar form, this equates to 36.8052 volts -20.5018o. What this means in real terms is
that the voltage measured across these three voltage sources will be 36.8052 volts,
lagging the 15 volt (0o phase reference) by 20.5018o. A voltmeter connected across these
points in a real circuit would only indicate the polar magnitude of the voltage (36.8052
volts), not the angle. An oscilloscope could be used to display two voltage waveforms
and thus provide a phase shift measurement, but not a voltmeter. The same principle

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holds true for AC ammeters: they indicate the polar magnitude of the current, not the
phase angle.

This is extremely important in relating calculated figures of voltage and current to real
circuits. Although rectangular notation is convenient for addition and subtraction, and
was indeed the final step in our sample problem here, it is not very applicable to practical
measurements. Rectangular figures must be converted to polar figures (specifically polar
magnitude) before they can be related to actual circuit measurements.

• All the laws and rules of DC circuits apply to AC circuits, with the exception of
power calculations (Joule's Law), so long as all values are expressed and
manipulated in complex form, and all voltages and currents are at the same
frequency.
• When reversing the direction of a vector (equivalent to reversing the polarity of
an AC voltage source in relation to other voltage sources), it can be expressed in
either of two different ways: adding 180o to the angle, or reversing the sign of the
magnitude.
• Meter measurements in an AC circuit correspond to the polar magnitudes of
calculated values. Rectangular expressions of complex quantities in an AC circuit
have no direct, empirical equivalent, although they are convenient for performing
addition and subtraction, as Kirchhoff's Voltage and Current Laws require.

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