Z ao 1983S, George Steiner Bego-5L, grees SEA OS ng) pblrcxtel SLiSyc royr IRE SLFA SSG Os Ecology 1! Peace, Femisnism £ 2s 4-7 Ut bb & 1980 LSFAEs Bee ie. PRE Social Movements Gone (Tragedy And Tradition) =UsNI G17 EWES Ee Pe ACA Eby ee Spies SaPtn€ey Mil LOA CURL unto siDedipns Rex, Hamlet 2 2S GG Sissi SOL OP SEAS Death of a Salesman.s\ Hedda Gabler #-¥£ Othello GALE Blevatey eA IUIS AFAR Se fle Lipa net Gp Litt PEM Bed Levee tle hi, Fibre Bo 7! Fit ehet aS SPA LIBEL sets wh AE Kb ae 6x; Me jn UP LS es MoS 5447-2 AL (Experience) Za %end SetJ Greek Traditions Wo, bty He 3 LUBE hte, Sub ee Ke ket Se _{ iia 2 (25 olty si Syne eee cayse70ty i z ee: Srectlf Wi 2 vL Ube rE ZbL Ie sENeo “lassical-YUsw Ae Cute A ele a sb esas +f ee =4r x0 WAS Sy Acdsee val _$2-£ (behaviour)& 94 fil Mite Se /Gb= Lessing B33) PBZ osha (Elizabethan 996 7. ef Oble et Sin AGO wae Wifeshgasit- econ int a allibe Psa re Sle i hie Gyn th Urs Soet A uite Sst fL AGIA - Sie. 2€ (EVN SU LUBE ee a» SFI ANFEMES edSSed pe bet Mined sf Wife Pet fig trees Vifet, tu he Pasig -< thy bay che Nr 4144, (Rejection of Tragedy) t/sGX atl Pore QIU LS, = IGE (Brecht) =% ae ye PoC a Siti lick , Sem Lo Size Pa Pech tIel tec ke SESS pis HIF eth UA Pere = Fis Ley (Evil System)g nd has discussed on the evolution of tr: ee noes Previous, he tells the basics of | so wesepe wre my problem. 0 , conflict of theory, an acad ' Raymond believes that tragedy is not nearly the death of kings; it is more personal and general, He says that tragedy is not simply death and suffering and it is certainly not accident. Nor is it simply a response to death and suffering. Il is a particular kind of event and our particular kind of response which is genuinely tragic and which the long tradition embodies. His basic thesis in this article is: the meaning of tragedy, the relationship of tradition to tragedy and the kinds of experience which we mistakenly call tragic. Raymond says that we usually try to make a contrast between the traditional and the modern and try to compress and unify the various thinking of the past into a single tradition, Williams explains About tradition: if is a question, rather of realizing that a tradition is not the past; but an interpretation of the past - a selection and evaluation of ancestors rather than a neutral record and- the present serves as a link between the traditional and the modem, When the unique Greek culture changed, the chorus which was the crucial element of dramatic form was discarded and the unique meaning of tragedy was lost. People think that the medieval period produced no tragedy, but Monk's Tale by Chaucer is the example in which we see protagonist falling from prosperity to adversity. Later tragedy became more secularized in the Renaissance and Neoclassical age. Now a Ri - —_—poet. His major ; tragedy is (a) a theoretical rejection of neo-classic defense of Shakespeare (c) and an advocacy and wi bourgeois tragedy. He said the Neoclassicism was a classicism and the real inherit of the Greeks was Shakesp and the real inherit of Shakespeare was the new nati bourgeois tragedy. Raymond doesn't agree with Lessing, he thinks holds that Shakespeare was not the real inherit of the Greeks; rather he was a major instance of a new kind of tragedy. The character of Elizabethan tragedy is determined by a very complicated relationship between elements of an inherited order and elements of a new humanism. Raymond says if the historical idea of the development is to be fully understood, we must understand the complicated .process of secularization. In a sense, all drama after Renaissance is gious tragedy we have is Greek because Elizabethan drama was totally secular, There was @ concept of good and evi! and poetic justice Hegel was a famous German Philosopher, he did not reject the moral scheme of poetic justice but he described itisa triumph of ordinary morality and the work that embodied it as a social drama rather than a tragedy. What is important for Hegel is not the ‘mere suffering" but its cause. Mere pity and fear are not tragic. Tragedy recognizes suffering as ‘suspended over active characters entirely as the consequence of their own act It does not consider the external contingency beyond the control of the individual i.e. illness, loss of property, death of the like. For genuine tragedy, there must be individual freedom and independence. This conscious individuality is the only condition of tragedy, secular and the only fully reabstract and colder. Reconciliation, when it mes, be “cena ee and will be more complicated interpretation of tragedy j A aes than a historical ontiaee © Part oF 8 ees) pea _ Schopenhauer and Nietzsche are two German philosophers whose views also contributed to the development of tragedy. Before Schopenhauer, tragedy was associated with (a) ethical crises (b) human growth and (c) history, He secularized the idea of fate when he said, ‘the true sense of tragedy is the deeper insight, that is not his own individual sins that the hero atones for, but original sin, i.e. the crime of. existence itself. Tragedy, according to Nietzsche, dramatizes a tension, which it resolves in a higher unity, There the hero, the highest manifestation of the will, is destroyed, but the eternal life of the will remains unaffected. According to him, the action of tragedy is neither moral, nor purgative, but an aesthetic. Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas The essay, “Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas” presents a debate on tragedy in relation to the contemporary ideas. The Writer has discussed the four elements: (1) order and accident (Il) the destruction of the hero (Il) the irreparable action and its connections with death and (IV) the emphasis of evil. y said that there is no significant meaning in ‘everyday tragedies’ because the event itself is not tragic, only becomes so with a through a shaped response. Williams does not agree to this view. He cannot see how itis possible to It is generall¢ possi : stification, and rejoicing. But where we feel the “are within the dimensions of tragedy. But a burnt f mining disaster which leaves people without called Accidents. The events not scen as tragic are deep in th pattern of our own culture: war, famine, work, traffic, ang politics, To feel no tragic meaning in them is @ sort of our bankruptcy. Rank was the dividing line because the death of some people mattered more than others. Our middle class culture rejects this. The tragic of a citizen could be as real ag the tragedy of a prince. The emerging middle class rejected rank in tragedy. The individual was not a state; but the entity in himself, Order in tragedy is the result of the action. Ih tragedy, the creation of order is, related to the fact of disorder, through which the action moves. It may be the pride of man set against the nature of things. In different cultures, disorder and ere are parts of varying general interpretations of life. We should see this variation as an indication of the major cultural importance of tragedy a form of art. The most common interpretation of tragedy is that 10s an action in which the hero is destroyed, The fact ts seen irreparable. In most tragedies, the story does not end with the destruction of the hero; it follows on. It is not the job of the artist to provide answers and solutions, but simply describe experience and raise questions. Modern tragedy is not what happens to the hero; but what happens through him. When we concentrate on the hero, we are unconsciously confining our attention to the individual. The tragic experience lies in fact that life does not come back, that its meanings a reaffirmed and restored after so much suffering and after 5° order both vary, for |; dy is social and collective ersonal Death is absolute and sll.» Death is. Necessa he ! essary and all other hum; (social collectivity), Death is universal aa quickly claims universality. Man ee pe interpretation and not a fact; because man dies mm man) different conditions i.e. among machines, due to bombs, in he arms, with or without family, ' ‘ in their presence and absence, When he dies, he affects others. He alters the lives of other characters. To Insist on a single meaning is not reasonable. Our most common received interpretations of life put the highest value and significance on the individual and his development; but it is indeed inescapable that the individual dies. Tragedy dramatizes evil in many particular forms: not only Christian evil but also cultural, political and ideological, Good and evil are not absolute. We arc good or bad in particular ways and in particular situations; defined by pressures we at one received and can alter and can create again. Rejection of Tragedy ; The essay “rejection of tragedy” is a study with special to Bertolt Brecht who founded epic theater as motional theory of Aristotle. He rejected the of tragedy and made tragedy more nal. He also said, ‘the sufferings of this unnecessary. He made people reference compared to the et conventional idea experiential and ratio man appeal me because they are think above the situation within, Aristotelian drama ¢ Brecht's theater from withou turn people like who showed that the audience discussed six plays: Stockyard, Die Mass! = presented in the tragedy and not nforced thinking from within and t. He used distancing affects to smoke and observe. He to see. Williams has ra, Saint Joan of the Good Woman of Sezuen,terms has been rejected by Brecht. He then theater and tells us why he rejected the classical introduced rational theater. : Theatre or theater is the branch of the performing ang concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, mime, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements oft... was and what he wanted theatre to be. Brecht believed that the theatre's broadest function was to educate. "It is the nobles, function that we have found for "theatre". Brecht wanted the answer to Lenin's question how and what should one leam?. He created an influential theory of theatre, the epic theatre, wherein a play should not cause the spectator to emotionally identify with the action before him or her, but should instead provoke rational self-reflection and a critical view of the actions on the stage. He believed that the experience of @ climactic catharsis of emotion left an audience complacent. Instead, he to this critical perspective to identify social ills at work in the w orld and be moved to go forth from the theatre and effect change. Hans Eisler has noted that these plays resemble political seminars. Brecht described them as "a collective political meeting” i which the audience is to participate actively. One sees in this model a rejection of the concept of the bureaucratic elite parly where the politicians are to issue directives and control the behavior of the masses. For this purpose, Brecht employed the use of techniques that remind the spectator that the play is @ representation of reality and not reality itself, which he call the Verfremdungseffekt (translated as distancing effect estrangement effect, or alienation effect). Such techniques included the direct address by actors to the audience, wanted his audiences usesuch In the same way, another iq employed to achieve his Verfremdungseffekt : of historicisation. The principle of shistoricizaton’ is fundamental part of the Marxist aesthetics developed by the . Germain’ Modernism theatre practitioner Bertolt Brecht... , The content of many of his plays dealt with fictional tellings of historical figures or events. His idea was that if one were to tell a story from a time that is contemporary to an audience, they may not be able to maintain the critical perspective he hoped to achieve. Instead, he focused on historical stories that had parallel themes to the social ills he was hoping to illuminate in his own time. He hoped that, in viewing these historical stories from a critical perspective, the contemporary issues Brecht was addressing would be illuminated to the audience. In one of his first productions, Brecht famously put up signs "Don't stare so romantically!". His manner of stagecraft has proven both fruitful and confusing to those who try to produce his works or works in his style, His theory of theatre has heavily influenced j modern theatre. Some of his innovations have become so common that they've entered the theatrical canon. Though Brecht's work and ideas about theatre are I yenerally thought of as belonging to modernism. Modernism is a trend of thought which affirms the power of human -beings to make, improve and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation... , there is recent thought that he is the forerunner of contemporary postmodern theatre Practice. This is particularly so because he questioned andof tr Raymond Williams’ chief observations | regard? (2012) , , OR Q. —_Raymond’s Views On Tragedy, Discuss. : Ans. Raymond Williams was not only an important writer and thinker about culture and politics, literature and drama, he was also a socialist writer and activist. His political intentions are evident in all of his works especially his keen interest in the dominant cultural and political discourses. Williams writing in the post-war period had a kind of existentialist motif "Modern Tragedy" is perhaps the most important twentieth-century inquiry into the ideas and ideologies that have influenced the production and analysis of tragedy Williams sees tragedy both in terms of literary tradition and in relation to the modem society, and of the experiences of all of us as individuals Modern Tragedy discuss texts the main tragic texts and texts about tragic theory that had been written in Europe and the United States since Ibsen- and extracted from them a political message about the inadequacy of individuation and about the desirability of revolution Williams wishes to give tragic theory a social function. He points out that significant suffering cannot be confined to the persons of rank, He says that personal belief faults in the soul, God, death and individual will have been central to the tragic experience. It is always human agency and the deep social crisis through which we all have been living ‘that are proper subjects of modern tragedy and it is human agency and ethical control the tragic theory needs to accommodate. In his essay Raymond Williams first describes the Contemporary and customary concepts of tragedy and then uses ils all subtle arguments to reject it. His style is very interesting and persuasive. He first looks into the pros and cons of:; He is very analyzing porary concepts of cuts the traditional concept of tragedy into pieces and each piece individually. He says that a common social losy equal to the loss of kingdom. He rejects Yeats and Hegel gy both champions the cause of conventional concept of tragedy though with different arguments. Both Yeats and Hegel seem to beat the old tracks. He does not recognize rank as an essential part of tragic hero. He suggests that even a very common man can be tragic hero. He says that social forces of the time actually determine the fate of hero. He gives the example of Greek and Elizabethan tragedy to support his point of view. Williams like a true Marxist believes thal a tragedy is the result of social disorder, He says that a tragedy resolves the disorder of society. Further he rejects the concept that tragedy is possible where culture exist with stable beliefs, Instability leads to produce situation that gives birth to tragedy, The real tension and clash of values and beliefs gives birth to tragedy. In Tragedy and Tradition, he looks into history to make his point clear that each period of history followed a peculiar concept of tragedy. There have always been certain SOCIO- cultural forces that fashioned the tragic vision of that time: There have always been social forces, historical trends that xive birth to tragedy The Greek tragedians like Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides were the representative of a very mature culture, Their plays were deeply ingrained in their own culture. Moreover, this is chorus tragedy. During Medieval period, the tragedians tried to keep up tragic tradition but in a different fashion. Medieval tragedies are simply the story of an emi person, who whether deservedly or not, is brought from prosperity to wretchedness by an unpredictable turn of Th” wheel of fortune as it has been described by Chaucer inhan acted. There is an appar fea te ee rank from the Gil ie ‘he pedir abe sete = Ey the tragic hero medieval conception. In Greek vhole tragic acti was a man of high bearing. But the whole tragic action underwent a change during medieval period. Feudal characteristic of the medieval period introduced feudalistic approach to society. The Medieval tragedy imbibed all the characteristics of feudal Europe and made necessary: changes in the form and structure of tragedy. Thus tragic tradition was maintained by imbibing feudal set up of the society. The Renaissance age is marked by humanism, nationalism, religious tolerations, discovery and high ambition. The feudal world was replaced by a new world of science and leaming. The emphasis during this period was upon the fall of famous man. The theme of exemplary character and mutability remained instrumental in forming the structure of tragedy. There was emphasis on the affair of kings. Renaissance interest in tragic methods gave birth to a new tradition. Now the idea of tragedy ceases to be metaphysical and became critical. This Was new consciousness that gave birth to new type of tragedy. Neo-classicism was an age of peace and prosperity. In this era, the authors manifested traditionalism, which was often Joined to a distrust of radical innovation. In this era, Literature Was conceived to be primarily an art. The tragic concept during this period was aristocratic rather than feudal. This increasing secularization of tragedy is related to the new understanding of dignity, The moving force of tragedy was now quite clearly a Matter of behaviour rather than metaphysical con oe Metaphysical fault. Error was related to acne Ores Moral, a weakness in an otherwise good man. f 5 ee the Concept of tragedy was the product of those forces were dictating the morality of that period. ,. does not agree with this assertion. Modem Tragedy unfolds his real agenda. He uses to formulate a socialist theory of tragedy in which receives a literary justification and society becomes important than the than the individual. ; In the emphasis of evil, he says that ancient tragedy teaches about the transcendental evil but it rejects the evi} found in human nature. To believe that the action of tragedy leads to irreparable loss is not correct. He is of the opinion that the death of hero does not give an end to tragedy. [t ends with the affirmation of certain social and religious dogmas.Tver ve Greek Tragedy: i Medieval tragedy. Renaissance tragedy. Neo-classical tragedy. Modern tragedy. " : 10. Conclusion. teesOn what grounds is tradition lin Discuss in the light of Raymond William's Tragedy". (2004) OR Q.2: Raymond's Views On Tragedy and Tradition, Discuss. Ans. Raymond is one of the greatest post - war cultural historians, theorists and critics. He is a die-hard Maryisy and looks tragedy with the peculiar context of Marxism, he thinks that tragedy is not something the death of a prince, itis more personal and general, it can be experienced at very common level of human experience - a mining disaster, a bumed out family, a broken career, a smash on the road, all these can be tragedies like the ancient classical tragedies of princes and kings. However, in this essay “Tragedy and Tradition,” Raymond, amplifies the meaning of Tragedy and digs deep into the meanings of Tragedy and gives his views about the different forms of tragedies throughout the history. In the opening of the essay, he says, that the word tragedy has come to us from a long tradition. Certain writers and thinkers maintained the continuity of Tragedy. They were of the opinion that they were contributing in the same idea and form, but this did not happen in actual terms as all these writers and thinkers were only maintaining the continuity of the word Tragedy, bul not the substance of Tragedy Raymond thinks that this continuity embraced many variations. We usually try © make a contrast between the traditional and moder and try ©m further remarks: "To examine the tragic ; these works and tise their immediate c well as in their historical continuity and to ex their place and function in relation to other wo and ideas, and to the variety of actual experience.” This study will help to escape from the deadlock of the contemporary contrast between ‘traditional tragedy’ and different forms of ‘our own tragic experiences’, CLASSICAL PERIOD According to Raymond Williams the plays that were written by Greek playwrights were more or less three hundred in number. Only eight to ten survived through centuries: and these plays have extraordinary power. They are the product of mature Greek culture. These plays have left deep imprints on tragic drama In the previous one and a half century efforts have been made to systematize Greck Tragic Philosophy but these efforts have not yielded desired results as there are evident and intractable differences between the three major Greek tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Moreover, itis anotable fact that the Greeks themselves did not systemize the ideas of Fate, Necessity and the nature of gods. The Greek Culture was a complex of beliefs, connected to institutions, Practices and feelings. There was a complicated web of myths. The Greek Tragedy was a choral Tragedy. When this unique Greek culture changed, the chorus which was the crucial _ tlement of dramatic form was also discarded with it, the unique “Meaning of tragedy was also lost. In Greek tragedy the action —Medieval Period The period that ensued classical was the medieval period. This is a period with little or no tragic plays; there are two grounds for this belief: (i) The tragedy was then understood as narrative, rather than a drama (ii) The general structure of medieval belief had little place for the genuinely tragic action But this cannot be accepted true. Had it been true there could have not been Elizabethan tragedy? However, the medieval concept of tragedy can be traced in "The Monk's Tale" by Chaucer, where he declares the fall of a ‘high degree man into misery. This is the change from prosperity to adversity. Medieval tragedies hinges upon the idea of fortune, Fortune in the sense of chance, fate, or providence. Thus the medieval concept gave importance to the element of fortune. The Medieval idea of tragedy is worldly as fortune was taken in terms of worldly fortune The medieval idea of tragedy became more worldly than before. Raymond says: "There might be particular sins, which led to the falls, and at times these would be examined, in the light of the doctrine as the doctrine of Fortune as the ministering event of providence.” The effect of medieval tragedy that is believed continuity of tradition is by all means paradoxical. There is an apparent continuity in the ‘emphasis on rank' from Greek to the medieval conception, but this apparent continuity is in fact # a il eandlaatmatsaccount, but not an action, RENAISSANCE aud With the Renaissance there began the modern age, which saw the coming of a new merchant class. It was a new social force destined to undermine the old social system based upon the feudal, under the influence of new learning the main source of tragedy became the fall of famous man. Raymond quotes Sidney to explain that the theme of mutability and its exemplary character is still dominant, This tragedy was interested in tragic methods and effects; this gave birth to a new tradition. It was.Sidney who gave more attenvion to the methods of writing tragedy than to any moral or physical idea. In Renaissance period the idea of Tragedy ceased 10 be metaphysical and became critical though this development was not complete until the neo-classical critics of the seventeen century. NEO-CLASSICAL In neo-classical period, it seems that the concept of tragedy maintained its tradition. However this is not true in the face of facts. In this period, the new significance of exalted rank in tragedy again appears as continuity from the past. Socially this is an aristocratic concept rather than feudal. Rank became essential as it accompanies style. But now a change Was visible. The moving force of tragedy was now quiet clearly 4 matter of behaviour rather than a metaphysical fault. Now the emphasis is on an isolated character of the hero. A tilt in this5 AND THE TRADITION Lessing's major contribution is the theoretical of neo-classicism, defence of Shakespeare and an advocagy and writing of bourgeois tragedy. While rejecting ' classicism, Lessing declares it as false classicism. He says thay the real inheritor of the Greeks was Shakespeare and new national bourgeois tragedy. But according to Raymond Lessing is partially true in this context as Neo-classicism is an aristocratic version of Greek tragedy whereas Shakespeare js not the inheritor of Greeks. Shakespearean tragedy is a new kind of Tragedy. Raymond thinks that Lessing has tried to role both Greek and Elizabethan into one. Raymond is of the view that the similarity between Shakespeare and Greeks lies in the assimilation of comparable vision of human life. The essential character of Elizabethan tragedy is formed with an inherited 7 order and element of new humanism. Lessing fails 10 understand all these differences SECULAR TRAGEDY Raymond says that if the historical development of the idea of tragedy is to be fully understood, we must look into the complicated process of secularization. All drama after the Renaissance was secular and the only fully religious tragedy was Greek, Elizabethan drama was thoroughly secular but undoubtedly it retains Christian consciousness. In secular tragedy, there is great need to examine the complicated and contradictory emergence of new moral # ‘metaphysical ideas. Tragedy, according to moral view is the demonstrations of moral scheme. This tragedy stressed on !é F reject the moral scheme Poetic justice, yet he des triumph of ordinary morality, and the work that embod poetic justice is a social drama rather than a tragedy. This new emphasis marks the emergence of modem tragic ideas. He believes that the important thing in tragedy is not suffering but its causes. Moreover, mere pity and fear are not tragic. In tragedy the suffering on the active characters are entirely the consequence of their own act these sufferings are not because of any external contingency or the circumstances beyond the control of the individual, such as illness, loss of property, death and likewise. He thinks that for a genuine tragic action there should exist the principle of individual freedom and independence While pinpointing the differences between the ancient and modem tragedy Raymond says that in the ancient tragedy the characters clearly represent the substantive ethical ends while in modem tragedy the ends are wholly personal. Moreover in ancient tragedy, there is not only the downfall of all conflicting persons and it ends in the achievement of eternal justice a character may surrender himself under a higher command: in modern tragedy the w hole question of resolution is more difficult because the characters are more personal in modern tragedies. Hegel's interpretation of tagedy is the part of his general philosophy not a historical criticism, It emphasis upon the conflict and its resolution. Bradley changes this emphasis =crisis, human oe ae he contributes in the secularization of the idea of fate He says "the true sense of tragedy is the deeper is not his own individual sins that the hero atones for, but original sin i.e. the crime of existence itself. In this respect, he is the forerunner of the tragedy sufferings are rooted in the nature of man, and these are not the product of historical and ethical considerations. Nietzsche Nietzsche does not negate Schopenhauer tragic nature of life but in Nietzsche's view tragedy dramatizes tension that in a higher unity. Though the hero, who is the highest manifestation of will, is destroyed but his eternal will remains unaffected. Moreover, he thinks that the action of tragedy Is neither moral nor purgative but aesthetic. Nietzsche also links tragedy with myth. To him only myth is the source of tragie revolve: knowledge MYTH AND RITUAL Myth according to Raymond Williams is like heroic legend Nietzsche believes Myth as a supra-rational source of spiritual wisdom and tragedy as heroic legend provides us @ link between the Greeks and the modern. Myth and Ritual are being used in this moder idea of tragedy as metaphors. Williams concludes: "At the centre of this "ritual" action, after all, is the whose inner conflict is the whole tragic action, | d destruction can be seen as the ritual tearing crifice for life. Thus not only do we find tragic hero, whose crisis an to-pieces and saHegel and Hegelians. Schopenhauer’s concept of treuedy! Nietzsche's concept of tragedy. Myths and rituals. Conclusion. eeKEEKLessing's major contribution is the theoretical rej ‘of neo-classicism, defence of Shakespeare and an advo and writing of bourgeois tragedy. While rejecting neo. — classicism, Lessing declares it as false classicism. He says that — the real inheritor of the Greeks was Shakespeare and new national bourgeois tragedy. But according to Raymond Lessing is partially true in this context as Neo-classicism is an aristocratic version of Greek tragedy whereas Shakespeare is not the inheritor of Greeks. Shakespearean tragedy is a new kind of Tragedy. Raymond thinks that Lessing has tried to role both Greek and Elizabethan into one. Raymond is of the view that the similarity between Shakespeare and Greeks lies in the assimilation of comparable vision of human life. The essential c order and element of new humanism. Lessing fails 10 understand all these differences. 9 SECULAR TRAGEDY Raymond says that if the historical development of the idea of tragedy is to be fully understood, we must look into the complicated process of secularization, All drama after the Renaissance was secular and the only fully religious tragedy was Greek, Elizabethan drama was thoroughly secular but undoubtedly it retains Christian consciousness. In secular tragedy. there is great need to examine the complicated and contradictory emergence of new moral-and metaphysical ee according to moral view is the demonstrations of moral scheme. This tragedy stressed on the aracter of Elizabethan tragedy is formed with an inheritedK : ony ; Hegel is a great German Philosopher reject the moral scheme poetic justice yet he descri triumph of ordinary morality, and the en that poetic Justice is a social drama rather than a tragedy. Thi emphasis marks the emergence of modem tragic ideas. believes that the important thing in tragedy is not suffering but its causes. Morcover, mere pity and fear are not tragic. In tragedy the suffering on the active characters are entirely the consequence of their own act these sufferings are not because of any external contingency or the circumstances beyond the control of the individual, such as illness, loss of property, death and likewise. He thinks that for a genuine tragic action there should exist the principle of individual freedom and independence While pinpointing the differences between the ancient and modem trayedy Raymond says that in the ancient tragedy the characters clearly represent the substantive ethical ends: while in modem tragedy the ends are wholly personal. Moreover in ancient tragedy, there is not only the downfall of all conflicting persons and it ends in the achievement of eternal justice a character may surrender himself under a higher command: in modern tragedy the whole question of resolution is more difficult because the characters are more personal in Modern tragedies. ’ ae Hegel's interpretation of tragedy is the aslo Seneral philosophy not a historical criticism, It ne the conflict and its resolution. Bradley changes this empts— Literary & Practical Criticism-I 244 Modern ‘ from ethical to psychological but later, under the influ Marx the conflict of ethical forces was looked in sogiai historical terms. Williams transforms Hegel's theory Of trayeg in terms of Marxism ap SCHOPENHAUER Before Schopenhauer, tragedy was associateq wi ethical crisis, human growth and history. Schopenhauer contributes in the secularization of the idea of fate in a traged He says "the true sense of tragedy is the deeper insight, thar j is not his own individual sins that the hero atones for, but original sin i.e. the crime of existence itself”. In this Tespect, he is the forerunner of the tragedy sufferings are rooted in the nature of man, and these are not the product of historical and ethical considerations. Nietzsche Nietzsche does not negate Schopenhauer tragic nature of life but in Nietzsche's view tragedy dramatizes tension that revolves in a higher unity, Though the hero, who is the highest manifestation of will, is destroyed but his eternal will remains unaffected. Moreover, he thinks that the action of tragedy is neither moral nor purgative but aesthetic, Nietzsche also links |! tragedy with myth. To him only myth is the source of tragic knowledge. MYTH AND RITUAL Myth according to Raymond Williams is like heroic legend. Nietzsche believes Myth as a supra-rational source of spiritual wisdom and tragedy as heroic legend provides us @ link between the Greeks and the modern. Myth and Ritual being used in this modern idea of tragedy as metaphors. Williams concludes: "AL the centre of this "ritual" tragic hero, whose inner conflict is the se crisis and destruction can byrm of the modern hero the hero who i the victim, who is destroyed by his capable of saving it." :Literary & Practical Criticism-II Points to Remember: Introduction. Classical period. + Renaissance period. Neo-classical. Lessing and the tradition. Secular tragedy. Hegel and Hegelians. Schopenhauer’s concept of tragedy. Nietzsche's concept of tragedy. Myths and rituals. . Conclusion. SEN aouwvpwn = as KREKKELiterary & Practica) Criticism.) 247 Modern Tragedy 6- Tragedy Ana Contemporary Ideas Q. What are Raymond Williams’ culture and trage views regarding dy? Discuss in detail. (2013) H es Q. Sai does Williams trace the rank of the tragic hero the Classical to the Modem times? [RAY MOND WILLIY : MODERN TRAGEDY] AMS: ( 5 1S: MO OR Q Critically assess Raymond William's essay on Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas". (2004) OR Q. _ Discuss Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas. Ans. In "Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas", Raymond has tried to reinterpret the variety of tragic experiences with reference to changing conventions and institution. He says that tragic experience commonly reflects the fundamental beliefs, tensions and the shape and trends of a particular culture of a period. In the introductory paragraph of "In tragedy and contemporary ideas" Raymond invited the readers to assume two assumptions i.e. (1) unchanging human nature and (ii) changing human nature. First, he analyses tragedy in terms of ion i hanging human nature. He says to first assumption i.e. unchanging \ : a hanging and universal is totally believe human character unchanging MB : assumption. So it is clear that he is absurd. He condemns first assump Buticetee not going to stick with conventional concepts. But 1! w * P the a assumption i.e. changing human ee he then not a single and permanent kind of ee me This is i iences and conventions and institutions. different experi i his series with reference to a not the case of interpreting tl248 Literary & Practical Criticism-ll permanent and unchanging human nature; rather these y of tragic experience are to be interpreted with reference iw changing conventions and institutions. Thus to believe human character unchanging and universal is totally absurd, Howey, no he looks all tragic concepts from the angle of Marxig, a believes that all human history is a tale of conflict between { : haves (rich) and have not (poor). i Raymond discussed the major points of the tragie theories. 1 L. Order and Accident. Il. The Destruction of the hero. ll. The Irreparable action. IV. The emphasis of evil (1) In order and accident, he argues that convention concept of tragedy does not an recognize accident as a tragedy. The tragedy of common man is considered to be an “everyday tragedy". It is generally considered that there is no significant tragic meaning in "every day tragedies", because the event i these tragedies is not tragic in itself, but it only becomes through a shaped response. Raymond does not agree with view. He asks how it is possible to distinguish between event and response to an event, in an absolute way. Raymond Williams says that if an event does not earn a response it not mean that it has no response. Indifference to an even also a kind of response. Thus it is totally wrong that event Na no response. Same is the case with ordinary man. An ordinal ‘man's death results in the suffering and mourning of near dear ones. Thus where suffering is felt, we are clearly within the possible dimension of tragedy. Though we always react | ‘sufferings of others in different forms. Williams bell tragedy encompass all high and low together, thus: that only the death of prince is tragedy, is absolute According to Raymond, a mining disaster, @° i try & Practical Criticism.) 249 Raymond does no : t seem eth 2 agree excludes the suffering of accident ane of hewmen oe incidents. Same is the 2 petween "mere ayeibitthyand eee who makes difference Hegel accident does not ee sympathy". According to sympathy comes only whe uce true sympathy. True j ; N somebody among the nobles suffers. Raymond is of the Opinicniwetek ig distinctions between the sufferings of e should not make any of a Prince. If we do not see w: a common man and that litics as tragic events it is wien Williams i our own bankruptcy. ‘4 | 2 ms is of the opinion that for the sake of argument if we devise a law to distinguish between tragedy and accident that certain events are tragedy and certain events are accidents, the application of this law will produce alienation. Thus to define tragedy as a tale of suffering of an exceptional man with high rank in society is unjust. This simply means to exclude the whole middle class from the range of tragic heroes. This is going to be rejected by the middle class. Williams says that the emphasis on the rank in tragedy should not remain limited to an elite person but it should go a step forward and include the whole web of common man around him. Otherwise this is unacceptable to bourgeois society. In bourgeois society an individual is neither a state nor an element of state but an entity in himself. In today's world ranks have lost their importance. In twentieth century titles have no significance, they are mere sonorities. i lienation. i oducing sympathy they produce al conte must contain some ethical ‘ng to Hegel tragedy lesson ane ae suffering as suspended over active characters entirely as the consequence of ite 3 - Tragedy of Oedipus Rex can be traced in his arrogance. confidence is a good quality, —Literary & Practical Criticism-Il Pride haughtiness, arrogance or insolence, + jt beco disgusting and obnoxious. Macbeth's soaring ambition led his downfall. King Lear made an errcr of Judgment became the hostage of his thankless daughters. Marx deser tragedy in the historical context of different sociaj forces Nietzsche says that Tragedy dramatizes a tension Which resolves in a higher unity. These interpretations give a new orientation to accident Raymond brings another aspec; of tragedy under discussions. He says order is the result Of tragie action. The relation between order and disorder is coreg, There is always some disorder that is corrected by order, The pride of Oedipus Rex is disorder that is corrected by the forces responsible to create balance in. society. Each culture has its own meanings of order. For each tragedy there has been ‘an abstract’ order that was demonstrated in the form of tragedy, The abstract beliefs of Athens (Greeks) were expounded as background in the tragic drama of Greeks. Similarly the abstract beliefs of Elizabethan period have been expounded as a background to Marlowe, Shakespeare and Webster. Each culture has its own meanings of order. lt is deeply engrafted in its own cultural settings. There is an evident variation in the nature of tragic disorder. It can be pride, Varity or jealousy of a man, Order and disorder both vary in culture to culture according to their interpretation of life. Raymond moves very cautiously to challenge the foundation of another customary belief that stability of beliefs needed for tragedy. Modem period is period with no belief thus no tragedy is possible. Raymond says that this is not tue "in the face of facts. Elizabethan and Jacobean period is marked ith extraordinary tension and internal conflicts. Howev®t t ill produced best tragedies. Williams is of the vie. 7 iportant tragedy seems to occur neither in period is nor in period of open and decisive conflict,Literary & Practicat Cr; ticisml 254 > Modern Tragedy ssible only j argo po Pa ym the period of confi = set against new ones. nflicts. Where old beliefs are (1) Raymond win}; W A F . actions of tre illiams digs deep into the meanings and 2 agedy. He 5; 8 interpretation of tragedy j Says that the most common is destroyed or died AG that it is an action in which the hero destruction of hero ane en all tragedies in fact end with the . Thi Sarre ; 3 true that hero is destro: ai en is partially true. It is tragedy. In Greek tr yed but this does not give an end to the gods as against ieee chorus affirms the supremacy of ee ¢ hero, In Elizabethan tragedy, the destruction of hero is ensued by ‘ Bar Machelh ; y new order as we see in King Lear, Macbeth and Hamlet. The twenti i RARLIEIS Tiot the bus; - The twentieth-century critic agrees Bee acs: ae usiness of a writer to give solution; he should SB iitome cave © experiences and raise questions. Moreover ‘i ae Ss eave that We are addicted to confine our attention to the hero, and in this Way we unconsciously confine ourselves to one kind of experience. We think of tragedy as what happens to the hero, but Modern tragedy is what happens through the hero. (111) Raymond Williams believes that death is not an irreparable action in tragedy. Rather focus is upon life that breaks from the fact of death, Death gives meaning and importance to life. When we see death, naturally we draw together in grief as a social duty of burial. Death is absolute and all our living simply relative, death is necessary and all other human ends are contingent. Death is universal and anything tied to it quickly claims universality. The connection between tragedy and death is of course quite evident, but in reality it is variable, as our response to death is variable. Raymond sys that tragic action is about death yet it needs not to end with the death of hero, it ends with the affirmation of certain social and religious dogmas. (IV) Another important element in tragedy is the emphasis on evil. Classical tragedy throws light on the —Literary & Practical Criticism-l|__ 252 Modern Trageg Presence of transcendental evil but the evil that is Present jn human nature is neglected. Raymond thinks that Human evil Causes to build concentration camps, destruction of Civilization through atomic bombs. Tragedy dramatizes different forms of evils. In each tragedy, evil is shown as triumphant force, | Oedipus Rex Hero blinds his eyes as he sees the evil that hag been committed by him. Culturally evil is a name of many kinds of disorders, which destroys actual life. It is found in variable forms, such as vengeance, ambition, pride, coldness, lust, jealousy, disobedience and rebellion, Raymond Says that both good and evil are not absolute. We are good or evil in particular situations under some pressure and vice-versa, In his essay "Tragedy and Contemporary Ideas" Raymond Williams first describes the contemporary and customary concept of tragedy and then uses all subtle arguments to reject it. His style is very interesting and Persuasive. He first looks into the pros and cons of argument and then rejects them piece-by-piece. He takes up a very, different position to this stand. He rejects ordinary contemporary meanings of tragedy. He is very minute and — subtle in analysing the contemporary concepts of tragedy.pints to Remember: l. Introduction. Contemporary ideas, Order and accident, The destruction of Hero. The irreparable action. The irreparable action, The emphasis of evil. Conclusion.Literary & Practical Criticism-ll_ 254 7- Rejection Of Tragedy Q. In what ways does Brecht reject trapeg [RAYMOND WILLIAMS: MODERN TRAGEDY, (2009) | Modern, Trageg y OR Q. In Bertolt Brecht the rejection of tragedy has , motives and takes many forms. Explain. (2006) OR Q. Elucidate Raymond Williams’ views on ‘Rejection of Tragedy". (2005) any OR Explain in detail what Raymond Williams means by the "Rejection of Tragedy". OR Q. Discuss Rejection of Tragedy by Raymond Williams, Ans. Raymond Williams takes up the subject of Tragedy as an ‘art form’ and tragedy as ‘an experience’ in life. He retraces the tradition of Tragedy and the concepts associated with it because he believes that it is necessary for the understanding of modern tragedy. Instead of reaching oversimplified conclusions, Raymond goes into the complexity of concepts, taking into account the various tragic theories and works of paramount importance, In the chapter "Rejection of Tragedy" Raymond introduces certain radical and novel ideas about tragedy on the bases of the works of Bertolt Brecht who founded an "epi¢ theatre" as compared to the emotional theory and theatre of Aristotle. Brecht rejected the conventional idea of tragedy and made it more experimental and rational. Brecht believed, "the theatre’s broadest function is to educate” 2" "it is the noblest function that we have found for thealt® ° He created an influential theory of theatre, wherein @ PlyLiterary & Practical Criticism. 255 Modena SSS aa not emotionally identify the spectator with the action of me Fic ea 't should create distancing effects, and it ae give the rational and critical interpretation of the action on aap He believed that the experience of catharsis of pity and fear left an audience complacent. ! Brecht believes that response to suffering is crucial. Therefore even the spectator of tragedy becomes a participant in the tragedy through catharsis, therefore, as a participant he can neither comprehend nor condemn sufferings. Brecht says that the Spectator needs to realise that these sufferings are due to the corrupt political system and not due to some particular bad people. A corrupt System makes some moral principles for its defence. Brecht says "An evil system is protected by a false morality whereas our disgust is directed against immorality or some immoral individuals and not against the evil system. Therefore, under these conditions, morality serves the cause of the cruel system. Brecht says that morality religion and spiritualism are used by the exploiting class as a shield against public resentment. Brecht further thinks’ that a constant exposure of sufferings kills our sense of sympathy. He says if the trouble is exposed for several times the response to the trouble will change and the mind will become callous, it makes the spectators insensitive to suffering. People become heartless and pity is drained from their hearts. In order to detach the spectator from the emotional effects of tragedy. Brecht employed the use of techniques that remind the spectator that the play is a representation of reality but not a reality in self, Which he called the "distancing effect". Such techniques included the direct address by actors to the audience, transposition of text to third person or past tense, speaking the ‘stage direction out see isk el stage lighting, th , and ex! lanatory play cards. . : etee st S0nk nie that Brecht employed to achieve his Another tech aM Wrest sites iivtenciag effects was the principle of historiciation. TheLiterary & Practical Criticism-ll_256 Modern Tra Principle of ‘historicization’ is a fundamental pan of iy, Marxist aesthetics. The content of many of his plays dealt with fictional telling of historical figures or events. His idea Was that a story contemporary to audience may not be able to maintain the critical perspective. Instead, he focused oy historical stories that had parallel themes to the social ills he tried to highlight in his own time. Now Brecht thought that instead of sympathy there must be direct shock to outrage the people. Brecht and other writers portrayed whores and thieves as their heroes in order to agitate the hardened consciousness of people but even this experiment failed in shocking the audience as it further fortified their false moral values. People would sit back in their seats and watch crime from a distance, as belonging some remote world, and not structural part of their society. Brecht rejected the validity of so-called refined sentiments of goodness, love and sacrifice; These, to him, are false sentiments, romanticised purposely. Love he thinks separates us from humanity. Williams has discussed six plays: The "Three Penny * Opera", "Saint Joan of the Stockyard", "Die Massnahme", "The Good Woman of Sezuen", "Mother Courage and her Children” and "The Life of Galileo". Peachum in Brecht's play “The Three Penny Opera” uses pity as a trade in his establishment for beggars. Sympathy becomes a trade that nourishes on human sufferings. To Brecht individual goodness is of very little value. He tries to look into contradictions between individual goodness and social action. In his play Mother Courage and her Children Brecht invites us to see what happens to 4 g person in a bad society. Through the protagonist he secks 10 show us how goodness is exploited by both gods and men, and how a good person is alienated. Brecht's Good Woman ol Suzan presents a kind-hearted prostitute but she is alienated. aThe only we But Brecht; reeots ea circumstances is sacrifice. agree With the idea that hee of suffering. He does not never be good and must be onl — us. Sufferings can need heroes and it is bad life that : d Ee ee itis sin to be destroyed b needs sacrifice. He considers Biechestni Y cruelty. ic] (people. aS drama tells us that it is not possible to . S good or bad. Goodness and badness are alternate expressions in the same individual, he believes. We all live under this tension. We all have a split consciousness. The contradictions in a character are sometimes hard and sometimes generous but they are real, Brecht believes. Williams calls this approach as "complex secing’. Brecht s play The Life of Galileo is such a case of ‘complex seeing’. We can admire or despise Galileo but Brecht is not asking us to do this. He is only telling us what happens to a consciousness when it is caught in a deadlock between individual and social morality. We are so used to tragedy and martyrdom under such circumstances that we are unable to see this experience in a radically different way (complex seeing). Tragedy, says Williams, in some of its older senses is certainly rejected by this "complex seeing". This complex seeing also involves the sense of history, which is complex and dynamic. The purpose of tragedy, according to him, should not be catharsis but agitation and action. His theory of theatre has heavily influenced the modern theatre. Some of his innovations have become so common that they've entered the theatrical canon. He is the forerunner of contemporary postmodern theatre practice. This is particularly so because he questioned and dissolved oe of the accepted practices of the theatre of his time and created a political theatre. Moreover, he was one of the first theatre practitioners incorporate multimedia into the semiotics the Study of sign. % ——Points to Remember: SOOT ANS Pe ae S Introduction. Concepts associated with tragedy. Rejection of tragedy. Response to suffering is crucial. Constant sufferings kill sense. Brecht’s techniques. Distancing effects. The Life of Galileo. Complex seeing. Conclusion. eeea Literary & Practical Criticism.) 259 —— Modern Travels 8- Tragic Views of Hegel And Hegelians, Schopenhaur, Nietzsche Q. ward open of the hero contribute to the to Hegel ae Ne TRAN wt reference MODERN TRAGEDY] aes) D WILLIAMS: ; OR Q. Discuss Raymond Views About Hegel And Hegelians, Schopenhauer and, Nietzsche. Ans. Hegel and Hegelians: Hegel is a great German Philosopher though he did not reject the moral scheme poetic justice, yet he describes it as the triumph of ordinary morality, and the work that embodies poetic justice is a social drama rather than a tragedy. This new emphasis marks the emergence of modem tragic ideas. He believes that the important thing in tragedy is not suffering but its causes. Moreover, mere pity and fear are not tragic. In tragedy the suffering on the active characters are entirely the consequence of their own act these sufferings are not because of any external contingency or the circumstances beyond the control of the individual, such as illness, loss of property, death and likewise. He thinks that for a genuine tragic action there should exist the principle of individual freedom and independence. While pinpointing the differences between the ancient r : in the ancient tragedy and modem tragedy Raymond says that in the t tra the characters Sealy, represent the substantive ethical ends while in modem tragedy the ends are wholly personal. dy, there is not only the downfall of Moreover in ancient trage - all conflicting persons and it ends in the achievement of eternalLiterary & Practical Criticism-l|__ 260 Modern Tragedy Justice a character may surrender himself under a higher command; in modem tragedy the whole question of resolution Is more difficult because the characters are more personal in modern tragedies. Hegel's interpretation of tragedy is the part of his general philosophy not a historical criticism, It emphasis upon the conflict and its resolution. Bradley changes this emphasis from ethical to psychological but later, under the influence of Marx the conflict of ethical forces was looked in social and historical terms. Williams transforms Hegel's theory of tragedy in terms of Marxism. SCHOPENHAUR Before Schopenhauer, tragedy was associated with ethical crisis, human growth and history. Schopenhauer contributes in the secularization of the idea of fate in a tragedy. He says “the true sense of tragedy is the deeper insight, that it is not his own individual sins that the hero atones for, but original sin i.e. the crime of existence itself”. In this respect, he is the forerunner of the tragedy sufferings are rooted in the nature of man, and these are not the product of historical and ethical considerations. Nietzsche Nietzsche does not negate Schopenhauer tragic nature of life but in Nietzsche's view tragedy dramatizes tension that revolves in a higher unity. Though the hero, who is the highest manifestation of will, is destroyed but his eternal will remains unaffected. Moreover, he thinks that the action of tragedy Is neither moral nor purgative but aesthetic. Nietzsche also links tragedy with myth. To him only myth is the source of tragic knowledge.ary & Practical Criticism-i1 261 Points (0 Remember: Ve Introduction. Ds Hegelian 3, Schopenhauer 4 Nietzsche > Conclusion KkkKKEsey sree & Practical Criticism-tl Modern ___.9- Order ae Order and ergs (Sy Q.6 Discribe the importance of order and Qe Discribe the importance of order and Accigeg —~ Ans. In order and accident, he argues that CONVeEntio concept of tragedy does not recognize accident as a 1, Aged The tragedy of common man is considered to be an "eye. 1 tragedy". It is generally considered that there is no signi Fea tragic meaning in "every day tragedies", because the crea these tragedies is not tragic in itself, but it only becomes gy through a shaped response. Raymond does not agree with ua view. He asks how it is possible to distinguish between ay event and response to an event, in an absolute way, Raymond Williams says that if an event does not earn a response jt dogs not mean that it has no response. Indifference to an event jg also a kind of response. Thus it is totally wrong that event has no response. Same is the case with ordinary man. An Ordinary man's death results in the suffering and mourning of near and dear ones. Thus where suffering is felt, we are clearly within the possible dimension of tragedy. Though we always react to the sufferings of others in different forms. Williams believes that tragedy encompass all high and low together, thus to believe that only the death of prince is tragedy, is absolutely incorrect. According to Raymond, a mining disaster, a bumed out family, a broken career or a smash on the road all are tragic incidents. Raymond does not seem agree with Yeats who | excludes the suffering of accident and of the war from tragic incidents. Same is the case with Hegel who makes difference between "mere sympathy” and "true sympathy". According (@ Hegel accident does not produce true sympathy. True npathy comes only when somebody among the nobles . Raymond is of the opinion we should not make bi ns between the sufferings of a common man and Prince. If we do not see war, famine, work, traffic tragic events it is our own bankruptcy.- SE a —_:_—— | ae Literary & Practical Criticisms 263 Modern Tragedy ‘ casas be of the opinion that for the sake of argument Beerscc ys elawito distinguish between tragedy and accident that certain events are traged Se y ‘deni the application of this i. y and certain events are acc! . define tragedy as a tale rs ‘ie Pee ee ae GR ee ayy te of suffering of an exceptional man with high rank in society is unjust. This simply means to exclude the ppole Ree Class from the range of tragic heroes. This is going to be rejected by the middle class. Williams says that the emphasis on the rank in tragedy should not remain limited to an elite person but it should go a step forward and include the whole web of common man around him, Otherwise this is unacceptable to bourgeois society. In bourgeois society an individual is neither a state nor an element of state but an entity in himself. In today’s world ranks have lost their importance. In twentieth century titles have no significance, they are mere sonorities. Thus instead of producing sympathy they produce alienation. According to Hegel tragedy must contain some ethical lesson. He recognizes suffering as suspended over active characters entirely as the consequence of their own act. Tragedy of Oedipus Rex can be traced in his arrogance. Self- confidence is a good quality, but when it takes the form of pride haughtiness, arrogance or insolence, it becomes disgusting and obnoxious. Macbeth's soaring ambition led to his downfall. King Lear made an error of judgment and became the hostage of his thankless daughters. Marx describes tragedy in the historical context of different social forces. Nietzsche says that Tragedy dramatizes a tension which resolves in a higher unity. These interpretations give a new orientation to accident Raymond brings another aspect of tragedy under discussions. He says order is the result of tragic action. The relation between order and disorder is correct. There is always some disorder that is corrected by order. The pride of Oedipus Rex !s disorder that is corrected by the forces responsible to create balance in. society. Each culture has its % _ aleeLiterary & Practical Criticism-Il 264 Modern Tra own meanings of order. For each tragedy there has been » abstract’ order that was demonstrated in the form of tragedy The abstract beliefs of Athens (Greeks) were expounded Hi background in the tragic drama of Greeks. Similarly the abstract beliefs of Elizabethan period have been expounded a a background to Marlowe, Shakespeare and Webster. Each culture has its own meanings of order. | j, deeply engrafted in its own cultural settings. There is ay evident variation in the nature of tragic disorder. It can be pride, vanity or jealousy of a man. Order and disorder both vary in culture to culture according to their interpretation of life. Raymond moves very cautiously to challenge the foundation of another customary belief that stability of belief is needed for tragedy. Modem period is period with no belief thus no tragedy is possible. Raymond says that this is not true in the face of facts. Elizabethan and Jacobean period is marked with extraordinary tension and internal conflicts. However, it still produced best tragedies. Williams is of the view that important tragedy seems to occur neither in period of real stability nor in period of open and decisive conflict, this is possible only in the period of conflicts. Where old beliefs are set against new ones.points to Remember: NQWVEwWHS Introduction. Meaning of everyday tragedy. Raymond does not agree with Yeats. Emphasis on rank. Hegel. Marx. Conclusion. KkKKEKEducation and jobs update Join WhatsApp Group © 0310-1722158 wey wy yy eu yy a SES test BES chlor bus VY MIYB\y tJ AY hy cefssl egde SUB AKL SE PLE UysEiltert Se Pas ao q@) W2 GIS LS Jc WhatsApp group Paste eel w toes le bBeese ate PU it hex Scan this QR code using the WhatsApp camera to join this group