L2: Intellectual Revolution

GEED007। Science, Technology, and Society

It will be seen in this module that scientific The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to
revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th
marked the birth of science as a discipline and as a field century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable
of inquiry and gave birth to the development of the answer is the invention of the printing machine, the
scientific method. It was a time in the history of science blooming intellectual activities done in various places of
where many scientific ideas and discoveries, which learning, and the growing number of scholars in various
were considered innovative and useful, were fields of human interests. This does not mean, however,
developed. Some of these ideas were also controversial that science is a foreign idea transported from other
in the scientific community and in the political arena. areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the
The scientific revolution significantly changed how history of science, technology, medicine, and
people study science and do scientific activities. It mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the
inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and
away from thought experiments to data-driven and activities related to these disciplines.
experiment-based ideas.
Scientific revolution was the period of
There were many intellectuals who made enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
essential contributions in science during the period of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and
scientific revolution such as Nicolaus Copernicus, chemistry transformed the views of society about
Charles Darwin, and Sigmund Freud, to name a few. nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern
science as a result of these developments from the
disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this
period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and
2.1: SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no
(16, 17, 18th centuries in Europe ... 1500s to 1700s) doubt that it ignited vast human interests to think how
they do science and view scientific processes.
Definition of Science
Scientific revolution was the golden age for
Science is as old as the world itself. There is people committed to scholarly life in science, but it was
no individual that can exactly identify when and where also a deeply trying moment to some scientific
science began. From the genesis of time, science has individuals that led to their painful death or
been used. It is always interwoven with the society. So, condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to
how can science be defined? preserve their faith, religion, and theological views.
Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop
all available semantic explanations and observations people especially tests to satisfy their curiosity of the
about the natural and physical world. natural and physical world

2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses

a state and practical study of the natural and physical
world. This process of study involves systematic
observation and experimentation.

3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or

a discipline a field of study, or a body of knowledge that
deals with the process of learning about the natural and
physical world. This is what we refer to as school
science.

4. Science as a personal and social activity. This

explains that science is both knowledge and activities
done by human beings to develop better understanding
of the world around them. It is a means to improve life
and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives
Influences of Scientific Revolution
Human beings have embarked in scientific
activities in order to know and understand everything Scientific revolution is very significant in the
around them. They have persistently observed and development of human beings, transformation of the
studied the natural and the physical world in order to society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It
find meanings and seek answers to many questions. significantly improved the conduct of scientific
They have developed noble ideas later known as investigations, experiments, and observations. The
philosophy, to provide alternative or possible scientific revolution also led to the creation of new
explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used research fields in science and prompted the
religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless establishment of a strong foundation for modern
forms. science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed
the natural world and the world of ideas.
 duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his
2.2: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION
interest in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly
influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496
To further understand what exactly happened by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book
during the scientific revolution, it is important to contains Mueller's observations of the heavens, and
examine the different individuals whose ideas have some commentary earlier works especially that of
shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas Ptolemy.
during this period--the truths of their time, Scientists in
all periods of time are driven by their curiosity critical Copernicus's idea and model of the universe
thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he
natural world. Their love for science is driven by their circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close
deep passion to know and to discover. friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little
Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was
concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if
he published his ideas formally.

Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a

canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally
publish his work and advance his career in astronomy.
The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the
Variables that Influence the Development of Science scientific revolution.
Ideas, Science Discoveries, and Technology He was the first to suggest a heliocentric
cosmology by insisting that the Sun was at the center of
Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor the universe and refuted the geocentric idea that the
and publicity. Out of their critical thinking and creativity earth is the center of the universe.
as well as their curiosity, they passionately kept on
doing scientific activities to know and discover. They are In his book, he wanted a model of the universe
ordinary people doing extraordinary things. Some in which everything moved around a single center at
scientists were never appreciated during their times, unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the Sun to be the
some were sentenced to death, while others were centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the
condemned by the Church. In spite of all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year.
predicaments and challenges they experienced, they The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the
never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and Earth. Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around
discovering new knowledge and ideas, and created new the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a
technologies. logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two
kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and
What is intellectual revolution? Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to
the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter
An Intellectual revolution is the period where lay outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun.
paradigm shifts occurred. It is where the scientific From this model, he would work on the length of time it
beliefs that have been widely embraced and accepted will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun.
by the people were challenged and opposed. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and
discussed. For sure, there were many scientists who Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in
worked before and after these individuals. However, it is order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the
important to note that these men, particularly through great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was
their ideas, had shaken the world. the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in
a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere.

Copernicus is also a courageous man. There

NICOLAS COPERNICUS (1473-1543) was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the
risk of persecution by the Church if he published his
ideas formally. Although the Copernican model makes
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in sense now, during those times, it was judged to be
the field of science, is Nicolaus Copernicus. Knowledge heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be
about the nature of the universe had been essentially taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece, Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the
some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the rest of the 16th century.
scene. This continued up to the Renaissance period.

In one important way, Copernicus resembled

CHARLES DARWIN (1809-1882)
the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers – he did not
do anything extensive such as observing heavenly
bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas
were an example of what is presently called as a Another giant in the intellectual revolution is
thought experiment. By the time he finished his Charles Darwin. He is famous for his theory of evolution
doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as which changed our concept of the world's creation and
canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his its evolution.
 Darwin was described as a genius who came method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the
from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He scientific way of understanding human nature.
developed his interest in natural history during his time
as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would also Freud is not a traditional thinker. His method of
spend time taking long walks to observe his psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in
surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored understanding some neurological conditions that were
over books in his father's library. Darwin went to the not understood by medicine at that time. His method
best schools but was observed to be a mediocre was unorthodox focusing on human sexuality and the
student. He struggled in his study in medicine and evil nature of man. This posed immense challenges to
ministry, which his father has imposed to him. scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they
found his ideas not easy to accept especially in his
Darwin's life soon changed when one of his explanations of human sexuality.
professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage
through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos. Freud was born in a much later period from the
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in scientific revolution but his contribution to knowledge
1589. This book is considered to be one of the most can be seen in many aspects of the human scene,
important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and
many significant materials in order to present his theory psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist,
with overwhelming evidence. His book presented or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains
evidence on how species evolved over time and that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered
presented traits and adaptation that differentiate nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human
species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way
many pertinent materials and data that he could ever
possibly need to substantiate his theory.

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist

were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms of
plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book
The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very
controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life,
including human beings, under the realm of
evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views
of a religious or biblical design that places human
beings in a privileged position of having been created
by God. Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically
questioned this view.

Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse

that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and
philosophy of science. More than these works, what
made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to
challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are
deemed to be prominent during those days. His
unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to
evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different
framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science
marked by observation and experiment.

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

Freud is a famous figure in the field of

psychology. He is also described as a towering literary
figure and a very talented communicator who did his
share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world
in psychological matters.

However, apart from these. Freud also made a

significant contribution in the scientific world through the
development of an important observational method to
gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This
method is popularly known as the method of
psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated
formed the essential fundamental version of this
method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a
scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic
illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his
works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his