Phase-Shifting Transformer Control and

Protection Settings Verification

Bill Cook
San Diego Gas & Electric

Michael J. Thompson, Kamal Garg, and Milind Malichkar

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

© 2018 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained
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This paper was presented at the 71st Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers and can
be accessed at: https://doi.org/10.1109/CPRE.2018.8349815.

For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
 Presented at the
45th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference
Spokane, Washington
October 16–18, 2018

Previous revised edition released March 2018

Originally presented at the

71st Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, March 2018
 1

Phase-Shifting Transformer Control

and Protection Settings Verification
Bill Cook, San Diego Gas & Electric
Michael J. Thompson, Kamal Garg, and Milind Malichkar, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Abstract—San Diego Gas & Electric® (SDG&E®) initiated a Fig. 1 shows a simplified schematic drawing for the project,
project to add two parallel 400 MVA (+31.3° to −80.1°) phase- including the source, load, and bypass circuit breakers.
shifting transformers (PSTs) at a 230 kV interconnection
substation. California ISO (CAISO) proposed the PST project to
provide flow control between SDG&E and Comisión Federal de
Electricidad (CFE) 230 kV systems during critical N-1 or N-1-1
500 kV line contingencies. With the need to integrate renewable
generation, many utilities are using PSTs to manage the grid (e.g.,
American Electric Power [AEP] has eight PSTs in their system).
SDG&E is presently reviewing the need for additional PST
projects. The authors collaborated to address the unique
challenges of parallel PST protection and control for this
wide-ranging PST application, including implementation of
CAISO control and automatic contingency-based tap-changer
runback.
This paper discusses SDG&E’s process to execute the project,
including settings development, simulation, lab and field testing,
and in-service testing. The authors discuss oscillography analysis
used during lab testing, energization, and loading to verify the Fig. 1. Two-Core PST – Simplified One-Line Diagram
overall design and programming.
The utility formed a project team in 2014, including
I. INTRODUCTION personnel in engineering, project management, environmental
management, and supply management. Contract entities
The Imperial Valley 500 kV/230 kV substation provides the included a substation engineering design consultant who
San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E) utility with a 500 kV provided the substation design package and a protection and
interconnection to Arizona Public Service (APS) and 230 kV control (P&C) engineering services consultant who provided
interconnections to Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE) the P&C solutions. The engineering services consultant had
and Imperial Irrigation District (IID). The total interconnected provided P&C solutions for more than 20 PST projects
generation at Imperial Valley is 1,880 MW, including throughout North America with a proven design.
1,100 MW of combined cycle and 780 MW of solar generation. CAISO runs a market-based software application to
In addition, 570 MW of wind generation is connected at the determine generating-unit set points in real time. CAISO
utility’s adjacent 500 kV substations. There are two 500 kV decided in late 2015 to set the PST load tap changer (LTC) tap
lines from Imperial Valley into the San Diego-area load and an set points as generated by the market-based software, with the
underlying 230 kV east-to-west path through the CFE 230 kV possibility of adjusting set points on a 15-minute schedule. It
system. When a 500 kV line is out of service, the 230 kV path became clear that the PST controllers would need to enable
can be loaded to high levels. efficient parallel operation in an expeditious manner while
A. Analysis and Requirements interfacing with a signal from CAISO.
California ISO (CAISO) proposed a project in 2014 to install The utility and CAISO discussed in early 2016 the proposed
a flow controller on the 230 kV CFE interconnection line at operation for when a PST trips. Rather than cross-tripping the
Imperial Valley. The project goal was to provide a means of remaining unit if overloaded, the utility proposed an automatic
controlling the flow through the CFE system during N-1 and scheme to operate the remaining PST LTC in the retard
N-1-1 operating conditions, enabling the 230 kV path to remain direction, reducing the flow to a value below the 400 MVA
in service during stressed conditions. While a back-to-back dc continuous rating. This logic was implemented in the controller
flow controller was considered, two parallel 400 MVA design.
phase-shifting transformers (PSTs) were proposed for B. PST Project Features
installation at Imperial Valley. Based upon power flow studies, In summary, the unique features of this PST project were:
these PSTs were specified to have a range of +31.3° to −80.1° • Parallel high-capacity PSTs.
over 65 tap positions, with a range from +16 advance tap to −48 • A very wide phase angle regulating range.
retard tap. CAISO targeted an in-service date of May 1, 2017.
• Nonlinear impedance throughout the operating range.
 2

• 65 LTC tap positions with an advance-retard switch

(ARS).
• CAISO tap set points sent remotely.
• Automatic LTC operation to reduce PST loading for
loss of one PST.
The transformers were manufactured in Austria, tested in
summer 2016, shipped in fall 2016, and arrived at the Imperial
Valley substation site in December 2016.
The substation electrical design began in mid-2015 and
Fig. 2. Two-Core PST
continued through 2016. The design team included utility
engineering and operations personnel, the substation design
II. GENERAL INFORMATION AND DESIGN DETAILS
consultant, and the P&C engineering services consultant.
Frequent design review meetings and phone calls ensured that This section discusses the unique features of the PST design
all team members were working in concert. Electrical drawings and some design details. The wide and offset range of
and test data were shared with the design team as they were regulation of these PSTs made them unusual. To achieve this
made available. range of regulation, the PST excitation transformers were
The grid operations team developed standard procedures in constructed with three secondary windings designated as fine,
2016 to operate the PSTs, including energizing/loading and coarse, and booster. Each of these windings has the same
unloading/de-energizing. The team decided to provide number of turns, so they each produce the same voltage.
permissive close signals from the PST controllers to the PST Fig. 3 shows the configurations of the windings for the range
circuit breakers to ensure standard switching practice was of regulation. The regulation range is broken into four
followed. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) subranges: one in the advance direction and three in the retard
points lists were developed to provide analog data, control, and direction. The fine winding is the tapped winding that the LTC
status indication. The P&C engineering services consultant can insert in 16 steps. The coarse winding is inserted as needed
then implemented all custom utility logic, including SCADA to provide offset from one regulation range to the next. The
control and indication points in the controller logic platforms. booster winding is always in the circuit.
PSTs control power flow on the transmission system. They
insert a variable magnitude quadrature voltage into each phase
to create a phase shift between the source- and load-side
bushings by using a tap changer on the regulating winding. The
simplified equation (neglecting losses and shunt admittances)
for power flow through a transmission line is demonstrated in
(1) [1].
ES • E R
=P sin δ (1)
XL
where:
ES is the sending-end voltage.
ER is the receiving-end voltage.
XL is the series reactance of the transmission line.
δ is the angle between the two voltages.
This equation reveals that power flow is largely a function
of the angle between the two voltages. If the angle across the
Fig. 3. Three Secondary Windings Provide Wide Range of Regulation
line can be regulated, the power flow through the line can be
regulated. By introducing an angle that is additive (advance), Even though each of the three windings has the same number
the power flow can be increased. By introducing an angle that of turns, the physical arrangement of each winding relative to
is subtractive (retard), the power flow can be reduced. the others on the core is different, resulting in different leakage
For example, a voltage in phase with VBC or VCB would be reactance depending on which windings are in the circuit. Fig. 4
combined with VA to produce a phase shift between the S and shows the PST impedance and phase shift during a no-load
L terminals of the transformer. The PST used at the Imperial condition with variation of tap position. The discontinuities are
Valley substation is based on a two-core design and is shown in quite evident as different windings are switched in and out and
Fig. 2. cause complications in the protection and control system
This configuration has two magnetic cores: the series core design, as discussed in Section IV.
and the excitation core. The tap-changer mechanism operates
on the secondary winding of the excitation core and induces a
phase-shifting voltage component through the delta winding on
the series core.
 3

Fig. 4. PST Impedance Variation With Tap Position Fig. 6. Main 2 Overall Differential Protection

III. PROTECTION SCHEME DESIGN 1) Primary Winding Differential and Sudden-Pressure

Protection
This section summarizes the main protection scheme for this The 87-PSTnP relay is designated 87P for primary winding
PST. Three relays are selected per PST. The detailed protection differential, as it only protects against faults in the primary
scheme is beyond the scope of this paper. References [2], [3], windings of the two transformers that make up a two-core PST.
[4], [5], [6], and [7] provide various techniques and details See Fig. 5 for the details of the 87P protection scheme. The 87P
involved in PST protection and modeling. Reference [7] relay provides the PST zone with Kirchhoff’s current law
provides a good summary of the protection applied for this (KCL) bus-type differential and provides high-speed protection
project. to the primary windings on the series and excitation cores. This
A. Scheme Design and One-Line Diagram relay is also wired to provide PST apparatus trips, i.e., sudden
pressure relay (SPR), Buchholz oil temperature protection, etc.
The two-core PSTs installed at the Imperial Valley
The 87-PST1P and 87-PST2P relays provide KCL
substation are protected by three relays per PST. Main 1
differential protection to the primary windings of the two
consists of two relays, 87-PSTnP and 87-PSTnS, as shown in
transformers (87P). KCL differentials are immune to
Fig. 5 It should be understood that in this application, the
transformer magnetic core effects such as inrush and
suffixes P and S do not stand for primary and secondary
overexcitation because these differential zones do not match
systems as in a typical redundant protection system. Two relays
ampere-turns (ATs) across the iron core of the PST. Thus, a
are required to provide complete coverage of the PST. In the
bus-type differential without harmonic restraint or harmonic
above designations, n = 1 for PST1 and n = 2 for PST 2. Main 2
blocking is used for this application. The 87P zone is bounded
consists of one relay, 87-PSTnO, as shown in Fig. 6. O stands
by the current transformers (CTs) on the load breaker, the CTs
for the overall differential for this protection system. With the
on the source breaker, and the CTs on the neutral end of the
addition of sequence component differential protection to the S
excitation transformer primary windings. The relay trips the
and O relays, these relays are responsive to all fault types [7].
source- and load-side breakers and the 86T lockout relay.
Because the 87-PST1P and 87-PST2P relays are blind to
turn-to-turn faults, the 63 SPRs trip for them to clear these
faults.
2) Secondary Winding Differential Protection
The 87-PSTnS relay in Fig. 5 is designated 87S for
secondary winding differential. This relay protects against
faults in the secondary windings of the two transformers that
make up a two-core PST. The zone of protection of the 87S
relay is bounded by the PST bushing CTs and the neutral-end
phase CTs of the regulating windings. These three sets of CTs
provide series transformer ampere-turn-balance (ATB)
protection. This scheme is not responsive to faults on the
Fig. 5. Main 1 Primary and Secondary Protection
 4

primary windings of the excitation transformer. In addition, the If the bypass is closed, most of the current flows through the
scheme is not responsive to turn-to-turn faults on the secondary bypass breaker. Circulating current can be calculated using (2)
windings of the excitation transformer. through (4).
3) Sequence Component Differential Protection IA ADD =IA BYP + ( IA PST1 + IA PST2 ) (2)
Positive-sequence and negative-sequence differentials are
implemented in both the 87S relay and the overall differential IASUB = IA BYP − ( IA PST1 + IA PST2 ) (3)
relay. This includes the ability to compensate for a PST angle IASUB
using electrical measurements instead of mechanical indication IA CIRC = (4)
IA ADD
of tap-changer position. The sequence component differentials
require voltage transformer (VT) inputs for angle The ratios for (2), (3), and (4) are as follows:
compensation. The VTs allow directional elements to provide • For even distribution of load current between the
external fault detectors to put the sequence component parallel branches, the ratio is 0.
differentials in a high-security mode. The directional elements • For the extreme of no-load current in one of the
are then used in a permissive overreaching transfer trip (POTT) branches, the ratio is 1.
scheme. • The only way the ratio can be greater than 1 is if
4) Overall Differential Protection circulating current is present.
The 87-PSTnO relay, shown in Fig. 6, is the overall relay B. Front-Panel Indications
with protection functions similar to the 87-PSTnS relay. The
Fig. 7 shows the 87P relay front panel with all protection
only exception is that different source and load CTs are selected
elements and external trips. Pushbuttons (PBs) and PB light-
for the 87-PSTnO relay. The use of the breaker CTs instead of
emitting diodes (LEDs) are not used for this relay. Fig. 8 shows
the PST bushing CTs allows the 87-PSTnO relay to provide
the front panel for the 87S and 87O relays. There are no
complete fault coverage, because the sequence component
transformer device trips for the 87S and 87O relays.
differentials only use the two CTs at the boundary of the zone
and are therefore responsive to all faults between them. In this
way, the 87-PSTnO relay provides coverage for faults between
the source and load breakers and the PST.
5) Ground Fault Protection
The 87-PSTnS and 87-PSTnO relay systems provide
primary winding (REF) and secondary winding (64T)
equipment ground protection. Ground backup protection of the
primary winding is disabled for this application because this is
a five-legged core transformer. No ground fault contribution is
expected for the external faults.
6) Bypass Off Neutral Protection
The 87-PSTnS and 87-PSTnO relays provide circulating
current protection (32CC), also known as bypass off neutral
logic. The element detects circulating current generated in the
loop comprising the PST and the bypass path if the PST is
accidentally bypassed when the LTC is off neutral. The
differential elements generally do not respond to these
potentially damaging currents, so a dedicated protection
scheme is provided. If the PST is bypassed off the neutral, the
protection system trips the load-side circuit breaker, breaking
the circulating path while still leaving the line in service
through the PST bypass breaker.
The phase currents are measured on the load side of both
PSTs and the bypass circuit breaker. An additive and a
subtractive current are calculated from these measurements.
The additive current represents the load current down the line.
The subtractive current is a measurement of the circulating
current in the bypass loop. The ratio of subtractive current to Fig. 7. 87P Relay PST Protection Front Panel
additive current indicates whether circulating current is present.
 5

− Provision to trip motor circuit to prevent runaway

out-of-synchronism condition
• Verification of neutral before bypassing
• Local annunciation and remote communication of
status and alarm conditions
• Local and remote indication of tap-changer position,
power flow conditions, and motor operational
parameters
• Custom permissive commands for source, load, and
bypass breakers
When Automatic mode is enabled, the controller maintains
the tap position as specified by CAISO. CAISO sends the tap
position to the energy management system (EMS) via an Inter-
Control Center Communications Protocol (ICCP) link, and
SCADA sends the set point via DNP3 to the controller. The
controller includes features to mitigate overloading. The
following overload functions are programmed:
• N-1 overload override
• Low-set overload alarm
• High-set overload alarm
N-1 overload override asserts if the PST load is above a low-
set threshold (for example, 400 MVA) for a selected duration
when the second PST is out of service. N-1 overrides the
CAISO set-point mode and lowers the load on the online PST
to maintain the load of a low-set threshold or less, regardless of
the CAISO set point.
The PST controller also provides low-set and high-set overload
Fig. 8. 87S and 87O Relay PST Protection Front Panel mitigation functions. If loading exceeds a low-set threshold
(regardless of being in an N-1 state), the controller alarms after
IV. PST CONTROLLER MASTER/FOLLOWER a user-settable delay. If overload exceeds a high-set threshold
Custom LTC controller logic was developed for each PST (for example, 600 MVA), the controller alarms after a user-
as part of this project [8]. The PSTs operate in Master/Follower settable delay.
mode; either PST controller can be selected as the master When in Manual mode, it is possible to enable the
controller. The high-speed communication between the two run-to-neutral control function. This function initiates tap
controllers maintains the correct operation modes. High-speed changes in the appropriate direction upon the rising edge of run
communication also exchanges LTC tap position, real and to neutral. This command can be initiated either from the front
reactive power, PST breaker status, and motor running contact. PB or SCADA. Once the first tap change is initiated, the
This information is used in the PST controller logic. function initiates additional steps after the expiration of the
delay between steps timer as long as run to neutral remains
A. Main Features asserted. This logic requires input from the Calculate Effective
PST control includes the following protection monitoring Tap Position function to determine if the tap is in an advance or
and control features: retard position. The input determines if tap advance operations
• Local and remote manual control to advance and or tap retard operations are required to get the tap position to
retard tap neutral. Once Tap Position on Neutral is indicated,
• Tap set point per CAISO Run-to-Neutral in Process deasserts and the process is
• Run-to-neutral control function complete.
• Automatic regulation to keep loading below the PST B. PST Controller Front Panel
continuous rating during N-1 conditions Fig. 9 shows the front panel of the PST controller. There are
• PST overload (OL) instantaneous and OL delayed two parallel PSTs at the Imperial Valley substation. The two
alarms LTC controllers can operate in Master/Follower combination or
• Automatic operation suspend function Independent operation modes. When in parallel operation, one
• Master/Follower mode for parallel PSTs and of the controllers is assigned as the master and the other
monitoring of: becomes the follower. In this mode, the follower simply follows
− Tap position out-of-synchronism alarm the commands given by the master. Functions (e.g., Advance,
− Circulating apparent power alarm Retard, Automatic, and Manual PBs) are disabled for the
 6

follower controller. In the event the PST with the master master or switches to Independent mode, respectively. The
controller trips, the follower controller mode is changed to controllers also switch to Independent mode if the
Independent mode. The operating state in Independent mode communications channel (serial cable) fails or either PST trips.
(Off, Automatic, or Manual) will be identical to the master prior
C. Tap Position Control Logic
to the trip.
The Master/Follower or Independent modes can be chosen When Automatic mode is enabled, the control operates to
locally or via SCADA. When one of the controllers is in Master maintain the tap position as specified by CAISO. SCADA sends
mode, the other controller automatically becomes the follower. the set point via DNP3 to the controller. Fig. 10 shows the
Similarly, if the Follower or Independent command is asserted custom logic that reads and processes the CAISO tap for this
on either of the controllers, the other automatically becomes the PST. The control includes features to mitigate overloading. The

Fig. 9. PST Controller Front Panel

Fig. 10. PST Controller Tap Position Control Logic

 7

regulation set points are stored in volatile memory. If the

control logic restarts for any reason, the set points can be lost.
The control logic can restart for several reasons. Following are
typical examples for restarting control logic:
• The control power is cycled.
• New programming is entered into the control while it
is in Automatic mode.
• A self-test restart occurs.
To prevent the control from initiating tap changes to drive
the tap position to zero (the default regulation point), the control
automatically starts in the Independent and OFF modes. A
SCADA heartbeat (HB) system is programmed in the utility
SCADA master to ensure that the regulation set point is
legitimate as commanded by the CAISO master. The HB script
in the SCADA master periodically writes the CAISO set point
to remote analog and then asserts the SCADA HB. It then
periodically resets the control point HB such that the HB is a
square wave with a period set in the SCADA master. The script
stops setting and resetting the control point HB if it loses
communication with the CAISO master. Similarly, if the
SCADA master-to-LTC controller link fails, the control point
HB also fails to change state. The LTC controllers monitor this
condition and go into alarm if a change of state is not seen for
1.5 times the expected period. This alarm condition blocks
automatic control and self-clears as soon as a new HB control
point is received.
On the rising edge of the SCADA HB, the control reads
remote analog into active memory. This ensures that the active
regulation set point is updated soon after a logic restart or after
CAISO sends a new set point. It also serves as an integrity poll
to refresh the set point periodically to ensure it is always in sync
with the CAISO set point. Additionally, the control verifies the
validity of the CAISO set point as follows: Fig. 11. PST Connection Diagram
• CAISO tap position set point is within the expected
Fig. 12 shows the BCD and ARS inputs, which are used for
range of +16 and –48.
calculating the PST tap position. The logic also indicates the
• Maximum tap difference from present tap position and effective tap and provides the following information:
CAISO set point is less than 5 (user-settable), ensuring
• Tap position on neutral
that a corrupted tap position signal will not result in a
• Tap position in retard
tap change that can cause problems with the
• Tap position in advance
transmission system.
Tap changer logic reads the tap position sent via CAISO and • Tap position at extreme retard
compares the tap position to the existing tap position. Advance • Tap position at extreme advance
and retard commands are issued based upon the difference Additional advance and retard commands are blocked if they
between the existing and required taps. come before the delay between tap steps has expired. The
Fig. 11 shows the PST CT/potential transformer (PT) appropriate PB LEDs on the front of the control illuminate
connections. Three-phase currents and voltages are connected solidly when a tap change is in process. After a tap step is
on the load side. In addition, single-phase PT connections are complete, the two LEDs on the Advance and Retard PBs
on the source side and the load side between the PST and the alternately blink until the delay between tap steps has expired.
breaker. The single-phase voltages are used to verify the neutral
position. In addition to neutral position contact, the neutral is
also verified using the binary-coded decimal (BCD) inputs and
the ARS.
 8

(5) and (6). SCIRC is then defined by totaling the quadrature

components per (7).
P1 + P2
PCIRC
= − P1 (5)
2
Q1 + Q2
QCIRC
= − Q1 (6)
2
where:
P1 and Q1 are the real and reactive power measured by the
LTC control.
P2 and Q2 are the real and reactive power measured by the
adjacent LTC control.
2 2
 P1 + P2   Q1 + Q2 
SCIRC
=  2 − P1 +  − Q1 (7)
   2 
Fig. 12. Tap Position Logic
The magnitude of SCIRC is a function of the impedance of the
The tap changer switching contacts can be damaged if the PSTs, which varies by tap position (see Section II), and the
switching current is above a certain level. This can occur during voltage in the loop, which also varies by tap position. Fig. 13
prolonged external faults or overloaded conditions. The shows the SCIRC characteristic programmed for this application.
Overload Alarm function also includes an overcurrent function The expected SCIRC for a one-step difference (alarm) and a
that suspends automatic timing and asserts the manual control two-step difference (block) varies depending on where in the
cutout when any phase current is above this user-settable range the PSTs are operating. The circulating megavolt-ampere
threshold. alarm curve peak is ~53 MVA and the block peak is ~95 MVA;
D. Circulating Apparent Power Protection this is the PST neutral tap position. The Alarm Curve −
Large circulating apparent power (SCIRC) may flow if the two Circulating MVA function is selected when the PSTs differ by
PSTs operate at different tap positions. The magnitude of the one tap position. The Block Curve − Circulating MVA function
SCIRC is a function of the impedance of the PSTs and the voltage is selected when the PSTs differ by two tap positions.
in the loop, which varies with tap position. Two methods are
used to detect an undesired operating condition where both
PSTs are at different tap positions:
• Tap position measurement
• SCIRC measurement
Tap position difference logic compares the tap position of
the two controllers for alarm and block functions. The present
tap position of the two controllers is exchanged over the high-
speed communications channels. If the tap position difference
is equal to 1, then a parallel alarm is asserted. If the tap position
difference is equal to 2, then a parallel block is asserted. Once
the parallel block asserts, further tap change is prevented in
Automatic mode. In Manual mode, the tap change operation
that further increases the tap difference is prevented, while the
operation that reduces the tap position difference is allowed.
The circulating apparent power logic uses apparent power Fig. 13. Circulating MVA Operating Curves
measurements for alarm and block. Voltage-regulating LTCs Analysis was performed in ASPEN OneLiner™ to obtain an
insert an in-phase voltage, which results in the circulating equation for this characteristic. ASPEN allows a user to model
current being almost 100 percent volt-ampere reactives the impedance of the PST for different ranges of angle. To
(VARs). Thus, circulating VARs are a good way to monitor and determine the circulating apparent power for one- and
alarm for LTC position mismatch. However, in the case of two-position differences, the team entered the PST impedance
PSTs, the PST inserts a quadrature voltage but the quadrature characteristic for the four ranges of regulation from the
voltage is only quadrature to the midpoint between the two transformer test report.
terminals. Hence, the circulating current is a combination of the PST controllers include the logic for load, source, and
P and Q components in the case of a PST. The team decided to bypass breaker permissive closing. Each breaker is installed
use apparent power S. Because the two PSTs have similar with the breaker control relay to process the permissive logic
impedance, P and Q divide equally when the PSTs are from both PST controllers. The sequence of operation for
paralleled and on the same step. SCIRC is defined by subtracting energizing the CFE line is as follows:
the measured power from half of the total power as shown in 1. Energize line from Imperial Valley end only.
 9

2. Close bypass breaker. types of faults and relay protection operation. Faults were
3. Close source-side PST breaker. analyzed for each location (i.e., single-phase, phase-to-phase,
4. Verify PST in neutral; no trip is asserted. and three-phase faults). The faults at fault location (FLOC) 1
5. Close PST load breaker. through FLOC 7 are internal faults. The faults at FLOC 8 and
FLOC 9 are external faults. It can be concluded from Table I
V. FACTORY ACCEPTANCE TEST AND REAL-TIME DIGITAL that multiple protection elements and relays provide coverage
SIMULATOR RESULTS for the internal faults. As discussed in Section III, the 87P relay
The factory acceptance test (FAT), including hardware-in- is based on KCL, and the 87S/87O relay is programmed for
the-loop testing (HIL) with a real-time digital simulator, was POTT, ATB, and custom sequence protection (SEQ) elements
held at the P&C engineering services consultant’s lab in July [7].
2016 [9] [10]. Utility attendees included engineers from system
protection, substation operations, and grid operations. The
purpose of the tests was to observe PST P&C system
performance and determine whether any relay setting or control
logic changes were required.
A. Lab Test Setup and Results
PST and tap-changer motors were modeled in the real-time
digital simulator. Protection and control relays were connected
in a closed loop with the real-time digital simulator model to
verify the PST operation. A detailed FAT plan was developed
to test and verify all protection elements, the front-panel Fig. 14. System One-Line Diagram and Tap Position Control Logic
display, and other features for internal and external faults. The
detailed test plan also included various operation modes of the Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 show the three-phase and single-phase
PST and controller. For each location and PST tap position, faults at FLOC 1 for the neutral tap position. These results
multiple scenarios using scripts were run to verify the operation match the results indicated in Table I. Fig. 17 shows a
for various faults and incident angles. Fig. 14 shows the three-phase fault at FLOC 2 with tap −10 retard. POTT and
simplified one-line diagram and various fault locations where ATB schemes on the 87S and 87O relays will clear this fault.
analysis was performed. Table I summarizes results for various

Fig. 15. Three-Phase Internal Fault at FLOC 1 Tap Neutral

 10

Fig. 16. Single-Phase Internal Fault at FLOC 1 Tap Neutral

Fig. 17. Three-Phase Internal Fault at FLOC 2 Tap R10

 11
TABLE I control, a subset of the tests was created for field testing and
REAL-TIME DIGITAL SIMULATOR TESTING RESULTS
commissioning.
87P 87S and 87O Fault
Location Description
KCL ATB SEQ POTT Type VI. OPERATIONS TRAINING CLASS
Series A two-day training class was held in October 2016 at the
FLOC 1 Transformer Y N Y Y Internal P&C engineering consultant’s lab. In attendance were relay
Tap technicians, substation transformer electricians, engineers, and
Series NERC-certified operator trainers. Participants were taught the
FLOC 2 Transformer N Y M M Internal basics of PST operation and the particulars of the Imperial
Delta
Valley PST project. The project team shared the real-time
Booster digital simulator protection results and demonstrated the
FLOC 3 Winding N M M M Internal
Ground
protective relay interface including displays and target LEDs.
In addition, the team demonstrated the operation of the PST
Turn-to- controllers and made the controller displays and target LEDs
FLOC 4 N N Y Y Internal
Turn
available for hands-on training.
Booster
FLOC 5 Turn-to- N N Y Y Internal
Turn VII. COMMISSIONING AND FIELD RESULTS
FLOC 6 Internal Y Y Y Y Internal The FAT and real-time digital simulator testing included
detailed procedures for the protection scheme and controller in
FLOC 7 Internal Y Y Y Y Internal
the lab facility. A detailed functional test plan was developed
FLOC 8 IV Bus NOP External for all control and protection functions prior to energization.
CFE The goals of this testing were:
FLOC 9 NOP External
Line/Bus • Verify wiring to and from the PSTs and associated
circuit breakers.
Table I shows the results for various faults. The 87P relay
• Verify PST LTC control settings with PST LTC
provides the PST zone with KCL bus-type differential
motors and contactors.
protection to the primary windings on the series and excitation
• Operate the PST LTCs over their full range, from +16
cores. Hence, the 87P relay can detect faults at FLOC 1,
advance to −48 retard tap positions.
FLOC 6, and FLOC 7, but it cannot detect faults on the
secondary windings of the series and excitation cores and turn- • Perform testing using switching sequences from the
to-turn faults. proposed standard practice.
The 87S/87O relay detects faults in the secondary of the • Verify local/SCADA and automatic/manual
series and excitation windings based on ATB, SEQ, and POTT functionality, proving CAISO set-point control.
schemes. For example, the ATB scheme can detect faults at • Verify Master/Follower control.
FLOC 2, FLOC 6, and FLOC 7, but it is not sensitive to turn- • Perform SCADA point-to-point testing, proving all
to-turn faults at FLOC 4 and FLOC 5. The ATB differential SCADA controls, statuses, and metering.
scheme is also blind to faults at FLOC 1 at the series • Provide field training on local controls, displays, LED
transformer primary winding tap point because a fault in the targets, and indications.
throat between the two transformers is not detected by the ATB • Provide system operator training for SCADA controls
balance on the series transformer core. SEQ elements are more and indications.
sensitive to turn-to-turn faults and booster winding faults. • Develop Sequence of Events (SOE) recording data to
Hence, the PST protection selected for this project can detect document PST operation.
all the faults as shown in Table I using multiple detection Testing was conducted the week before the May 1, 2017,
principles: energization, which took place after all the wiring was
• Y – Sure operation completed. A subset of the lab testing during the FAT was used
• N – No operation for onsite commissioning. One of the purposes of field testing
• M – Maybe in some cases was to determine the motor running time for each tap-position
• NOP – External fault case, no operation change and verify operation at each tap position. The motor
The SCADA master was set up to communicate with both running time is dependent upon design and cannot be
PST controllers to verify controller operation. The system determined only from a lab test.
operation was verified for Manual, Automatic, and CAISO Using CAISO mode, SCADA commands were issued to
modes. Custom applications (i.e., N-1 overloading, verify the PST operation from tap positions +16 advance to −48
Master/Follower, independent, and run to neutral) and other retard. A run-to-neutral test was also performed. To verify this
features were verified for this PST. Also verified were the operation, a run-to-neutral command was issued from tap
breaker close permissive logic, bypassing the PST when not in positions −5 retard and +5 advance. This testing was helpful in
neutral, and 32CC circulating current logic. Through detailed validating the run-to-neutral command and verifying the
testing and verification of all operations of protection and operation of BCD inputs with actual tap positions on the PST
 12

controller. This testing was performed in both Master/Follower 2. Advance tap on PST 1 to +1, and retard PST 2 one tap
and Independent modes. position to −1. Complete in-service testing, including
a circulating apparent power measurement. Check the
A. Field Results – Tap-Change Process
circulating current against the calculated value.
Data from both PST controllers were recorded for analysis 3. Open PST 2, placing all load on PST 1. Complete in-
and future reference. For each tap-position operation, relay data service testing on PST 1.
analysis indicated that BCD inputs used for tap-position 4. Move PST 1 to neutral tap, close bypass, open PST 1,
calculations disappeared 0.4 seconds after the motor started and move PST 2 to neutral tap, and open bypass. Then,
reappeared 2.9 seconds after the motor started. The motor move PST 2 tap to match PST 1 tap from Step 3.
completed the run in 3.5 seconds. It was observed during testing Complete in-service testing on PST 2.
that the motor ran for ~3.5 seconds for each tap change. See 5. Move PST 2 to neutral tap, close bypass, close PST 1,
Fig. 18 for the details of this operation. When passing though and open bypass. Advance tap on PST 1 to +1, and
the neutral, the motor runs three times with 0.9 seconds
retard PST 2 one tap position to −1. Complete in-
between each start and stop. The motor runs ~14−15 seconds. service testing, including a circulating current
In addition, Fig. 19 shows that the PST is moving from measurement. As done in Step 2, check the circulating
−1 retard to the neutral to +1 advance. For simplicity, only the current against the calculated value.
main Sequential Events Recorder (SER) variables are shown. 6. Verify the compensation using inrush current. During
the field testing, validate compensation and
magnitudes during first energization and loading
conditions.
The team developed calculations for commissioning to
determine the 87P and 87S/87O relay currents for operation at
+6 advance tap with 160 MW flow. These calculations were
based on the loading allowed by CAISO when the PST was
loaded for the first time. The ISOLO primary current was
calculated for the 87P relay at 84 A; the excitation winding
primary current was 896 A. Fig. 20 shows the details and
Fig. 18. PST Typical Tap-Change Operation Timing Diagram calculations for 160 MW loading and flows in the 87P, 87S, and
87O relays.

Fig. 19. SER Data for PST Typical Tap-Change Operation From R1 to A1

B. Commissioning Procedure and In-Service Tests

Fig. 20. PST1 160 MW Loading and 87P and 87S Relay Calculations
Grid operations and the P&C engineering consultant
collaborated to develop the switching required for in-service C. In-Service Compensation Verification
testing when the PSTs were energized. For each in-service test, A compensation matrix is critical for the 87S and 87O relay
the operate and restraint currents were checked and the events settings. The compensation matrix for the source terminal
were saved. The team agreed to complete the following tests: current (IS) is defined by IA = IB − IC. This is equivalent to
1. Parallel PST 1 and PST 2 and set combined loading at compensation Matrix 9 (i.e., counterclockwise [CCW] 30 • 9 =
approximately 170 MW. Complete in-service testing 270 degrees for ABC phase rotation). Load terminal current (IT)
on PST 1 and PST 2. is defined by IA = IC − IB. This is equivalent to compensation
 13

Matrix 3 (i.e., CCW 30 • 3 = 90 degrees for ABC phase rotation) The met dif command is shown in Fig. 23. Hence, there is
[7]. no operate current and high-restraint current. This verification
Fig. 21 shows the current magnitudes and angle before was done during commissioning for the 87P, 87S, and 87O
compensation for the 87S and 87O relays. Once the relays during no-load and load conditions.
compensation matrix is applied for both source and load, the
results indicate that AT balance is maintained. In addition, the
current magnitudes for 160 MW match the calculations
performed as shown in Fig. 20. Fig. 22 shows the current after
compensation for source and load currents (exciter transformer
primary) and excitation transformer secondary current on the
U-winding. The operate current is very low with high-restraint Fig. 23. met dif Command for PST
current, hence the compensation is correct. It is clear from Fig. 24 that the Phase A and Phase B CT
currents are rolled (not wired correctly). The transformer
differential operated and declared this to be an internal fault.
Once the CT connections are corrected for Phase A and
Phase B, the in-service test determined that the operate current
is low with high-restraint current. Because all the logic was
already tested and carefully validated during the FAT, the team
was confident in the settings and logic. Hence, the
commissioning team was able to troubleshoot and determine
the root cause of this misoperation very quickly by using the
oscillography and event records from the relays.

Fig. 21. 160 MW, 87S and 87O Relays Phasors Uncompensated

Fig. 22. PST2 87S and 87O Relays Phasors and Compensation
Fig. 24. PST1 87P Relay Incorrect CT Wiring
 14

D. PST Operation and Lessons Learned 12. Develop a startup plan to incorporate in-service testing
Several months after placing the PSTs in service, a PST LTC needs during energizing and loading of the PSTs.
tap change failed due to a tripped LTC motor breaker on one of 13. Document and save controller and protective relay
the PSTs. The PST controllers operated properly to block SER files for future reference.
additional tap changes and initiated a circulating current alarm
because the PST tap positions were one step apart. The SER IX. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
data were valuable in allowing analysis of the failed tap change The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
compared to normal tap changes from the original data. The Karl Iliev and Ahsan Mirza of SDG&E. The authors are also
team was able to see the motor breaker trip indication, and they thankful for the support of Jordan Bell and Chris Knox of
knew that the motor breaker did not trip due to controller action. Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories.
This same event occurred several more times over three The work described in this paper was funded by California
months. utility customers under the auspices of the California Public
Ultimately, the LTC manufacturer made a site visit and Utilities Commission.
provided control circuit additions to provide additional
monitoring of the LTC control circuit. X. REFERENCES
[1] D. A. Tziouvaras and D. Hou, “Out-of-Step Protection Fundamentals
VIII. CONCLUSION and Advancements,” proceedings of the 57th Annual Conference for
Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, March 2004.
PST control and protection schemes require a thorough
[2] “Protection of Phase Angle Regulating Transformers: A Report to the
understanding of PST design for successful implementation. Substation Subcommittee of the IEEE Power System Relaying
Correct design practices and coordination among multiple Committee Prepared by Working Group K1,” IEEE Special Publication,
teams over the design period were critical. During the course of October 1999.
this project, design changes were made to the utility operating [3] D. A. Tziouvaras and R. Jimenez, “Protecting a 138 kV Phase Shifting
Transformer: EMTP Modeling and Model Power System Testing,”
standards and requirements of the controller design. Real-time
proceedings of the 29th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
digital simulator testing and a FAT procedure helped utility Spokane, WA, October 2002.
engineers witness and verify the design and provide feedback. [4] M. J. Thompson, H. Miller, and J. Burger, “AEP Experience With
Hence, the design was verified and finalized in a lab Protection of Three Delta/Hex Phase Angle Regulating Transformers,”
environment, which helped in the commissioning. The proceedings of the 60th Conference for Protective Relay Engineers,
College Station, TX, March 2007.
commissioning was short and limited to only critical tests as
[5] M. J. Thompson, “Percentage Restrained Differential, Percentage of
needed for the field verification. Any misoperation was What?” proceedings of the 64th Annual Conference for Protective Relay
troubleshot very quickly, as the team had 100 percent Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2011.
confidence in logic and settings after the detailed FAT. [6] M. J. Thompson, “Apparatus and Method for Providing Differential
In summary, the team feels the following actions are key to Protection for a Phase Angle Regulating Transformer in a Power
the verification of PST control and protection systems: System,” U.S. Patent 7,319,576 B2, January 2008.
1. Identify control and protection solutions early in [7] M. Thompson, “Protection System for Phase-Shifting Transformers
Improves Simplicity, Dependability, and Security,” proceedings of the
project implementation. 39th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
2. Assemble a design and verification team to vet and October 2012.
review project design requirements. [8] B. Cook, M. Thompson, and K. Garg, “New Advancements in Power
3. Review the design from the early stages to ensure the Flow Regulating Tap-Changer Control Systems for Phase-Shifting
electrical design flows properly. Transformers,” proceedings of the 85th International Conference of
Doble Clients, Boston, MA, April 2018.
4. Identify special project design needs to customize the
[9] K. Zimmerman, “SEL Recommendations on Periodic Maintenance
standard design based upon utility operating Testing of Protective Relays,” December 2010. Available:
requirements. https://selinc.com.
5. Develop detailed control and protection logic. [10] IEEE C57.135-2011, IEEE Guide for the Application, Specification, and
6. Model PSTs and the transmission system for simulator Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers, 2011.
model development.
7. Incorporate PST factory test data in the simulator XI. BIOGRAPHIES
model. Bill Cook is the Project Manager – Grid Operations at San Diego Gas &
Electric (SDG&E). Bill started his career at SDG&E in 1976 as an engineer in
8. Conduct a FAT to prove control and protection logic,
the SDG&E Control Center. He moved to the field in 1982, working in the
sharing results with utility engineers. Substation and System Protection groups. He moved to the manager position in
9. Conduct training for technicians, electricians, System Protection and Control Engineering in 1997. In 2014, he moved to his
engineers, and trainers using a simulator lab setup. present position in Grid Operations. Bill earned his B.S.E.E. from California
Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo. He is a registered professional
10. Fine-tune the logic and relay settings based on engineer in California and a member of IEEE. He has been a member of the
simulator results. WECC Remedial Action Scheme Reliability Subcommittee (RASRS) since
11. Develop detailed functional test plans to verify logic, 1999.
settings, and field wiring.
 15
Michael J. Thompson received his B.S., magna cum laude, from Bradley
University in 1981 and an M.B.A. from Eastern Illinois University in 1991.
Upon graduating, he served nearly 15 years at Central Illinois Public Service
(now AMEREN). Prior to joining Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
(SEL) in 2001, he was involved in the development of several numerical
protective relays while working at Basler Electric. He is presently a Fellow
Engineer with SEL Engineering Services, Inc. He is a senior member of the
IEEE, member of the IEEE PES Power System Relaying and Control
Committee, past chairman of the Substation Protection Subcommittee of the
PSRCC, and received the Standards Medallion from the IEEE Standards
Association in 2016. Michael is a registered professional engineer in six
jurisdictions, was a contributor to the reference book, Modern Solutions for the
Protection Control and Monitoring of Electric Power Systems, has published
numerous technical papers and magazine articles, and holds three patents
associated with power system protection and control.

Kamal Garg received his M.S.E.E. from Florida International University and
India Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, and his B.S.E.E. from Kamla
Nehru Institute of Technology, Avadh University, India. Kamal worked for
POWERGRID India and Black & Veatch for several years at various positions
before joining Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. (SEL) in 2006.
Presently, he is a senior protection engineer at SEL Engineering Services, Inc.
Kamal has experience in protection system design, system planning, substation
design, operation, remedial action schemes, synchrophasors, testing, and
maintenance. Kamal is a licensed professional engineer in the U.S. and Canada
and a member of IEEE.

Milind Malichkar received his M.S.E.E. from Michigan Technological

University in 2012 and his B.S.E.E. from Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Mumbai University, India, in 2005. Milind worked for Voltas limited (IOBG),
India, and Electromechanical Technical Associates (ETA), Abu Dhabi, UAE,
as a project engineer for five years before joining Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories, Inc. (SEL) in 2012. Presently he is a protection engineering
supervisor at SEL Engineering Services Inc. Milind has experience in power
system protection design, short-circuit and coordination studies, and power
system modeling and testing using control and power hardware-in-the-loop
(HIL) testing with a Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS). Milind is a licensed
professional engineer in the states of Washington and California and a member
of IEEE.

Previously presented at the 2018 Texas A&M

Conference for Protective Relay Engineers.
© 2018 IEEE – All rights reserved.
20180906 • TP6853-01