Dr.

Narendra Kumar 13-02-2023

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT AND

METROLOGY
(IPPC-202)
Introduction to Mechanical Measurements &
Metrology
Instructor: Dr. Narendra Kumar
Assistant Professor, IPE Department
National Institute of Technology Jalandhar
Email: kumarn@nitj.ac.in
Web: https://sites.google.com/view/knarendra/

DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JALANDHAR
(An Institute of National Importance, established by MHRD)

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Books Recommended

1.Jain R. K., “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,

New Delhi (2003)
2.Kumar D S, “Mechanical Measurements and Control
Engineering” Metropolitan Book Company, New Delhi
(2001)
3.Sawney R, “Instrumentation and Mechanical
Measurements”, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, New Delhi (2003)
4.Holeman J P, “Experimental Methods for Engineers”, Tata
McGraw Hill Publishing Company, Delhi (1998)
5.Beckwith T H, “Mechanical Measurements”, Addison
Wesley, New York (1990).

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Course objectives

• To make students familiar with the mechanical measuring

systems, and the standard measurement methods.
• To understand the basic measurement systems in the real
time engineering applications.

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Course Outcomes

• CO1: Selecting suitable mechanical measuring instruments

for basic and special requirement in the industries.
• CO2: Calibrating and analyzing the characteristics of
measuring instruments.
• CO3: Designing the fits and tolerances to improve the
existing performance.
• CO4: Determine error and analysing uncertainty in the
measurements.
• CO5: Work in quality control and quality assurances
divisions in industries.

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Evaluation Scheme

• Minor 1
• Minor 2
• End Semester Examination
• Assignment/Attendance/Project

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Introduction

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Manufacturing

• Manufacturing is concerned with making products.

• A manufactured item typically starts with raw materials,
which are then subjected to a sequence of processes to
make individual products, it has a certain value.
• For example, clay has some value as mined, but when it is
made into a product such as cookware, pottery, an electrical
insulator, or a cutting tool, value is added to the clay

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Contd…

• Similarly, a nail has a value over and above the cost of the
short piece of wire or rod from which it is made.

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Product Fabrication Approaches

There are three fundamental fabrication processes

1. Subtractive
2. Formative
3. Additive
In the subtractive process, one starts with a single block of
solid material larger than the final size of the desired object and
material is removed until the desired shape is reached.
Examples
milling, turning,
drilling, planning,
sawing, grinding,
EDM, laser cutting,
water-jet machining
Subtractive Approach
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Contd…

The formative process is one where mechanical forces or

restricting forms are applied on a material so as to form it into
the desired shape.
Examples-
Bending, forging, forming
injection molding

Raw material Desired shape

Formative Approach
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Contd…

• In contrast, an additive process is the exact reverse in that

the end product is much larger than the material when it
started.
• A material is manipulated so that successive portions of it
combine to form the desired object.
Examples-
Fused deposition
modelling,
Streolithograpy,
Selective laser
sintering, Laminated
object manufacturing
CAD Model Desired shape

Additive Approach

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Importance of MMM in manufacturing

• It is the technology behind the quality assurance processes in
manufacturing.
• In manufacturing, hundreds or thousands of parts are
produced each week.
• Most of these are produced by machines that are programmed
by workers.
• In modern manufacturing, every parts must be produced to
precise specifications to ensure a quality finished product.
• Over time, the machinery that produces these individual parts
can shift slightly, become dull, or lose alignment in a way that
causes problematic differences
• That’s where metrology comes in.
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Measurement and Metrology

• Science of measurement
• Depending on field of application, measurement technique
can be used

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Measurement
• Measurement is the act, or the result of quantitative
comparison between a predetermined standard and an
unknown magnitude.
• The procedure and apparatus employed for obtaining the
comparison, however must be provable; the procedure for this is
called calibration.
• Measurements provide us with a means of describing various
phenomena in quantitative terms.
• Measurements are not necessarily carried out by mechanical
means.
• The following quantities are typically within the scope of
mechanical measurements
• Pressure, temperature, displacement, fluid flow and related
parameters, acoustics, mass length and time etc.
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Contd..

Practical terms related with measurement:

• Errors in measurements
• Methods of measurements
• Measuring Instruments
• Units of measurement and their standards
• Industrial inspection and its different techniques
• Measuring instruments and accuracy

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What is Metrology

• Metrology establishes the international standards for

measurement used by all countries in the world in both
science and industry.
• Metrology is the science of measurements. It deals with
i. Establishment,
ii. Reproduction,
iii.Transfer of units of measurements and their standards.
• Metrology consists of comprehensive study of different
measuring instruments for defining precision, accuracy,
possible sources of errors, and methods for elimination of
errors to improve accuracy.
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Scope of Metrology

In addition to linear and angular measurements, “Metrology”

covers the following aspects.
(a) Manufacturing various instruments.
(b) Range and capabilities of various instruments used for
measurement
(c) Calibration of the measuring instruments according to the
prescribed standards with a high degree of accuracy.
(d) Methods of measurements essential to obtain precise
measurements.
(e) Preparation of design and drawings for different types of
gauges
(f) Maintaining and defining the standards
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Activities of Metrology
S. No. Activities Brief explanation
1 Units of measurement Establishment, reproduction, conservation and
transfer of units of measurement and their
standards.
2 Inspection Testing, verification and standardization of
measuring instruments.
3 Testing After carrying out the measurements on prototype
models of measuring instruments, the results
obtained can give predictions about the
performance of actual instruments (if developed).
4 Confirmation Examination of a measuring instrument to verify,
whether its specifications confirm with the
standards or not.
5 Gauges Design, manufacturing and testing of all kinds of
gauges.
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Categories or Types of Metrology

• Metrology is categorized in three categories with different levels of complexity
and accuracy.
(a) Scientific Metrology: The establishment and development of measurement
standards.
(b) Industrial Metrology: Ensure the 'adequate functioning of measuring
instruments' used in 'industry' as well as in 'production and testing'
processes.
(c) Legal metrology: Mandatory and legal bindings are specified on units of
measurement, methods of measurement, measuring instruments, which are
to be strictly followed during the act of measurement. Legal metrology is
concerned, to find out, whether the above conditions are fulfilled or not?
Activities of Legal Metrology:
(i) Legal metrology assures that, act of measurement is secured and accurate.
(ii) Legal metrology includes control testing, verification, standardization and
testing of measuring instruments.
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Measurand

• The physical quantity which is the object of measurement in

an instrumentation system is variously termed as
“measurand”, “measurement variable”, “process variable”.
• The measurand may be:
✓ Fundamental quantity: length, mass and time
✓ Derived quantity: speed, velocity etc.
• The word measurand is used to designate the particular
physical parameter being observed and quantified that is
input quantity to the measuring process.
• The act of measurement produces a result.

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Needs of Measurement and Metrology

• To ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the

established standard.
• To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
• To provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty
product reaches the customers.
• To coordinate the functions of quality control, production,
procurement & other departments of the organization.
• To judge the possibility of making some of the defective
parts acceptable after minor repairs.

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Objectives of Measurement and Metrology

• Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide

the required accuracy at a minimum cost, metrology has
further objectives with different shapes which are:
➢ To minimize the cost of inspection by efficient and
effective use of available facilities,
➢ To minimize the cost of rejection and re-work through
application of statistical quality control techniques.
➢ To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
➢ To determine the process capabilities and ensure that
these are better than relevant component tolerances.
➢ To do complete evaluation of newly developed products.
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Measurement categories

• Primary quantity: It is possible that a single quantity that is

directly measurable is of interest.
• Ex.- measurement of the diameter of a cylindrical specimen.
• Derived quantity: when a quantity of interest is not directly
measurable by a single measurement process.
• The quantity of interest needs to be estimated by using an
appropriate relation involving several measured primary
quantities.
• The measured quantity is thus a derived quantity.

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Measurement methods
• Probe/intrusive method: place a probe inside a system to measure a
physical quantity.
• Non-intrusive method: Methods that use some naturally occurring
process, like radiation emitted by a body to measure a desired
quantity relating to the system
• The measurement process may be assumed to be non-intrusive when
the probe has negligible interaction with the system.

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Modes of Measurement

Three modes
1. Primary measurements:
• Direct observation and comparison
• Not involvement of any conversion
✓Ex. Length, Height, Depth or Width etc. measurement

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Contd…

2. Secondary measurements:
• Involves indirect measurements
• One translation
✓The pressure measurement by manometers, temperature
measurement by mercury in glass thermometers

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Contd…

3. Tertiary measurements:
• Indirect measurements
• Involves two conversions
✓Ex.- The temperature measurement of an object by thermocouple

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Elements of generalized measurement system

The main functional elements of a measurement system are:

i. Primary sensing element
ii. Variable conversion element
iii. Variable manipulation element
iv. Signal conditioning element
v. Data transmission element
vi. Data presentation element

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Contd…

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Primary sensing element

• The quantity or the variable which is being measured makes

its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.
• The measurement is thus first detected by primary sensor
or detector.
• It is an element that is sensitive to the measured variable.

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Variable conversion element

• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may

be necessary to convert this output signal from the sensor
to some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal
• The output signal of the variable sensing element may be
any kind.
• It could be a mechanical or electrical signal.
• It may be a deflection of elastic member or some electrical
parameter, such as, voltage, frequency etc.
• Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the
measurement system.

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Variable manipulation element

• Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value
of the signal.
• The function of a variable manipulation element is to
manipulate the signal presented to this element while
preserving the original nature of the signal.
• For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable
manipulation element.
• The amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and
produces an output signal which is also voltage but of
greater magnitude.
• The variable manipulation element could be either placed
after the variable conversion element or it may precede
the variable conversion element.
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Data transmission element

• There are several situations where the elements of an

instrument are actually physically separated.
• In such situations it becomes necessary to transmit data
from one element to another.
• This element transmits the signal from one location to
another without changing its information contents.
• The element that performs this function is called a Data
Transmission Element.

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Data presentation element

• The function is to convey the information about the

quantity under measurement to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes.
• In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed.
• In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic
tapes, high speed camera; storage type C.R.T., printers,
analogue and digital computers may be used.
• For control and analysis purpose computers and the
control elements are used.

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Functional Elements of a Clinical Thermometer

• Bulb containing mercury acts as the primary

sensing element
• It senses the input quantity, the temperature.

• On account of the increase in temperature the mercury in bulb

expands and its volume is increased.
• The temperature signal is converted into volume displacement.
• As the mercury expands it move through the capillary tube in
the thermometer stem, integrated to the bulb.
• The cross section area of the capillary being constant, the
volume signal is thus converted into linear distance signal.
• The capillary thus has the role of signal conversion element.
• The final data presentation stage consists of the scale on the
thermometer stem, which is calibrated to give the indication of
the temperature signal applied to the thermometer bulb.

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Bulb thermometer/ Pressure actuated

thermometer

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Contd…

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Different aspects of measurement

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Accuracy
• Accuracy compares the measured value of a manufactured
component with its true value.
• True value means the specified value of a component before start of
production.
• Measured value is the reading obtained after inspecting the actually
produced component.
• Therefore, accuracy is defined as, "the closeness of measured value
of component produced with its true value".
• The act of measurement should indicate true dimensions of a part.
• But, in actual practice no measurement can be absolutely accurate.
• Therefore, there is always some error
• More the error, less will be the accuracy and vice versa.

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Factors Affecting the Accuracy

• Calibration standards: Accuracy may be affected by ambient
(atmospheric) conditions
• Workpiece being measured: Condition of workplace such as,
cleanliness, surface condition, proper arrangement etc.
• Measuring instruments: Measuring instruments and hence accuracy
may be affected by sources of errors, such as, backlash, friction,
deformation in handling or use of heavy workpieces.
• Human error: The person or inspector carrying out the measurement
may not have the required skill. Improper training or lack of handling
skill or casual attitude of inspector may affect the measured value and
hence accuracy.
• Environment influences: Changes in atmospheric (ambient) conditions
such as temperature, vibrations, lightening, pressure etc. may affect
the accuracy.
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Precision
• Closeness of two or more measurements to each other
• No meaning for only one measurement
• Exists only when number of measurements under identical
conditions.
• Lesser the variations in the measurements, more is the
precision.
• Precision is defined as, 'the repeatability of a measuring
process'.
• For example, if numbers of measurements are carried out for a
single quantity in identical conditions (i.e. by the same observer,
with same instrument and within short intervals of time) and all
readings are close to each other as well as mean value, the
readings are said to be precise.
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Example

• Let us take a component having true length of 100 mm. The

observer takes number of readings to measure length of this
component, with the same instrument, in same
environmental conditions and within short intervals of time.
• If the obtained readings are 100.01, 100.02 and 100.03 mm,
then we say that, readings are not close to true value.
Therefore readings are said to be inaccurate.
• But, if we calculate the average value or arithmetical mean
value of these readings

We observe that, readings taken are close to mean value. Also, they are close to each other.
This is called as precision.
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Accuracy vs. Precision

• The difference between accuracy and precision can be easily

understood.
• The arrangement shown in the Figure corresponds to "A shooting
range", where a person is asked to strike a target represented by a
centre circle.
• The centre circle represents true value.
• The marks ‘X’ indicate results/shoot points achieved by the striker
after shooting 6 bullets on the target.

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Measurement can be

• Accurate and precise (best)

• Inaccurate but precise (instrument error)
• Accurate and imprecise (user error)
• Inaccurate and imprecise

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Precautions while using an Instrument to get

'High Accuracy and Precision
• Every important source of inaccuracy should be known.
• As errors cannot be eliminated completely, therefore, efforts
should be made to reduce them to least value.
• As far as possible, the principle of similarity must be
followed i.e. the atmospheric conditions, at which,
measurements are carried out must be similar to the
conditions, at which, the instruments was calibrated.
• Magnifying devices should be used in the instruments, so
that, proper readings can be taken by involving skilled
persons to avoid parallex errors.

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Resolution
• Smallest change in a quantity being measured that causes a
perceptible change in the corresponding indication
• The resolution of an instrument represents the smallest change
at which the measured value can be read or recorded.
• For an instrument with an analog readout, display, or scale, this
represents the finest increment at which the measurand can be
determined and depends on the spacing between consecutive
markings and width of the indicator.
• For a digital readout or display, resolution represents the least
significant digit to which the value can be read or recorded.
• In nearly every measurement discipline with any instrument,
resolution never indicates overall accuracy or total uncertainty,
but can be a contributor.
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Sensitivity:
• Sensitivity is defined as, "the ability of a measuring device to
detect small variations in a quantity being measured".
• Higher the ability of such detection of an instrument, more
sensitive it is.
• If an instrument is more sensitive than requirement, the readings
displayed on its graduated scale will fluctuate continuously due
to variations in external parameters and thus, it becomes
difficult for operator to obtain a reliable reading.
• The external parameters include temperature of surrounding
atmosphere, vibrations etc.
• Therefore, too much sensitivity leads to affect the working of
instrument. It will adversely affect the accuracy and precision of
measurements.
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Readability
• The ability of a measuring instrument or device to have “its
indications converted to a meaningful number".
• Refer following methods used to increase readability of
measuring instruments.
i. Measuring instruments can be made more readable, if
magnifying devices are used.
ii. Micrometers can be made more readable, if they are provided
with vernier scale.

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Repeatability:

• The ability of measuring instrument to repeat the output

readings consistently".
• In other words, repeatability is defined as, "the closeness of
readings obtained during multiple number of
measurements of same quantity, when individual
measurements are carried out by same observer, using
same measuring instrument under same environmental
conditions within short intervals of time.

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Reproducibility:

• The closeness of readings obtained during multiple number

of measurements of same quantity, when individual
measurements are carried out by different observers, by
different methods, using different instruments under
different environmental conditions".
• “Measurement reproducibility” describes the degree of
mutual agreement among a series of individual
measurements, values, or results with different operators,
measuring systems, and/or procedures. Measurement
reproducibility is often evaluated using measurements
made over longer time periods.

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Calibration

• Calibration is defined as “the process of framing of scale of

measuring instrument by applying some standards”.
• Calibration is said to be a pre-measurement process, carried
out at the time of manufacturing the measuring
instrument.
• In simple words, it is the process of marking the lines on
scale of measuring instrument by applying some standards,
which are agreed and followed all over world.
• Calibration is the entire procedure laid down (specified),
which includes marking, adjusting, checking etc., so that,
reading obtained will confirm to the agreed standards.

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Contd…

• To maintain the accuracy, the measuring instruments must

be checked and recalibrated.
• It is tried to perform 'calibration' under those
environmental conditions, which are very close to the
conditions, under which, actual measurements would be
carried out.
• Calibration is done by applying the standards in such a way
that, 'Output readout device shows zero output for zero
input' and similarly, ‘
• It should show an output equivalent to the known input.

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TRACEABILITY

• In order to maintain accuracy and interchangeability in the

manufactured parts by various industries in a country, it is
necessary that, each and every industry located anywhere in
the country should follow the standards of units and
measurements specified by 'National Standards of Country'.
• Similarly, standards of any country should follow
International standards.
• This process is called traceability.
• Traceability is defined as, "transfer of international
standards (higher grade) to national standards (lower grade)
and then transfer of national standards to working
standards of all industries located in that country".
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Contd…

• Traceability is also defined as, 'the

property to trace working standards
(local) from National Standards and to
trace National Standards from
International Standards'.
• Due to traceability, valid calibration of
a measuring instrument can be
established as per the specified
standards.

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Error and sources of errors in measurements

Error:
• Error is responsible for the ‘difference between measured
value and true value of the measured quantity’.
• The errors may arise due to characteristics of measuring
instruments or the process of measurement may be
influenced by environmental conditions.

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Classification of Errors/Sources of Errors

• While taking measurements with the help of different

measuring instruments, several types of errors may arise.
• These errors can be broadly classified into two categories,
namely
(a) Controllable or Systematic errors and
(b) Random errors

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“Systematic error”

• “Systematic error” is an error that, when fully quantified, is

predictable.
• Systematic error can be a bias or offset in the measurement,
or an error based on an independent parameter, such as a
known temperature dependency.
• If the systematic error is known, a correction should be
applied to the measurement result.
• Again, since the true value can never be known, use of the
term “systematic error” is discouraged unless referring to a
quantitative, known offset that can be corrected.

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“Random error”
• “Random error” is an error that, when fully quantified, is caused
by factors that can vary from one measurement to another.
• Random error results from inherent variability in a
measurement, process, or system, and cannot be corrected for
since it derives from unpredictable variation in the measured
value.
• Random error provides a quantitative measure of repeatability
and reproducibility in a measurement and is typically determined
stochastically.
• Use of the term “random error” is discouraged unless referring
to a quantitative, known variability in a measurement system.
• Random error may result from noise or fundamental inherent
variation from the measurement process, such as that observed
when counting measurements of radioactive decay processes.
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Contd…

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Contd…

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Controllable or Systematic Errors:

• If proper attempts are made to analyze these errors, they

can be identified, reduced and controlled.
• Controllable errors are mainly due to:
➢ Calibration errors:
• Caused due to variation in the calibrated scale from its
nominal value.
• The actual length of engraved scales and slip gauges
respectively may vary from nominal value by small
amount.
• Sometimes, inertia and hysteresis effects of instrument do
not allow the instrument to give accurate readings.
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➢Ambient or environmental errors

• Variations in the atmospheric conditions from the

internationally agreed standards (such as 20°C
temperature and 1.01325 bar pressure) may introduce
errors in the measured sizes of component.
• The internationally agreed temperature during
measurement is 20°C.
• Therefore, the measuring instruments or gauges are made
and calibrated to correct sizes at 20°C temperature.
However, it is not necessary that, all the measurements
must be taken at this standard temperature.

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➢ Stylus/Contact pressure:

• Stylus or contact pressure applied to measuring instrument

and the work-piece being measured.
• Stylus or spindle of the instrument is made up of harder
metal.
• If contact pressure applied is more than required, it may
distort the work-piece damaging its shape, or dimension
being measured.
• This will introduce an error in measurement due to
improper contact/stylus pressure applied.

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Contd…

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➢ Avoidable errors/Observational errors:

• Occur due to misalignment of the work-piece centers.

• When the centre line of work-piece is not perpendicular to
the lines of graduations or divisions engraved on scale.
• Due to observer position at an angle, this makes the object
appear at a slightly different position than it really is
• It can lead us to take a wrong reading on a measuring scale

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Parallax error

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How to avoid parallax error

• This error can be avoided by modified instrument.

• In order to remove parallax error, a good precision
instrument is fitted with a mirror placed or located behind
the graduated scale.
• Correct reading is taken when the pointer coincides with
its image seen in the mirror.

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Avoidable errors/Observational errors (Contd…)

• One more observational error may occur due to incorrect

positioning of measuring instrument. It is called as
instrument location errors.
• For example: Temperature measurement of air in a room.
• If a measuring instrument such as, 'Thermometer is placed
in sunlight, it may be heated due to direct radiations
incident on its surface.
• Therefore, the reading given by thermometer will be
obviously inaccurate, and more as compared to room
temperature.

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Random errors/Unavoidable errors:

• Accidental in nature
• Occur randomly at any time
• Specific causes of their occurrence cannot be determined by any
method.
• They cannot be predicted or avoided.
• Random errors are non-consistent.
• Sources of these random errors may be,
(i) Small variation in the positions of standard and the work-piece
being measured, during set up of measuring arrangement.
(ii) Little displacement of lever joints in the measuring instruments.
(iii) Operator error in reading pointer type displays or engraved scales.
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Limiting (Or Guarantee Errors)

• In most instruments the accuracy is generated to be within a

certain percentage of full scale reading.
• The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the
nominal value of a particular quantity.
• The limits of these deviations from the specified value are
defined as limiting errors or guarantee errors.
• The relative error is defined as the ratio of the error to the
specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity:
• Qs= The specified quantity or true quantity of a component
• Qa= The actual or erroneous quantity:
• Error= Qa-Qs
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Contd…

• Relative limiting error

• Er= Qa-Qs/Qs
• Percentage limiting error
• %Er = Er x 100
• Qa = Qs(1 ± Er)

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Transducers

• Defined as devices that transform values of physical

quantities in the form of input signals into corresponding
output signals.
• The physical quantity may be heat, intensity of light, flow
rate, etc.
• In terms of energy conversion, it is defined as a device that
transforms energy from one form to another.
• The energy may be in electrical, mechanical, or acoustical
form.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

1. Primary and secondary transducers

2. Active and passive transducers
3. Analog and digital transducers
4. Direct and inverse transducers
5. Null and deflection transducers

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Primary and Secondary Transducers

• Transducers may comprise two important components:

• Sensing or detecting element: The function is to respond to
a physical phenomenon or a change in the physical
phenomenon.
• Hence it is termed a primary transducer.
• Transduction element: The function is to transform the
output obtained by the sensing element to an analogous
electrical output.
• Hence it is termed a secondary transducer.

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Contd…

Typical mechanical primary detector transducers

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Contd…

• A combination of the bourdon tube and the linear variable

differential transformer (LVDT)

• First, the pressure is converted

into a displacement and then
• It is converted into the voltage by
the help of the L.V.D.T.
• The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary
transducer, and the L.V.D.T is
called the secondary transducer.

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Active and passive transducers

• Self-generating type
• Develop their own voltage or current output.
• Do not need any auxiliary power source to produce the
output
• The energy required to produce the output is derived from
the physical quantity being measured.
• Examples: Piezoelectric crystals (used for force or
acceleration measurement), tachogenerators,
thermocouples, and photovoltaic cells.

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Contd…

• Passive transducers derive the power required for

transduction from an auxiliary source of power.
• They receive power from an auxiliary source
• These transducers remain passive in the absence of an
external power source; hence, they are called passive
transducers.
• Resistive, capacitive, and inductive transducers are some of
the examples of passive transducers.

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Analog and Digital Transducers

• Based on the output generated, a continuous function of

time or is in discrete form, transducers are classified as
analog and digital transducers.
• In case of analog transducers, the input quantity is
converted into an analog output, which is a continuous
function of time.
• LVDT, strain gauge, thermocouple, and thermistor are some
examples of analog transducers.

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Contd…

• If a transducer converts the input quantity into an electrical

signal that is in the form of pulses, as output, it is called a
digital transducer.
• These pulses are not continuous functions of time but are
discrete in nature.
• In fact, it is easier to process and transmit data as a function
of two numbers 0 and 1.
• Example: shaft encoders

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Direct and Inverse Transducers

• When a measuring device measures and transforms a non-

electrical variable into an electrical variable, it is called a
direct transducer.
• A thermocouple that is used to measure temperature is an
example of a transducer.
• If an electrical quantity is transformed into a non-electrical
quantity, it is termed an inverse transducer.
• Very common example of an inverse transducer is a
piezoelectric crystal wherein a voltage is given as the input.
• When a voltage is applied across its surfaces, its dimensions
are changed causing a mechanical displacement.

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Contd…

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Contd…

• In a microphone, we need to convert sound energy (waves

of pressure traveling through the air) into electrical energy
• The "needle" in a gramophone (sometimes called a record
player) works in the opposite way.

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Null and Deflection-type Transducers

• Based on null or deflection principle

• A null-type device works on the principle of maintaining a
zero deflection by applying an appropriate known effect
that opposes the one generated by the measured quantity
• This type of transducer requires a detector capable of
detecting an imbalance and a means to restore a balance
either manually or automatically.
• Precise information of the magnitude of the opposing
effect is essential
• It cannot be used for dynamic measurements.
• Example: equal arm balances
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Contd…

• In deflection type instruments, the value of the quantity

being measured is displayed in terms of movement of
pointer.
• The pressure measuring device is shown.

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General characteristics for selection of

measuring instruments
• Accuracy: The degree of agreement of the measured dimension with
its true magnitude.
• Calibration: The adjustment or setting of a measuring instrument to
give readings that are accurate within a reference standard.
• Linearity: The accuracy of the readings of a tool over its full working
range.
• Precision: Degree to which a measuring instrument gives repeated
measurement of the same standard.
• Sensitivity: Smallest difference in a dimension that an instrument can
distinguish or detect.
• Response speed: How rapidly a measuring instrument indicates a
measurement, particularly when some parts are measured in rapid
succession.
• Stability: An instrument’s capability to maintain its calibration over
time; also called drift.
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Contd…

The selection of an appropriate measuring instrument for a

particular application also depends on four factors, they are
1. The size and type of parts to be measured,
2. The environment (temperature, humidity, dust, pressure,
and so on),
3. The skills required by operator, and
4. The cost of equipment.

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Input-output configuration of instruments and

measurement systems
• A generalized configuration containing the significant input-
output relationships present in all measuring apparatus.
• A scheme suggested by Draper, McKay, and Lees
• Desired inputs: quantities that the instrument is specifically
intended to measure.
• Interfering inputs: quantities to which the instrument is
unintentionally sensitive.
• Modifying inputs: quantities that cause a change in the
input-output relations for the desired and interfering inputs

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Contd…
Output component due to
interfering input and IM

Output component due

to desired input and IM
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Contd…

• Desired Input: Strain

• Interfering Inputs: Temperature
• Modifying Inputs: Battery voltage, field
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Methods of Correction for Interfering and

Modifying Inputs
A number of methods for nullifying/reducing the effects of
spurious inputs are available:
▪ The method of inherent insensitivity
▪ The method of calculated output corrections
▪ The method of opposing inputs
▪ The method of signal filtering
▪ The method of high-gain feedback

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The method of inherent insensitivity

• Proposes the sound design philosophy that the elements of the
instrument should inherently be sensitive to only the desired
inputs.
• This approach requires that somehow FI and/or FM,D be made as
nearly equal to zero as possible.
• Thus, even though iI and/or iM may exist, they cannot affect the
output.
• Example: Choosing gage material that exhibits an extremely low
temperature coefficient of resistance while retaining its
sensitivity to strain.
• In mechanical apparatus that must maintain accurate dimensions
in the face of ambient temperature changes, the use of a
material of very small temperature coefficient of expansion may
be helpful.
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The method of calculated output corrections

• Requires to measure or estimate the magnitudes of the

interfering and/or modifying inputs and to know
quantitatively how they affect the output:
• In the manometer, the effects of temperature on both the
calibrated scale's length and the density of mercury may be
quite accurately computed.
• This effect may be corrected.

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The method of signal filtering

• The method of signal filtering is based on the possibility of

introducing certain elements (‘filters’) into the instrument.
• It block the spurious signals, so that their effects on the
output are removed or reduced.
• The filter may be applied to any suitable signal in the
instrument, be it input, output or intermediate signal.

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Contd…

• This method may take several forms.

• If put directly in the path of a spurious input, a filter can be
designed (ideally) to block completely the passage of the
signal.
• If however, it is inserted at a point where the signal contains
both desired and spurious components, the filter must be
designed to be selective.
• It must pass the desired components essentially unaltered
while effectively suppressing all others

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Contd…Examples
• Often it is necessary to attach
delicate instruments to
structures that vibrate.
• Electromechanical devices for
navigation and control of aircraft
or missiles.
• Interfering vibration input may
be filtered out by use of suitable
spring mounts.
• The mass spring system is
actually a mechanical filter which
passes on to the instrument only
a negligible fraction of the
motion of the vibrating
structure.
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Contd…Examples

• The interfering tilt angle input

to the manometer may be
effectively filtered out by
means of the gimbal
mounting scheme.
• If the gimble bearings are
essentially frictionless, the
rotations can not be
communicated to the
manometer.

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Contd…Examples

• The thermocouple reference junction is shielded from

ambient temperature fluctuations by means of thermal
insulation.
• Such an arrangement acts as a filter for temperature or heat
flow inputs.

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The method of opposing inputs

• Compensates for the effect of an environmental input in a

measurement system by introducing an equal and opposite
environmental input that cancels it out.
• Intentionally introduce interfering and/or modifying inputs
that tend to cancel the bad effects of the unavoidable
spurious inputs.

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Contd…

• One example of how this technique is applied is in the type

of millivoltmeter.
• This consists of a coil suspended in a fixed magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet.

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Contd…

• When an unknown voltage is applied to the coil, the

magnetic field due to the current interacts with the fixed
field
• Causes the coil (and a pointer attached to the coil) to turn.
• If the coil resistance Rcoil is sensitive to temperature, then
any environmental input to the system in the form of a
temperature change.
• It alter the value of the coil current for a given applied
voltage and so alter the pointer output reading.

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Contd…
• Compensation for this is made
by introducing a
compensating resistance Rcomp
into the circuit,
• Rcomp has a temperature
coefficient that is equal in
magnitude but opposite in
sign to that of the coil.
• Thus, in response to an
increase in temperature, Rcoil
increases but Rcomp decreases,
and so the total resistance
remains approximately the
same.
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Contd…Example 2

• The mass flow rate of gas through an orifice may be found

by measuring the pressure drop across the orifice.
• Unfortunately, the mass flow rate also depends on the
density of the gas, which varies with pressure and
temperature.
• Thus, the pressure drop measuring device usually can not
be calibrated to give the mass flow rate.
• Since variations in gas temperature and pressure yield
different mass flow rates for same orifice pressure drop.

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Contd…
• The flow rate through the orifice
also depends on its flow area.
• Thus, if the flow area could be
varied in just the right way, this
variation could compensate for
pressure and temperature
changes so that a given orifice
pressure drop could always
correspond to the same mass flow
rate
• This is accomplished by attaching
the specially shaped metering pin
to a gas filled bellows

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Contd…

• When the temperature drops (causing an increase in

density and therefore in mass flow rate), the gas in the
bellow contracts, which moves the metering pin into the
orifice and thereby reduces the flow area.
• This return the mass flow rate to its proper value.

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The method of high-gain feedback

• All bad effects are negated by the use of amplification

device.

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Thank you

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