P BLOCK ELEMENTS

p-block elements

The group number 13 to 18, in which the last

electrons or the valence electrons enter in
the p-orbital are called the p-block elements.
The general electronic configuration of p-
block elements is ns2 np1 ‒ 6
 GROUP-13
BORON FAMILY
 Atomic radii and ionic radii

• Group 13 elements have smaller size than those of alkaline

earth metals due to greater effective nuclear charge, Zeff’
• Atomic radii increases on going down the group with an
anomaly at gallium (Ga). Unexpected decrease in the atomic
size of Ga is due to the presence of electrons in d-orbitals
which do not screen the attraction of nucleus effectively.
• The ionic radii regularly increases from B3+ to TI3+.
 DENSITY

• It increases regularly on moving down the group from B to Tl.

 MELTING AND BOILING POINTS

• Melting point and boiling point of group 13 elements are much

higher than those of group 2 elements. The melting point
decreases from B to Ga and then increases, due to structural
changes in the elements.
• Boron has a very high melting point because of its three
dimensional structure in which B atoms are held together by strong
covalent bonds.
• Low melting point of Ga is due to the fact that it consists of
Ga2 molecules, and Ga remains liquid upto 2276 K.
• Hence, it is used in high temperature thermometer.
 IONISATION ENTHALPY

• (IE) The first ionisation enthalpy values of group 13 elements

are lower than the corresponding alkaline earth metals, due to
the fact that removal of electron is easy. [ns2 npl configuration]
.
• On moving down the group, IE decreases from B to Al, but the
next element Ga has slightly higher ionisation enthalpy due to
the poor shielding of intervening d-electrons. It again
decreases in In and then increases in the last element Tl
 OXIDATION STATES

• B and Al show an oxidation state of +3 only while Ga, In and Tl

exhibit oxidation states of both +1 and +3.
• As we move down in the group 13. due to inert pair effect, the
tendency to exhibit +3 oxidation state decreases and the
tendency to attain +1 oxidation state increases.
• Stability of +1 oxidation state follows the order Ga < In < Tl.
 ELECTROPOSITIVE (METALLIC) CHARACTER

• These elements are less electropositive than the alkaline earth

metals due to their smaller size and higher ionisation
enthalpies.
• On moving down the group, the electropositive character first
increases from B to Al and then decreases from Ga to TI, due to
the presence of d orbitals which causes poor shielding.
 Complex formation
• Due to their smaller size and greater charge, these elements
have greater tendency to form complexes than the s-block
elements.
 Nature of compounds
• The tendency of the formation of ionic compounds increases
from B to Tl. Boron forms only covalent compounds whereas AI
can form both covalent as well as ionic compounds. Gallium
forms mainly ionic compounds, although anhydrous Ga CI3 is
covalent
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
13 GROUP ELEMENTS
• (i) Action of air Crystalline boron is unreactive whereas amorphous
boron is reactive. It reacts with air at 700°C as follows
• 4B + 3O2 → 2B2O3
• AI is stable in air due to the formation of protective oxide film.
• 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
• Thallium is more reactive than Ga and In due to the formation of
unipositive ion, TI+.
• 4Tl + O2 → 2Tl20
 Action of water
• Both B and AI do: not react with water but amalgamated
aluminium react with H2O evolving H2.
2Al(Hg) + 6H2O )→ 2AI(OH)3 + 3H2 + 2Hg
• Ga and In do not react with pure cold or hot water but Tl forms
an oxide layer on the surface.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF 13 GROUP ELEMENTS

• Reaction with alkalies Boron dissolves in alkalies and gives sodium borates.
• Hydrides Elements of group 13 do not combine directly with H2 to form
hydrides, therefore their hydrides have been prepared by indirect methods.
Boron forms a number of hydrides, they are known as boranes. Boranes
catch fire in the presence of oxygen.
• B2H6 + 3O2 → B2O3 + 3H2O; &Delat;cH° = – 1976 kJ mol-l
• Boranes are hydrolysed by water.
• B2H6 + 6H2O → 2H3BO3 + 6H2
• Boranes are stable but the stability of hydrides of AI, Ga, In, and Tl
decreases on moving down the group because the strength of the M-H
bond decreases.
Nature of oxides and hydroxides

• B(OH)3 or H3BO3 is soluble in water, while other hydroxides are

insoluble in water.
• On moving down the group. there is a change from acidic to
amphoteric and then to basic character of oxides and
hydroxides or group 13 elements.
Halides of Group-13
• All the elements of boron family (except Tl) form trihalides of type
MX3.
• All the boron trihalides [BX3) and aluminium trihalides AlX3 (except
AIF3 which is ionic) are covalent compounds. AlX3 exists as dimer
while BX3 is monomer because boron atom is too small to
coordinate with four large halide ions. The energy released during
the formation of the bridge structure is not sufficient for the
cleavage of the typical pπ – pπ bond in BF3.
• BF3 is a colourless gas, BCl3 and BBr3 are colourless fuming liquids
and BI3 is a white solid at room temperature.
Halides of Group-13
• Trihalides of group 13 elements behave as Lewis acids because of their
strong tendency to accept a pair of electrons. The relative strength of Lewis
acids of boron trihalides is
• BF3 < BCI3, < BBr3, < BI3.
• This is due to pπ – pπ backbonding in BF3 which makes it less electron
deficient.
• The halides of group 13 elements behave as Lewis acids and the acidic
character is
• BX3 > AIX3 > GaX3 > InX3 (where, X = Cl, Br or 1)
• TICI3 decomposes to TICl and C12 and hence acts as an oxidising agent.
Anomalous Behaviour of Boron
• Boron shows anomalous behaviour with the other members of
the group, due to the following reasons:
• (i) Smallest size in the group.
(ii) High ionisation energy.
(iii) Highest electronegativity in the group.
(iv) Absence of vacant d-orbital.
 Diagonal Relationship between Boron and Silicon
• Boron exhibit resemblance with its diagonal element silicon of
group 14.
1. Both Band Si are non-metals.
2. Both arc semi-conductors.
3. Both Band Si form covalent hydrides, i.e.. boranes and
silanes respectively.
4. Both form covalent, and volatile halides which fume in moist
air due to release of HCI gas.
Group 14,CARBON FAMILY
• General Physical Properties of Group 14 Elements
• (i) Electronic configuration Their valence shell electronic configuration is ns2 np2
• (ii) Metallic character C and Si are non-metals, Ge is a metalloid and Sn and Pb are
metals.
• (iii) Appearance C is black. Si is light-brown, Ge is greyish, Sn and Pb are silvery
white.
• (iv) Density Density increases with increase in atomic number due to increase in
mass per unit volume down the group.
• (v) Melting points and boiling points The melting points and boiling points decrease
from carbon to lead but carbon and silicon have very high melting and boiling points
due to their giant structure.
General Physical Properties of Group 14
Elements
• Oxidation state They exhibit +2 and +4 oxidation state. The compounds of Pb in
+4 oxidation state are powerful oxidising agents since, +2 oxidation state of Pb is
more stable due to inert pair effect.
• The compounds in +2 oxidation state are ionic in nature and in + 4 oxidation
state are covalent in nature (According to Fajan’s rule).
• (vii) Ionisation enthalpy It decreases from C to So. For Pb. it ie slightly higher
than Sn.
• (viii) Electronegativity values The value decreases from C to Pb but not in a
regular manner probably due to filling of d-orbitals III and Sn and f- orbitals In
Pb.
• (ix) Catenation The greater the strength of element-element bond. the greater is
the strength of catenation.
• C >> Si > Ge = Sn > Pb (catenation).
General Physical Properties of Group 14 Elements

• Allotropy All the elements of this group except Pb exhibit allotropy.

• In cold countries white tin changes to grey tin and results in decrease in density.
This is called tin disease or tin plague.
• (xi) Valency All elements exhibit tetra valency. In case of carbon, 406 kJ mol-1 of
energy is required for promotion of 2s – electron to 2p.
• Formation of two extra bonds provide this energy.
• (xii) Atomic and ionic radii Both increase from C to Pb.
• (xiii) Multiple bonding Carbon forms pπ – pπ bonds with itself and with S, N and O.
Other clements show negligible tendency of this
type due to their large size. Others form dπ – pπ multiple bonds.
Chemical Properties of Group 14 Elements
• (a) Hydrides All members of the group form covalent
hydrides. Their number and ease of formation decreases
down the group.
• Hydrides of carbon are called hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes
or alkynes).
• Hydrides of Si and Ge are known as silanes and germanes.
• The only hydrides of Sn and Pb are SnH4 (stannane) and
PbH4 (plumbane),
• Their thermal stability decrease down the group.
• Their reducing character increases down the group.
HALIDES FORMATION OF GROUP-14
• Halides All the elements give tetrahedral and covalent halides of
the type MX4 except PbBr4, and PbI4.
• Thermal stability
• CX4 > SiX4 > GeX4 > SnX4 > PbX4
• Order of thermal stability with common metals
• MF4 > MCl4 > MBr4 > MI4
• Except CX4 other tetrahalides can hydrolysed due to the presence
of vacant d-orbitals.
• SiX4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4Hx.
• ease of hydrolysis: SiX4 > GeX4 > SnX4 > PbX4
OXIDES FORMATION OF GROUP-14

• Oxides They form two types of oxides. mono-oxides of the type

MO. e.g.,
• CO (neutral) and SiO, GeO. SnO. PbO(all basic) and dioxides of the
type MO2
• CO2 is linear gas at ordinary temperature. Solid CO2 is known as dry
ice or drikold.
• SiO2 is a solid with three dimensional network in which Si is bonded
to four oxygen atoms tetrahedrally and covalently. A mass of
hydrated silica (SiO2) formed from skeletons of minute plants,
known as diatoms, is called kieselguhr. It is a highly parous material
and is used in the manufacture of dynamite.
Allotropic Forms of Carbon
• Carbon
• Free states (diamond. graphite, coal etc.) and combined states (oxides,
carbonates, hydrocarbons etc.)
• Allotropic Forms of Carbon
• The crystalline forms include
• (i) Diamond It is the hardest and has three dimensional polymeric
structure in which hybridisation of C is sp3. It is covalent solid. melting
point 3650°C. density 3.51 g/cm3 and bad conductor of heat and electricity.
• (ii) Graphite It is dark grey. having hexagonal plates, hybridisation of each C
is sp2. It is good conductor of heat and electricity due to the presence of
free electrons. It was also known as black lead. It is a very good lubricant
Allotropic Forms of Carbon
• Fullerenes These are the only pure form of carbon.
C60 molecule contains 12 five membered rings and 20 six
membered rings. The five membered rings are connected to six
membered rings while six membered rings are connected to
both five and six membered rings. These are used in
microscopic ball bearings, light weight batteries, in synthesis of
new plastics and new drugs.
Amorphous forms of carbon
• Amorphous forms of carbon are
• (i) Coal The different forms of coal are peat (60 % C), lignite (70 % C), Bituminous (78 % C),
Semi Bituminous (83 % C) and anthracite (90 % C). Bituminous is most common variety of
coal.
• (ii) Coke It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal
• (iii) Charcoal or wood charcoal It is obtained by heating wood strongly in absence of air.
When heated with steam, it becomes more activated. It is used to remove colouring matters
and odoriferous
gases.
• (iv) Bone black or animal charcoal It is obtained by destructive distillation of bones in iron
retort. By products are bone oil or pyridine. It is used as adsorbent. On burning, it gives bone
ash which is calcium phosphate and used in the manufacture of phosphorous and
phosphoric acid.
Amorphous forms of carbon

• v) Lamp-black It is obtained by burning vegetable oils in limited

supply of air. It is used in the manufacture of printing ink, black
paint, varnish and carbon paper.
• (vi) Carbon-black It is obtained by burning natural gas in
limited supply of air. It is added to rubber mixture for making
automobile tyres.
Coal Gas

• Preparation By destructive distillation of coal.

• Composition
• H2 = 45 – 55 % N2 = 2 – 12 %
CH4 = 25 – 35 % CO2 = 0 – 3 %
CO = 4 – 11 % O2 = 1 – 1.5 %
• Ethylene, acetylene, benzene, etc. = 3 – 5 %
• Uses It is used as illuminant, as fuel and to provide inert
atmosphere in the metallurgical processes.
Natural Gas

• It is found along with petroleum below the surface of earth.

• Composition CH4 = 60 – 80 %
• Higher hydrocarbons = 2 – 12%
• C2H6 = 5 – 10 %, C3H8 = 3 – 18 %
• Uses It is used as a fuel.Its partial combustion yields carbon
black (reinforcing agent for rubber).
Wood Gas
• Preparation Destructive distillation of wood gives wood gas
(CH4, C2H6 H2)
• Uses It is used as fuel.
• Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Composition n-butane + Iso-butane
• Uses It is used as domestic fuel.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Preparation
• 2C + O2 → 2CO
• Properties
• It is colourless, odourless and almost water insoluble gas. It is a
powerful reducing agent. CO is used in the extraction of many
metals from their oxide ores.
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

• Preparation
• C + O2 → CO2
Compounds of Silicon
• Silicates are metal derivatives of silicic acid, H2SiO3 and can be
obtained by fusing metal oxides or metal carbonates with
sand. The basic structural unit of silicates is SiO– 44.
• Talc consists of planar sheets which can slip over one another
due to weak forces of attraction, and is a constituent of talcum
powder. That’s
Why talcum powder has a slippery touch.
• Mica (abrak) is naturally occurring aluminium silicate
[KH2AI3(SiO4]3 or KAI3Si3O10(OH)2.
Silicones
• The linear, cyclic or cross linked polymeric compounds
containing (R2SiO) as a repeating units, are known as silicones.
They are manufactured from alkyl substituted chlorosilanes.
• Silicones are chemically inert, water repellent, heat resistant,
good electrical insulators. These are used as lubricants
(vaseline), insulators etc.
p-Block Group 15 Elements: Nitrogen
Family
This group includes elements- nitrogen (N)(N),
phosphorus (P)(P), arsenic (As)(As), antimony (Sb)(Sb),
and bismuth (Bi)(Bi). These elements are also known as
pnictogens and their respective compounds as
pniconides.

General Physical Properties of Nitrogen

i. Electronic configuration- In these elements, the
differentiating electrons enter into ‘npnp’ sub-shells.
They possess an electronic configuration
of ns2np3ns2np3.
ii. Atomic and ionic radii- The atomic and ionic radii are smaller than those of
group 1414, and they tend to increase on moving down the group.

iii. Density- The densities increase on moving down the group.

iv. Melting and boiling point- The melting point increases from NN to AsAs then
decreases and the boiling point increases regularly on moving down the group.

v. Oxidation state- The elements of this group exhibit various oxidation

states that range from −3−3 to +5+5. Due to the inert pair effect, the stability of
the +3+3 oxidation state increases on moving down the group while the stability
of the +5+5 oxidation state decreases on moving down the group.
Chemical Properties of Nitrogen
1.Hydrides- All of the elements in this group combine to generate covalent
and pyramidal hydrides of the type EH3EH3.
2.Halides- All elements in this group form trihalides MX3MX3, and except
nitrogen all form pentahalides MX5MX5.
3.Oxides- All the elements of this group form oxides of the
type M2O3M2O3 and M2O5M2O5.
p-Block Group 16 Elements: Oxygen Family
This group includes elements- oxygen (O)(O), sulphur (S)(S),
selenium (Se)(Se),
tellurium (Te)(Te) and polonium (Po)(Po). These elements are known as
ore forming elements- chalcogens.

Physical Properties of Oxygen Family

i. Electronic configuration- In these elements, the differentiating electrons
enter into ‘np′‘np′ sub-shells. They possess an electronic configuration
of ns2np4ns2np4.
ii. Atomic and ionic radii- The atomic and ionic radii are smaller than those
of group 1515 elements, and tend to increase on moving down the group.

iii. Density- The densities increase on moving down the group.

iv. Melting and boiling points- As there is an increase in the molecular

weight and van der Waals force of attraction down the group, so the
melting and boiling point increases down the group.

v. Oxidation state- The elements of this group exhibit various oxidation

states ranging from −2−2 to +6+6 except for that of oxygen. Oxygen shows
an oxidation state of −2−2 to +2+2.
Chemical Properties of Oxygen Family
1.Hydrides- The elements of this group form stable hydrides of the
type H2EH2E, where EE is the element of group 1616.
2.Halides- The elements of this group form a large number of halides of
the type EX6,EX4,EX2EX6,EX4,EX2,where EE is the element of
group 1616 and XX is a halogen.
3.Oxides- They form oxides AO2AO2 and AO3AO3.
p-Block Group 17 Elements: Halogens
This group includes elements- fluorine (F)(F), chlorine (Cl)(Cl),
bromine (Br)(Br), iodine (I)(I), and astatine (At)(At).

Physical Properties of Halogens

i. Electronic configuration- In these elements, the differentiating electrons
enter into ‘np′‘np′ sub-shells. They possess an electronic configuration
of ns2np5ns2np5.
ii. Atomic and ionic radii- The atomic and ionic radii are smaller than
those of group 1616 elements, and tend to increase on moving down
the group.

iii. Density- The density increases down the group.

iv. Melting and boiling point- The melting and boiling points increase
down the group because of increase in the van der Waals forces.

v. Oxidation state- Elements such as chlorine, bromine, and iodine

show −1−1 to +7+7 (+1,+3,+5+1,+3,+5, and +7+7) oxidation states.
Fluorine shows an oxidation state of −1−1.
Chemical Properties of Halogen
1.Hydrides- The elements of this group form hydrides of the type HXHX.
The boiling point of these hydrides are-
2.HF>HI>HBr>HClHF>HI>HBr>HCl

3.Oxides- Halogens react with oxygen to form oxides. However, these

oxides are not very steady. Halogens also form oxoanions and oxoacids.

4.Reaction with metals- Most metals react immediately with halogens,

forming metal halides as a result.
p-Block Group 18 Elements: The Noble Gases
This group contains elements- helium (He)(He), neon (Ne)(Ne),
argon (Ar)(Ar), krypton (Kr)(Kr), xenon (Xe)(Xe), and
radon (Rn)(Rn). These elements are located at the end of each
period- on the extreme right-hand side of the periodic table.
Physical Properties of Noble Gases
i. Electronic configuration- The elements possess an electronic
configuration of ns2np6ns2np6 except for that of helium.
ii. Atomic radii- The atomic radii increases from HeHe to RnRn.

iii. Density- The density of the elements increases down the group.

iv. Melting and boiling points- These elements have

increasing magnitude of van der Waals force down the group, so the
melting and boiling point increases from HeHe to RnRn.

Chemical Properties of Noble Gases

Because of their completely filled subshells, noble gases are inert in
nature.
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