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Clutches and Braking Techniques

In many applications, it is desirable or necessary to accelerate the driven load smoothly from rest or to engage two independent drive trains in order to transfer power from one to the other. It often becomes necessary to bring a driven load down from its operating speed to zero speed (standstill) more rapidly than the normal coast time experienced when the motor is merely disconnected from its power source. Smooth acceleration, or the transfer of power from one drive train to another, is accomplished with clutches. Deceleration is accomplished by braking techniques. Clutches and brakes are quite similar in functionality and method of operation. The basic difference is that in clutch applications, both drive trains are free to rotate. A brake, on the other hand, is a clutch with one member held stationary. In fact, the functionality is so similar that, for some applications, clutches and brakes can be combined into a single unit called a clutchbrake. In less precise applications, electromechanical brake assemblies can be costly. In these situations, dynamic braking can often be used to provide a cost-effective method of quickly reducing the speed of the driven load. Well first look at electromechanical clutches and brakes and their actuation methods. Then well discuss the various dynamic braking methods for both DC and AC motors. Many of the clutches and brakes that will be discussed have limited or no use in fractional horsepower motor applications but are included so that the reader will have a better understanding of the scope of clutch and brake techniques.

10.1 ELECTROMECHANICAL CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Electromechanical clutches are categorized by both the techniques used to engage or stop the load as well as by their method of activation.

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The techniques include: 1) friction, 2) electromagnetic, and 3) mechanical lock-up.

Friction Techniques
This type of clutch or brake uses the friction developed between the two mating surfaces to engage the two drive trains or stop the load. One surface is made of metal and the other consists of a high friction composition material.

Fig. 10-2: Typical drum type clutchbrake.

Disc Type: This type of clutch or brake consists of a friction plate and a disc. Figure 10-1a shows a simple plate style in which one plate is pressed against the other. The friction created by their contact causes one of two things to happen: 1) in the case of a clutch, both plates will turn or, 2) if one plate is held stationary as in a brake, the other plate will stop when contact is made.
Quite often a caliper arrangement is used for braking. See Fig. 10-1b. The pinching action of the caliper against the rotor makes this a very effective braking technique. Caliper disc brakes require high activation pressure and dissipate heat much

better than plate style discs. They are also self-cleaning.

Drum Type: Drum type clutches and brakes have cylindrical shaped surfaces mounted on a common axis. See Fig. 10-2. The friction shoes either expand outward to contact the machined surface of the rotating drum or they can contract inward to engage a rotating shaft. As before, if both shafts rotate, the contact results in a clutch action. If the drum is stationary, the shoes provide braking action. The contraction type is especially suited for high cyclic operation because centrifugal force causes rapid withdrawal of the shoes when released. Drum clutches and brakes transmit high torque. Cone Type: Cone type clutches and brakes are a cross between disc and drum types. They provide the benefits of light engagement forces and high torque transfer but are difficult to disengage. Consequently, they are rarely used.

Electromagnetic Techniques
Clutches and brakes employing electromagnetism are classified as nonfriction type. They are used in applications requiring variable slip. They utilize the principles of electromagnetic

Fig. 10-1: Typical disc type clutch or brake mechanisms: a) plate type (left), and b) caliper type (right).

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Fig. 10-3: Eddy current type clutchbrake.

attraction to cause engagement or to reduce load speed by adjustable slip. Eddy Current Type: Eddy current type clutches are used in adjustable speed applications but cannot be operated at zero slip. As brakes, they have no holding power and are used primarily for drag loads. They have a tendency to run hotter than the other electromagnetic types and sometimes require additional cooling methods. Eddy current type clutches and brakes consist of a stationary field coil, an input drum and a coupling pole assembly which functions as an output rotor. Refer to Fig. 10-3. A coil sets up a magnetic field, linking the input drum with the output rotor. Eddy currents induced in the input drum create a new magnetic field which interacts with the magnetic field in the output rotor. A resulting coupling torque is created which is proportional to the coil current.

Fig. 10-4: Hysteresis type clutch-brake.

Hysteresis Type: This type of clutch provides constant torque which can provide varying degrees of slip as long as the heat dissipating capacity of the clutch is not exceeded. Torque is transmitted by hysteresis effect. Torque is independent of speed, except at high speeds. It is also a linear function of the control current except at low currents and near magnetic saturation. As a result, precise control can be achieved with hysteresis type clutches and brakes. A coil on the input rotor generates a magnetic field in the rotor and the drag cup. Refer to Fig. 10-4. Torque is transmitted through the drag cup because the hysteresis effect in the drag cup causes the drag cup flux to change at a slower rate than the rotor flux. Hysteresis type clutches and brakes are used quite often in fractional horsepower motor applications.

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Mechanical Lock-up Techniques

Mechanical lock-up techniques apply to clutches only and use direct mechanical connections between the input and output components to transmit torque. Operation of mechanical lock-up devices usually requires speed, a speed differential between input and output components, or a specific rotational direction. Many use centrifugal force, wrapping action or wedging action to lock the two members together, and are sometimes considered to be self-activating.

Square Jaw Type: A square jaw clutch is shown in Fig. 10-6. The square teeth of one member mate with the cutouts on the other member to provide a positive lock-up which cannot slip. It is limited to low speeds (under 10 RPM) because of its nonslip characteristics.
Fig. 10-5: Typical magnetic particle type clutch-brake.

Magnetic Particle Type: The input disc of a magnetic particle clutchbrake is located within the output housing. See Fig. 10-5. The space between the disc and the housing is filled with magnetic particles. An electromagnet surrounds both the input and output housings. Energizing the electromagnet causes the metallic particles to form a rigid bond between the two housings and transmit torque from one to the other. The amount of particle bonding is controlled by the current flow and is directly proportional to the torque. The torque slip can be adjusted by varying the current flow in the coil of the electromagnet. These types of clutches and brakes are useful in variable speed tensioning and positioning applications.

Fig. 10-6: Square jaw clutch.

Spiral Jaw Type: Because of its sloped surface design (Fig. 10-7), the spiral jaw clutch offers smoother running engagement than the square jaw type. It can be engaged at speeds up to 150 RPM. However, it has a tendency to freewheel, and can only run in one direction. Reversing the direction of rotation will cause disengagement.

Fig. 10-7: Spiral jaw clutch.

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Fig. 10-10: Wrap spring clutch.

Toothed Type: Toothed clutches

combine the benefits of electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic actuation with positive mechanical lock-up. They can be engaged at speeds up to 300 RPM. See Fig. 10-8.

Wrap Spring Type: This type of clutch uses a coiled spring to attach one shaft to the other. Rotation in one direction tightens the spring around the output shaft and transmits torque. Rotation in the other direction uncoils the spring and releases the output shaft. Refer to Fig. 10-10. Roller Ramp Type: Rollers sliding on the ramped surfaces of a hub provide the means of transmitting unidirectional torque in these types of clutches. See Fig. 10-11. When actuated, the clutch causes the roll cage to position the rolls at the top of the ramp and engage the hub and sleeve. When the clutch is disengaged, the roll cage forces the rolls down the ramp away from the sleeve.

Fig. 10-8: Toothed type clutch.

Sprag Type: A sprag type clutch has an inner and outer race with sprags in between. See Fig. 10-9. Because of their shape and size, they wedge themselves between the races when rotation occurs in the proper direction. The wedging action locks the two races together and transmits torque from one shaft to the other. They are unidirectional.
Fig. 10-11: Roller ramp clutch.

Actuation Methods
There are four basic methods used to actuate clutches and brakes: 1) electromagnetic, 2) mechanical, 3) pneumatic, and 4) hydraulic.
Fig. 10-9: Sprag type clutch.

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Electromagnetic is the primary method of actuation in fractional horsepower applications because it offers the most control and flexibility. The other methods of actuation will be discussed for completeness, but they are usually reserved for specific application or higher horsepower motors. Before choosing an actuation method, the applications engineer should ask several question: 1) How much torque is needed? 2) What is the best available engagement method? 3) Does the application require electronic or remote control? 4) How much response time is needed? 5) Are there any special environmental requirements that must be satisfied? 6) What is the duty cycle? 7) What are the temperature requirements of the clutch or brake? 8) What is the maximum operating speed of the system? 9) What space or weight requirements must be satisfied? 10) What are the service life and maintenance requirements? Based on this information, the best choice of clutch or brake type and actuation method can be determined.

applications where it would be difficult, impractical or too expensive to run the piping or tubing required for the other types of actuation. A typical electrically actuated clutch or brake is shown in Fig. 10-12. One half consists of an armature attached to the drive motor or input shaft. The other half is an electromagnet embedded in an iron shell and covered with a friction pad. When voltage is applied to the coil of the electromagnet, it attracts the armature and engages the clutch. If both components turn freely, the unit functions as a clutch. If one is held stationary, braking action takes place. Electromagnetic clutches and brakes can have rotating or stationary coils. Rotating coil types (Fig. 10-12a) use slip rings and brushes which can cause sparking, making them unsuitable for explosive atmospheres. The stationary field type with a fixed coil (Fig. 10-12b) eliminates this problem. The simplest type of electrical actuator consists of a plug-in module which converts AC line voltage to DC and uses on/ off switching circuits. More sophisticated controls include solid state modules with integral time delayed outputs. Some are equipped with torque adjustment controls for soft starts and stops.

Electromagnetic Actuation:
Extremely fast cycling rates are achievable through electromagnetic actuation. Its torque range is limited, compared to hydraulic and pneumatic actuated clutches and brakes. Fractional horsepower motor applications often involve some form of automatic operation involving electrical commands. That is why electrical actuation is more common in these applications. Electrical actuation also works well in remote

Pneumatic Actuation: Air actuation methods are common in industrial applications involving larger horsepower motors. Compressed air supplies are readily available in most industrial settings. Pneumatic actuation requires piping or tubing as well as pressure regulators, filters, lubricators, control valves, exhaust valves and mufflers to control various aspects of the pneumatic system. This support equipment and the associated costs and maintenance they require are the main disadvantages of pneumatic actuation systems.

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Hydraulic Actuation: Hydraulic actuation provides fast response and smooth engagement when control valves are used to control hydraulic pressure. Hydraulic pistons can deliver high torque requirements needed to operate heavyduty clutches and brakes. Like pneumatic actuation systems, the piping and associated control mechanisms are the main dis advantages. Mechanical Actuation: This is the simplest and least expensive form of actuation. Mechanical actuation depends on human strength to depress a pedal or move a lever, so force is limited to about 75 lbs. This limits torque transmission and cycling rates. Mechanical actuation is

usually reserved for vehicles and industrial equipment like cranes and hoists. Centrifugal clutches which engage when a motor reaches a predetermined speed are also examples of mechanical actuation. Centrifugal clutches cannot be controlled externally, however.

10.2 DYNAMIC BRAKING

Motors should not coast more than a few shaft rotations after being deenergized. If the application requires precise braking, electromechanical brakes and clutches like those previously discussed should be used. In less critical applications, dynamic braking techniques can be employed.

Fig. 10-12: Electromagnetic clutch: a) rotating coil (left), and b) stationary coil (right).

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Dynamic braking is achieved by altering the connections to the motor with or without the aid of an auxiliary power source, depending on the motor type (DC or AC). In either case, the motor acts like a generator and the kinetic energy of the motor and the driven load is used to exert a retarding force to slow the forward rotation of the motor.

DC Motors
Various techniques are used to accomplish dynamic braking in fractional horsepower DC motors and gearmotors. Each will be explained in detail.

Shunt-Wound Field DC Motors: Perhaps the easiest motor to dynamically brake is the shunt-wound field motor. A shunt-wound motor is a DC brush-type machine with field and armature connected in parallel across a DC power supply. See Fig. 10-13. The interaction of the magnetic field set up by the field winding and the current flowing in the armature conductors produces torque or normal motor action.

Fig. 10-13: Dynamic braking circuit for four-wire shunt-wound motor or two-wire PM motor.

A counter electromotive force (cemf) is generated in the conductors of any armature rotating in a magnetic field. While the unit operates as a motor, the cemf opposes the line voltage and limits the current in the armature winding to a value just sufficient to supply adequate output shaft power requirements. Braking is simply accomplished by disconnecting the armature from the power source and placing either a short or current limiting resistor across the armature terminals while the field coils remain energized. At the instant this is done, the rotation will continue because of the inertia of the armature and its driven load. The armature rotating in a magnetic field will continue to have voltage (cemf) generated in it that will be proportional to its speed and the strength of the magnetic field. The armature circuit which is now closed by a short or current limiting resistor will have a current flowing in it opposite to that originally produced by the power source. The reversal of current will produce a torque opposite to the original motor action and the motor will begin to reverse itself. However, during the reversing process, the speed in the forward direction will be rapidly reduced and so will the voltage generated in the armature. At the point of reversal or zero speed, the generated voltage is zero. The motor stops at this point since no current can flow and no torque is generated to continue the reversing process. The motor has been dynamically braked. The rate of braking is controlled by the value of the shunting resistor. A small resistance will allow a large amount of current flow and, since the reversing or braking torque is proportional to the current, the motor and load will stop in a minimum amount of time. Some resistance is usually recommended to limit the severity of the braking action, especially with gearmotors.

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NOTE: The field winding should be disconnected from the power source after the motor stops unless the field is meant to be connected continuously across the line at standstill.

Permanent Magnet Field DC Motors: Dynamic braking of PM motors is accomplished in the same way as the shunt motor with some additional advantages. The shunt motor cannot be dynamically braked to a stop in the event of a power failure because a field voltage must be present to generate the braking action. With a permanent magnet (PM) motor, a power failure will not affect the motors braking capability because its magnetic field (a permanent magnet rather than a coil) is not affected by a power outage. A normally closed relay or similar device across the armature will automatically function in case of a power failure, shorting the armatures terminals and initiating the braking action. This inherent characteristic is important, for example, on reel drives to prevent unwanted spillage of tape. Figures 10-13 and 10-14 apply to PM field motors (except that the shunt field in Fig. 10-13 should be replaced by a permanent magnet field). Figure 10-14 illustrates the use of electronic components to achieve dynamic braking in a unidirectional

Fig. 10-15: Dynamic braking circuit for a four-lead series wound motor operated from a DC source. This may not function properly if the motor is operated from an AC source.

PM motor application. The diode biases the transistor off in the run mode. When the armature no longer draws current from the line (brake mode), the transistor will conduct because the polarity of the armature cemf is opposite to the line voltage.

Series Wound Motors: Universal (AC/DC) or series wound motors may be dynamically braked in several different ways. One method that applies to a fourlead series wound motor is quite similar to that described for the shunt-wound motor. See Fig. 10-15. The only difference is the addition of resistance in series with the much lower resistance of the field circuit to prevent excessive heating during frequently repeated or extended braking cycles. This method is not generally successful when the motor is powered by AC as the motor tends to continue running without braking because of repulsion motor behavior. A three-lead, reversible series wound motor can be very conveniently braked by simply connecting the armature across the opposite set of field coils. See Fig. 10-16.

Fig. 10-14: Dynamic braking circuit for a unidirectional two-wire PM motor.

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Fig. 10-16: Simplified dynamic braking circuit for a three-wire series motor.

It should be noted that the series wound motor scheme shown in Fig. 10-16 is selfexcited since it brakes the motor without the need for any external source of power. However, because of the self-excited feature, braking by these methods is less consistent or reliable than the schemes presented for the shunt or PM motors in Figs. 10-13 and 10-14.

Compound Wound Motors:

A compound wound motor, having characteristics of both a shunt and a series wound motor, can be braked by: 1) a shunt or series braking circuit, 2) a self-excited series wound braking circuit, or 3) a combination of both. However, because of the slower speed of the compound wound motor, the shuntwound braking circuit is preferred.

technique can be used to brake a motor if the power to the motor is removed at the point when the armature passes through zero speed in its attempt to reverse itself. Plugging is more severe than the braking methods described earlier because the voltage across the armature (in the case of a shunt motor) and across the entire motor (in the case of a series motor) is approximately twice its normal value at the instant of reversal. The generated voltage in the armature is added to the line voltage from full speed down to zero. Under normal running conditions, the generated voltage (cemf) opposes the line voltage. Plugging is not always recommended as a means of braking. In wound field motors, for example, the braking torque generated is no longer proportional to the high armature current which is drawn. Excessive armature heating and brush arcing occur without the advantage of significant increases in torque. In the case of PM motors, the coercive force of the magnets may be exceeded, causing a resultant decrease in magnet strength. If plugging is contemplated, the motor manufacturer should be consulted to establish motor limitations.

Other Considerations
Relays, switches and electronic devices shown in Figs. 10-13 through 10-16 are meant to suggest only some of the possible ways of braking the motors discussed. Before using relays, switches and contactors in DC circuits, check that the devices have a DC rating of sufficient capacity. It is also important during the braking action that these devices be equipped with break before make contacts. Overlapping of the breaking and making functions can cause problems. Some applications require that the holding torque be continued after the motor has stopped rotating. Of the braking circuits

Plugging as a Means of Braking

Reversing a motor by reversing the power to the armature while the field remains connected is called plugging. This

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described, the only one capable of providing a reasonable holding torque for a wound field motor is the circuit in Fig. 1013. Permanent magnet motors have inherent holding. The strength of both depends upon the slot effect of the armature. The nature of the load is often a vital factor in dynamic braking applications. Caution must be exercised in applying motors which are to be dynamically braked or plugged. In such applications, high currents and dynamic mechanical forces are generated during the braking period. For safety reasons, the thermal and structural capabilities of the drive system should not be exceeded. Dynamic braking of high inertia type loads require additional consideration because of the mechanical and thermal strains which can be induced in both the motor and other associated torque transmitting components. While temperature rise is important in the normal operation of a motor, it is even more important in the dynamic braking of the motor. Since the braking torques generated with some schemes are higher than normal running torque, the energy which the motor must dissipate rises correspondingly. Brush life can be expected to decrease when the frequency or duration of dynamic braking is substantial. Special brushes are usually required.

AC Induction Motors
We will restrict this discussion to those AC motors which utilize a nonenergized rotor typically found in small motors. In most cases, this means some form of a squirrel cage rotor except for the capacitor hysteresis type which uses a permanent magnet type rotor. In most cases, no distinction will be drawn between a synchronous and a nonsynchronous motor since any braking method discussed usually

will be applicable for either version in a particular winding type. In general, AC motors are dynamically braked by removing the AC power from the motor and substituting DC. When this is done, the motor is very similar to the DC shunt motor described earlier. The stator, with DC applied, is similar to the field winding of a shunt motor and the squirrel cage rotor is similar to a shorted armature in the braking mode. In essence, the motor now acts like a DC generator with a shortcircuited armature. The electrical output of the generator has high circulating currents in the shorted rotor bars. The mechanical input of the generator is the kinetic energy of the rotor and the connected load. This rotational energy is dissipated in the form of heat (in the rotor) when the motor is quickly brought to a stop. The source of DC for braking purposes can vary from batteries and highly filtered supplies, to full wave and half-wave sources. DC may also be supplied by a charged capacitor. The choice is dependent on economics and the degree of braking required. Pure DC is best but more expensive to provide than rectified or nonpure DC. Whether one or all of a motors windings are used to brake, it is also a question of economics and power supply availability. Plugging may also be used to brake AC motors. Again, plugging consists of reconnecting the motor (while running) so that it wants to reverse itself. However, at zero speed (before the motor can rotate in the opposite direction), the power is removed. This method is limited to those motors which are capable of reversing while running. A third method of braking small AC motors, called capacitor shorting, is limited to permanent split capacitor (PSC) motors of the highslip nonsynchronous and hysteresis synchronous types. The procedure is to short the capacitor, placing

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Fig. 10-17: Dynamic braking circuit for shaded pole motor.

both the main and the capacitor windings directly across the AC line. This method eliminates the rotating field associated with these motors and its torque producing capabilities. The two windings (main and capacitor) must be identical for the capacitor shorting method to be effective.

Shaded Pole Motors: A shaded pole motor is normally unidirectional with only one stator winding connected to the AC line. The only way to dynamically brake this motor type is to apply some form of DC in place of AC. See Fig.1017. Because of low motor impedance on DC, voltage must be removed immediately after braking (unless the DC is low enough that it wont overheat the winding). An acceptable continuously applied power level for braking can be obtained from the motor manufacturer. Split-Phase Motors: Motors
with split-phase windings employ centrifugally operated switches or starting relays

which serve to cut out or disconnect the starting windings from the electrical supply when the motor has come up to 75% of running speed. To prevent burnout, starting windings are intended to be connected to the line for no more than a few seconds. Since it is not normally recommended that these motors be reversed while running, the only feasible way to dynamically brake a split-phase motor is to apply some form of DC in place of AC as in Fig. 1018. Again, because of low motor impedance, the DC voltage should be less than the AC. The braking voltage should be removed immediately after braking, since the drop in speed will cause the centrifugal switch or the start winding relay to reconnect the starting winding. An electrolytic starting capacitor, in series with the starting winding, is recommended for this type of operation, since it would overcome the starting winding heating problem by blocking the DC power (the capacitor would also tend to provide additional starting torque on AC).

Fig. 10-19: Dynamic braking circuit for permanent split capacitor motor using main winding only for braking.

Permanent Split Capacitor Motors (including hysteresis synchronous): Several different

braking methods can be considered for permanent split capacitor (PSC) motors. DC can, of course, be applied. Figure 1019 shows that the capacitor will prevent the auxiliary winding from being used for braking because the capacitor blocks the flow of DC. In order to use the second winding, a three-pole or three-contact switch must be used to provide either a

Fig. 10-18: Dynamic braking circuit for a split-phase motor.

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Fig. 10-20: Dynamic braking circuit for permanent split capacitor motor using windings in parallel for braking.

Fig. 10-22: Dynamic braking circuit for permanent split capacitor motor using capacitor shorting method.

Fig. 10-21: Dynamic braking circuit for permanent split capacitor motor using windings in series for braking.

parallel or a series winding arrangement as shown in Figs. 10-20 and 10-21. The plugging method can also be used on permanent split capacitor (PSC) motors which can be reversed while running. This is usually restricted to nonsynchronous designs using a high slip rotor and to hysteresis synchronous motors. Plugging can be accomplished by reversing either wind-

ing. However, the main winding is preferred to avoid high voltage problems associated with the capacitor. On small motors (approximately 1/75 hp or smaller), the capacitor shorting method can be used when the main and capacitor windings are identical. As with plugging, capacitor shorting is not applicable to low slip nonsynchronous motors or reluctance synchronous motors. As the size of the motor increases, this braking method becomes less effective and there may be a tendency to creep or to continue to rotate slowly at some very low speed. The capacitor shorting method is illustrated in Fig. 10-22.

Three-Phase Motors (Polyphase): A three-phase motor may be

dynamically braked by applying DC or by plugging. For a Wye or a Delta-connected motor, the braking circuit is shown in Fig. 10-23. In order to plug a three-phase motor for braking purposes, two input leads

Fig. 10-23 Dynamic braking circuit for three-phase motor.

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be charged during normal running and then used to supply the DC voltage necessary to stop the motor in the braking mode.

Other Considerations
Fig. 10-24: Dynamic braking by capacitor discharge method.

must be reversed. At the point of zero speed, the motor is disconnected from the AC line.

The DC Supply
All AC motor types can be braked by applying DC to the windings. It was stated earlier that pure DC is more effective than rectified AC. It should be noted that some motors (PSC type) may continue to rotate at very low speed if braked by a half-wave supply. The effectiveness of any combination cannot always be predicted, so some trial and error tests should be conducted to establish the best circuit for each application. In some cases, DC may be merely supplied by the discharging of a capacitor. Figure 10-24 shows how a capacitor may

Holding torque must be considered with AC motors. AC motors are not very effective at holding the load after bringing the speed down to zero. The best holding characteristics are provided by reluctance synchronous motors. Because of their construction characteristics, reluctance type rotors will tend to lock into preferred positions. Of course, if any of the motors discussed are energized to maintain holding power, the electrical input must be low enough to prevent winding and lubricant overheating.

Gearmotors
Gearmotors must be given special consideration, particularly if they are to be used to dynamically brake inertial loads. Because of the high kinetic forces generated, gearing and other machine elements may be damaged if not selected and applied properly. It is important to remember that the gearhead of a gearmotor is positioned between the inertial load and the motors rotor. Because an inertial load wants to keep on rolling and backdrive a gearhead after the normal forward driving power is removed, both the inertia of the motors rotor and an external inertial load can subject the gearhead components to dynamic stresses that exceed their design capabilities. Therefore, the dynamic braking of gearmotors driving inertial loads must be carefully analyzed. When considering the dynamic braking of external inertial loads, it is useful to calculate the effect of the load as seen at the output shaft of the gearhead. Figures 1025 and 10-26 show inertial loads (flywheels) directly connected to gearmotor

Fig. 10-25: Parallel shaft gearmotor (helical and spur gearing) with inertial load on output shaft.

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Fig. 10-26: Right angle worm gearmotor (two stages of worm gearing with inertial load on output shaft).

output shafts. It is also possible for considerable inertia to be seen by the gearhead in applications employing pulleys and belts (or sprockets and chains) in the drive system. If the output shaft is not directly coupled to the driven load (with speed altering elements separated from the gearhead), it will be necessary to calculate the equivalent inertia at the gearhead driveshaft using Equation 1 in Fig. 10-27. Equation 1 shows that speed reductions beyond the driveshaft reduce the inertia seen by the gearhead output shaft. Speed increases have the opposite effect according to the square of the speed ratio. Equation 1 is useful for analyzing the effects of speed changes due to gears, belts or chain drives coupled to the gearmotor output shaft. Equation 2 illustrates the calculation of inertia for simple discs like the flywheels shown in Figs. 10-25 and 10-26.

load during the braking period (as opposed to its normal function of transmitting the torque necessary to drive the load). Equations 3a and 3b in Fig. 10-27 provide useful approximations for analyzing the effects of inertial loads when considering dynamic braking of gearmotors. Equation 3a is a general equation, while Equation 3b approximates the external braking torque required to bring the system to rest in the period (ds) after the electrical power is disconnected from the motor (but dynamic braking not yet applied). Equation 3a is derived by assuming that the kinetic energy of a mechanical system, driven by a gearmotor, uniformly decelerates and is converted into work done (dissipated energy). In addition, Equation 3b ignores the inertia of gearhead components and does not consider additional dynamic loading imposed due to gearing backlash, or system misalignments and inefficiencies. Note that Equation 3b shows that two inertial components are of major consideration: WKr2 x R2 (internal inertia) and WK2lds (external intertia) When the internal inertia component is significantly larger than the external inertia component, it is feasible to dynamically brake the load through the motor winding. However, if the external inertia component is larger than the internal component, the load should be externally braked or clutched. If the internal inertial component in Equation 3b is disregarded, it is apparent that for a given output speed, the inertia of the external load (WK2lds) and the braking interval (ds) have great torque multiplying possibilities that can be fed into the gearhead. A gearmotor which performs acceptably at its rating when driving a load forward can easily fail due to excessive loading imposed during dynamic braking

Estimating Torque During Dynamic Braking: If a gearmotor is

required to dynamically brake an inertial load from full (normal) speed in a specified period of time, one must consider whether the gearhead would be capable of absorbing the stored kinetic energy of the inertial

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Equation 1: [WK2](lds) = [WK2](ls) Nl (-----)2 Nlds Where: [WK2](lds) = inertia of the external load as seen by the driveshaft at its speed. [WK2](l) = inertia of the load at its driven speed. = speed of the driveshaft (revolutions / minute) Nlds = speed of the load (revolutions/minute) Nl _________________________________________________________________ [radius(inches)]2 2 Equation 2: [WK ]c = weight (lbs) x 2 where: [WK2]c = inertia of solid cylinder or disc rotating about its own axis NOTE: Many handbooks provide formulas for calculating the inertia of other geometric shapes. ____________________________________________________________________ Equation 3: [(WK2r x R2) + WK2 lds] (Nds)2 (Ids) (Nds)2 a) Tds = or: *b) Tds = 573 (ds) 221,185 (ds) where: Tds = indicated torque required to bring the gearmotor driveshaft to rest during braking (lb-in) Ids = inertia of te entire mechanical system as seen by the gearmotor driveshaft WK2r = internal inertia contributed by the motors rotating member (rotor or armature) (lb-in2) R = ratio of the gearmotors gearhead WK2 lds = inertia of the external load seen by the gearmotor driveshaft (lb-in2). Nds = gearmotor driveshaft speed (RPM) ds = driveshaft revolutions during the braking period 221.185 = A constant associated with inch system with inch system units. Note: If SI units are used (newtons and meters instead of pounds of force and inches), the constant becomes 5,615. *When R = 1, Equation 3b applies to nongeard motor.
Fig. 10-27: Formulas for calculating the effects of inertial loads on gearmotors.

(i.e., the backdriving torque caused by an inertial load can exceed the forward driving torque and be beyond the capability of the gearhead). Consider what happens when a gearmotor is forced to dynamically brake a relatively high external inertial load. An external inertial load on a gearmotor tends to backdrive the motor through the gear-

head. Because the electrical braking torque applied to the rotor is resisting rotation, an almost instantaneous torsional binding effect occurs in the gearhead. Under this condition, the motor winding is unable to absorb all of the stored kinetic energy of the rotating load and the remainder must be absorbed by the torsion and deflection of the various gearhead members, including

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the axial movement and bending of the motors rotor (the gearhead, in effect, becomes a mechanical spring). The amount of energy absorption of each of the gearhead members involved is a function of their respective stiffness. Therefore, the stored kinetic energy of the load must be dissipated or absorbed by the gear teeth, intermediate gearshafts (if more than one stage), preload washers, the driveshaft and gear housing. Moreover, some of the kinetic energy is dissipated as heat, due to friction from such sources as the rotor and gearshaft bearings sliding in their bores.

Considerations with Spur and Helical Gearing: This type of

gearing is common to parallel shaft or inline (concentric shaft) gearheads. In fhp gearmotors, such gearheads typically have recess action type gearing which provides advantages when driven forward, but offers relatively greater frictional resistance than standard gearing when driven backwards. The resistance to backdriving manifests itself as a locking effect. It follows that the amount of resistance to backdriving increases with the number of stages of gearing. Gearheads with many helical and spur stages offer considerable resistance to backdriving.

It is possible that during dynamic braking, gearing that is normally non-self-locking will lock. This can occur when the lead angle of the worm gear in the lower ratios is such that during dynamic braking, the friction in the gearing increases to the point where self-locking occurs. At the moment of locking, the contacting gear teeth and other gear train parts must dissipate the energy of the load. For applications where the braking forces exceed the shear strength of the gear teeth, failure will occur. Braking forces slightly under the shear strength of the gears and other parts will not show up as immediate failure, but can severely shorten gearmotor life through fatigue.

General Guidelines for High Inertia Gearmotor Applications: Dynamic braking of high inertial
loads on gearmotors requires that the energy be absorbed or stored in the various gear train parts, which act like springs. A significant decrease in the stresses imposed on these parts can be effected by utilizing a torsionally resilient coupling (the effect is that of a torsional spring) or clutching that disconnects or limits the transmitted torque. Protection of the gear train members can also be accomplished by stronger gearhead parts, or by reduction of external inertia or load speed. A good general rule to follow in applying dynamic braking to gearmotors is to use the minimum power for braking necessary to obtain the desired results. If it is required that the maximum allowable coast is to be held to 90 degrees at the driven shaft, it would be unwise to apply dynamic braking that limits the coast to a much lesser amount. For the same reason that temperature rise is an important consideration under normal operating conditions, it is even more critical when dynamic braking is applied. If dynamic braking is required at

Special Considerations with Worm Gearing: Dynamic braking of

gearmotors with worm gearing presents additional considerations that do not exist with spur or helical gearing. A primary condition peculiar to worm gearing is the possible self-locking effect. (Self-locking is a term that describes an inherent characteristic of certain worm gears that prevent them from being backdriven. The slow speed shaft cannot be driven by an applied force.) In worm gearmotors, self-locking is a characteristic of higher gear ratios (typically greater than 15:1).

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frequent intervals, operating temperature of the gearmotor and its lubricants would be higher than that of a nondynamic braking application with the same load. It is better to limit the braking so it will not exceed the allowable temperature rise of the winding or gear lubricant. Adhering to these guidelines results in a cooler running, more service-free gearmotor, and places lower stresses on the gears and other mechanical components affected by dynamic braking.

10.3 EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC BRAKING METHODS

In the majority of motor and gearmotor applications, the dynamic braking capability of the motor is normally not the determining factor in the motor selection. Voltage, frequency, speed, torque, etc. are usually more important considerations in establishing whether the motor should be an AC or DC motor, or one of the particular types of AC or DC construction. Under these circumstances, obviously, one accepts the braking capability that the particular motor offers. This generally presents no problem since all winding types and most of the dynamic braking methods described substantially reduce the stopping time and satisfy the majority of the less critical braking applications. For example, a 1700 to 1800 RPM NEMA 42 frame motor (approximately 4.5" diameter) typically would coast from 40 to 120 revolutions when the power is removed without the aid of dynamic braking. With dynamic braking, the rotor would come to a stop within one to six revolutions with no load attached (except for gearing). Any load would, of course, reduce the stopping time if it were frictional

in nature and would increase it if it were highly inertial. The previously mentioned range of stopping times without dynamic braking may seem excessive, but it is based on a number of different motor types, each of approximately the same horsepower level. This criteria results in differences in rotor lengths and construction which, along with the differences in windings, provides an even wider stopping range when dynamically braked. As might be expected, a smaller motor would stop more rapidly than a larger motor. A 1700 to 1800 RPM 32 frame motor (approximately 3.5" diameter) would typically stop in about half the time taken by the larger 42 frame motor, or 20 to 60 revolutions without dynamic braking and 0.5 to 3 revolutions with dynamic braking (at no load but with gearing included). Since the time to stop a rotating part is directly proportional to its inertia, the smallest possible motor should be used to drive the load where fast braking is desired. Motors with centrifugal switches and high density rotors should be avoided (since their relatively higher inertia in small motors may be significant). Although we have limited our discussion to stopping time using a speed of 1700 to 1800 RPM, it should not be forgotten that the kinetic energy of a rotor is proportional to the inertia times the speed squared. Therefore, the speed of the rotor should be kept to a minimum for best braking results. (High speed series wound motors are particularly difficult to brake rapidly and consistently.) When using induction-type motors, the additional braking torque generated by using a high resistance rotor over a low resistance rotor, or a reluctance synchronous over a nonsynchronous type, should be considered when fast braking is desirable. Also, the reluctance synchronous motor will provide some holding torque, a

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criteria which might not be satisfied by any other motor type. The holding torque difference between a nonsynchronous induction motor and a synchronous reluctance induction motor may be as much as 10:1 with continuous DC applied. There appears to be a definite advantage to using an AC induction motor over a
Fig. 10-29: Shunt motor speed / torque curves.

The reason appears to be the result of differences in rotor inertia. As mentioned earlier, when using a split-phase motor, it is advisable to use a

Fig. 10-28: PSC motor speed / torque curves.

DC shunt-wound motor which is traceable to the braking torque generated by each. Comparison of Fig. 10-28 with Fig. 10-29 will illustrate the basic differences between a PSC motor and a shunt-wound motor (both of the same hp rating). In Fig. 10-28, the first (right-hand) quadrant represents the normal running characteristic curve. The second (lefthand) quadrant shows the normal braking characteristic. Since the AC motor has a high braking torque close to zero speed, it tends to be snubbed down to a stop quite nicely, whereas the DC motor (Fig. 10-29) will tend to lose its braking force as the speed is reduced and tends to coast more. The area under the curve divided by the operating speed represents the average braking torque. In some cases, the split-phase motor (Fig. 10-30) may not brake as quickly as the PSC motor (compare Fig. 10-28 with Fig. 10-30) even though its generated braking torque is as high or higher than thatof a permanent split capacitor motor.

Fig. 10-30: Split-phase motor speed / torque curves.

starting capacitor in series with the starting switch and winding to limit the DC braking current and prevent overheating of the starting winding and destructive arcing at the starting switch contacts. Although the series wound motor can be furnished in a smaller package than other motor types with the same horsepower, it does not brake as consistently as other motor types because of its higher operating speed (high kinetic energy) and limited braking power available by the normal regenerative method. The capacitor discharge method, described earlier, is only effective on small subfractional induction motors driving low inertial loads, since a reasonably sized ca-

10-19

Fig. 10-31: Braking by half-wave with capacitor discharge.

Fig. 10-32: Half-wave braking of a PSC motor.

pacitor has only a limited amount of stored energy to dynamically brake or counteract the kinetic energy of the motor and its load. Frequently, a capacitor is used in conjunction with a diode to provide a combination half-wave and capacitor discharge braking circuit to eliminate the shortcomings of each. Used by itself, the capacitor has limited energy to release while the halfwave brake by itself may cause a PSC motor to rotate slowly after its speed has been brought down from its original level.

Figure 10-31 is a typical capacitor/halfwave braking circuit that may be used in place of full wave or pure DC to provide dynamic braking almost equivalent to the latter. The slow rotational speed experienced with a PSC motor after the initial braking period with half-wave DC can often be eliminated by bypassing the motor capacitor in the braking mode as shown in Fig. 10-32.

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Motors

GearMotors

Controls

Bodine Products At A Glance

After you have determined the Bodine product that best fits your needs, visit www.bodine-electric.com. There you will find the most up-to-date specifications, 2-D and 3-D CAD drawings and models, list prices and ordering information for all of the over 1,000 stock and standard products we offer. Motors Without Gearing F or direct drive applications or high speed applications F all bearings B otally enclosed construction T alanced rotors or armatures B odels with NEMA mountings M odels with metric mountings M 126 models available Parallel Shaft Gearmotors igh efficiency gearing H its where right angle gearmotors dont F nvented gearhousings for multiple U mounting positions ubricated for life of gearmotor, without L maintenance p to five stages of gearing for very slow speeds U eals on input shaft and output shaft S 484 models available Right angle gearmotors Hollow shaft models available in all right angle products uiet worm gearing Q W orm gearing resists shock loads any gear ratios are self-locking M its in places where parallel shaft gearmotors dont F nvented gearhousing for multiple mounting positions U ubricated for life of gearmotor, without maintenance L eals on input shaft and output shaft S 322 models available Matched Electronic Speed Controls odels for each motor type: M Permanent Magnet DC Three-phase AC Induction (inverter-duty) Brushless DC odels with NEMA enclosures M O pen chassis models year warranty when purchased with Bodine motors 2 50 models available

AC Induction Available with most common AC winding types: acesetter, 3-phase, inverter duty models P ermanent split capacitor, 1-phase; P (impedance protected and torque winding models available in most frame sizes) plit-phase models, 1-phase with S starting switch Totally enclosed construction; fan cooled and non-fan cooled models UL recognized, CSA certified, and with CE mark

Horsepower 1/600-3/4 Speed Ranges (rpm) 120-3,600 Torque (oz-in.) 1.1-445

Horsepower 1/2000-3/4 Speed (rpm) 0.9-340

Horsepower 1/17-3/4 Speed (rpm) 5.9-340 rpm Torque (lb-in.) 8-380

Horsepower 1/2-1

Torque (lb-in.) 8.9-1,000

Voltage supply: 115, 230, 115/230 output: 0-230, 3 Current (Amps) 2.4-4.0

Permanent Magnet DC Low cost 24, 90/130, and 180 volt models in stock Adjustable speed and high starting torque Linear speed/torque curve Totally enclosed construction Replaceable brushes ifferent voltage and speed ratings available D Dynamic braking UL recognized, CSA certified, and with CE mark Models with accessory shaft for mounting a brake or encoder

Horsepower 1/50-1/2 Speed Ranges (rpm) 100-11,500 Torque (oz-in.) 8-180

Horsepower 1/29-1/2 Speed (rpm) 5.6-660

Horsepower 1/29-1/2 Speed (rpm) 0.7-500

Horsepower 1/17-7/16

Torque (lb-in.) 3.3-700

Torque (lb-in.) 5.2-380

Voltage supply: 115, 115/230 output: 0-90, 0-130, 0-180 Current (Amps) 0.50-5.0

Brushless DC 24VDC and 130VDC models in stock Ideal for continuous duty applications Adjustable speed and high starting torque Linear speed/torque curve Totally enclosed construction Zero Maintenance, longest life ynamic braking D 22B and 34B models UL recognized, and CSA certified Models with accessory shaft for mounting a brake or encoder 60 built-in commutation standard (120 available with OEM products) Optional built-in encoder for custom models

Horsepower 1/16-2

Horsepower 1/16-3/8 Speed (rpm) 8-500

Horsepower 1/8-3/8 Speed (rpm) 42-500

Horsepower 1/6-3/8

Speed Ranges (rpm) 100-10,000 Torque (oz-in.) 20-151

Torque (lb-in.) 5.8-350

Torque (lb-in.) 11-109

Voltage supply: 24VDC, 115VAC output: 0-24, 0-90, 0-130 Current (Amps) 3.0-22

For complete product information, to download product CAD drawings, 3-D models and to purchase Bodine products, go to www.bodine-electric.com/overview

O v e r 1 0 0 y e a r s O f i n n O vat i O n
e-TORQ
UniqUe high-perfOrmance drive system
The e-TORQ motors employ a unique electromagnetic design to improve efficiency, minimize size, and maximize torque. They are ideal for OEM applications where high torque, very compact design, enclosed construction, and economy are necessary. e-TORQ motors are brushless DC servo motors that can run smoothly at extremely low speeds without cogging or velocity fluctuations (ISV). Their high torque capability can eliminate costly gearboxes and remove the risk of lubricant leaks. The e-TORQ motors are available in widths of less than four inches, with diameters ranging from 7, 9 to 14 inches and larger, delivering more than 100 lb-in. at speeds of up to 6,000 rpm. Custom designs are offered with a wide range of special shaft, through hole, or custom mounting arrangements. Zero cogging over full speed range No iron saturation for maximum torque linearity No lamination core losses yield very high efficiency Ten times peak torque is available

integramotor

BrUshless dc mOtOr Or gearmOtOr with BUilt-in pwm cOntrOl

The integramotor, 24V, Brushless DC products integrate three motion control components into one compact package. The perfect match of motor, speed control, and gearhead provide simplified wiring, reduced panel space, faster assembly times, and lower system costs. integramotors with built-in PWM speed control. 22B/SR models for analog speed signal, and 22B/FV models for PWM speed signal input Integral gear reducer increases torque and reduces speed Helical & spur gearing for high efficiency (parallel shaft gearmotors only) Oil lubrication for long life; right angle gearmotors are lubricated with grease Unvented gearhousing for universal, horizontal mounting Output torque ratings chosen for long, reliable life cURus (UL recognized for U.S.A. and Canada), CE mark

CUSTOm SOLUTIONS
yOUr specificatiOns, nO cOmprOmises.
From special performance requirements to unique mounting configurationsand everything in betweenthe Bodine MotionPro team can design a custom solution to match your exact specifications. Nearly half of all the motors we make are customized, and all of them come with the end-use reliability were famous for. Call 1-800-7-BOdINE to talk to an application engineer.

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