Lpm2.1theory
Lpm2.1theory
Lpm2.1theory
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Advantages of Domestication:
(i) Nomadic life: Prior to domestication of animals, man was living nomadic
life. Domestication of animal helped man to live settled life. It leads to the
establishment of small villages which later on developed into towns and cities.
(ii) Land management: The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way
to control weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas prone to wild fires,
goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which removes combustible
material and reduces the risk of fires.
(iii) Animal proteins and dairy products: It helped in easy and assured
supply of animal proteins. Animals convert grasses and fodders into milk and
meat. Mammalian livestock can also be used as a source of milk, which can in
turn easily be processed into other dairy products, such as yoghurt, cheese,
butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumis.
(iv) Woolen clothes: In cold countries people started domestication of sheep
and started preparing clothes from wool. Livestock produce a range of
fiber/textiles. For example, sheep and goats produce wool and mohair; cows,
deer, and sheep skins can be made into leather and bones, hooves and horns of
livestock can be used.
(v) Transport: Domestication of horses and camels helped in speedy
movement of men.
(vi) Motive Power: Animals like bullock, horses and camels became the
source of motive power to perform various agricultural operations like
transport, cultivation, irrigation etc.
(vii) Mastery over environment: Domestication also helped man in getting
mastery over environment and utilize the available resources.
(viii) Fertilizer: Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This
is an important reason why historically, plant and animal domestication have
been intimately linked. Manure is also used to make plaster for walls and
floors and can be used as a fuel for fires. The blood and bone of animals are
also used as fertilizer.
India’s Mega Diversity of Livestock:
Several species of domesticated animals have originated here. The
genetic diversity within these species is astounding. Some examples are:
Cattle 26 breeds
Goats 22 breeds
Sheep 40 breeds
Poultry 18 breeds
Buffalo 8 breeds
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The Beginning of Animal Husbandry:
Animal-rearing has its origins in the transition of cultures to settled
farming communities rather than hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are
‘domesticated’ when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by
humans. Over time, the collective behaviour, life cycle, and physiology of
livestock have changed radically. Man in Old Stone Age (10000-8000 B.C.)
made no attempt to domesticate animals but used to eat those animals that he
was lucky to hunt. In the New Stone Age (8000-6000 B.C.) man changed from
hunter to husbandry man of animals by domestication. Domestication came
after food cultivation.
Domestication of Animals:
When (Years Why
Species from present Where (Reason for
time) domestication)
Dog 8500-9000 East Asia Pet, Companion
Goat 8500-9000 Southwest Asia Food, Milk, Clothing
Pig 8000-9000 Eastern Anatolia Food & Sports
Sheep 6000-7000 Southwest Asia Food, Milk, Clothing
Cattle 6000-6500 Southwest Asia, Religious reasons
India, North Africa
Chickens 5000-5500 India, Sumatra Cockfight Shows, religion
Horse 4000-5000 Eurasian Steppes Transportation
Mountain
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Our country has 16% cattle, 17% goat, 4% sheep and 57% buffaloes of
the world. We produce 7.11% milk of cattle. 61.95% milk of buffaloes,
21.52% milk of goat of the world. Dairy development rate was 4.5% in last
two decade as against 2.2% in agriculture. Most of the nomadic tribes and
people living on edges of villages depend on sheep and goat rearing.
Role of Animal Husbandry in National Economy:
India is an agricultural country with agriculture based economy.
Cattle and buffaloes are the backbones of Indian agriculture/dairying
industry.
It is densely populated and has limited land resources. More than 70% of
the population depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for their
livelihood.
Nearly 12% of the total national income is derived from animal husbandry.
Livestock, especially dairy cattle and buffaloes are useful to Indian
economy in the following ways:
1. Provide protective food in the form of milk and meat.
2. Provide motive power for agriculture.
3. Provide supplementary income to the farmers.
4. Provide valuable organic manure and fuel.
5. Utilize unproductive land.
6. Provide miscellaneous products-raw materials.
Animal Husbandry and Dairying play an important role in development
of India's economy. Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries sectors play an
important role in the national economy and in the socio-economic
development of the country. These sectors also play a significant role in
supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment in the rural
sector, particularly, among the landless laborers, small and marginal farmers
and women, besides providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people.
Livestock are the best insurance against the vagaries of nature like drought,
famine and other natural calamities. Highlighting the importance of the
livestock sector in the Indian economy, the Annual Report as per Central
Statistical Organization (CSO) states that the value of output from livestock
sector at current prices was about Rs. 4,59,051 crore during 2011-12 which is
about 25.6% of the value of output from the agriculture and allied sector.
The present contribution of livestock to the national economy is
estimated to be Rs.18000 crores, mainly from milk and milk products (70 per
cent); meat and meat products (11.5 per cent); poultry (8.8 per cent) and dung
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for fuel (7.8 per cent). In addition, the value of other animal products as eggs,
wool, leather goods etc, makes the total of Rs.18000 crores. Apart from above
items, the value of draught power from 88 million bullocks including 8 million
buffalo bullocks indispensable to agricultural operations is of the order of Rs.
5000 crores. In 2008-09, this sector contributed 108.5 million tonnes of milk,
55.6 billion eggs, 42.7 million kg wool and 3.8 million tones of meat.
Several measures have been initiated by the government to increase the
productivity of milch animals, which has resulted in increasing the milk
production significantly from the level of 102.6 million tonnes at the end of
the tenth plan (2006-07) to 127.9 million tonnes at the end of the eleventh plan
(2011-12). Poultry development in the country has shown steady progress over
the years. Egg production was around 66.45 billion in 2011-12. The poultry
meat production is estimated to be about 2.47 million tonnes.
According to 2001 census, the livestock population was estimated at
495 million comprised of 203.1 million cattles, 98.1 million buffaloes 60.7
million sheep, 120.3 million goats and 13.1 million pigs. The others were
estimated at 3.6 million and total of poultry birds at 489 million.
Cattle and Buffaloes:
India has 14 per cent of the world’s cattle and 57 percent of the world’s
buffalo population. India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the
world and India produced 13.1 per cent of the total milk produced in the
world. Hence, India has attained the first rank in milk production in the world.
At present the first five countries in the world producing maximum milk are
India, USA, Russia, Germany and France. At the beginning, production of
milk was only 17 million tonnes (MT) in 1950-51 in India. Now it is increased
to 108.5 million tonnes in 2008-09. World milk production is estimated at 693
million tonnes during 2007-08 and Indian milk production stands at 104.8
million tonnes. Several measures have been initiated by the government to
increase the productivity of milch animals, which has resulted in increasing
the milk production significantly from the level of 102.6 million tonnes at the
end of the tenth plan (2006-07) to 127.9 million tonnes at the end of the
eleventh plan (2011-12). India, the largest producer of milk in the world, is set
to produce over 133 million tones milk during 2012-13. The per capita
availability of milk in India is 330 grams per day. The average milk
production of a milking cow is only 173 kg and that of buffalo is about 500 kg
milk per lactation in India which is far below than world average.
Poultry:
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector
in India today. Their growth rate has been rising at 8 to 10 percent per annum.
As a result, India is now the world's fifth largest egg producer and the
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eighteenth largest producer of broilers. Table eggs and broiler meat are the
major end products of the poultry sector in India. The organized sector of
poultry industry is contributing nearly 70% of the total output and the rest
30% in the unorganized sector in India. The Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra producing nearly 70% of the country's egg production. Egg
production has increased from 21 billion in 1990-91 to 66.45 billion in 2011-
12. Poultry development in the country has shown steady progress over the
years. The poultry meat production is estimated to be about 2.47 million
tonnes. Export of poultry products was currently at around Rs. 457.82 crore in
2011-12 as per the report of Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export
Development Authority (APEDA). The value of output from eggs was Rs
17,803 crore for 2011-12.
Meat Production:
The meat products industry in India is largely in the un-organized
sector. With rapid urbanization, higher income levels and changes in lifestyle,
market for scientifically produced and hygienically packed meat and meat
products are expanding rapidly. Cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, pigs and poultry
are the types of animals which are generally used for production of meat.
Flesh foods/meat and meat products are rich in protein and are good sources of
vitamin B12 which is absent in plant food. There is a huge scope for
expanding exports, especially in buffalo and poultry meat, eggs and dairy
products. The country has 3,600 slaughter houses, 9 modern abattoirs and 171
meat-processing units licensed under the meat products order. The meat
production has registered a healthy growth from 2.3 million tonnes at the end
of Tenth Five Year Plan (2006-07) to 5.5 million tonnes at the end of the
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2011-12). The Annual growth rate for meat
production in 2011-12 was about 13%.
Out of total meat produced in India, 54% is from mutton and chevon
(Sheep and goat meat, respectively), 26% from beef (buffalo meat), 13% from
chicken and 7% from pork (Pig meat). Even though 70% of India populations
consume meat the per capita availability of meat is less than 5 kg per year as
compared to world’s average of 14 kg per year. In meat and meat processing
sector, poultry meat is the fastest growing animal protein in India. The
estimated production of meat was 6.5 million tonnes during 2007-08.
According to APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export
Development Authority), the export of buffalo meat was increased from
(Rs.1536.77crore) in 2003-04 to (Rs.3549.70 crores) in 2007-08. The value of
output from meat group in 2011-12 was Rs. 83,641 crore.
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Fish Production:
India has an about 8041 km of coastline and about 5.70 million hectare
of fresh water area suitable for fisheries production. Fishing, aquaculture and
allied activities are reported to have provided livelihood to over 14 million
persons in 2006-07. At present, India's total fish production is about 76.21
thousand tonnes. This sector has great potential to export their fish and fish
products. Since 1991, overall export of fish is raised at considerable rate.
According to the data provided by ministry of agriculture and commerce of
India, the export of fish and fish product increased from last ten years. India is
the second largest producer of fresh water fish in the world.
Fish production has increased from 41.57 lakh tonnes (24.47 lakh
tonnes for marine and 17.10 lakh tonnes for inland fisheries) in 1991-92 to
86.66 lakh tonnes (33.71 lakh tonnes for marine and 52.95 lakh tonnes for
inland fisheries) in 2011-12.The value of output from fisheries sector was
about Rs 76,699 crore during 2011-12 which is about 4.15% of the value of
agricultural and allied sector output.
Projected Changes in Livestock Population (Million):
Category 2007 2020 (Projected estimates)
Cross Bred cattle 33.06 65.30
Indigenous cattle 166.02 161.37
Buffaloes 105.33 115.60
Sheep 71.56 74.78
Goat 140.53 142.23
Pigs 11.13 11.91
Fish** 7.13 12.38
**million tonnes
*Crossbreds double, poultry 1.6 times, fish 1.7 times
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CHAPTER 2
IMPORTANCE OF CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENTS OF DAIRY
INDUSTRY IN INDIA
History of Co-operative Dairies
Before independence, when dairy co-operatives did not exist, the milk
producers of villages were exploited by the middlemen and milk traders. The
producers were getting very less price for milk. The purchase of milk from all
producers and that too throughout the year was also not guaranteed. In turn, the
middlemen and the milk traders were earning the big share at the cost of milk
producers and consumers.
Amul has been an instrumental for the movement of dairy co-operatives in
India and many other developing countries. Major national leaders, viz. Shri
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Shri Morarjibhai Desai were involved in its
establishment (in 1946) and development. The main objective in mind of
founders of Amul was to protect the average milk producer at the village level
from the over exploitation by the ruthless milk traders.
From the experience of Amul, the idea of co-operative dairying had got a
momentum/ boost. The milk co-operatives like Amul, popularly known as
“Anand Pattern” has been replicated in the other districts of Gujarat, also in other
states of India and in many other developing countries. The leading milk co-
operative unions in Gujarat are Amul, Dudhsagar, Sabar, Banas, Sumul and
Panchamrut dairies.
Impact of Dairy Co-operatives in India
The milk co-operatives of India have had multifaceted impact on the
economy and social life of rural people, as under.
1. Apart from providing supplementary income to the farmers, it has encouraged
commercial milk producers around urban areas.
2. The co-operative dairying also provided women with new roles and functions
in animal health, care and management, feeding, breeding and interesting
thing is their participation in various decision-making bodies.
3. Women’s deeper involvement in animal health care & management had direct
effect on their notions of family health care, family planning and nutrition.
4. Dairy co-operatives have given many political leaders and taught lessons of
democracy and building complex organizations uniting a large number of
rural communities.
5. The taboo of untouchability to SC vanished from rural areas, - an indirect
impact of joining a common queue in front of the village milk society.
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6. Many members of milk co-operatives have become questioning and critical to
the officer-bearers for the performance of the co-operatives.
7. The co-operatives also have some impact on development of roads, schools,
health centers, vari ghruhs etc.
THE THREE-TIER STRUCTURE OF DAIRY CO-OPERATIVES (AMUL
MODEL/ANAND PATTERN)
The Amul Model is a three-tier cooperative structure. This structure
consists of a Dairy Co-operative Society at the village level affiliated to a Milk
Union at the District level which in turn is further federated into a Milk
Federation at the State level. Milk collection is done at the Village Dairy
Society, milk procurement and processing at the District Milk Union and milk
and milk products marketing at the State Milk Federation. The structure was
evolved at Amul in Gujarat and thereafter replicated all over the country under
the Operation Flood Programme, it is known as the ‘Amul Model’ or ‘Anand
Pattern’ of Dairy Co-operatives.
The main functions of the VDCS (Village dairy cooperative society) are:
Collection of surplus milk from the milk producers of the village, and
payment based on quality and quantity,
Providing support services to the members like veterinary first aid, artificial
insemination services, cattle-feed sales, mineral mixture sales, fodder and
fodder seed sales, conducting training on animal husbandry and dairying.
Selling liquid milk for local consumers of the village.
Supplying milk to the District Milk Union.
The main functions of the District Co-operative Milk Producer's Union
(Dugdh Sangh) is:
Procurement of milk from the Village Milking Societies of the District.
Arranging transportation of raw milk from the VDCS to the Milk Union.
Providing input services to the producers like veterinary care, artificial
insemination services, cattle-feed sales, mineral mixture sales, fodder and
fodder seed sales.
Conducting training on cooperative development, animal husbandry and
dairying for milk producers and conducting skill development and leadership
development training for VDCS staff and Management Committee members.
Providing management support to the VDCS along with supervision of its
activities.
Establish chilling centers and dairy plants for processing the milk received
from the villages.
Selling liquid milk and milk products within the district.
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Process milk into milk products as per the requirement of State Marketing
Federation.
Decide on the prices of milk to be paid to milk producers as well on the
prices of support services provided to members.
The main functions of the State Co-operative Milk Federation (Federation):
Marketing of milk and milk products processed/manufactured by Milk
Unions.
Establish a distribution network for marketing of milk and milk products.
Arranging transportation of milk and milk products from the Milk Unions to
the market.
Creating and maintaining a brand for marketing of milk & milk products.
Providing support services to the Milk Unions and members like technical
inputs, management support and advisory services.
Pooling surplus milk from the Milk Unions and supplying it to deficit Milk
Unions.
Establish feeder-balancing dairy plants for processing the surplus milk of the
Milk Unions.
Decide on the prices of milk and milk products to be paid to Milk Unions.
Decide on the products to be manufactured at Milk Unions and capacity
required for the same.
Designing and providing training in cooperative development and technical
and marketing functions.
Conflict resolution and keeping the entire structure intact.
Today, there are around 176 cooperative dairy Unions formed by
1.25 lakh dairy co-operative societies, having a total membership of around
13 million farmers on the same pattern, who are processing and marketing milk
and milk products profitably, be it Amul in Gujarat or Verka in Punjab, Vijaya in
Andhra Pradesh, Milma in Kerala, Gokul in Maharashtra, Saras in Rajasthan or a
Nandini in Karnataka.
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
The success of Amul and similar other district milk co-operative dairies in
Gujarat was dramatic. Late Shri Lal Bahadur Shashtri, Ex-Prime Minister of
India while his visit to Kaira district, was impressed by the development
achieved through “Anand Pattern” of milk co-operatives. With his blessings an
autonomous body NDDB was established under Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, in
1965, with two main objectives at that time.
1. To replicate the “Anand Pattern” of co-operative dairying all over India,
and
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2. To provide on request the information skill and technical services to speed
up the development of system for milk procurement, processing and
marketing.
NDDB is having its HQ at Anand with branch divisions in all 4
metropolitan cities of India. Recently, it is also given responsibility of creating
infrastructure for “Anand Pattern” of co-operatives for vegetable oils,
vegetables, fruits etc.
Gujarat Dairy Development Corporation (GDDC)
“Anand Pattern” of district dairy co-operatives came up with the initiatives
of milk producers in Kaira, Mehsana, Sabarkantha, Banaskantha, Baroda and
Surat districts of Gujarat. However, dairying on co-operative lines could not
come up due to lack of initiatives from milk producers in the other parts of
Gujarat. Hence, GOG has established GDDC to initiate viable dairy co-
operatives in these districts with its HQ at Gandhinagar. GDDC has two main
objectives;
1. To take over sick dairies from the Unions and make them economically
viable.
2. To establish a new dairy and related infrastructure in non-initiative district
and handover viable dairy to the district co-operative union.
Until now, GDDC has established and handed over 3 viable dairies to
district milk unions in Panchamahal, Bharuch and Valsad. At present GDDC is
handling 9 dairies in Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Kutch and all 6 districts of
Saurashtra.
Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF)
It is a federation (mega-union) of all district milk unions in Gujarat (HQ at
Anand) functioning with the main objective of preventing unhealthy competition
in marketing their products. The GCMMF is coordinating and marketing various
dairy products produced at all the districts milk union with common trade names
of Amul and Sagar in the larger interest of milk producers only.
National Co-operative Dairy Federation of India Ltd (NCDFI)
It is a federation of all state co-operative milk marketing federations. The
NCDFI is thus an apex body for marketing milk of millions of rural milk
producers in India. The NCDFI is having HQ at Anand and working for
promoting production and marketing not only of dairy products, but also of
vegetable oils, vegetables, fruits and other agricultural commodities. It is
successfully coordinating marking, balancing and buffering dairy products and
vegetable oils since its inception. It is on way to establish a national milch grid:
– flow of milk and milk products from high producing areas to low producing
areas or from low demand areas to high demand areas.
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CHAPTER 3
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY METHODS IN INDIA AND ABROAD
The species of livestock which are important in India are cattle, buffalo,
sheep and goat. These animals are kept by various categories of people viz.
professional breeders, farmers, landless labourers and city milk producers. In
European countries, they are reared under ranching, semi-ranching or stall
feeding system depending upon the agro-climatic conditions and ranch/pasture
available.
1. Professional Breeders:
(A) Cattle: Professional breeders are the races/communities of people who
have taken livestock production as their ancestral profession, i.e. profession
from generation to generation. In Gujarat, these are called Bharwad, Rabari,
Charan, Ahir, Mohammedan etc. They are generally landless and follow
nomadic to semi nomadic life in search of grazing and water. They maintain
large herds/flocks (50-150) of their animals mainly cattle, sheep and goats on
public grazing lands.
Professional breeders are not the owners of public grazing land; hence
they cannot do anything to maintain or improve such land. There is total
neglect of public grazing lands in India. Indeed they are misused by the public
and are therefore deteriorating very fast and are rendered almost useless for
the grazing purpose.
In most parts of our country the rains are also seasonal from June-July
to Sept-Oct. Therefore good amount and quality of pasture is available only
upto Dec-Jan. Thereafter it deteriorates and very little grazing is available in
summer months. As the professional breeders are landless, poor and live
nomadic life, they do not purchase or store the fodder for the period of
scarcity.
Their animals are good in condition and cows give good amount of milk
during monsoon and winter. But in summer they are reduced to skeletons. In
the years of low rainfall or famine/drought, professional breeders and their
animals are put to miserable situation. They are forced to migrate in search of
grazing land and water with their animals over hundreds of miles. During the
migration many animals even die.
Professional cattle breeders derive their income from sale of milk or
ghee and sale of male calves to the farmers. Because of nomadic and semi-
nomadic life and also because their animals are half starved, their income from
sale of milk or ghee is relatively less as compared to that from sale of male
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calves. They also change their breeding bulls every three years to prevent
inbreeding.
Since last few years, because of receiving better price of milk from city
people, there is tendency among the professional cattle breeders to live settled
stationary life particularly around large towns and cities where they maintain
their animals on semi ranching system i.e. partly on grazing and partly on stall
feeding of purchased or home grown fodders.
(B) Sheep: Shepherds also lead migratory or semi migratory life and maintain
their flocks practically entirely on grazing i.e. by ranching system. The sheep
are maintained by grazing them on public lands during monsoon. During
winter and summer, the sheep flocks kept in plains live on stubbles of crops,
weeds in the fields and weeds in and around hedge land and fences. Sheep
flocks in the Himalayan foot hills are grazed on plains in winter and on the
mountain ranges at higher altitudes in summer.
The yield of fleece (Wool covering on the body) of our sheep is very
low. Also the fleece is coarse and of mixed type i.e. containing wool and hair
fibres. Sale of fleece and sale of lambs and cull ewes are the principal sources
of income. Sale of milk and income derived from night folding of sheep in
fields are also other sources of income.
(C) Goats: Professional breeders maintain goats in large flocks. Goat is a
browsing animal. It likes to feed on thorny and other bushes and creepers in
the hedge land and fences of fields and pastures. Because goats are more
active as compared to sheep, they are grazed on slopes and tops of hills and
mountain ranges. Sale of milk and kids is main source of income of
professional goat keepers.
2. Landless Labourers: This section of rural community is generally
agricultural labourers. They work in farmer’s field on daily wages as casual
labour. They live stationary life and keep 1-2 buffaloes or cattle and 1-5 goats.
Whenever public grazing land is available they maintain these animals on
grazing. When such grazing is not available or when it becomes scarce, the
cattle and buffaloes are maintained on weeds and stubbles collected from
farmer’s field.
The goats are maintained by grazing on pasture, bushes and on creepers in
the hedges of the roadsides. They are also grazed by tethering on hedge land
and fences of farmers fields where these labourers go for work. In addition,
the animals are also fed lopping of edible tree leaves. Milk from cows and
buffaloes and kids of goats are the principal items of sale/income to them,
whereas, milk from goats is generally used for family consumption, not sold.
3. Farmers: Farmers are the owners of the cultivable land. They live stationary
life. They generally keep 1-3 buffaloes. In the areas where extensive public
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grazing lands are available they keep cows also. They maintain them partly on
grazing and partly on stall feeding. The by-products of food crops i.e. straws
are generally fed to the animals at home. Some farmers grow special fodder
crops like lucerne, jowar, bajra, maize etc for feeding of the animals. Milking
cows/buffaloes are given concentrates. Thus the animals kept by farmers get
sufficient uniform food all throughout the year, hence their health and
production are superior as compared to the animals of professional breeders.
The principal source of income of farmers is the sale of milk and ghee.
4. City Milk Producers: The land is scarce and costly in cities. Therefore very
less space is available for housing of animals and for storage of feeds. But
because of high price of milk in cities some businessmen in cities keep 5-25 or
more cows and buffaloes. They maintain them practically entirely on stall
feeding of purchased fodder and concentrates. Generally, they purchase and
store dried baled pasture grass. They feed more concentrates to their animals
as concentrates are easily available, need less storage space and are relatively
cheaper. Fodder is costly in cities.
City milk producers purchase animals just before or soon after calving from
their home tracts. They send dry animals back to rural areas for salvage
(raising unproductive animals of city milk producers on contract basis by
village folks till they become productive) or sell them. The animals sold are
generally slaughtered. The young ones of milking animals, especially males
generally die due to unhygienic conditions, negligence and starvation, as it is
very costly to rear the young ones in cities. Sale of milk is the principal source
of income to city milk producers.
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS/ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
METHODS IN ABROAD
Broadly the systems of managing livestock in foreign countries can be
enumerated as following:
1. Ranching system or extensive system
2. Stall feeding system and
3. Semi-ranching or semi-intensive system.
4. These systems differ from one another principally in providing food to
the livestock. They also differ, more or less, in providing drinking
water, shelter and food to the livestock.
Ranching System or Extensive System:
Ranch is a very vast, semi-jungle, grazing land on which livestock are
raised. Ranching system most commonly refers to sheep and cattle farming in
areas with low agricultural productivity. Under extensive farming system
livestock are raised in a very vast, semi-jungle, grazing land. Under this farming
system of management animals are maintained all the year round on pasture
15
grazing only. Very little or no supplemental feeding of fodder or concentrates is
done, depending on the rainfall and the type of pasture (Sparse or dense). Beef
cattle (Angus, Hereford) or fine wool sheep (Merino, Rambouillet) are
maintained under this farming system.
Beef cattle ranches:
Ranches are located in the interior places, away from towns or cities. Tall
and dense forage is available on beef cattle ranches. The soil of the ranches is
generally shallow and surface undulating. There is a marked seasonal variation
in the quality of the forage available from the ranch. Hence it is generally not
suitable for keeping dairy cows, as dairy cows need practically uniform plane of
nutrition throughout the year. It is customary to keep beef cattle on the ranches.
Beef cattle ranches are found in the countries of Europe, USA, Canada, Australia
etc. Area of such ranches is 450 hectare or more.
A ranch is divided into several compartments by fencing. Provision for
drinking water is made by means of ponds. Mostly cattle live only on grazing.
No special sheds or structures are constructed for shelter. Shades of trees provide
some shelter. On such a ranch, nearly 1000-1500 heads of cattle are maintained.
Breeding bulls are kept along with the cows in the breeding season. Sale of
feeder calves and cull cows is the principal source of income to the ranchmen.
Sheep ranches:
On ranches which are arid and where short, sparse natural grasses grow,
sheep are maintained. Large animals cannot thrive on such pasture. Sheep
ranches may be having rocky, mountainous topography, where large animals-
cattle find it difficult to climb the slopes. The conditions on such ranches are
generally adverse, hence fine wool sheep breeds like Merino; Rambouillet etc.
which are hardy and which have banding instinct are generally raised. In
countries of Europe, USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia etc., very large
flocks of sheep are reared on ranches.
Stall Feeding System: This is a system of managing animals without any
grazing, so it is also known as zero grazing system. Intensive animal farming
practices can involve very large numbers of animals raised on limited land which
requires large amounts of food, water and medical inputs (required to keep the
animals healthy in cramped conditions). Very large or confined indoor intensive
livestock operations (Particularly descriptive of common US farming practices)
are often referred to as factory farming and are criticized for the low level of
animal welfare standards and associated pollution and health issues.
This is also known as Stall feeding system/Labour intensive/Feed
lot/Zero grazing system. This is a system of managing animals without grazing
completely under confined condition. Animals are fed roughage and grains in the
mangers located in the stalls of the animals. Animals get sufficient and uniform
16
food throughout the year. These animals are kept in sheds-byres and are
completely protected from climatic elements. This system is employed where
land is of very good quality-fertile, deep and leveled, very costly and scarce.
Dairy cattle, mutton sheep (Deccani, Nellore) and pigs are generally managed
under this farming system.
Advantages
More milk production.
More health care facility.
Lesser land requirement.
More employment generation as more labour is required.
An opportunity to capture methane emissions which would otherwise
contribute to global warming. Once captured, these emissions can be used to
generate heat or electrical energy, thereby reducing local demand for fossil
fuels.
Disadvantages
Less cost effective.
Labour requirement is more.
Requirement of more, food, water and medical inputs for animals.
Semi-Intensive System
This is a system of managing livestock which combines the desirable
elements of both, viz; extensive and intensive livestock farming system. In this
system animals are give feed both by grazing as well as by stall feeding. When
grazing is ample and nutritive, no stall feeding is done i.e. during this period
animals are maintained entirely on grazing. As the quality of grazing goes down,
in addition to grazing, supplemental feeding-stall feeding of fodder is done.
Concentrate mixture may also be fed to maintain the level of production. In
semi-intensive system, animals are kept loose, except a little tying at milking
time. Provision of drinking water for animals is made. No elaborate housing
facilities are provided but better protection from climatic elements is provided by
manufacturing some sheds and shelters as compared to extensive system. Dairy
cattle, medium wool sheep breeds e.g. Dorset, Suffolk, Cheviot, South Down
etc.), feeder lambs and feeds calves etc. are maintained by semi-intensive
system.
17
CHAPTER 4
COMMON TERMS PERTAINING TO VARIOUS SPECIES OF
LIVESTOCK
COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS
(1) Humped : Indian cattle, Brahma or indigenous cattle
Cattle having hump. Spp. Indicus.
(2) Humpless : European or exotic or foreign cattle having
Cattle no hump Spp. Taurus.
(3) Castration : The act of rendering the gonads of an animal
nonfunctional generally it is used for males.
(4) Calving : Interval between two successive parturition
Interval in cows and buffaloes.
(5) Lactation : Period during which the animal gives milk
Period i.e. from day of calving to last day of giving
milk in cattle 290-330 days (standard 305
days).
(6) Dry Period : Period in which animal do not gives milk i.e.
from last day of giving milk to subsequent
calving.
(7) Service : Period between calving to successful service
Period i.e. animal became pregnant.
(8) Gestation : Date of successive service up to parturition
Period i.e. period during animal remain pregnant.
(9) Breed : A group of animals of a species having
similar physical and economical character.
(10) Prolificacy : Ability to produce large number of offspring.
(11) Avian : A generic description of birds in general.
(12) Bovine : A generic name of cattle.
(13) Broiler : A chicken rose especially for meat purpose.
(14) Broody : A hen which attempts to incubate its egg.
(15) Browse : Fodder obtained from eating leaves and
twigs of bushes by goat and camel.
(16) Carcass : The dressed body of slaughtered animal or
dead animal.
(17) Concentrate : Feed stuff low in fiber and high in digestible
nutrients.
(18) Crossbred : The offspring resulting from the mating of
male and female of different breeds.
18
(19) Cull : To dispose of the poorer animals in a herd or
flock.
(20) Fleece : The total wool coat of a sheep.
(21) Flush : To increase feeding level of females just
prior to breeding.
(22) Gestation : The time period between conception and
Period parturition or is the condition of female when
developing foetus is present in the uterus.
(23) Heat/ Estrus : Period when female will accept service by
male.
(24) Insemination : To place semen in female reproduction tract.
(25) Litter : A group of young ones born to one mother
at one time or materials placed on floor to
absorb moisture.
(26) Livestock : A collective term to denote those animals
kept on a farm for productive purposes.
(27) Natural : Insemination of female by the male.
service
(28) Parturition : The general term about process of giving
birth to young one.
(29) Purebred : The offspring of the mating of a male and
female of the same breed.
(30) Restrain : To stop the movements of an animal so it can
be examined or treated.
(31) Roughage : Feed stuffs high in fibre and low in digestible
nutrients.(>18% Crude Fibre)
(32) Semen : The discharge ejaculated from the testes and
accessory sex glands of the male which
includes sperm and accessory fluids.
(33) Shear : To remove the fleece from a sheep.
(34) Sire : The male parent of the calf.
(35) Dam : The female parent of the calf.
(36) Steaming Up : To give extra-feed to milk producing animal
6-8 weeks prior to parturition.
(37) Tusk : Elongated or enlarged permanent canine
tooth, usually seen in boars.
(38) Udder Kinch : A rope tied around the body just in front of
the hips and udder to prevent kicking.
(39) Vice : A habit or action of animals that is harmful
to itself or to others.
19
(40) Yearling : A bovine in its second year of life which has
not yet produced young one.
(41) Crone : An old broken mouthed ewe, which has been
retained in breeding flock, beyond the
normal time, because of her excellent
breeding performance.
(42) Gimmer : A female sheep between first and second
shearing.
(43) Seggy : A ram castrated after service.
(44) Puberty: : It is the period when reproductive tract and
secondary sex organs/characteristics start to
acquire their mature form.
(45) Runt : The smallest and last born piglet in a litter.
(46) Brood Mare : Mare kept for breeding purpose.
(47) Free Martin : A female calf when born along with male
calf usually sterile with abnormal genitalia is
known as free martin.
(48) Hybrid : Animal born due to mating of animals of
Animal different species.
(49) Mule : Animal produced by mating of male donkey
(Ass) and female horse (Mare).
(50) Hinny : Hybrid animal produced by mating of Jennet
(She donkey) with stallion (Male horse).
(51) Domestication : Means making the animals to adopt their life
in intimate contact with men for their benefit.
20
COMMON TERMS USED IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION:
Sl. Details Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Horse Rabbit Poultry
No.
1 Genus and Bos. Bubalus. Ovis. aries Capra. hircus Sus. Equs. Oryctolagus. Gallus.
Species indicus bubalis domesticus caballus cunniculus domesticus
Generic name Bovine Bovine Ovine Caprine Porcine Equine Leporidae Avian
2 Act of parturition Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Foaling Kindling Hatching
3 Young one of Calf Buffalo calf Lamb Kid Piglet/Pigling Foal (<1yr) Kit Chick
either sex (<1yr) (<1yr) (<6 (<6 months) (<8 wks) (<8 wks)
months)
4 Female young Heifer Buffalo Ewe lamb/ Doeling/ Gilt Filly Doeling Pullet/
one up to (>1yr) heifer (>1yr) Gimmer Goatling (>1yr) (>2 months) Grower (18-
parturition (>1yr) 22 wks)
5 Male young one Bull calf Buffalo Ram lamb/ Buckling Boarling Colt Buckling Cockerel
housed for future (<1yr) bull/calf Tup lamb (>6 months) (>2 months) (18-22 wks)
breeding (<1yr)
6 Adult female Cow Buffalo Ewe Doe/ Sow Mare Doe Hen
parturated at least Nanny (>21 wks)
ones
7 Adult male used Bull Buffalo Bull Ram/Tup Buck Boar Stallion Buck Cock
for breeding
8 Castrated male Bullock/ Buffalo Wether/ Wether/ Stag/ Hog Gelding/ Neuter Capon
Steer Bullocks Wedder Wedder (>1yr) Geld
(>2yr) (>2yr)
9 Meat Beef Cara beef Mutton Chevon Pork Cheval Vanison Chicken
10 Group Herd Herd Flock/ Flock/ Band Herd/ Stable/ Warren/Flock Flock
Band Drove/Stock Herd/Pack /Band
21
CHAPTER 5
UTILITY CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS OF INDIAN
CATTLE, FAMILIRIZATION WITH CATTLE, BUFFALOES,
SHEEP AND GOST BREEDS OF GUJARAT
22
Photographs of Breeds of Cattle
23
Features:
(i) Cows produce 2000-3000 liters milk per Lactation.
(ii) Weight gain more quickly and efficiently than milch breeds. Growth
rate is faster.
(iii) Males, unwanted heifer and cows are sold as beef animals.
Example: Red Dane, Milking shorthorn.
3. Beef Breeds: Meat purpose.
Features:
(i) The cows are not milked.
(ii) Cows are maintained for producing young ones.
(iii) Young ones are sold for slaughter after certain age and weight.
Example: Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, Santa Gertrudis.
Identification of Various Breeds of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat:
Breed is a group of animals of a species having similar physical and
economical characters. Each ecological region has a breeds of animals adapted
to the climate of that region. According to necessity and adoption, a breed of
animal developed by the people in a region.
Objectives: - To be familiar with breeds.
- To know the physical characteristics of breeds.
- To know the breeds of animals of the region, state and country.
Cattle Breeds
Milch purpose Dual purpose Draught purpose
North Gujarat -- Kankrej --
Gujarat Gir -- Dangi
India Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Amritmahal,
Sahiwal, Deoni, Haryana, Khillari,
Gaolao Ongole, Rathi, Kangayam
Mewati, Nimari Nagori, Malvi,
Ponwar, Siri
Buffalo Breeds
North Gujarat Mehsana, Banni
Gujarat Jaffarabadi, Surti
India Murrah, Nagpuri, Bhadwari, Toda,
Sambalpuri, Jerangi, Kalahandi
24
Indian Breeds of Cattle
Breeds/ Location Physical characteristics Economical Professional Special remark
Synonyms characteristics breeders
Kankrej Kankrej taluka The newly born calves have rusty Male body wt. 540-590 kg Rabari, “Savai Chal” of bullock.
Synonym: Bani, Banaskantha, red colour poll, adult animals are Female body wt. 410-500 Bharwad rear New breeds evolved
Banniai, Kutch, silver-grey to iron grey or steel kg these animals. from this breed is;
Vaghadia, Ahmedabad to black. Forehead is broad with Calf wt at birth- 22 to 24 kg Indubrazyl in Brazil,
Wadhiar,Kacchi Deesa of Gujarat short face, black muzzle and Av. Milk yield 1200 to Santa Gertrudis in USA.
. (North). prominent eyes. Hump and dewlap 1500 liters per lactation; Breeding farms: At.
(Dual purpose) are well developed. Tail is long Fat 4.2 to 5.0 %. Sardarkrushinagar,
whip like. Udder is well Age at first calving 45 Chharodi, Thara, Bhuj,
developed. months Barkol, Mandvi (Surat)
Age for service (bull) 34 to
35 months.
Gir In Saurashtra Entirely deep red colour body. Male body wt. 500-550 kg Rabari, “Banyan leaf” like ears
Synonym: region-Jamnagar, Bulging forehead like a shield, Female body wt.340-410 kg Bharwad, New breeds evolved
Kathiawari, Junagadh, Rajkot, eyes are big almond shaped gives Calf wt at birth 20 to 22 kg Ahir, from this breed is;
Bhodali, Bhavnagar and sleepy appearance. Hump- Av. Milk yield 1800-2600 Maldharis rear Indubrazyl in Brazil,
Sorathi, Amreli districts. Dewlap and sheath are heavy and liters per lactation. these animals. Santa Gertrudis in USA.
Desan. In western India pendulous. Tail long whip like AFC 46 to 57 months; Gir bulls are Breeding farms: At.
(Milch breed) in Rajasthan, MP with a black switch. Fat 4.2% to 4.8%. used for Junagadh, Morbi,
and Maharashtra. grading up of Kandivali (Bombay),
local cows.
Sahiwal Punjab province Medium size animals with long Male body wt. 425-525 kg “Jungalies” New breed “Jamaica
Synonym: Lola, of Pakistan near body. Body coat colour is Female body wt. 350-375 keep these Hope” (USA) - Jersey x
Montgomery, the river Ravi. yellowish red/pale red. Skin of the kg animals. Sahiwal.
Lambibar. animal is thin and loose. Whitish Lactation length: 300 days “Karanswiss” (India):
(Milch breed) ring around the eyes. Tail is very Av. Milk yield 3000-3200 Brown Swiss x Sahiwal
long touching to the ground. Legs liters per lactation; at NDRI, Karnal,
are short. Milk fat % - 4.6-5.2. Haryana.
Breeding farms: NDRI,
IARI & IVRI.
Tharparkar Tharparkar Light grey colour with strip of Male body wt. 450 to 500 ---- New breed “Karan-
Synonym:Thari, district of Sindh light grey colour along the back, kg Fries” (India) –
Kutchi. province of ear large semi-pendulous, Black Female body wt. 350 to 400 Tharparkar x Holstein
25
(Dual purpose) Pakistan, rings around eyes. Mixture of kg Friesian bulls developed
Adjoining tract of different breeds like Kankrej, AFC: 38-42 months; at NDRI, Karnal,
Rajasthan, Sindhi, Nagori and Gir. Av. Milk yield 500-1200 Haryana.
Jodhpur, liters per lactation. Breeding farms:
Jaisalmer. Bullocks are good draft NDRI, Karnal
animals. LRS Patna, Bihar
LRF at Chetinad,
TamilNadu
Hariana Hissar, Rohtak, Long and narrow face with black Male body wt. 360-400 kg ---- Breeding farms:
(Dual purpose) Gurgaon, Karnal muzzle, body is light grey colour, Female body wt.300-325 kg IVRI, Izatnagar, U.P.
dist. and near short horns, forehead flat with Weight at birth- 22-23 kg NDRI, Karnal, Haryana.
Delhi. prominent poll. Hooves are hard Milk yield 1100-1500 liters HAU, Hissar, Haryana.
and black in colour. per lactation. Cattle breeding farm,
Milk fat % - 4.0-4.8. Mathura, U.P.
Calving interval - 16-20
months.
Bullocks are active,
powerful and willing
workers.
Red Sindhi Karachi and Mostly red, shades varying from Male body wt. 425-450 kg “Maldharis” Breeding farms:
Synonym: Hyderabad dark red to light yellow, white Female body wt. 350 kg rear these NDRI, Karnal,
Sindhi, Malir, (Sindh) and spots on forehead and dewlap, Birth wt of calf – 19- 23 kg animals on AAU, Allahabad,
Red Karachi. Kohistan in forehead slightly bulging, horns Milk yield 1800 kg per grazing near Govt. LRS Hosur
(Milch breed) Pakistan. short and stumpy, drooping hind lactation water pools of (T.N.),
quarter, pendulous udder. Milk fat % - 4.6-4.9. canals of river Export in Ceylon,
AFC: 38-41 Months Indus. Philipines, Malaya and
Calving interval-14-16 Iraq for pure breeding
months. and upgrading of local
cattle.
Nimar “Narmada valley” Mixture of Gir and Tapti. Red Draft purpose cows,
Synonym: in Madhya colour with white blotches, Poor in milk production.
Nimad Pradesh. buldging forehead. Ear moderately AFC: 48 to 54 months. ---- ----
(Draft purpose) long, copper coloured muzzle. Calving interval- 18
Strong and hard hooves, months.
pendulous dewlap.
26
Gaolao Wardha and Medium sized, narrow and long Av. milk yield- 820-1200 ---- Utilized to upgrade
Synonym: Chindwara in MP, body. Colour white to grey. kg per lactation. scrubbed cattle at
Gavarani Nagpur in Forehead flat, horn short, almond Bullock castrated at 2.5 Balaghat (MP)
(Dual purpose) Maharashtra. shaped eye, voluminous dewlap. year of age.
Khilar Native breed of Developed from ‘Hallikar’ breed. Well known draft breed. ---- Cattle Breeding farms:
Synonym: Maharashtra state. Khillari means herd of cattle. Cows are poor milkers. Hingoli, Parbhani.
Khillari, Thillari 4 types of Khilar Yellowish white to grayish tan Male body wt. 500-550 kg. CBF Bankapur
(Draft purpose) cattle are :Alpadi body colour. Horns are long and Female body wt. 320-360 Dharwad, Karnataka.
southern pointed. Eyes are prominent and kg. Kangayam in Karnataka
Maharashtra, fiery. Yellow patches inside ears. AFC: 30-36 months State.
Mhaswad Male calves castrated at 5
Sholapur and to 5.5 yrs of age.
Satara, Khillari bullocks are very
Tapti – Satpura good for all agricultural
ranges purposes.
Nakali- Adjascent
to Khandesh dist.
Deoni Native breed of Resembles Gir breed but less Cows are good milkers. ---- -----
Synonym: Western Andhra bulging forehead. Horns have Average milk yield: 900 kg
Dongrapatti Pradesh. It is an outward and backward curve. in 300 days of lactation.
(Dual purpose) admixture of Gir, Body colour is black and white or Bullocks are well suited for
Dangi and local red and white with irregular spots. heavy work.
animals.
Rathi Home tract of this Medium sized powerful cattle, Av. male body wt. 385 kg ---- ----
Synonym: Rath breed is Alwar well built and deep chest, straight Av. female body wt. 326 kg
(Dual purpose) and Rajputana face, flat forehead, large and wide Cows yield about 5.5 kg
region of eyes, short and pendulous ears, milk per day.
Rajasthan. short tail with black switch. Bullocks are powerful and
active suitable for field and
road work.
27
Buffaloes: Even toed ungulates (Order: Artiodactyla).
Suborder: Ruminant, Family: Bovidae. It can be further grouped into three
groups.
Genus Bovina (Cattle/ Bison)
Bubalina (Asian buffaloes - angular horns)
Syncercina (African buffaloes - oval shaped horns)
(Inter breeding is not possible in above two breeds)
Asian Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are of Swamp and Riverine type.
Riverine Buffaloes Swamp Buffaloes
Chromosome number 50 Chromosome number 48
Native Indian sub continents, Egypt South East Asia and China
and Mediterranean basin of Europe
Maintained chiefly for milk Minor or no role in milk
production. Dual purpose animals production. Used for draught
also exhibit good meat power, for land preparation,
characteristics. threshing, water lifting, oil
extraction and transportation.
Wallows in river water and in clean Permanent denizen of marshy
running water, water tank or lands, wallows in mud and feed
reservoir. Feed on pasture or on coarse marshy grasses.
cultivated fodder, example: Murrah, Generally found in Malaya,
Mehsana, Surti, Pandharpuri and Singapore, Philippines, Thailand,
Jaffarabadi. Indonesia and Malaysia.
Generally found in India, Pakistan, Physical characteristics: Short
Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. stocky body, short face, wide
Physical characteristics: Longer body muzzle and short thin legs. Dark
and weight more than Swamp grey in colour normally black to
buffaloes. Usually black sometime albinoids occasionally.
white makings on body.
Normal Habits of Buffaloes:
They are nocturnal in habit.
Not only do they like to wallow at night, but if left to their own devices
they will mate, suckle their calves and travel more during hours of
darkness than in day light.
More like rain or water splashing and mud plastering on body.
Poor heat resistance/tolerance due to poor heat regulating mechanism.
Resting habits during several hours in the middle of the day.
28
Remarkable characters are their docility as they can be easily managed by
even children and women.
BREEDS OF BUFFALOES
Indian buffaloes: (Bubalus bubalis Linn.)
Local name: Arna, Bhains, Geva, Erumai.
Feature:
Semi aquatic animal.
Abundant in humid localities.
Large massive and clumsy creature.
Short thick legs and conspicuous hoofs.
Horns thick, flat, curved or straight.
Jet black colour or light coloured brown breeds.
Photographs of Breeds of Buffaloes
Mehsana
Jaffarabadi
Murrah Bhadawari
29
Seven indigenous (Desi/local) standard breeds of buffaloes:
MURRAH:
Home Tract: Hariana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rohtak, Karnal, Hissar, Gurgaon
Districts of Haryana.
Synonyms: Delhi, Ravi, Kundhi.
Physical Characteristics:
Tightly curled horns.
Massive body, thin and long neck, small face.
Male body wt: 540-590 kg, female: 450-475 kg.
Hairless skin with glistening jet black body colour.
White switch of the tail. Humpless.
Wedge shaped body. Barrel is massive and well developed.
Straight and powerful limbs with black hooves.
Economical Characteristics:
Milk yield per lactation – 1400 to 3000 kg in 300 days.
Milk fat: 6.8 to 7.2%
Average lactation length: 280-340 days and av.dry period: 150-200 days.
Average age at first calving: 45 to 58 months.
Inter calving period is 450 to 500 days.
Breeding Farms:
HAU Hissar, NDRI Karnal, PAU Ludhiana, IVRI Izatnagar, CBF Meerut.
NILI RAVI:
Home Tract: Main breed of buffalo in Pakistan, distributed in Gurdaspur,
Amritsar, Firozpur and Muktasar district of Punjab.
Physical Characteristics:
Broad massive hairy forehead with prominent nasal bone.
Tightly coiled horns, Muzzle with prominent double chin.
Well developed udder with pink markings. White markings on the
forehead, face, muzzle, legs, switch and around eyes.
The tail is long, almost touching the ground.
Economical Characteristics:
Age at first calving: 41-53 months.
Lactation yield: 1600 kg. Milk fat content:4 %.
Peak daily milk yield: 9-11 kg.
Lactation length: 285-326 days. Calving interval: 15-18 months.
Males are used for draught purpose.
30
Breeding Farms:
Military farm Firozpur (Punjab), Buffalo farm Nabha (Punjab) and
Khanna (Punjab).
Endangered Breeds: Endangered status of a breed can be determined by the
size of breeding stock which can be expressed by the number of breeding
females, sex ratio or effective population size. The population size of cattle and
buffalo breed for normal, insecure, vulnerable, endangered and critical status as
suggested by Nivsarkar and Bhat (1986) for Indian condition is given below.
Category Cattle Buffalo
Normal 25000 30000
Insecure 15000-25000 20000-30000
Vulnerable 5000-15000 10000-20000
Endangered 2000-5000 5000-10000
Critical <2000 <5000
MEHSANA:
Home Tract: Originating from Inter breeding of Surti and Murrah. Breeding
tract is Mehsana, Banaskantha and Sabarkantha district of North-Gujarat.
Physical Characteristics:
Medium sized animals with long body and lighter limbs than Murrah.
Adult male weigh: 525-575 kg and adult female weighs: 425-450 kg.
The head is long and heavier, horns less curved at the end but longer.
31
The colour is usually black to gray with white markings often on face, legs
or tail tips.
Face long and straight. Dewlap is almost absent.
Eyes are prominent, black, bright and bulging.
Economical Characteristics:
Reputed for regular breeding and high breeding efficiency. Good
persistency so preferred by city milk producers.
Milk yield 1300-1800 liters per lactation. Having shorter dry period.
Fat % - 6.6 to 7.2, Age at first calving: 42 to 54 months. Inter calving
period 450-550 days.
Breeding Farms:
Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, LRS, Sardarkrushinagar,
Gujarat, CBF, Udaipur.
SURTI:
Synonyms: Desi, Nadiadi, Charotari, Gujarati.
Home Tract: Lies between Sabarmati and Mahi river. Kheda, Baroda, Bharuch,
Surat district and adjoining districts of Maharashtra.
Physical Characteristics:
Medium sized animals with wedge shaped body, straight back, black or
brown in colour.
Sickle shaped long and flat horns with long head.
Two white chevrons one just around the jowl from ear to ear and other just
one the brisket is the peculiarity of the breed.
Ears are medium sized, squarely placed and drooping.
Skin of udder is pinkish.
Economical Characteristics:
1000 to 2000 liter milk yield in 10 months lactation.
Fat rich (8.9%) milk.
AFC 40-50 months.
Lactation length is 300-320 days and dry period is 150-220 days.
Inter calving period 400-450 days. Bullocks are good for light work.
Breeding Farms:
Livestock Research Station (LRS), GAU, Navsari, Gujarat.
Buffalo Breeding Centre (AICRP) Dharwad, Karnataka.
NDRI, Bangalore, Karnataka.
Progeny Testing Centre, Central Buffalo Breeding Farm, Dharmod,
Bharuch.
32
JAFFARABADI:
Synonyms: Kathiawari, Sorathi.
Home Tract: Around Jaffarabadi town in Gujarat state, Kutch, Junagadh,
Jamnagar. Forest grazing buffaloes of Gir forest.
Physical Characteristics:
It is the heaviest breed of buffaloes in the world.
Adult male weigh: 600-650 kg, adult female weigh: 500-525 kg.
Body colour is jet black with thick skin and scanty hair.
Forehead is large and bulging like that of a baby elephant; horns are long,
flat and loosely curved.
Eye are sunken and small with sleepy appearance, neck and brisket are
massive and well developed.
Udder is well developed and pendulous with irregularly placed teats. Tail
is long with white switch.
Economical Characteristics:
Milk yield 1800-2700 liters per lactation. High fat % 9 to 10.
Fat globules are big with high fat content; hence milk is very suitable for
ghee making.
Inter calving period 600 days. AFC 480 to 60 months.
AFC is 48-54 months.
Breeding Farms:
Cattle Breeding Farm, GAU, Junagadh.
BHADWARI:
Home Tract: Bhadwari estate of Agra district and adjoining areas of Gwalior
and Etwah. Also found in the areas of Yamuna and Chambal rivers.
Physical Characteristics:
Medium sized and wedge shaped body.
Small head bulging towards horns. Legs are short and stout.
Barrel is short and well developed.
Coppery body colour. Eyes are prominent, active and bright.
Udder is not so well developed.
Economical Characteristics:
Average milk yield ranges from 2000-2100 kg per lactation (305 days).
Milk fat may exceed 13% in some animals.
AFC: 48-51 months, Calving interval: 15 months and dry period: 150
days.
Breeding Farms:
CBF, Babugarh (Meerut), Agri. College Dairy Farm, Kanpur.
33
BANNI:
Home Tract: Banni area of Kutch district in Gujarat. They are also found in
Sabarkantha, SurendraNagar and Banaskantha districts of Gujarat.
Physical Characteristics:
Body is medium to heavy, typical double and vertical coiling horns, strong
body conformation.
Wide head and neck is without wrinkles/folds, absence of dewlap, soft,
thin and black skin.
Mostly black in colour, in some cases copper colour or black with white
markings on forehead.
Udder is well developed, cup shaped and square.
Economical Characteristics:
Well known for high milk production, disease resistance.
Average daily milk yield is 9-10 kg.
Average milk fat content is 5-6%.
AFC is 46 months.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Classification of Breeds of Sheep:
According to ICAR India possess 42 breeds of sheep; which is 6.41
percent of world sheep breeds. Sheep produce fleeces of different types. The
fleece differs in their hair content, fiber diameter, fiber length and fineness of
wool and accordingly sheep breeds are classified as:
1. Fine wool breeds. 2. Medium wool breeds.
3. Long wool breeds. 4. Crossbred type wool breeds.
5. Carpet wool breeds. 6. Fur wool breeds.
1. Fine Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Produce only wool fibres in their fleece, hair absent.
(ii) Fibre diameter ranges from 17 to 23 µ (microns), very fine wool.
(iii) Produce poor quality lambs.
(iv) Sheep are hardy, hence suitable for ranches.
Example: Merino, Rambouillet, Pollworth.
2. Medium Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Fleece of these sheep does not contain hair.
(ii) Diameter of wool fibre varies from 23 to 32 µ (microns).
(iii) Produce less and lower quality wool than fine wool breeds.
(iv) Produce very good quality lambs, higher prolificacy and higher growth rate.
34
(v) Not suitable for ranches, do better in stall feeding.
Example: South Down, Suffolk, Hampshire.
3. Long Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Wool is coarse having fiber diameter more than 33 µ.
(ii) Fibre length varies from15 to 30 cm.
Example: Lincoln and Leicester.
4. Crossbred Type Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Developed by crossbreeding between fine wool breeds and long wool
breeds.
(ii) Wool quality similar to medium wool sheep.
(iii) Better mutton conformation.
(iv) Classified as medium wool breeds.
Example: Corriedale, Panama, Columbia, Hissardale.
5. Carpet Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Fleece contain hair i.e. modulated fibers
(ii) Wool is coarse wiry and tough.
(iii) Wool fibre diameter is more than 33 µ.
(iv) Wool is used for carpet manufacturing.
(v) Length of wool fibre is 5 to 15 cm.
(vi) Carpet wool – India, Pakistan, Newzeland, Syria, Argentina and Iraq.
Example: Marwari, Patanwadi, Bikaneri, Chokla, Magra.
6. Fur Wool Breeds:
Features:
(i) Skin of sheep with wool known as fur.
(ii) Skin is obtained by killing of lamb called pelt.
(iii) Used for making fancy articles, fur coat, purse, ladies wear, gloves etc.
Example: Persian, Lamb pelt, Karakul, Broadtail.
Classification of Breeds of Goat:
Our traditional goat farmers have extensively practiced the art of selection
and inbreeding for evolving definite breeds with specific or multiple functions.
The country as a whole represents an important genetic reservoir of goat breeds
for meat, milk, fibre and skin production. Some of these are well-known but
more than half of the population is on non-descript type. There are about 21
breeds of goats with specific characteristics.
(A) Milch Breeds: These breeds of goats are mainly reared for milk purpose on
commercial lines. E.g. Alpine, Saanen, Toggenburg and Nubian. Saanen is also
known as Jersey of the goat world due to its high milk production potential.
35
(B) Dual Purpose Breeds: These breeds of goats are reared for milk as well as for
meat purpose. They produce 100-200 liters of milk per lactation and 1-2 kids per
kidding. E.g. Jamunapari, Barbari, Beetal. Whereas, triple purpose breeds i.e. for
milk, meat and hair are Marwari, Mehsana, Kutchi and Zalawadi.
(C) Meat Breeds: These breeds of goats are mainly reared for meat purpose on
commercial lines. E.g. Black Bengal goat breeds (known for excellent mutton
and skin quality), Deccani, Malabari etc.
Utility Classification of Breeds of Swine (Pigs): Domestic pigs are farmed
primarily for the consumption of their flesh, called pork. The animal's bones,
hide, and bristles have been fashioned into items such as brushes. Thus
swine/pigs give two important marketable products viz; meat (pork) and the lard.
Lard is the fat obtained from pig carcasses. It is used for cooking, making soap
etc. At present swine are mainly kept for pork.
(A) Meat Type Breeds: Such breeds yield less than 15% lard of the carcass
weight. E.g. Landrace, Duroc, Yorkshire and Tamworth (UK).
(B) Lard Type Breeds: The pigs of these breeds yield 15% or more lard of
the carcass weight. E.g. Berkshire, Guinea Hog and Mulefoot.
Utility Classification of Poultry: Chickens are grown for their egg and meat.
Likewise they are classified as egg-type chickens and meat-types chickens. Egg
type chickens are composed of stock that has been developed for egg production
and are maintained for the principal purpose of producing chicks for the ultimate
production of eggs for human consumption. Breeds of meat type chickens
primarily include broilers, fryers, roasters, and other meat type chickens. Here
broilers and other chickens are raised for their meat. Broilers are genetically
selected for fast growth and raised for meat rather than eggs.
Commercial Broiler Strains:
E.g. Cobb, Hubbard, Lohman, Anak 2000, Avian -34, Starbra, Sam rat etc.
Commercial Layer Strains:
E.g. BV-300, Bowans, Hyline, H & N nick, Dekalb Lohman etc.
India has made considerable progress in broiler production in the last two
decades. High quality chicks, equipments, vaccines and medicines are available.
With an annual output
of 41.06 billion eggs and 1000 million broilers, India ranks fourth largest
producer of eggs and fifth largest producer of poultry broiler in the world. The
broiler production has also sky rocketed at an annual growth rate of about 15
percent at present.
Based on Utility Poultry Breeds are Classified into:
(A) Egg Purpose: Producing more than 180-200 eggs per head per year and
weighing 2-3 kg. E.g. White leghorn.
36
(B) Dual Purpose: Producing nearly 150 eggs per head per year and
weighing 3-4 kg. E.g. Rhode Island Red.
(C) Table Purpose: Producing less than 100 eggs per head per year and
weighing 3.5-4.5 kg. E.g. Brahma, Cochin.
Classification of Camels: The Indian camels are divided into two types
depending on the work they perform, viz;
(A) Baggage Camels: These are robustly built than riding camels. These can
carry 3-4 quintals of load over a distance of 35 km in a day with an
average speed of 3-4km per hour. E.g. Bikaneri camels.
(B) Riding Camels: These can cover about 50 km per day for several days at
an average speed of 10 km per hour. E.g. Jaisalmeri camels can cover up
to 200 km in a night without stopping for food or water.
Depending Upon the Origin/Hump, Camels can be Classified into Two
Groups:
(1) Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius): These are from the Middle
East and North Africa. Single hump. Head and body length: 9.6-11 feet.
Shoulder height: 5.8-7.5 feet. Weight: 700-1500 pounds. Their color ranges
from white, brown, tan, red, black and spotted. With their longer legs they
can easily out run the bactrian camel.
(2) Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrians): These are Asian camels, which
come from the deserts of China and Mongolia. They have two-humps, shorter
legs, are usually a beige color with hair that ranges from short to long
depending on the season. Head and body length: 10-12 feet. Shoulder height:
6-7.6 feet. Weight: 1300-2100 pounds. Height of humps: up to 9 feet.
37
CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO COMMON FEEDS AND FODDERS, THEIR
CLASSIFICATION AND UTILITY
Livestock feeds are generally classified according to the amount of a
specific nutrient they furnish in the ration. They are divided into two general
classes – roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing
relatively large amount of less digestible material, i.e. crude fibre more than 18
per cent and low (about 60 per cent) in T.D.N on air dry basis. Concentrates are
feeds which contain relatively smaller amount (less than 18 per cent) of crude
fibre and have a comparatively high digestibility and as a result higher nutritive
value having more than 60 per cent T.D.N.
The number of substances used as feeding stuff to different species of
livestock may exceed over 2000 items. All that is being attempted in this section
is to indicate the outlines of classification of the conventional feeds into broad
categories and to give typical examples of different groups under this
classification.
Roughages:
Roughages are sub-divided into two major groups- succulent and dry,
based upon their moisture content. Succulent feeds usually contain moisture
from 60-90 per cent, whereas dry roughages contain only 10-15 per cent
moisture. For the sake of convenience, succulent feeds are again classified into
various types such as pasture, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves, silage and root
crops. Dry roughages have been further classified as hay and straw based on the
nutritive values and methods of preparation.
Succulent Feeds:
1. Pasture: Of the succulent feeds, pasture is the most convenient and economic
for maintaining larger livestock. Young rapidly growing grasses are rich in
protein and highly palatable.
2. Cultivated fodder crops: In the absence of sufficient grazing ground of good
quality for maintaining cattle, sheep, goat on pasture all the year round, the
importance of growing fodder crops to provide feed economically for production
of milk for draught animals, need no special emphasis. For the sake of
convenience, these are classified into two groups- leguminous and non-
leguminous. Among leguminous fodders, cowpea (Vigna catjung), cluster bean
(Guar – cyamopsis psoraloides) are the most common kharif leguminous crops.
They contain from 2-3 per cent D.C.P. and about 10 per cent T.D.N. on fresh
basis and yield about 100 quintal of forage per acre. Berseem (Trifolium
alexandrium) and lucerne (Medicago sativa) are two other commonly cultivated
38
leguminous fodder in India. The former is an annual crop grown during the rabi
season; the later is a perennial one having maximum growth in winter and spring
but the growth is retarded during the monsoon season. Both these crops can yield
over 300quintalas per acre in 5-6 cuttings. The disadvantage is that, both the
fodders are liable to produce “bloat” if given in large quantities and thus it is
advisable that they should always be given along with some dry fodder. Lucerne
and berseem contain on an average 2.5 to 3 per cent D.C.P. and 12 per cent
T.D.N. on fresh basis. The phosphorus content of these two forages are poor and
thus have wide calcium to phosphorus ratio. It is advisable to supplement a
ration containing a large amount of leguminous fodder with a limited quantity of
wheat or rice bran.
Among non-leguminous fodder jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (Zea
mays) and sudan grass (Sorghum sudanens) are most common kharif fodder.
Yield ranges from 100-200 quintals per acre. Most of the fodders belonging to
this group (Non-legume kharif) are having 0.5 per cent D.C.P. and 11-15 per
cent T.D.N. except maize, which is the nutritious of all, having 1 per cent D.C.P.
and 17 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis. An improved variety of bajra named as
I.C. 2291, has been evolved by I.C.A.R., which has protein content of 2.5 per
cent on fresh basis and the yield is about 65 tonnes per acre in 4 cuts. Among the
rabi non-leguminous fodder crops, oat is by far excellent for milch cattle. It has 2
per cent D.C.P. and 17 per cent T.D.N. on fresh basis. Non-leguminous perennial
fodder crops consists of napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), para grass
(Bracharia mutica) and guinea grass.
All these grasses flourish vigorously during summer and rainy seasons.
About 4-6 cuttings can be taken under north Indian conditions, so that an annual
yield of 30-40 tonnes per acre is the yield.
Important Forage Crops:
I. Cultivated fodder - Legumes
Berseem, Lucerne, Senji, Cowpea, Guar, and Rice bean.
II. Cultivated fodder – Cereals
Oats, Sorghum, Bajara, Maize, Teosinte, Barley etc.
III. Cultivated fodder – Other than cereals and legumes
Brassica spp.
IV. Cultivated fodder – Perennial grasses
Napier, Bajara hybrid, Guinea grass.
V. Cultivated fodder – Annual grasses
Deenanath grass
VI. Perennial Range Grasses
Setaria, Anjan grass, Dhaman grass, Marval grass etc.
39
Pasture
(Cowpea, clusterbean, green pea,
Succulent
Silage
Root crops
Dry
40
Mill by products (Arhar chuni, wheat bran, rice bran, gram chuni)
Roofs (Tapioca tubers, turnip, potatoes)
Animal by product (blood meal, other meat scraps and offals from
Slaughtered animals.
Concentrates
Marine by products
Proteinous Feeds
Avian by products
Brewer’s grains and yeast
Oil cakes
Mineral supplements (natural or pure elements)
Additives (antibiotics, hormones, colouring materials and flavouring agents.
CHAPTER 7
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE OF FORAGES AS SILAGE
AND HAY
Forages can be preserved either in the green form as Silage or in the dry
form as Hay or Straw.
(A) Silage Making
Silage is the product resulting from storage and fermentation of succulent
forage under anaerobic conditions in a silo.
Advantages of Silage Making
1. It furnishes high quality succulent feed for any season of the year and can
be stored for number of years.
2. Nutrients are better preserved in silage than in hay, and it has high
carotene content.
3. The animals eat fermented coarse stems of jowar and maize practically
without waste.
4. It requires less storage space than the hay.
5. There is no hazard of fire as it contains 65% moisture.
6. Weedy crops/plants can be utilized in silage making.
7. It is slightly laxative and easy to digest by the animal.
8. Silage making is possible during monsoon, but not the hay.
Limitations of Silage Making
1. Transport of the fodder from distant places to the silo is difficult and
costly especially during rainy season.
2. If not ensiled (filled and sealed) properly, wastage is high.
3. Small farmers can not afford to make silage, since silage once opened
need to be utilized and silo can not be reclosed.
4. Vit-D content is less in silage than the hay.
Crops Suitable for Silage Making
All cereal crops rich in carbohydrates are suitable for silage making.
Green maize has higher soluble carbohydrates and hence on anaerobic
fermentation produces more organic acids (lactic and propionic acids), which
preserve the silage well. This is the reason why green maize and jowar make
excellent silage. The leguminous crops like green Lucerne, berseem not only
have lower carbohydrates, but also have higher crude protein, which is broken
down into butyric acid and ammonia, which make the silage unpalatable. If the
carbohydrate content of silage material/crop is low, one may add molasses,
vinegar or ground grains.
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Types of Silo
_____________________!______________________
! !
Vertical or Upright Silo Horizontal Silo
____________!_____________ ____________!_________
Pit Tower Tower cum pit Trench Bunker Trench cum Bunker Silo
Silo Silo Silo Silo Silo
Silos, viz. tower silos and to some extent tower cum pit and trench cum
bunker silos are more suitable where water table in the soil is very high.
Advantages of Vertical/Upright Silo
1. The gravitational force of the material is an advantage in self-packing of
the silage.
2. The surface area exposed to air is less in such silo, and hence
3. Even with less skill, the material can be packed well in upright silo.
Because of these benefits upright/vertical silos are more popular in
India.
Limitations/Disadvantages of Vertical Silo
1. It requires more labour in filling and emptying of silage material.
2. It does not facilitate mechanical filling, pressing and self-feeding.
Hence they are getting out-dated in European countries and are replaced
by horizontal type of silos as they facilitate above aspects and therefore
save labour.
The wall of a silo should be air tight, without any cracks and crevices. If
walls are smooth plastered, it facilitates well settling and packing of material.
On an average one cubic meter space in silo can store 600 kg silage (i.e. 15-17
kg per cubic feet space). Silage is much more compact and heavier as the depth
from surface increases.
Ensiling (Filling the Silo Pit) includes following steps:
1. Harvest the crop (jowar, maize) at 50% flowering /dent stage, when it
contains maximum nutrients.
2. Dry/wilt the harvested crop for 1-2 hrs so that its moisture content is
reduced to 70% or so. If moisture content is more, silage will be slimy /
lumpy, and with lower moisture, there will be mould growth.
3. Chaff the green fodder into small pieces (1-2.5 inch) by electric chaff
cutter. Set the chaff cutter in such a way that the chaffed fodder is thrown
directly into the silo pit.
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4. Spread the chaffed green fodder evenly into the silo and press it to the
maximum extent for expulsion (removal) of air trapped in. Occasionally,
trampling should also be done.
5. Do even spread of common salt @ 0.5-0.7% i.e. 10-15 kg per 2 tons of
chaffed materials. Because all the fodders are deficient in sodium and
chloride. Salt improves the test and acts as preservative. If the crop is
poor in sugar and/or protein content like legumes and/or Napier
hybrid/natural grasses, respectively one can add molasses @ 0.8% and
urea @ 1 % in the silage material.
6. Fill up the silo layer by layer using chaffed fodder (1-2 feet) and silage
additives (salt, molasses) in as much compact manner as possible, over a
week time.
7. Cover the top of the silage material with poor quality dry roughages like
wheat or paddy straw (about 1 feet layer).
8. Lastly, close the silo pit with a plastic sheet and pack it with minimum of
3 feet layer of earth/soil on the top for complete pressing of silage
material.
9. Finally, seal or plaster the top of earth layer with a mixture of cow-dung
and mud to create anaerobic condition in the silo. Check after 3-4 days
for the presence of any cracks and if found, seal it again.
10.Maintain this air-tight condition for 2.5 to 3 months for complete
fermentation of green forage into the silage.
Silage Additives
For making good quality silage, the fodder crop should contain sufficient
amount of moisture and sugar. Napier hybrid, Guinea grass, Para grass, pasture
grasses etc. contain less sugar and need addition of molasses @ 0.8% (8 kg/ton).
Some time urea is also added @ 1% (10 kg/ton) to increase the protein content
of the silage. Salt is added @ 0.5% (5 kg/ton) to increase palatability and
preservability. Ground grains and grain byproducts are also added to absorb
excess moisture and to increase the nutrient content of silage. Various organic
acids are also used to increase the acidity, which helps in preservation of silage.
43
Figure – Process of silage making
How Ensiling Preserves the Green Fodder (Chemical Reaction in Silage)
When the green forage is placed in a compact mass in a silo, for some
time the living plant cells continue to respire/breath rapidly using the O 2 of the
air trapped within the mass and give out CO2. Within few hours practically all
O2 disappears and CO2 level built-ups, which prevents development of mould.
Initially heat is generated. This favours the growth of desirable anaerobic
microbes mainly Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. These
microbes multiply vigorously in absence of O2 and break the sugars of green
forage, and produce various organic acids, viz. Lactic acid, Acetic acid and
others. When enough lactic acid is produced in the silage, pH goes down to 3.8
to 4.0. In this condition silage is preserved for a long time. There is also
production of other volatile fatty acids namely formic acid and butyric acid.
When there is exchange of air inside the silo, the butyric acid producing bacteria
multiply and break down the protein into butyric acid and ammonia leading to
spoilage of silage. The moulds and fungi also grow/multiply under such aerobic
conditions.
If silage is prepared and preserved well the losses are less. Loss of
nutrients due to bleaching and shattering of leaves observed in hay making are
not occurring in silage. However, if silage is not prepared skillfully, the losses
are greater due to total spoilage. As compared to silage, hay making requires
less skill and facilities. Moreover, there is shortage of green fodder, hence
Indian farmers prefer hay making rather than silage making.
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Qualities of Good Silage
1. It should have yellowish green colour (Khaki colour).
2. It should have fine aroma of lactic and acetic acids.
3. There should not be any mould or fungus growth.
4. It should have soft texture without coarse steams.
(B) Haylage
It is between hay and silage. It is low moisture silage. It is a product of
legumes and/or grasses, which are wilted to about 50% moisture before ensiling
in upright silo. The lower moisture content of haylage makes it difficult to pack
sufficiently to exclude air from the mass, which results in greater spoilage.
Advantages of Haylage
1. Where the climate is not conducive/favourable (heavy continuous rain)
for hay making, haylage can be prepared.
2. Animals also consume more dry matter in the form of haylage than the
silage.
3. Feeding value of the forages when fed as hay or haylage is about the
same, when proper procedures for both are followed.
(C) Hay Making
Forages, which are harvested before seed formation i.e. at
flowering/bloom/ dent stage and dried to near 85-90% dry matter, form hay.
Indian hay just like straw consists of dry grass on which seeds have been
ripened and leaves usually has been shed. For hay making, forages are dried
(cured) either under the sunrays or inside the barn or in the machine, i.e. Sun
curing, barn curing or machine curing is used to prepare hay.
Harvesting and Field Curing of Hay
The best time for cutting the crop for hay making is when it is 1/3rd to ½
in bloom. The crop cut early is higher in protein, lower in crude fibre and
contains more vitamins i.e. more nutritive. Such hay is more palatable and will
shatter less. It is best to let the crop lie in the field for few hours until it is well
wilted or about 1/3rd to 1/4th dried cured. It should be raked in to small loose
bundles called “windrows”. It is necessary to handle the hay only early in the
morning to avoid loss of leaves.
45
Figure – Steps in hay making
Requisites/Characteristics of Good Quality Hay
1. It should be leafy. Leaves are rich in protein, vitamins and minerals.
2. Colour of hay should be green parrot like, which indicates the amount of
carotene – a precursor of vitamin-A present in it..
3. It should be soft and pliable in texture.
4. It should be free from dirt, dust and fungus/mould growth.
5. It should have smell or aroma characteristic of the crop from which it is
prepared.
6. It should be free from weeds and stubbles.
Losses of Nutrients in Hay Making
1. Losses of leaves by shattering. Gentle handling in early morning prevents
shattering.
2. Losses of vitamins due to bleaching by sun and fermentation by bacterial
action. Avoid bacterial action by complete drying/curing of material.
3. Losses of carbohydrate due to fermentation, starch is oxidized into CO2
and water
4. Losses of soluble nutrients by leaching in heavy rain.
5. When hay is not properly dried, more heat will be produced by
fermentation in staked hay and have a chance of spontaneous combustion.
Kinds of Hay
1. Leguminous hay: It has got more of digestible protein and other
nutrients, viz. carotene, vit-D & E as it is prepared from leguminous
crops like lucerne, berseem etc.
46
2. Non-leguminous hay: It contains less protein, minerals and vitamins and
is less palatable as it is prepared from non-leguminous crops like jowar,
grasses etc.
3. Grain crop hay: It is made from crops like barley, oat, harvested at dent
stage.
4. Mixed hay: prepared from mixed legume and non-legume crops, has
balanced nutrients.
Physical Forms of Hay (Treatment of Dry Roughage)
1. Long hay: Forages that are cut dried and then stored as such in the barn.
2. Chopped hay: Dry hay cut into small pieces of 2.0 - 2.5” in size and then
stored.
3. Baled hay: Hay is tied in the form of bales of about 1m x 1m x 1m size.
It requires less storage space than the chopped or long hay.
4. Pelleting: Grinding and pelleting of hay results in a product, which is
easy to handle and store than the previous three forms. Pelleted hay is
consumed in greater amount than the other forms, resulting in faster body
weight gain. The processing cost is however little higher under Indian
condition.
5. Wafering or Cubs: Hay is packed in form of 2-3” long x 1.25” wide x
1.25” high blocks/cubes. It requires less space for storage (25 lbs/cubit
feet), because of small size and compactness. It also requires less
labourers for transport, storage and feeding.
47
CHAPTER 8
REPRODUCTION IN FARM ANIMALS
48
Figure – Reproductive tract of bull
Epididymis:
Is considered in three parts i.e.
(i) Caput (head),
(ii) Corpus (body),
(iii) Cauda (tail).
It arises from efferent ducts testes. Throughout of its length epididymal tube is
lined with secretary cells. Spermatozoa produced in testis accumulate and
mature during their journey through epididymis which is 30-35 meters in bull.
Transport:
Sperms transported from rete testes to efferent duct by the fluid pressure
of testis and by active beating of cilia. It lakes 7-9 days for any sperm to travel
from germinal epithelium to caudal epithelium.
Concentration:
Dilute sperm concentration originated in testes- water absorbed into
epithelial cell of epididymis mainly in caput & highly concentrated sperm left in
cauda (tail).
Maturation:
In the course of migration of sperm cells get matured as; it result of
secretion from epididymal cells.
Storage:
Cauda (tail) is store depot for sperms where they remain viable up to 60
days.
Vas deferens:
It is slender tube with thick cord like wall originating from tail of
epididymis ending into urethra. It is paired and is with spermatic arteries, veins,
49
nerves. It passes through the inguinal ring and pelvic cavity. It is abundantly
supplied with nerves & by voluntary contractions of musculature/it is involved
in ejaculation.
Urethra:
It is common passage way for product of testes, accessory glands and for
excretion of urine. It extends through penis to the glands penis.
Penis:
It is male organ of copulation arid composed of erectile tissue attached
and held by sigmoid flexure. It has function of ejaculation and excretion of
urine.
Seminal Vesicles:
Two in number located on either side of ampulla which secrete a fluid
high in sugars (fructose) to nourish the spermatozoa – feels like a bag of grapes
(palpation). The secretion contains mainly fructose and citric acid contributes to
seminal plasma which is rich in carbohydrates, salt of citric acid, proteins,
amino acids, enzymes, vitamins. This fluid also dilutes sperm at ejaculation and
serves to activate motility – the bulk of fluid production occurs here. Secretes
prostaglandins, causing uterine contractions.
Prostate Glands:
Consist two joined parts. It is surrounded by urethral muscles. Secretion
is high in mineral content.
Cowper's gland:
Are paired, round - compact of walnut size, located above urethra.
Secretion is viscid & mucus like.
Female Reproductive System
It consists of organs, namely
1. Ovaries : Reproductive glands
2. Fallopian Tubes: Coveys ova from ovary to uterus.
3. Uterus: In which fertilized ovum develops.
4. Vagina: Dilatable passage from uterus to Vulva.
5. Vulva : Terminal segment of system
Ovaries:
Two in number laying in the abdominal cavity sizes are 0.5 to 1.5 Inch
diameter and 0.5 to 1.5 inch width & thickness. Dual purpose - production of
eggs or ova and production of female hormone i.e. estrogen.
50
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube):
Are slender, zigzag lubes attached to ligament 20-25 cm in length, close
to ovaries in such a way that eggs / ova released by ovary area cached through
funnel shape wide end called as "Infundibulum". The epithelial lining of oviduct
is ciliated of which ciliary motion helps to conduct ova from ovaries to uterus.
The fertilization occurs in the ampullary region.
Uterus:
It consists of short medium body, pair of spirally twisted internally cavity
connecting two horns known as body of uterus. The uterus has three layers i.e.
outer servosa, middle muscular and inner is mucosa. In non-pregnancy period
uterus lies in the pelvic cavity which descends into abdomen during pregnancy.
Fertilized ovum/embryo develops into uterus until the time of birth. It nourishes
the developing foetus through cotyledons of inner layer.
52
Diestrum: (Di-estrus)
This is the longest phase of cycle. The corpus luteum is fully grown,
making its effect on uterine wall to accommodate the embryo. The muscles of
uterus develop. The uterine milk is produced to nourish embryo. If pregnancy
succeeds, this stage is prolonged throughout gestation remaining C.L. intact for
the period. In absence of fertilized eggs, the C.L. undergoes retrogressive
changes the cell becomes vacuolated in the lipid droplets. Since the C.L. got
reabsorbed, the level of progesterone is .declined and the level of estradiol
increases, bring the animal in heat and the cycle is repeated in case of failure of
fertilization.
Pregnancy
The period from the date of conception to the day of parturition is called
"gestation period" and the condition of the female of carrying the foetus during
this period is called "Pregnancy".
OR
"The period of pregnancy is the duration of time which elapses between
conception and parturition".
Importance of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
Whether animal is pregnant or not is directly related to economy of dairy
management Pseudo-pregnancy may lead to loss of valuable time period in the
life of animal. Pregnant animals need to change their feeding schedule as well
as the management from early stage. An early detection of pregnancy becomes
an indispensable job for herd owner.
Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis:
1. Signs of Pregnancy - exhibited and and detected externally.
2. Symptoms of Pregnancy - per rectum / vaginal examination.
3. Laboratory Tests - Presence of certain hormones tested in laboratory.
Signs of Pregnancy:
1. Cessation of Oestrus cycle.
2. Sluggish temperament
3. Tendency to fatten.
4. Gradual drop in milk yield.
5. Gradual increase in weight
6. Increase in size of udder.
7. Waxy - appearance of teats in last month of pregnancy
53
CHAPTER 9
HOUSING PRINCIPLES, SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LIVESTOCK
Housing of Dairy Cattle
Objectives
1. To protect the animals from extreme/harsh climatic conditions.
2. To protect them from the predators.
3. To increase the efficiency in the herd management in terms of feeding,
cleaning, watering, health control, handling etc.
4. To increase the efficiency of labour utilization in carrying out the farm
work.
Points to be considered while deciding the location of dairy farm/buildings
The points- which should be considered before the erection of dairy buildings
are as follows:
1. Topography and drainage: A dairy building should be at a higher
elevation than the surrounding ground to offer a good slope for rainfall
and drainage for the wastes of the dairy to avoid stagnation within. A
levelled area requires less site preparation and thus lesser cost of building.
Low lands and depressions and proximity to places of bad odour should
be avoided.
2. Soil type: Fertile soil should be spared for cultivation. Foundation soil as
far as possible should not be too dehydrated or desiccated. Such a soil is
susceptible to considerable swelling during rainy season and exhibit
numerous cracks and fissures.
3. Exposure to the sun and protection from wind: A dairy building
should be located to a maximum exposure to the sun in the north and
minimum exposure to the sun in the south and protection from prevailing
strong wind currents whether hot or cold. Buildings should be placed so
that direct sunlight can reach the platforms, gutters and mangers in the
cattle shed. As far as possible, the long axis of the dairy barns should be
set in the north-south direction to have the maximum benefit of the sun.
4. Accessibility: Easy accessibility to the buildings i& always desirable.
Situation of a cattle shed by the side of the main road preferably at a
distance of about 100 meters should be aimed at.
5. Durability arid attractiveness: It is always attractive when the buildings
open up to a scenic view and add to the grandeur of the scenery. Along
54
with this, durability of the structure is obviously an important criteria in
building a dairy.
6. Water supply: Abundant supply of fresh, clean and soft water should be
available at a cheap rate.
7. Surroundings: Areas infested with wild animals and dacoits should be
avoided. Narrow gates, high manager curbs, and loose hinges, protruding
nails, smooth finished floor in the areas where the cows move and other
such hazards should be eliminated.
8. Labour: Honest, economic and regular supply of labour is available.
9. Marketing: Dairy buildings should only be in those areas from where the
owner can sell his products profitably and regularly. He should be in a
position to satisfy the needs of the farm within no time and at a
reasonable price.
10.Electricity: Electricity is the most important sanitary method of lighting
a dairy. Since a modern dairy always handles electric equipments which
are also economical, it is desirable to have an adequate supply of
electricity.
11.Facilities, labour, food: Cattle yards should be so constructed and
situated in relation to feed storages, hay stacks, silo and manure pits as to
effect the most efficient utilization of labour. Sufficient space per cow
and well arranged feeding mangers and resting areas contribute not only
to greater milk yield of cows and make the work of the operator easier but
also minimizes feed expenses. The relative position of the feed stores
should be quite, adjacent to the cattle barn. Noteworthy features of feed
stores are given below:
Feed storages should be located at hand near the centre of the cow barn.
Milk-house should be located almost at the centre of the barn.
Centre cross-alley should be well designed with reference to feed storage,
the stall area and the milk house of Housing:
Types of Housing: Two systems
1. Conventional Housing or Stanchion Barn
In this system, the animals are tied throughout the day and night in a
completely enclosed structure or barn. Feeding, watering, milking, treatment etc
is carried out at the same place. This system is followed in countries having
cold climate such as European countries. Facilities for heating or cooling the
internal air are also provided in the barn through heaters or coolers and used
according to the season. Management is also mostly through automation.
55
Cow sheds:
Cow sheds can be arranged in a single row if the numbers of cows are.
Small say less than 10 or in a double row if the herd is a large one. Ordinarily,
not more than 80 to 100 cows should be placed in one building. In double row
housing, the stable should be so arranged that the cows face out (tail to tail
system) or face in (head to head system) as preferred.
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2. Loose Housing System
Here the animals are kept loose all the while, except a temporary tying at
the time of milking and treatment. Facilities of suitable manger under the shed
and water-trough in paddock under the tree-shade are provided to the animals
for free access to feed, water and rest. This system is widely practiced in hot
tropical countries including India due to its many advantages over conventional
system.
Advantages of Loose Housing
1. Animals move freely and are most comfortable to get feed, water,
sunlight, exercise etc at their will.
2. The construction cost is less because of its simplicity in design.
3. Expansion of buildings/sheds is easy, if required in future.
4. The sheds have flexible utility. A cow shed can be utilized for heifers and
vice-a-versa.
5. It is labour saving – less labourers required for feeding, watering,
cleaning etc.
6. Detection of heat, sickness and such problems is easy since the animals
can manifest them through their behaviour.
Limitations of Loose Housing System
1. Separate milking parlour is required to be constructed.
2. More labour is required in catching and handling of animals.
3. Chances of spread of contagious disease are more as the animals move
freely and are in intimate contact to each other, and there is common
feeding and watering.
4. It is difficult to disinfect the animal shed regularly and completely.
5. Powerful or bossy animals do not allow sufficient space for feeding,
watering, rest etc to the mild or weak animals.
Floor Space Requirement per Animal as per BIS (Bureau of Indian
Standard)
Sr. Floor space required (sq.m.) Maximum No. of
No. Category of animals Under shed In paddock animals/shed
1. Cows 3.5 7.0 50
2. Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50
3. Down calvers
(Advanced pregnant 12.0 12.0 Individual
cows/heifers)
4. Breeding Bulls 12.0 120.0 Individual
5. Young calves 1.0 2.0 30
6. Older calves 2.0 4.0 30
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Minimum height of shed at eaves should be 175 cm (6 feet) in the medium to
heavy rainfall areas, and 220 cm (7.5 feet) in semi-arid areas.
Feeding and Watering Space Requirements
Sr. Category Feeding Watering Width of Depth of
No. of animals space/animal space/animal manger/water manger/water-
(cm) (cm) -trough (cm) trough (cm)
1. Adult C/B 60-75 6.0-7.5 60 40
2. Calves 40-50 4.0-4.5 40 15
These requirements are to be provided under loose housing system when
feed and water are available ad libitum.
Approximate Storage Space requirement per quintal (m3)
1. Hay (loose): 1.60 2. Hay (baled): 0.70 3. Hay (Chopped): 0.60
4. Straw (loose): 3.00 5. Concentrates: 0.17 6. Silage: 0.50
Structures on a Dairy Farm
1. Primary structures – meant for housing the animals, like Cow sheds,
Calving boxes, Calf pens, Heifer sheds, Bull pens, Bullock shed, Isolation
boxes, Milking Parlour etc.
2. Secondary or Ancillary structures- other than animal sheds, like Dutch
barn, Silos, Chaff cutter shed, Milk room, Office, Stores and Labour
Quarters.
3. Pump house and Fodder farm.
PRECAUTIONS:
It should never be taken for granted that the bull, howsoever mild and
well-behaved, will not go vicious. While handling the bulls, i.e. tying, untying,
leading, taking for a walk etc., one should always be cautious and at the same
time confident.
The bulls have enormous physical strength. Hence very strong and thick
ropes, chains, walls, fences etc., should be used for bull management. Halters,
nose strings and nose rings should be changed before they get worn out and give
way. This will not provide any opportunity to the bulls to learn about their
enormous strength and capability.
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CHAPTER 10
MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, GROWING HEIFERS, DRY AND
PREGNANT ANIMALS AND MILCH ANIMALS
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The advantages of weaning are as follows:
a) In natural method the calf suckles large quantity of milk; say 25-30% of
the milk received in the pail. This comes to 450-500 liters per lactation.
In weaning method the quantity of whole milk feeding can be very much
reduced. So the calf can be raised more economically.
b) We can know the real milk producing ability of cows.
c) In case of death of the calf, the milk yield of the dam is not lost. If dam
dies, calf can survive on milk of other cows.
d) Male calves and defective female calves can be sold at early age.
e) The cows become regular breeder. They come in heat earlier and
conceive earlier than the cows, suckling their calves.
The only disadvantage of weaning method is that if proper care is not taken and
proper sanitation is not observed, there is higher rate of mortality (death
rate) among calves due to pneumonia, enteritis, calf scour, septicemia etc.
(C) Care of the Calf right at Birth:
Care of the calf starts well before it is born. The dam should be housed in
a clean well-bedded calving pen. As soon as the cow shows signs of labour
pain, one man should constantly and quietly watch her. Uneasiness, kicking the
floor, frequent getting up and sitting down, lying down and straining, are the
signs of initiation of parturition. Within two to three hours after starting of
labour pain, usually, the water bag appears at the vulva. This ruptures and the
hooves of the two fore legs appear. At each contraction/ straining by the cow
the feet of the calf are pushed out gradually. The head is presented- pressed on
the knees, as the feet are out. This is the normal presentation. If the calf is not in
this position at the time of birth, it leads to “Dystokia”- difficult birth. When
there is dystokia, expert help should be called immediately. If the position is
normal, the calf may be pulled out, gently, when the cow is straining. The cow
generally does not need assistance for birth of the calf, if the presentation is
normal.
As soon as the calf is out, we should see that the respiration is started.
Clean the mouth and the nostrils off the obstruction if any. If the respiration is
not established a light jolt may be given to the calf.
(D) Care of the Calf after the Birth:
a) Natural system: The newly born calf, if it is to be raised by natural method,
should be placed before the dam. The cow will immediately begin to lick and
dry the calf. This will stimulate respiration, improve the circulation and dry
the calf. A vigorous calf will attempt to get up in about 15 minutes. When
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the calf is dried and can stand on its legs, it may be weighed. It may be noted
that male calves are slightly heavier than the female calves. The naval chord
may be cut to about 3 to 6 cm size by sterilized scissors and disinfected with
30% solution of tincture of iodine or with solution of savlon.
b) Weaning system: The calf to be raised by weaning should be removed to the
next room, soon after it is born. It should be cleaned dry with a clean soft
towel or cloth. The drying should be done quickly to prevent the calf from
chilling especially in winter. After drying the calf, it may be weighed and the
naval chord cut and disinfected as stated above. Soon after this, ear marking
with tattooing fork or ear tagging should be done for definite identification
of the calf. Earlier application of identification marks is very important for
calves to be raised in groups by weaning.
Feeding Colostrums:
The first milk that a cow gives after dropping a calf is known as
colostrum. It is thick, sticky and yellow in colour. The colostrum from the dam
is to be fed to the calves to be reared by natural as well as weaning method for
first 3-4 days.
The importance (advantages) of colostrum feeding is as follows.
a. Colostrum contains 3 to 5 times more protein than normal milk. It is also
richer in minerals (copper, iron, magnesium, manganese), carotene,
vitamin A and other vitamins of B complex group, than normal milk.
These nutrients are very essential for a good start of the growth of the
calf.
b. The laxative property of colostrum helps to clean away the “muconium”
- a solid metabolic waste product collected in the intestines of the young
one. This is sticky, foul smelling and black in colour – first faeces passed
out by calf.
c. The globulin fraction of the protein of colostrum carries antibodies. They
enable the calf to protect itself from many infections.
The colostrum from the mother should be fed to the calf preferably
within 30 minutes and not later than 90 minutes of birth. This is because
with passage of time the permeability of intestinal wall to globulin (antibodies)
decreases. If the colostrum from the mother is not available, that from any other
cow may be fed. If no colostrum is available, the calf may be given the normal
milk supplemented with 20 ml of cod liver oil, 60 ml of castor oil and one egg
yolk.
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Teaching the Calf to Nurse/Suckle:
Natural method:
By instinct the calf looks for the food at and above the level of its head,
and tries to suck anything it goes into touch with. Under natural conditions most
of the calves will find out the teats, within ½ to 1 hour after their birth, and
begin to nurse themselves. However, there may be calves, which need
assistance in suckling for a period from one to several days. The calves have
difficulty in nursing because of tight, turgid, thick teats full of milk, so they
should be allowed to suckle after some milk is drawn from the udder.
Weaning method:
In case of weaning system it is very necessary to teach the calf to drink
milk. The calf has the instinct to look for food at and above the level of its head.
This comes in the way of making the calf to understand that the food comes
from below that level. Again, the calf knows “suckling” instinctively, but not
“drinking”. Therefore, the fingers should first be dipped into colostrum and be
given to the calf for suckling from above. As the calf sucks, the fingers should
be inverted and lowered down and dipped into the vessel containing colostrum.
The mouth of the calf will follow the fingers to the surface of the colostrum. As
its mouth comes in contact with the surface of the colostrum it will be induced
to drink. By repeating the above action the calf should be taught to drink milk.
This operation requires a great deal of patience. For convenience, the calf may
be taken to one corner of the pen and the milk pan should be kept at suitable
height near the mouth of calf. Milk feeding pails with nipples attached are also
available. The vessel and hand of operator should be thoroughly washed and
disinfected prior to milk feeding, otherwise the calf may get infection leading to
scour.
Feeding the Calves:
(a) Natural Method:
In this method, the calf is kept with the dam day and night for first 3-4
days. Then it is transferred to the calf pen. The calves in the same pen should be
of about the same age. The calf should be taken for suckling twice to the dam.
Ordinarily the calf should be allowed to suckle 1 kg of milk per 10 kg of its
body (i.e. 10% of its body weight) per day for first 6 to 8 weeks of age. This
may then be gradually decreased. The calf should be given a handful of
concentrate mixture, moistened with milk after 1 week of age. This may
gradually be increased to 0.5 kg daily. Similarly the calf should be given
excellent quality roughage – preferably green - after it is about 2 weeks old. As
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the calf learns to eat the fodder, the quantity may be increased and fed ad-
libitum.
(b) Weaning Method:
Under weaning system, the calf may be reared by feeding.
1. Skim milk or butter milk or whey (Milk replacer/substitute).
2. Calf starter (Conc. mixture containing 22-24% CP & one animal origin
ingredient)
3. Milk replacer and calf starter combined.
Feeding schedule for method-1 (milk replacer) is given in Table below
Age of calf Rate of feeding per day (kg)
Whole milk Skin milk Grain Hay
1 to 3 days colostrum - - -
4 to 14 days 3 to 5 - - -
2 to 3 weeks 5 to 6 ½ to 5 - -
3 to 4 weeks - 5 100g -
4 to 5 weeks - 5½ 200g Ad libitum
5 to 6 weeks - 6 300g “
6 to 8 weeks - 6 400g “
8 to 12 weeks - 6 1 kg “
12 to 16 weeks - 5 1½ kg “
16 to 24 weeks - - 1½ kg “
It is thus estimated that the following amount of feeds will be required
for raising the calf up to six months of age by this method.
Whole milk: 45 to 75 liters. Grain: 175 kg
Skim milk: 500 to 700 liters. Hay: 300 kg
When skim milk, butter milk or whey are not available for feeding,
method 2 or 3 may be employed.
Precautions in Feeding Weaned Calves:
1. Care should be taken in maintaining sanitation and disinfection of milk
feeding vessels, calf pen etc. The mouth of calf is cleaned after milk
feeding & common salt be applied.
2. The temperature of milk or milk substitute should be nearer to the body
temperature.
3. Routine timing of feeding should be followed.
4. The calves are kept tied individually at and after milk feeding to avoid
suckling body parts of each other.
The calves should be taught to eat feed as early as possible. This will
hasten rumen development, so that they can digest and eat more of their natural,
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economical feeds, viz. roughages and concentrates. Little milk may be sprinkled
on concentrates initially when these are offered first time at the age of 1 to 2
weeks. The calves like clean, green and leafy legume or mixed fodders. The
calves should have access to clean, fresh drinking water at all times.
Housing:
1. The calves should be kept in dry, clean and well-ventilated pens.
2. They may be provided clean bedding in winters.
3. They are kept individually until one month of age.
4. Then they are housed in groups according to age.
5. After 3 month of age, male & female calves are kept separately in similar
age group.
6. The calf pen should have attached open yard for sufficient exercise.
Dehorning /Disbudding:
Advantages: Dehorned animals are safe to handle and require lesser floor
and feeding space. There is no danger of horn cancer or injury afterwards.
Methods and age: The dehorning is done by physical method using
electric dehorner / hot iron rod or by chemical method using KOH /AgNO3
crystals at 10 – 14 days of age.
Deworming:
The calves, especially buffalo calves, are prone to numerous roundworm
infestations. So regular deworming of calves is important to maintain their
normal growth rate. They are drenched with various broad spectrum
anthelmentics periodically, such as Piperazine adipate, Heltac, Mebendazole,
Parbendazole, Vermax etc. Coccodiostats like DOT, Sulpha drugs and
Amprosol are also given to control coccidiosis.
Vaccination:
Calves are vaccinated for foot and mouth disease at 2 month of age and
again booster dose is given at 6 months of age.
Growth pattern (Test of efficient calf management)
1. At birth weight of Kankrej, Jersey X Kankrej crossbred, Holstein Friesian
X Kankrej crossbred and Mehsani buffaloes are 21 –22 kg, 22-24 kg, 25-
26 kg and 24-26 kg, respectively.
2. Indigenous, crossbred and buffaloes calves should grow at the rate of
300, 450 and 400 gm daily.
3. Calf mortality should be within 10 %. Buffalo calves have little higher
mortality rate (<15%) than this.
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MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY HEIFERS
(A) Management of Growing Heifers:
From the management point of view, growing female bovines after the
milk feeding or suckling stage (4 months of age) till first calving are called
heifers. These are actively growing, yet unproductive animals. Therefore, there
is a general tendency to neglect these animals. They should be managed as
cheaply as possible, at the same time taking care that they grow at the normal
rate and start breeding at an early age.
(a) Early Post-Weaning Period:
For the period of about 4 to 6 months after milk feedings or suckling
stage (i.e. from 4 to 8-10 months of age) the dairy heifers should be fed 1-2 kg
concentrates of good quality. The mixture, if possible, may contain some
protein from animal origin. Concentrates mixture should contain nearly 14-
16% protein, if legume roughage is fed, and if not, the protein percent in the
ration should be about 16-18%. Mineral mixture and common salt each should
be fed daily @ 20 to 25 g to each heifer. Since the rumen is not fully functional
in the early post-weaning period, good quality roughage should be fed to dairy
heifers. Mixed (legume /non-legume) succulent roughage is very good. If all
roughage is only non-leguminous it is necessary to feed about 25 g of steam-
sterilized bone meal or any other calcium supplement to the heifers daily.
(b) Late Post-Weaning Period:
By about 4-6 months after weaning, i.e. after 8-10 months of age, heifers
adjust themselves to high roughage-low concentrates ration. The rumen is also
fully developed and functional by this age. In view of this, the heifers may not
be fed concentrates mixture if good quality leguminous or mixed roughage is
available for feeding. If the roughage is all cereals and is not of good quality, it
is necessary to feed concentrates @ 1 to 2 kg. Mineral mixture and common salt
each be fed @ 25 to 35 g daily.
Measures to Economize Feeding of Dairy Heifers:
One can economize ration for growing heifers by feeding
1. Some unconventional concentrates: Babul pods, cassia torra, mango seed
kernel etc.
2. Urea treated poor quality roughage: Urea @ 4% breaks lingo-cellulose
complex.
3. Molumin (urea + molasses + mineral) blocks.
The growing heifers are more comfortable under loose housing system.
Buffalo heifers eat more and grow at faster rate when water is
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sprinkled/splashed on their body or are allowed to wallow in pond during noon
hours in summer. This also helps in reducing the problem of anoestrus, silent
estrus etc (summer sterility) by improving signs of estrus manifestation. They
should be protected from external and internal parasites for efficient growth.
They are vaccinated for HS, BQ, RP and FMD every year.
(B) Management of Breedable Heifers (Reproduction management):
The heifers should be fed, cared and managed in such a way that they
attain optimum body size at their breeding age. For onset of puberty, body
growth and development are more important than the age. They should not
suffer in growth. Otherwise, (1) there will be delay in age at first calving and (2)
loss in life time milk production. Optimum age and body weight at puberty, first
breeding/maturity and calving for heifers are given below. There are species and
breed differences in these characters.
Reproductive trait Exotic Crossbred Zebu Buffalo
1. Age at first heat/puberty (month) 8-9 12-15 20-24 18-24
2. Age at first breeding/maturity(mths) 13-15 15-20 24-30 20-27
3. Weight at first breeding (kg) 240-260 240-260 260 230-240
4. Age at first calving (months 24-28 28-30 36-40 36-40
5. Weight at first calving (kg) 340-360 300-320 300-320 340-380
Pubertal/Mature heifers should be checked for heat at least two times
daily, i.e. morning and evening, so that animals in heat are not missed. If the
herd size is large, a teaser (vasectomised bull) is used for heat detection.
Anoestrous heifers of breedable age and having proper growth should be
routinely examined every month and necessary action be taken.
The heifer should be got bred depending on her breed/genetic group
and the breeding policy to be followed. In case of crossbred heifers the breed
and exotic inheritance of the sire to be used should be decided well in advance
to carry on breeding according to a planned program. It is desirable to maintain
the exotic inheritance between 50 and 62.5% for better heat & disease tolerance.
Breeding heifers to bulls, known to produce small calves, helps reducing
trauma/dystocia at calving and subsequent reproductive problems. Purebred
exotic heifers and indigenous heifers of dairy breeds should preferably be bred
with progeny tested pure breed sires, and not for crossbreeding. Pregnancy
diagnosis of the heifers should be a routine on the farm.
Those heifers which are pregnant should be well looked after and cared
for and be fed slightly liberally. They may be accustomed to getting tied and be
groomed.
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(C) Management of Advanced Pregnant Heifers:
Gestation period:
Average gestation period of indigenous cows is about 280 to 285 days
and that of buffaloes 310 days. Average gestation period of exotic dairy cattle is
about 283 days. But this varies with breed from 278 to 288 days. Ordinarily,
heifers have 1 to 2 days shorter gestation period as compared to that of the
cows. Similarly on average male calves are carried 1 to 3 days longer than the
female calves.
Management:
Up to about 7 ½ months of pregnancy, no much extra feeding or care is
necessary to be given to the heifers. They are housed, fed and managed along
with other heifers. Then on completion of about 7 to 7 ½ months, the heifers
should be transferred to the milking herd. They should be housed and fed along
with milch cows. They should be brought to milking byre/parlour, tied and fed
concentrates along with milking cows. While feeding concentrates they should
be groomed. Their hind legs be tied, and udder and teats be manipulated as if
milking is done.
Feeding:
Advance pregnant heifers are growing animals. Not only is this, in their
body the foetus also actively growing. Hence they need especially extra energy,
proteins and minerals in their ration. Such heifers should be fed daily, about 1½
to 2 kg of concentrate mixture in addition to their usual ration fed till now. In
the concentrates mixture, they should be fed 25 to 30 g of mineral mixture or
steam sterilized bone meal.
Housing:
About a fortnight before the expected date of calving, the advance
pregnant animals should be housed in maternity pen/calving box at night time.
The pen should thoroughly be cleaned and disinfected and sufficiently bedded
before the animals are housed in them. With approaching parturition, they may
be housed in the pen all day and night, and should be looked for calving, every
2 to3 hours during the day and night. They should be given laxative ration.
(D) Care of Pregnant Heifers at Calving:
When the animal is observed to kick the floor, it is to be presumed that
the labour pain has already started and that parturition is expected within 2-4
hours. Arrangement should be made to observe silently the progress of the
process of parturition and readily assist the cow in the process in case of
need/dystocia. During this process of watching, we should ascertain whether the
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calf is in normal position or not. If the presentation is normal, generally no
assistance is necessary. Yet, we may pull the calf out gently after the head and
legs up to knees are out. In case of abnormal presentation (Dystocia- difficult
birth) expert aid should be called for to assist the birth.
CARE & MANAGEMENT OF FRESHLY CALVED ANIMALS
The cow should be fed palatable feeds (calving mixture) like wheat bran
1 kg mixed with high energy feeds like Jaggery 500 gm, Common oil 200 gm,
cooked Bajra/Jowar 1 kg plus Suva, Ashalio, Methi each 100 gm, after the birth
of the calf. It is customary to feed to parturient animals the calving mixture after
cooking for a period of 10 to 15 days after calving.
This will provide to the cow readily available energy. It is also believed
to induce the milk flow and to aid cleansing the reproductive tract. It is not
necessary to feed special calving mixture, if the heifers were fed well during
gestation.
After feeding calving mixture/concentrates, the cow should be given
lukewarm drinking water. This may be warmed up if it is very cool. Good
quality dry roughage should then given to the animal. The animal then be
allowed to take rest and watched silently for passing out of the placenta or fetal
membranes. The placenta is expelled out normally within 6 to 8 hrs of calving.
It weighs between 2.5 to 3.0 kg. If placenta is not expelled out, there will be
decomposition in uterus and may impair general health and subsequent
reproduction of the cow. If the placenta does not get expelled within 24 hrs,
arrangement should be made to remove the same manually. The placenta, on
expulsion, should be immediately removed away from the animal and be buried.
As the animal have a very strong urge of eating these membranes and hence
constant attendance is necessary to prevent the animal from eating the same and
dispose it away. It is believed; if the animals eat these membranes their milk
production is decreased and may develop troubles in digestion.
After the expelling of the fetal membranes the hind region of the cow
should be washed with warm water and dried with cloth. The soiled and wet
bedding then be removed and replaced by fresh dry bedding material. Freshly
calved cow should be milked as early as possible to remove colostrum. The
colostrum is to be fed to the calf. For first few days, the cow may not be milked
completely to avoid problem of milk fever.
Freshly calved cow may be housed in the maternity pen for about 4 days.
She should be fed good quality roughage ad-libitum and calving mixture or
concentrates mixture. The quantity of concentrates mixture fed should be
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gradually increased and in the calving mixture normal concentrates should be
mixed in increasing proportion and finally cow to be taken to only the normal
milch ration.
For a period of about 10-15 days after calving, the cow should be
protected from stormy cold winds, rain or direct sun as the case may be. The
cow also needs protection from dogs, foxes, wolves, crows etc., during and just
after calving.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILKING ANIMALS
Milking animals are the earning members of the dairy herd. These
animals produce milk, sale of which forms more than 80-85% of the income
from the dairy farm. Any lapse in the management of these animals is
immediately reflected in lowered milk production and hence the reduced
income. That is why it is necessary to look after the milking animals very
carefully. Different body systems of the milking animals have to work very hard
for producing high quantity of milk. As a result of this, the milking animals are
under a sort of stress. Hence, even the slightest deviation from the normal
routine makes them upset resulting into low milk production.
The salient 10 features of the management of the milking animals are as
follows:
(1) Regularity of routine operations:
Dairy animals are the creatures of habits. Repeating any action at
appointed time in a given sequence forms habit. Performing various daily
operations in a sequential manner at a particular time on a farm makes a routine.
Hence, on a dairy farm any convenient sequence of daily operations should be
followed at conveniently fixed timings. However, having fixed the routine
according to our convenience, it should not be lightly changed; but be followed
regularly. Milking animals get very nervous to any change in the routine and
react very badly by producing less milk.
(2) Gentle and kind handling and behaviour:
Animals of all the categories of the herd should be treated with kindness.
This is more so with the milking animals. Ill-treating the animals, shouting very
loudly, beating etc., should be avoided with milking animals, as they are readily
frightened and become nervous. This leads to reduction in feed intake and milk
yield. Milking animals should be called with gentle voice and affection, and
should be patted and groomed gently.
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(3) Feeding:
(a) Concentrates:
From a very long-standing experience of keeping and feeding very large
number of animals, dairymen have evolved certain guidelines for feeding
concentrates to animals. They are known as thumb rules. In this method
concentrates is fed for maintenance and for milk production.
(i) Maintenance Allowance:
Ordinarily, mixed roughage of good quality fed to the milking animals,
supply fully their nutrients requirement for maintenance. In other words it is not
necessary to feed any concentrates to the milking animals for supplying
nutrients for maintenance, if the roughage is mixed and is of good quality. But if
the milking animals are getting all cereal roughage, i.e. not mixed, it is
necessary to feed concentrates to them. This may be fed @1-2 kg daily/head
according to the roughage quality and condition of the animals.
(ii) Milk Production Allowance:
The concentrates for milk production are to be fed in addition to what is
fed for maintenance. The amount of concentrates to be fed for milk production
depends principally on the fat content of milk, i.e. whether the animal is cow
or buffalo, and to some extent on type of roughage fed.
With good quality mixed roughage feeding and if the fat content of milk
is not exceeding 5.0 %, i.e. for cow, the concentrates may be fed at the rate of
33% of milk production. If roughage is all cereals and/or its quality is not good,
the concentrates may be fed @ 40 % of milk production. If the fat content of
milk is 6.5 - 7.0 % or more, i.e. in case of buffaloes, with good quality mixed
roughage, the concentrates may be fed @ 40% of milk production. With all
cereal roughage or medium to poor quality roughage, the rate of concentrates
feeding should be 45 - 50% of milk production.
(A) Production allowance for Concentrate to be fed (as % of milk production), if fed
Fat % in milk Good quality mix roughage All cereal roughage
(i) 4-5 % fat (cow) 33 % of milk 40 % of milk
(ii) 6-7 % fat (buffalo) 40 % of milk 45-50 % of milk
(B) Maintenance allowance nil 1-2 kg
(b) Feeding Minerals:
Ordinarily, except for the calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chloride all
the other minerals required by the milking animals are present in conventional
feeds to meet with their normal requirements. Hence they need not be
supplemented. But there may be certain areas where soil is deficient in one or
more of the micro-minerals. In that case, the forages grown on such soils are
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also deficient. Under normal conditions milking animals should be fed about 30
g of common salt daily. This may be fed mixed with concentrates or in form of
bricks or blocks of salt as licks, or loose in saltboxes, or loose in mangers. If the
animals do not get about 50 % of roughage as legumes, they should be fed daily
about 25 to 30 g of calcium supplement or steam sterilized bone meal. It is
advisable to feed minerals supplement to the high yielding animals even if they
are fed mixed roughage.
(4) Milking:
After parturition, the dairy animals are milked. The milk produced for
first 3 to 5 days may not be taken for sale or use as fluid milk as it is
‘colostrum’. It is very high in protein and coagulates on heating.
After parturition, the dairy or weekly milk yield of the animal increase
very rapidly up to 5 to 9 weeks and reaches the maximum level. This highest
level reached, is called the peak yield. In Kankrej animals, this peak is reached
in the sixth week after calving. The peak production then declines at the rate of
1.7 to 2.0 per cent per week. Persistency of high milk production is important
for getting higher lactation yield.
The lactation milk yield of the dairy animals is lowest in the first
lactation. It then increases up to 3rd to 4th lactation; after which it gradually
decreases showing the effect of advancing age.
The dairy animals are mostly milked two times daily. It is well known
that milk secretion is a continuous process and also that the rate of milk
secretion is inversely proportional to the intra-mammary pressure, hence
cow should be milked at regular interval of 12 hrs. In view of these facts, soon
after milking, secretion rate is at its maximum and soon before milking
secretion is at its lowest. Therefore if animals are milked three times instead of
twice there will be an increase in production of milk by about 15 to 20%. The
animals yielding 10 liters or more milk daily can be milked three times. Very
high yielding animals may be milked even four times daily.
Measures/Tips for Clean Milk Production:
It is desirable to milk the animals in a clean milking byre. Milking should
be done in clean sterilized utensils by healthy milkers, dressed in clean cloths.
Udders and teats of these animals should be washed with warm potassium
permanganate solution and dried with a clean piece of cloth. Strip cups should
be routinely used to detect mastitis in early stage.
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Precautions at milking time:
After the letdown of milk by action of hormone oxytocin released, the
milking operation should be swift, yet comfortable to the cows. At the time of
milking the surrounding should be clean, quiet and peaceful. Barking of dogs,
shouting, beating the animals, presence of peculiarly dressed strangers, visitors
in large number should be avoided, since these results in release of fright
hormone adrenalin and withholding of milk/ reduction in milk production.
(5) Breeding:
After parturition, animals may come in heat within about a month’s time.
However, it takes about 2 months for complete uterine involution. Hence
animals coming in heat within two months of parturition may not be bred.
Exotic cows have a calving interval of about 13 to 14 months; crossbred
cows about 14 to 16 months, indigenous cows about 17 to 19 months and
buffaloes about 16 to 20 months. The calving interval longer than 15 months
leads to uneconomic production. Hence the milking animals should be
successfully bred between 3 to 5 months after calving. All the relevant measures
of heat detection, pregnancy diagnosis etc., as described under ‘to maintain the
reproductive efficiency’ under the managerial function on a dairy farm, should
be taken for maintaining optimum calving interval.
(6) Housing: (objectives of providing house)
Milking animals should be housed in such a way that-
(i) They are protected from extremes of climatic elements, wild life and ecto-
parasites.
(ii) They are comfortable under sufficient ventilation and sanitation.
(iii) There is convenience in feeding and management of the cows.
(7) Drying:
It is necessary that dairy animals have adequately long (60 days) dry
period. Because during this period (i) the nutrients reserve that is lost during
lactation is replenished in the body, (ii) the mammary system makes good wear
and tear of different tissues and gets ready for the next lactation and (iii) the
nutrients are diverted to the actively growing foetus. Dry period of about 60
days in believed to be adequate for exotic/crossbred animals. With high yielding
indigenous animals the period of about 100 days is considered adequate. The
dry advance pregnant animals should be given extra allowance of nutrients
called “steaming up” to meet the above needs of the body.
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Methods of Drying:
The animals which have had a lactation period of about 10 months and
which carry the foetus of 6 to 7 months may be dried. The animals to be dried
should not be allowed to come in contact with their calves. Their concentrate
feeding is discontinued. They should not be fed any succulent roughage. Even
dry fodder fed should be of poor quality and that to only 50-60% of normal
quantity. Water intake should also be reduced. These steps help in reducing the
milk secretion materially and hence drying the animal quickly. The animals can
be dried by any one of the following three ways/methods.
(i) Partial milking method:
In this method of drying, all the milk the cow gives is not removed, but some
amount is allowed to remain in the udder. Thus, the intra-mammary pressure in
the udder is not completely relieved. This results in reduced secretion of milk
day by day, since milk secretion is inversely proportional to i/ma pressure.
When the milk yield is considerably reduced, milking first on alternative days,
then once in three days etc, dries the animals.
(ii) Intermittent milking method:
In this method animals are milked once daily, then once in 2 days, once in 3
days etc., thus gradually extending the period between milking and then
stopping the milking.
(iii) Abrupt stoppage of milking:
This is the most effective method of drying. Animals yielding even up
to10 litres of milk can be dried by this method without any trouble. As the
milking is not done the intra-mammary pressure is built up in the udder, hence
milk secretion comes to stand still. As the formation of fresh milk is stopped the
milk already filled in the udder gets re-absorbed into the blood streams and the
cow gets dried up.
(8) Providing water:
Milking animals perform very hard work in secretion of milk. In addition,
they lose quite a lot of water from the body in form of milk. As a result of these,
they need more water than that needed by animals of any other category of the
dairy herd.
The amount of water required by the milking animals is governed by the
following factors, viz. (i) Ambient temperature/season (ii) Moisture content of
the feeds, (iii) Milk yield (iv) Temperature of water and (v) The degree of
cleanliness of the water.
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Milking animals, in addition to 30-35 litres of water for maintenance,
need 2 to 3 litres of water for every one litre of milk production (total 55-60 lit).
In summer, the water requirement of milking animals increases by 100% over
that in winter. In addition to drinking water needs, about 40 to 70 litres of water
per cow daily is also required for cleaning and washing of animal/shed etc.
Milking animals should have free access to clean drinking water, all the
time. If this is not possible, they should be given water at least four times daily.
In regions, where winters are very chilly the drinking water for milking may be
slightly warmed up. Providing water to the milking animals through automatic
drinking bowls is the most satisfactory way.
(9) Health Care Measures:
Sanitation, isolation of sick animals and timely treatment are important.
Regular CMT testing for mastitis helps control of disease. All the animals of the
dairy farm, viz, calves, heifers, cows, breeding bulls, bullocks etc should be
kept free from infectious/ contagious diseases. Therefore, as routine the herd
should be got regularly tested annually once for Tuberculosis, John’s disease &
Brucellosis, and reactors/doubtful animals be removed/slaughtered.
Timely vaccination for prevention of disease like Foot and Mouth
disease, Rinderpest, Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Black Quarter etc., should
invariably be done. Regularly, as a routine for control of endo-parasites,
deworming of the dairy herd should be done at least once before the onset of
monsoon and once after the monsoon is over. This must scrupulously be
observed in case of crossbred and exotic animals as they are very badly affected
by worm infestation. The whole dairy herd should also be protected from ecto-
parasites like the ticks, mites, lice, grubs etc by periodical dipping.
A health calendar should be prepared, indicating the approximate dates
and months of the year and the prophylactic measures to be taken against
diseases, worms, ecto-parasites etc., and this should be rigidly followed.
(10) Daily Routine Inspection:
It is very necessary that daily some responsible person should observe
each milking animal individually very closely. At the time of the observation
the following points/ objectives be kept in mind and be noted, viz. (i) general
health and condition of the animal, whether there is loss in condition or
improvement, (2) whether the animal is cycling, is in heat, or has passed the
heat or has been bred and is pregnant etc., (3) whether there are ecto-parasites
like ticks on the body, especially underneath the root of the tail etc., (4) whether
there is any injury to the teat or udder, (5) the level of current milk production
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of the animal, whether increasing or decreasing etc. The actions necessary to be
taken as a result of the inspection should be decided and promptly executed.
The additional advantage of this routine inspection is that the responsible man
will know all the milking animals individually. The animals also feel familiar
with the person and do not get frightened or nervous when he moves in the herd
or approaches very closely to any of them.
CARE OF THE DRY COWS
In an efficiently managed dairy herd the dry cows are always pregnant,
carrying the foetus at least of five months or more, (mainly because of proper
calving hygiene, timely post-partum breeding, and sound care & management
throughout lactation). As the foetii are growing actively in the wombs of
advanced pregnant animals, they require liberal supply of energy, protein and
minerals in their ration (steaming up). They have also to replenish the reserve
storage of nutrients already depleted during the lactation period through milk
secretion, and to have improved yield in ensuing lactation.
Therefore, after about 7 1/2 months of pregnancy, the dry cow should be
fed 1.5 to 2.0 kg of concentrate as pregnancy allowance, over and above the
maintenance need. If leguminous roughage is lacking, daily about 25 to 35 gm
of steam-sterilized bone meal or any other suitable mineral supplement be fed.
The other management of the dry pregnant cows should be similar to that
described for advance pregnant heifers.
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CHAPTER 11
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF IMPORTANT DISEASES
OF LIVESTOCK
The herd health calendar includes schedules in the form of charts, tables,
pamphlets etc of various operations like vaccination (immunization), annual/
periodical testing, de-worming and dipping or spraying etc to be performed on
animals to preserve their normal health. It gives information about the content,
dose, route and mode of administration of vaccines or drugs, and also the time
of its application and the name of disease against which it is to be used.
Livestock Health
Herd health programme that emphasize prevention of disease, rather than
treatment play a central role in any attempt to increase production efficiency.
Treatment will always be important in terms of survival of the individual sick
animal. However in terms of survival of the total production unit (profit verses
loss) prevention is the more desirable method of disease control. Health denotes
physical, physiological and mental wellbeing of an individual.
Disease means any deviation from normal state of health.
Classification of Diseases:
A. According to Mode of Origin
1. Hereditary diseases: Transmitted from parents to the offspring.
2. Congenital diseases: Acquired during intra-uterine life.
3. Acquired diseases: Acquired after birth.
B. According to Specific Causes:
a) Specific diseases: Produced by a specific pathogen or factor. They are
subdivided into
i) Infectious diseases: Caused by pathogenic organisms like
Viral diseases: Rinderpest (RP) and Foot & Mouth disease (FMD).
Bacterial diseases: Black quarter (BQ) and Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) and
Protozoan diseases: Surra and Theileriosis.
ii) Non-infectious diseases: Caused by physical or chemical or poisonous
agents, nutritional deficiency or disturbed metabolism.
E.g.
1. Deficiency diseases - Rickets
2. Metabolic diseases - Milk fever
3. Poisoning - Pesticide poisoning
b) Non-specific disease: Those diseases whose causes are indefinite or multiple
e.g. Pneumonia.
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C. According to mode of spread:
1. Contagious disease: Spread by means of direct or indirect contact, e.g.
FMD and HS. All infectious diseases may or may not be contagious but
all contagious diseases are infectious.
2. Non-contagious diseases: Do not spread by means of direct or indirect
contact. E.g. Rickets.
D According to clinical signs:
1. Per acute disease is characterized by very short course (few hours to 48
hours) and very server symptoms e.g. Anthrax.
2. Acute disease is characterized by a sudden onset, short course (3-14
days) and severe symptoms e.g. FMD, RP.
3. Sub acute disease: Whose course is 1-4 weeks and severity is less than
acute one. E.g. Sub acute mastitis.
4. Chronic disease: Whose course is more than 4 weeks and signs are not
severe in character e.g. Tuberculosis.
E. According to intensity and spread of diseases:
1. Sporadic disease: Occurring occasionally, singly, or in scattered
instances and shows little or no tendency to spread within the herd e.g.
Johne's disease.
2. Enzootic/Endemic disease: Outbreak of disease among animals in
a definite area or particular district. E.g. Anthrax, H.S.
3. Epizootic/Epidemic disease: Which affects a large population of animals
in large area at the same time and spread with rapidity e.g. FMP, RP.
4. Panzootic /Pandemic disease: Widespread epidemic disease usually of
worldwide distribution e.g. Influenza.
5. Zoonotic disease: A disease which can be transmitted from animal to
man and vice versa e.g. Anthrax, Brucellosis.
General Measures for Prevention of Contagious Diseases
1. Identification and isolation of infected animals.
2. Treatment of' affected animals.
3. Slaughter of animals suffering from incurable diseases.
4. Disposal of dead animals either burning or deep burial.
5. Destroy contaminant fodder by burning.
6. Proper disposal of contaminated water.
7. Regular cleaning and disinfection of cattle shed and its premises.
8. Don’t allow animals to come from affected to clean area.
9. Restrict the movement of animals from affected to clean area.
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10. Don’t allow animals to drink water from ponds, rivers etc. during
outbreak of disease.
11. Close animal markets, cattle shows etc. during outbreak of disease.
12. Regular spraying of insecticides to control external parasites.
13. Regular de-worming to control internal parasites.
14. Avoid stress associated with long distance transportation, inclement
weather and under nutrition.
15. Provide adequate ventilation and sufficient space.
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reactors, the site appears swollen, hot, painful and hard within 72 hrs.
Therefore, the difference in the reading above 4 mm is considered positive and
such animals are retested 3 months later and if again found positive, are
culled/slaughtered.
2. Brucellosis - Milk ring test is done as a herd test on pooled milk sample of
the entire herd using coloured Brucella abortus antigen in a test tube and if it is
found positive (coloured ring formation in tube on incubation at 56°C for 1 hr)
then blood or serum of individual animal is checked by plate agglutination or
tube agglutination test respectively. A serum titer above 1:40 is taken positive
and such animals are culled immediately from the herd.
3. Sub-clinical mastitis: California Mastitis Test (CMT) is carried out
periodically on milk samples of all four quarters of each lactating animal in a
strip-cup using coloured California reagent. The change in colour and
consistency of milk (greenish-sticky) indicates infection in that quarter of the
udder, and intra-mammary treatment should be given soon to prevent
development of clinical form of mastitis in that case, as it is economically very
harmful to the farmer.
(III) Control of Internal (Endo-) Parasites (by Deworming):
As a routine, deworming is usually done twice a year i.e. before (June-July) and
after (Oct-Nov) monsoon. In young growing animals, it should be done at 10
days and then at 1, 3, 6, 9 & 12 months of age and then every year before &
after monsoon. Important deworming agents used are albendazole,
mebendazole, perbendazole, fenbendazole, fasciolax, flukin, distodin,
oxyclosanide, banminth, heltac, piperazine, vermax etc.
(IV) Control of External (Ecto-) Parasites (by Dipping or Spraying):
Dipping means immersing the animals in insecticide solution or spraying of
some safe insecticides on the animal body to eradicate ecto-parasites like ticks,
fleas, lice, mange, mites etc present in the skin or hair coat. For the purpose,
DDT, BHC, Malathion, Butox (safe), Pestoban, Arsenic- sulphur dip, Tobacco
leaves extract etc can be used. Dipping or spraying should be done at least twice
at 14 days interval to kill adult as well as egg/larval stages of parasites from the
body coat.
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Spraying of disinfectant on udders Dipping of cattle in insecticide solution
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5 Enterotoxaemia Inactivated toxin of All age groups 3.0ml Follow Pre-
Clostrid. Perfringi-D of Sheep S/C monsoon
vaccination i.e. in
June.
6 Tetanus toxoid Inactivated toxin of All age group, 0.5- Whenever there is
for tetanus Clostridium tetani all species 5.0ml serious injury/
I/M accident or
operation.
B. Viral Vaccines
1 FMD polyvalent Killed/inactivated All cloven 5.0ml Vaccinate twice a
vaccine for Foot suspension of FMD footed farm S/C year i.e. Feb-March
& Mouth Disease (Aptho) virus animals, 1st and again Sept-Oct
serotypes O, A, C, dose at 2 (half yearly)
Asia1 months
2 R.P. vaccine for Live attenuated or Calves at 6 & 1.0ml Vaccinate once a
Rinderpest killed tissue culture 10 Months of S/C year in epidemic
of RP (Myxo) virus age and then, areas and every 3
annually yrs in other zone
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DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
NAVSARI AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BHARUCH – 392012 (GUJARAT)
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