International Technical Seminar

on
Challenges in Maintenance and
Upgradation of Track for Traffic
Regime of Higher Speed and
Heavier Axle Loads
&
EPC Contracts- Enabling with
Project Management System
(PMS), Project Supervision Services
(PSS) and Project Management
Consultancy Services (PMC)

ORGANISED BY

INSTITUTION OF PERMANENT
WAY ENGINEERS (INDIA)
Kolkata
 LIST OF PAPERS SELECTED FOR IPWE-2023
S NAME AUTHORS RLY/ORG PAGE
R NO.
SESSION 1
1 Mission Raftaar, Raising of 1. Anoop Kumar, Gati Shakti
Speed upto 160 Kmph of CPM Unit, WCR,
Mathura – Nagda, 545.8 KM 2.Abhimanyu Seth, Kota 1
Section: Part of New Delhi – CPM/Elect. 3. Sachin
Mumbai 160Kmph Project Shukla, CSTE
2 Upgradation of Existing 1. B. P. Awasthi, PED RDSO
Formation and Bridge /Infra-II
approaches for traffic regime 2. M. K. Rajpal,
of Higher Speed and Heavier Executive Director/ 33
Axle Load Geotech.
3. S. K. Awasthi,Di-
rector/Geotech.
3 LWR on open deck Steel 1. Satya Prakash, IRICEN
Girders Bridges with H- Dean
53
Beam Sleepers 2. Sharad Kumar
Agrawal Prof. Br.-I
4 Project Management Con- 1. Rajeev Tyagi,
sultants (PMC) on Railway CE(TP)
Projects- Need for keeping 2. Anurag Rastogi, 85
pace with Investments Professor SCR/
IRICEN
5 Rail Drishti - Visual Doc- 1. Rahul Srivastav CRIS/MA-
umentation of High-Speed 2. Amit Sharma TRIX
103
Railway Routes for Insight
and Decision support
SESSION 2
6 Challenges in maintenance 1. Rajeev Choudhary, SER
and upgradation of track ADEN/S/Kharagpur
for speed upto 130 Kmph 2. Kajal Kumar Kar,
115
between Kharagpur-Bhadrak SSE/Dantan
(KGP-BHC) 3. Vikram Kumar
Poddar, SSE/Jaleswar

iii
7 Challenges in maintenance 1. Vipin Kumar, Sr. ER
and upgradation of track DEN Co SDAH
for traffic regime of higher 2. Kartik Singh Sr
144
speed and heavier axle load DEN, SDAH
in HDM suburban section : 3. Aditya Sinha DEN,
Sealdah division-a case study SDAH
8 Through formation 1. AK Gupta, DRM/ SCR
treatment using PQRS SC
method on GQ-GD route of 2. BK Sajja, Sr.DEN/ 162
SC division of South Central South/SC
Railway
9 Challenges in performance 1. B.P.Awasthi, PED RDSO
of existing railway bridge (Infra-II)
infrastructure for traffic 2. R.K.Srivastav, ED
183
regime of higher speed and (B&S)
heavier axle loads. 3. Pradeep Kumar,
Director/B&S
10 Measures to select good 1. Veer Narayan, NR
consultant in the present IRSE-87, Ex. Chief 202
system of tendering in IR Engineer
SESSION 3
11 Rail Grade selection for 1. Jitendra Kumar RDSO
Operation of 25T Axle load Singh, Director/ 217
Track-II
12 Rail Ground Profile and 1. Anil Choudhary, IRICEN/SCR
Lubrication for reducing Sr Professor
rail surface failure in heavy 2. Anjaneyulu Reddy, 240
axle load and in high-speed CE/Track Machines
routes
13 Effect of revised curve 1. Jitendra Kumar RDSO
parameters for permitting Singh, Director/
higher speed on curves on IR Track-II
2. Jitendra Kumar 269
Srivastava, ADE/TS
3. Sujeet Kumar, SSE/
Design/Track

iv
14 Performance analysis and 1. Raju Prabhakar WR
improvements on high Bhadke,CE/TM
output ballast cleaning 2. Vaibhav Saklecha,
287
machine (HOBCM) over Dy. CE/TM
Western Railway 3. Chitranjan Phalke,
SSE/TM
15 Comprehensive Analysis of 1. Swapnil Chaurasia, SWR
Curve Flattening and Yard Sr.DEN/Central/
301
Remodeling for speed raising Hubli
using Drone surveys
16 Role of sleeper spacing in 1. Ravi Kant Bajpai, NER
maintenance of points and CE/Br/Rehab
319
crossing and curves for high
speed and higher axle load
SESSION 4
TECHNICAL SESSION- IV
SESSION 5
17 Safety and Reliability at 1. J.S. Mundrey, Retd. Railway Board
higher Speed and Heavier Advisor
348
Axle Loads: International
Track Practice
18 Rapid & improved span load 1. Harsimran Singh, M/s AIMIL
test for bridges & viaducts CPM/Kolkata Ltd
2. Biswanath 360
Mukherjee, Area
Manager/ RVNL/
19 FAI4CIM (Federated 1. Rafael Ibeas Al- CAIN
Artificial Intelligence for mazan
381
Comprehensive Infrastruc-
ture Maintenance)
20 Challenges in maintenance 1. Vikram Gupta, NFR
& upgradation of track for CE/Con-7
393
traffic regime of higher speed 2. Pinku Dy.CE/Con/
in hilly section Jiribam

v
21 Arresting Track Creep in 1. Vipul Kumar, Ex SWR
Braganza Ghats (Castle PCE
Rock -Kulem) through use 2. Danish Khan,
415
of Sleeper Bracings using XEN/C
provisions of RDSO Report
CT-30 on SWR
22 e-SETU Implementation: 1. Qazi Mairaj NR
Enterprise Resource Plan- Ahmad, CE/TM
429
ning for Bridge & Engineer- 2. Yogender,
ing Workshops Technical Assistant

23 A dual response surface 1. Kishore Chandra IIESAT

method (DRSM) - based Misra, Ph.D. Student
approach of probabilistic 2. Nimai Chandra
fatigue safety study Das, Graduate
441
considering higher speed student
and heavier axle load traffic 3. Soumya
regime Bhattacharjya, Asso-
ciate Professor
24 Various Innovative works 1. Md. Tanveer Khan, Gati
done in DFCCIL’s Dy. CPM (Engg.), Shakti,
Khurja-Dadri & Khurja- DFCCIL, Eastern Railway
455
Saharanpur sections for Corridor, Noida Board/
Accelerating the progress of 2. Anil Kalra, GM DFCCIL
work (Co-ord.)
25 Assessing the Load Carrying 1. Dr. Amaravel. R., SWR
Capacity of existing RC and SSE/Designs/CN/
PSC Bridges by Load Testing BNC 465
for Running Higher Axle
loads
26 Challenges and Way Forward 1. Neeraj Agrawal, SCR
for EPC Contracts in Indian CAO/C
Railway Eco-system 2. V.K.Sailesh,
Dy.CE/C/G 497
3. N.P.Shrivastav,
XEN/C/P

vi
 Effect of revised Curve Parameters for
Permitting higher Speed on Curves on IR
Jitendra Kumar Singh1, Jitendra Kumar Srivastava2, Sujeet Kumar3

SYNOPSIS
To increase the throughput and reduce travel time, sectional speed of all routes of
IR is being increased gradually. Raising of sectional speed to 130kmph on Golden
Quadrilateral & diagonal routes and other A & B routes has been taken up
initially in this direction. Also, work for raising of sectional speed to 160kmph is
in progress on New Delhi- Mumbai and New Delhi- Howrah routes. Considering
this, curve parameter values has been revised recently on IR so that higher speed
on curves may be permitted.
The revised curve parameter values are in line with International Standard i.e
EN specification. On analysing the effect of increased curve parameter values
i.e. Cant, Cant deficiency, rate of change of Cant and rate of change of Cant
deficiency, it is found that speed upto 10 to 20 kmph can be increased on new
lines depending on sharpness of curves. With increase in booked speed of goods
train, speed can further be increased on curves. On existing lines, where there will
be some issues in increasing the transition length, full potential of increased speed
may not be achieved. However, speed can be increased 5 to 10kmph on existing
lines depending on sharpness of curves.
Revision of curve parameters shall also involve some challenges in its
implementation. Increase of cant on existing lines will effect clearances of existing
structures that may require to be investigated before increasing cant in field
and it may also likely to increase maintenance efforts. Cant deficiency can be
increased for ‘nominated stock’ after found satisfactory during oscillation trial
and therefore, oscillation trials are necessarily need to be conducted to analyse
the behaviour. Different rolling stock (like wagon and coaches) will have different
cant deficiency and therefore, separate speed restriction boards shall be required
to ensure respective speed on curves.

1
Director/Track-II/RDSO
2
ADE/TS/RDSO
3
SSE/Design/Track

269
1. INTRODUCTION
With upgradation in track structure and maintenance practices on
Indian Railways, sectional speed of all routes on Indian Railways is being
increased gradually. Speed upto 110kmph has already been provided on
almost all main line routes and efforts are being taken to increase speed
upto 130kmph on Golden Quadrilateral & diagonal routes and A & B
routes in first step and subsequently on other routes also. Further, work
for raising of sectional speed to 160kmph is in progress on New Delhi-
Mumbai and New Delhi- Howrah routes. It will facilitate reduce travel
time and increase throughput on Indian Railways.
In this direction, it was observed that curve parameters values are existing
quite long, though there have been significant improvements in track
structure as well as rolling stock since then in line with International
standards. It can be seen that rail section has been upgraded to heavier
section of 60kg, wooden / ST sleeper replaced with PSC sleeper, ballast
cushion has been increased and rolling stock design has also improved,
which were likely to be affected by revised curve parameters. Considering
improved track structure and rolling stock of IR in line with International
practices, it was felt necessary to revise curve parameters in line with
International practice to permit higher speed on curves also. Accordingly,
curve parameters values have been revised recently on IR. In this paper,
revised curve parameter values have been compared with International
specification and efforts have been taken to analyse the effect of increase of
various parameters on existing speed of curve. Some issues and challenges
involved in implementation of revised values are also pointed out.

2. CURVE PARAMETER LIMITING VALUES:

Different curves existing on Indian Railway track are:
a. Circular curves with parabolic transitions
b. Curves without transitions
c. Reverse curves and
d. Compound curves
The speed potential on curve depends on Radius of Curve (R),
Cant Provided (Ca), permissible Cant Deficiency (Cd), Length of
transition (L) and various limiting values of maximum cant (Ca,
max), Cant gradient (i) Rate of Change of Cant (Rca) and Rate of
change of Cant deficiency (Rcd).

270
 2.1 Few of the above parameters were revised recently vide ACS 10
of Indian Railways Permanent Way Manual (IRPWM) issued in
Nov 2022. The limiting values thus provided in para 403, 404
and 405 of IRPWM- June 2022 thus summarised are:
Parameters Limiting values (ACS 10) Old IRPWM Limits
Maximum Cant 185*#mm- A&B routes 165 mm- A& B routes
165mm- Other routes 140mm- Other routes
Note: To be limited to 140mm
on track with turnout on all
routes
Maximum Cant 100mm/150mm- Nominated 100 mm- Nominated
Deficiency stock$ Stock
75mm- Other Stock 75mm- Other Stock
Note: To be limited to 115mm
on track with turnout with
fixed crossing on outer rail
and on track with expansion
device for stocks permitted
with 150mm Cd
Cant Excess 75 mm 75 mm
Rate of Change Upto 50 mm/s in Normal case Upto 35 mm/s in
of Cant and upto maximum of 60 normal and upto
mm/s in Exceptional case maximum of 55 mm/s
Note: To be limited to 35 in Exceptional case
mm/s (normal) and upto
maximum of 55 mm/s
(exceptional) for virtual
transition condition
Rate of change Upto 50 mm/s in Normal case Upto 35 mm/s in
of Cant and upto maximum of 60 normal and upto
Deficiency mm/s in Exceptional case maximum of 55 mm/s
Note: To be limited to 35 in Exceptional case
mm/s (normal) and upto
maximum of 55 mm/s
(exceptional) for virtual
transition condition

271
 Cant Gradient 1 in 720 with maximum upto 1 in 720 with upto 1 in
1 in 360 360

Note:
* On existing track of Group A and B routes, maximum cant of 185mm to
be considered on case to case basis with the approval of Chief Engineer
based on clearance study and feasibility of increasing the transition
length with/without acquisition of land.
# On new lines/diversions/multi tracking works on A and B routes,
exceptional cases of not achieving full speed potential due to non
exploitation of permitted cant should be submitted to PCE for approval
with justification.
$ Nominated stock shall be permitted cant deficiency 100mm/115mm/
150mm after found satisfactory during oscillation trial
2.2 Comparison of IR Curve parameter values with International
Standards: The values of various curve parameters applicable for
IR vis a vis EN specifications are as follows:
Comparable EN
Parameters Old Values New Values Values (Normal
limit)
Maximum 165 mm 185 mm 186 mm
Cant Note: To be limited Note: 140mm on
to 140mm on track track with turnout
with turnout
Maximum Cant 75 mm, 100mm/150mm- 178 mm
Deficiency 100 mm - for Nominated stock Note: 125mm
nominated 75mm- Other on track with
rolling stock Stock turnout with fixed
Note: To be limited crossing on outer
to 115mm on track rail and 115mm
with turnout with on track with
fixed crossing expansion device
on outer rail and
on track with
expansion device
Cant Excess 75 mm 75 mm 128mm

272
 Rate of Change 35 mm/s and 50 mm/s and upto 58 mm/s and upto
of Cant upto maximum maximum of 60 maximum of 81
of 55 mm/s mm/s mm/s
Rate of change 35 mm/s and 50 mm/s and upto 64 mm/s and upto
of Cant upto maximum maximum of 60 maximum of 105
Deficiency of 55 mm/s mm/s mm/s
Cant Gradient 1 in 720 with 1 in 720 with 2.5 mm/m
maximum upto maximum upto 1
1 in 360 in 360
It can be seen that revised curve parameter values are in line with International
Standards

3. Effect of Increase in Cant:

3.1 The maximum possible speed on existing curve is given by:
Vmax = 0.27*SQRT(R*(Ca+Cd))
Where Ca=13.76*Vg^2/R+Cex
Vmax = 0.27*SQRT(R*(13.76*Vg^2/R+Cex+Cd))
Therefore, by increasing Vg, Cex and Cd, the speed on existing
curve can be increased.
However, Ca, max is limited by:
Ca, max=13.76* Vg^2/R + Cex
3.2 For booked speed of goods train of 65kmph, the effect of
increasing Ca from 165mm to 185mm only would be as follows:
Table-1
(Cd=100 mm, Cex=75 mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/Rcd=35 mm/s)
Increase
Degree Radius Ca=165mm Ca=185mm
Vp
Design Desirable Design Desirable
Vp Vp (Kmph)
Ca TL Ca TL
No
0.5 3500 90 180 220 90 180 220
Change
No
1 1750 105 140 160 105 140 160
Change
No
1.5 1166.67 120 130 135 120 130 135
Change

273
 No
2 875 140 140 120 140 140 120
Change
No
2.5 700 155 140 110 155 140 110
Change
No
3 583.33 165 140 105 170 150 105
Change
3.5 500 165 130 95 185 150 100 5
4 437.5 165 120 90 185 150 95 5
The lesser speed of goods train prevents achieving the full cant and thus
maximum speed potential of curve.
3.3 However, by increasing the speed of Goods train, advantage of
increasing Ca can be achieved on sharper curves. Speed potential of
curves for different booked speed of goods train for Max Ca=185mm,
Cd=100mm, Cex= 75mm Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/Rcd = 35 mm/s
is summarised as:
Table-2
De- Radius Vg=65 Vg=75 Vg=90 Vg=100
gree (m)
Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP
TL TL TL TL
0.5 3500 90 180 220 95 170 220 105 190 225 110 210 230
1 1750 105 140 160 115 160 165 135 190 170 150 210 175
1.5 1166.67 120 130 135 140 160 140 170 210 150 185 230 155
2 875 140 140 120 160 160 125 185 200 130 185 200 130
2.5 700 155 140 110 185 180 120 185 180 120 185 180 120
3 583.33 170 140 105 185 170 110 185 170 110 185 170 110
For booked speed of 65kmph, there is no advantage of proposed increased cant
limit of 185mm even for curve upto 3 degree. With increase in booked speed of
goods trains, this advantage can be achieved upto curves of 3 degree for speed
of 75kmph, upto curves of 2 degree for 90kmph, upto curve of 1.5 degree for
100kmph. It is observed that:
(i) By increasing the speed of goods train, speed on flatter curves can be
increased by 5/10kmph, though limit of 185mm is not attained on these
curves. However, transition length would also require to be increased to
achieve more speed.
(ii) As booked speed of goods train is increased, the revised limit of cant of
185mm can be utilised on sharper curves and permissible speed is also

274
 increased. However, transition length would also require to be increased
to achieve more speed.
(iii) The advantage of increasing cant can be taken for new works (new line/
Gauge conversion/ multi track) or with possibility of increasing transition
length for existing works.
(iv) There is need to increase the speed of goods train to get the maximum
benefit of revision of limit of maximum Cant.

4. Effect of Increase in Cant deficiency:

4.1 Considering the mixed traffic conditions of IR and booked speed
of goods train as 65kmph, the maximum permissible speed on
different curves for works with no limitation of transition length
for Cd of 100mm and 150mm respectively would be as follows:
Table-3
(Vg-65kmph, Ca=165mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/Rcd=35
mm/s)
De- Radius Cd=100mm Cd=150mm Increase
gree Vp
Design Desirable Vp Design Desirable Vp
Ca TL Ca TL
0.5 3500 90 180 220 90 290 245 25
1 1750 105 140 160 105 220 180 20
1.5 1166.67 120 130 135 120 180 150 15
2 875 140 140 120 140 160 135 15
2.5 700 155 140 110 155 150 120 10
3 583.33 165 140 105 165 160 115 10
3.5 500 165 130 95 165 140 105 10
4 437.5 165 120 90 165 140 100 10
With increase in cant deficiency, speed on curves can be increased by 15/10
kmph. However, transition length would require to be increased for curves.
In new works (new line/ Gauge conversion/ multi track) or with possibility of
increasing transition length for existing works, advantage of higher Cd can be
achieved as larger transition length may be provided.

275
 4.2 The effect of Increase in Cd only (i.e. Cd=150mm) for different
booked speed of goods train would be as follows:
Table-4
(Ca- 165mm, Cd- 150mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/Rcd=35
mm/s)
De- Radius Vg=65 Vg=75 Vg=90 Vg=100
gree (m)
Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP Ca Des. VP
TL TL TL TL
0.5 3500 90 290 245 95 310 250 100 300 250 100 300 250
1 1750 105 220 180 115 210 180 135 230 190 150 240 195
1.5 1166.67 120 180 150 140 180 155 165 220 160 165 220 160
2 875 140 160 135 160 180 140 165 190 140 165 190 140
2.5 700 155 150 120 165 170 125 165 170 125 165 170 125
3 583.33 165 160 115 165 160 115 165 160 115 165 160 115
3.5 500 165 140 105 165 140 105 165 140 105 165 140 105
4 437.5 165 140 100 165 140 100 165 140 100 165 140 100
By increasing the booked speed of goods train to 75kmph, permissible speed
on flatter curves (upto 2.5 degree) can be increased by 5 kmph. It can further
be increased by 5kmph upto 1.5 degree curve, if booked speed is increased to
90kmph. However, transition length on curve is also getting increased with
increasing the booked speed of goods train.
4.3 On existing lines, there may not be possibility of increasing the
transition length as land acquisition may be required. Considering
this, on routes having sectional speed of 130kmph (assuming
that desirable transition length for 130kmph is not available and
minimum transition length has been provided with 130kmph),
effect of higher Cd for booked speed of goods train of 65kmph and
75kmph would be as follows:
Table-5
Sectional Speed 130kmph
(Ca-165mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 360, Rca/Rcd=55 mm/s)

276
 Increase Vp
Cd=100mm Cd=150mm
(Kmph)
De-
Radius Min TL Ca Vp Ca Vp Vg= Vg=
gree
(As per 130 Ca Vp 65 75
kmph) Vg= 65 kmph Vg= 75 kmph kmph kmph
0.5 3500 50 55 130 60 130 60 130 NA NA
1 1750 70 35 130 90 130 90 130 NA NA
1.5 1166.67 70 100 130 100 130 100 130 NA NA
2 875 90 140 120 135 130 135 130 10 10
2.5 700 100 155 110 155 120 155 120 10 10
3 583.33 100 165 105 165 115 165 115 10 10
3.5 500 90 165 95 160 105 160 105 10 10
4 437.5 80 165 90 155 95 155 95 5 5
If transition length is kept same, speed of 10 kmph can be increased on 2 degree
to 3.5 degree and 5kmph on 4 degree curve.
4.4 Further, the speed is being increased to 160kmph. In case of
increasing sectional speed to 160kmph, the effect of higher Cd on
curves, keeping the minimum transition length same as 130kmph,
would be as follows:
Table-6
Sectional Speed 160kmph
(Ca-165mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 360, Rca/Rcd=55 mm/s)
Cd=100mm Cd=150mm Increase Vp
Min Ca Vp Ca Vp
Degree Radius TL (as Vg= 65 Vg= 75
Ca Vp
per 130 Vg= 65kmph Vg= 75kmph kmph kmph
kmph)
0.5 3500 50 55 160 60 160 60 160 NA NA
1 1750 70 90 150 90 150 90 150 No No
effect effect
1.5 1166.67 70 100 130 100 130 100 130 No No
effect effect
2 875 90 135 120 135 130 135 130 10 10
2.5 700 100 155 110 155 120 155 120 10 10
3 583.33 100 165 105 165 115 165 115 10 10
3.5 500 90 165 95 160 105 160 105 10 10

277
 4 437.5 80 165 90 155 95 155 95 5 5

If transition length is kept same, speed of 10 kmph can be increased on 2 degree

to 3.5 degree and 5kmph on 4 degree curve.

5. Expected benefit on existing curves in terms of transition length by

revising limiting values of Rca/Rcd and Cant gradient:
5.1 The minimum transition length required for achieving full potential
equal to that of circular curve for Rca and Rcd as 35 mm/s and cant
gradient as 1 in 720 is.
Table-7
Length of Transition Required for maximum potential of curve within
IRPWM limits
Length of Transition
D R Vmax Ca Cd Grade 1 Rca- 35 Rcd= 35
Desirable L
in 720 mm/s mm/s
0.5 3500 260 165 100 118.8 340.47 206.34 350
1 1750 180 165 90 118.8 235.71 128.57 240
1.5 1166.67 150 165 100 118.8 196.42 119.04 200
2 875 130 165 100 118.8 170.23 103.17 180
2.5 700 115 165 95 118.8 150.59 86.70 160
3 583.33 105 165 95 118.8 137.5 79.16 140

5.2 The minimum transition length by changing Rca and Rcd to 50

mm/s and cant gradient of 1 in 720 is.
Table-8
Transition for Rca and Rcd as 50 mm/s for the same curve as per IRPWM
Length of Transition
D R Vmax Ca Cd Grade 1 Rca- Rcd-
Desirable L
in 720 50mm/s 50mm/s
0.5 3500 260 165 100 118.8 238.33 144.44 240
1 1750 180 165 90 118.8 165 90 170
1.5 1166.67 150 165 100 118.8 137.5 83.33 140
2 875 130 165 100 118.8 119.17 72.22 120

278
 2.5 700 115 165 95 118.8 105.42 60.69 120
3 583.33 105 165 95 118.8 96.25 55.42 120

5.3 Reduction in requirement of transition length by changing Rca &

Rcd from 35 mm/s to 50 mm/s is tabulated below (Calculated from
7.1 and 7.2):
Table-9
IRPWM Revised
Reduction
D R Requirement Requirement
L1 L2 ΔL(m)
0.5 3500 350 240 100
1 1750 240 170 70
1.5 1166.667 200 140 60
2 875 180 120 60
2.5 700 160 120 40
3 583.3333 140 120 20
From the above it can be seen that by changing Rca and Rcd itself, the
requirement of transition length has reduced and this will help in increasing
the speed on existing curve with length of transition provided based on existing
IRPWM provision.
5.4 For mixed traffic conditions and considering maximum Ca as
185mm, Cd as 150mm and booked speed of goods train as 65kmph,
the effect of increasing Rca, Rcd from IRPWM provision of 35mm/s
to 50 mm/s (desirable transition length) would be as follows:
Table-10
(Ca-185mm, Cd-150mm, Cex-75mm. Vg- 65kmph)
De-
Rca, Rcd as 35mm/s Rca, Rcd as 50mm/s
Radius crease
Degree
(m) Design Desira- Design Desira-
Vp Vp TL (m)
Ca ble TL Ca ble TL
0.5 3500 90 290 245 90 200 245 90
1 1750 105 220 180 105 180 180 40
1.5 1166.67 120 180 150 120 120 150 60
2 875 140 160 135 140 110 135 50

279
 2.5 700 155 150 120 155 120 120 30
3 583.33 170 160 115 170 130 115 30
3.5 500 185 170 110 185 140 110 30
4 437.5 185 150 100 185 140 100 10
Maximum permissible speed on curve is same, i.e. Rca, RCd has no effect on
increase in speed. However, requirement of Transition length get reduced with
increase in Rca and Rcd.

6. Overall effect in permissible speed with Revised parameters:

On considering the revised parameters, Ca as 185mm, Cd as 150mm and
Rca/ Rcd as 50mm/s (increased upto 60mm/s), the permissible speed on
curves would be as follows:
6.1 New Line/ Existing line (having possibility to increase the transition
length):
(i) For booked speed of goods train of 65kmph:
Table-11
(IRPWM Parameter: Ca-165mm Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/
Rcd=35 mm/s
Revised Parameter: Ca-185mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 720, Rca/
Rcd=50 mm/s)
Parameters as per
Revised parameters In-
IRPWM
De- crease
Radius Desir- Desir-
gree Design Design Vp
able Vp able Vp (Kmph)
Ca Ca
TL TL
0.5 3500 90 180 220 90 200 245 25
1 1750 105 140 160 105 150 180 20
1.5 1166.67 120 130 135 120 120 150 15
2 875 140 140 120 140 110 135 15
2.5 700 155 140 110 155 120 120 10
3 583.33 165 140 105 170 130 115 10
3.5 500 165 130 95 185 140 110 15
4 437.5 165 120 90 185 140 100 10
It can be seen that with increase in Ca, Cd and Rca/Rcd, higher speed of 10/15
kmph can be achieved on curves. Transition length requirement is increased
280
for curve flatter than 1 degree and sharper than 3 degree. However, it is reduced
for 1.5 degree to 3 degree. The increase and decrease of transition length is only
of 10-20 m which can be achieved at site as shift required at crown for 1 km
long curve will be even less than 100 mm.

(ii) For booked speed of goods train of 75kmph:

Table-12
De- Radius Parameters as per Revised parameters Increase
gree IRPWM
Design Desira- Vp Design Desira- Vp Vp
Ca ble TL Ca ble TL (Kmph)
0.5 3500 90 180 220 90 200 245 25
1 1750 105 140 160 115 140 180 20
1.5 1166.67 120 130 135 140 130 155 20
2 875 140 140 120 160 130 140 20
2.5 700 155 140 110 185 140 130 20
3 583.33 165 140 105 185 140 115 10
3.5 500 165 130 95 185 140 110 15
4 437.5 165 120 90 185 140 100 10

By increasing the booked speed of goods train to 75kmph, speed can be

increased by additional 5 kmph on curves upto 2.5 degree in comparison to
goods speed of 65kmph. This advantage can be achieved on new/ existing
works, where larger transition length can be provided.
6.2 Existing Lines (With no possibility of increase in transition
length): Some existing lines may have constraint in increasing the
transition length. In such cases, speed potential on various degree
of curve would be as follows (It is assumed that minimum transition
length (not desirable) in accordance with 130kmph speed could
be provided and maximum speed is proposed to be increased to
160kmph):
For booked speed of goods train of 65 and 75kmph:

281
 Table-13
(Old Parameter: Ca-165mm Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 360, Rca/
Rcd=55 mm/s
Revised Parameter: Ca-185mm, Cex=75mm, Cant Gradient- 1 in 360, Rca/
Rcd=60 mm/s)
Parameters as per
Revised parameters Increase Vp
IRPWM
Mini- Ca Vp Ca Vp
De- mum
Radius Vg= Vg=
gree TL (As
Ca Vp Vg= Vg= 65 75
per
65kmph 75kmph kmph kmph
130
kmph)
0.5 3500 50 55 160 60 160 65 160 NA NA
1 1750 70 90 150 95 155 95 155 5 5
1.5 1166.67 70 100 130 110 135 110 135 5 5
2 875 90 135 120 140 130 140 130 10 10
2.5 700 100 155 110 155 120 165 125 10 15
3 583.33 100 165 105 170 115 185 115 10 10
3.5 500 90 165 95 170 105 170 105 10 10
4 437.5 80 165 90 165 100 165 100 10 10
In such cases with revised parameters, speed can be increased by 5kmph on
curves 1 to 1.5 degree and by 10kmph on curves sharper than 1.5 degree.
Increase of booked speed of goods train to 75kmph also does not has significant
effect as speed on 2 degree curve only is being increased by 5 more kmph.

7. Issues and Challenges:

7.1 Higher Cant:
7.1.1 Limit of maximum cant has been increased from 165mm to
185mm. However, extra clearance on curves for structures on
A, B and C routes of IR is expected to be provided for 165mm
cant except in case of Group A routes having potential for
increase in speed, where extra clearance have been provided
considering 185mm cant. On other routes, it has been
provided with 140mm. Thus, increase in maximum cant
value will have repercussions on structures which have been
provided based on maximum cant value of 165mm on Group
282
 B routes and many of the Group A routes.
7.1.2 Same issues will be encountered with regard to transition
length, as planning and layout of curves catering to 185mm
cant is limited to Group A routes only as per IRPWM.
7.1.3 Extra maintenance efforts will be required to maintain higher
cant value on account of:
a. Rolling of ballast, causing loss of lateral resistance and
consequent alignment problems,
b. Flattening of inner rail head, due to the cant in the track
countering the effect of 1 in 20 slopes given to the rail
table to suit coning of wheels.
c. In standing/slow speed situation, excess force is exerted
on the inner rail causing flattening of inner rail head
7.1.4 Increase in cant on existing track of Group A and B routes
to 185mm should be considered on case to case basis with
the approval of Chief Engineer based on clearance study and
feasibility of increasing the transition length with/without
acquisition of land. Tighter inspection regime on such curves
should also be considered.
7.1.5 In case of new lines and multi tracking projects, the
enhancement can be implemented subject to availability of
land and/or feasibility of acquisition of land keeping in view
progress and timelines of the project.
7.2 Higher Cant deficiency:
7.2.1 Cant deficiency limit has been increased to 150mm. Increase
in cant deficiency limit i.e allowing vehicle to negotiate
curve at higher cant deficiency will require better suspension
for passengers coaches so that the discomfort caused to
passengers are within acceptable limits.
7.2.2 Since comfort level will ultimately depend on the vehicle and
track interaction, it is important that the vehicles are tested
for comfort level of passengers by conducting trial before
permitting such speed.
7.2.3 With increase in Cant deficiency, lateral force on outer
rail would increase and lateral stability of track may get
destabilised. These values would depend on rolling stock
design and characteristics like axle load, suspension system,

283
 unsprung mass etc. At present on IR, there is no practice
of measuring vertical and lateral forces in coaches during
oscillation trials. Therefore, permitted Cd values were also on
conservative side. As Cd values increase, vertical and lateral
forces become increasingly important. Accordingly, for
permitting higher Cd of 150mm, rolling stock test scheme as
per EN-14363 should be followed including measurement of
lateral and vertical forces and quasi static guiding forces. Only
nominated rolling stock qualifying the criteria stipulated in
EN 14363 should be allowed higher cant deficiency upto
150mm based on trial results.
7.2.4 RDSO has conducted mock/oscillation trials recently with
Instrumented Measuring Wheel (IMW) on LHB design
AC-2 tier coach (LWACCW) and LHB design high capacity
Parcel Van coach (LVPH) on FIAT bogies as per EN:14363
with cant deficiency of 115mm. It is observed that values of
sum of lateral forces and quasi static guiding force are less
than limits specified in EN 14363 with enough margin. It is
therefore, expected that there is scope to increase the cant
deficiency for LHB coaches, however, further trials need to be
conducted to find out limit upto which Cd can be permitted.
Similarly, during trial with WAP5 locomotive with IMW as
per EN:14363 with cant deficiency of 115mm, the sum of
lateral forces was within limit but quasi static guiding force got
exceeded than EN limits. Therefore, higher cant deficiency
of 150mm have been permitted only for nominated stock
subject to validation after oscillation trials in accordance with
EN standards.
7.2.5 Presently, cant deficiency of 100mm/75mm is permitted based
on oscillation trials conducted on curves and acceptance in
term of 3rd report of Standing Criteria Committee. Based on
such trials, cant deficiency of 75mm is permitted for wagons,
track machines and cant deficiency of 100mm is permitted
only for nominated coaches and locomotives. All other
coaches and Locomotive (other than nominated stock) are
permitted 75mm cant deficiency.
7.2.6 With different Cd for wagons, coaches and locomotive
(normal stock) vis a vis nominated coaches and locomotive,
speed potential of any particular curve would be different for

284
 different types of rolling stocks. The difference of speed may
be upto 15/20kmph for new line and 5/10kmph for existing
lines. Therefore, suitable measures would be necessary for
guidance of operating officials to follow correct speed for
particular rolling stock to ensure safety at curves. To ensure
that permissible speed is not exceeded, separate speed
restriction boards for Goods/ normal stock and ‘nominated’
stock respectively to be provided on each such curves where
restriction is to be imposed
7.3 Higher rate of change of cant / cant deficiency:
7.3.1 The rate of change of cant and cant deficiency is restricted
on the basis of comfort criteria. Since IR is having parabolic
transition with linear change of versine, the rate of change
of cant and that of cant deficiency will cause same level of
discomfort. The values of rate of change of cant and cant
deficiency have been increased to 50 mm/s in normal case
and upto maximum of 60 mm/s in Exceptional case. These
values are within limiting value of unbalanced lateral
acceleration and permissible values of other railways. In case
of curves with virtual transition, the existing limits of 35mm/s
(Normal) and 55mm/s (Exceptional) shall continue.

8. Conclusion:
8.1 With revised limiting values of maximum Cant, Cant Deficiency,
Rate of Change of Cant and Rate of change of Cant Deficiency,
permissible speed on curves is likely to increase by 10 to 20kmph.
It will contribute in reduction in running time and maintain higher
speed for longer stretches. However, most of these revisions are
likely to impact the comfort level and track loading. All these are
based on the condition that the rolling stock also meets the EN
standards which may require improvement in rolling stock design.
Considering this, higher speed shall be permitted for ‘nominated
stock’ found satisfactory during oscillation trial.
8.2 To ensure that permissible speed is not exceeded, separate speed
restriction boards for Goods/ normal stock and ‘nominated’ stock
respectively to be provided on each such curves where restriction is
to be imposed.

285
References:
1. Indian Railways Permanent Way Manual, June- 2020.
2. EN 13803:2017; Railway applications- Track- Track alignment design
parameters- Track gauge 1435mm and wider
3. EN: 14363: 2016: Railway applications — Testing and Simulation for the
acceptance of running characteristics of railway vehicles — Running
Behaviour and stationary tests.

286
 Performance Analysis and Improvements
on High Output Ballast Cleaning Machine
(HOBCM) Over Western Railway
Raju Prabhakar Bhadke1, Vaibhav Saklecha2
& Chitranjan Phalke3

SYNOPSIS
India has more than 1.20 lakh kms of Railway Track. The ballast bed fulfils
important function as the resilience between sleepersand formation. Over the year,
these tracks require ballast cleaning. Due to presence of bad formation, ballast
attrition, excessiverainfall and dropping of fines and ore, ballast gets choked
up and track drainage is impaired. In such situations, it becomes necessary to
screen the entire ballast right up to the formation level /sub-ballast level. Further,
through screening restores the resilience and elasticity of the ballast bed, resulting
in improved running quality of track.Approximately 14765 kms of main line
track and 14881 main line turnouts are due for deep screening. More than 165
nos. RM80-92U machines are already running in Indian Railway. The output of
RM80-92U is 550 cum per effective hour which comes out to be average 200 m
per effective hour. For the year of 2022-23 the target for deep screening by BCMs is
6642 kms of plain track and 5790 numbers of turnouts. To increase the output of
deep screening and to wipe out the backlog of deep screening High Output BCMs
(HOBCM / RM 900) were introduced. HOBCM is capable to do deep screening
of 900 cu m of ballast per effective hour. Salient features of High output BCM, its
working, functionality, challenges faced while working on IR track, improvement
done, improvement required and other issues are discussed in the detail for better
appreciation in this paper.

1. Introduction:
High output BCM introduced in the Indian Railways to improve the work
output of deep screening of ballast. There are four HOBCM working in
Indian Railways. The second machine was supplied to Western Railway
1
Chief Engineer Track Machine, Western Railway,
2
Deputy Chief Engineer Track Machine, Vatva, Western Railway,
3
SSE Track Machine Ratlam, Western Railway

287
 which was commissioned in July 2021. The salient features of the machine
are as under;
 Overall length- 77370 mm
 Overall height- 4255 mm
 Overall width- 3204 mm
 Total weight- 284 tons
 Total no. of bogies- 7 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
 Total no. of wheel sets- 14
 Total no. of powered bogies- 4 (1, 2, 6, 7)
 Total no. of Conveyor belts- 11 (Excavation conveyors- A1, A2, A3;
Waste conveyor- B1, B2, B3; Distribution conveyor- C1 LHS, C1
RHS, C2, C3 LHS, C3 RHS)
 Main Engines- Two CAT C 27 for driving and working
 Genset – CAT C 4.4 for power supply and CAN system
The specialty of HOBCMis it can deliver the screened/ new track as per
the track parameters of the old track. This is very important and useful
while working in curves. The system consists of 5 numbers of measuring
trollies with lining transducers and chord wires. These trollies are
mounted at suitable places on the machine frame. First three measuring
trollies record the old track parameters and other trollies helps clamp
1 and clamp 2 to deliver the new track as per the old track parameters
with the help of an encoder which measures the forward and reverse
distances moved by the machine and compensates the new track using
PIC software of the machine. There is inbuilt DTS unit after clamp 2
which consolidate the track after ballast filling and after delivering the
track parameters by clamp 1 & 2.

2. Comparison of technical specifications of RM 80 92 U and HOBCM

(RM 900):
Parameter RM 80 – 92U HOBCM (RM 900)
Screening 550 cu m per hour 900 cu m per hour
Capacity
Shovel size 250 mm 350 mm
Screen Units 1 2
Conveyors 4 11

288
 DTS unit Not Available Available
Lifting and 1 2
lining unit
Plough Fixed type Plough unit is with
profiling unit
No. of Cabins 2 4
Inclination Only screen unit Complete frame inclination
inclination is available
Control of No automatic control of There is automatic control
conveyors conveyors system of conveyors
Chain Single motor-powered Double motor-powered
movement chain chain

Major changes which have improved the output and performance of

HOBCM (RM 900) over the RM 80-92U
1) RM 80 ballast cleaning machine which features a single screening
unit with a screen surface of 30 m2, offers a cleaning output of 550
m3/h whereas HOBCM has double screening unit with surface area
of 2 x 23 m2, offers a cleaning output of 900 m3/h.

2) In HOBCM screening output and quality is raised by application

of a grid screen whereby metal grids are positioned in a cascading
fashion.

289
 3) Chain speed is higher as power by dual motor , this helps in
achieving the screening of 900 cum per hour.
4) Track Stabilizer with Lining, Lifting and Ballast Profiling Unit is
available to achieve nearly the same track parameters nearly same
as before screening along with consolidation of track.

3. Working procedure of HOBCM-

 The HOBCM excavates the ballast bed material from underneath

the sleepers by means of a guided scraper chain type excavation
unit. This excavation chain is guided under the track skeleton by a
rigid cutter bar to provide an exact plain cut.
 The chains of the ballast bed cleaning machines consist essentially

290
 of scraper blades having 3 fingers, intermediate links and bolts. The
fingers loosen the encrusted material from the bedding.
 The Excavated ballast goes to Hopper H1 & then to excavation
conveyor Belt (A1, A2 & A3) automatically.
 The conveyor belts transport the excavated material to the double
screening unit. The triple-deck screens separate the material
according to particle size. (S1 & S2)
 The cleaned ballast is returned to the track behind the excavating
chain via Distribution conveyors – C1(LHS), C1(RHS), C2, C3 LHS
& C3 RHS and hopper H2. The ballast stones are distributed over
the cross section of the track skeleton by swivel type conveyor belts
and plough shields.
 Spoil material (Muck) is transported form the screen unit via B1-
B2-B3 conveyor belts to the front end of the machine.
 Track parameters are being maintained using Clamp C1 and clamp
C2 as they were before deep screening.
 DTS unit behind clamp C2 do the consolidation of track

4. Working of HOBCM on IR track-

Progress of HOBCM working in Western Railways has been analysed
and following are the main observations;
A) The capacity of deep screening of HOBCM RM 900 is 900 cu m per
hour which is 1.64 times the deep screening capacity of BCM RM

291
 80 92U, HOBCM is having cutting depth of 350 mm whereas BCM
is having cutting depth of 250 mm, however the progress of deep
screening of HOBCM per effective hourachieved is 1.8 to 2.1 times
the progress of BCM in per effective hour.
In WR blocks of 5:30 hours have been done in which progress of
2122 meters of deep screening was achieved. The effective time of
working in this block was 04:30 hours, progress per effective hour
achieved was 471 meters.

B) Progress per block hours was also analysed, the progress of HOBCM
RM 900 is ranging from 1.2 to 2.2 times the progress of BCM RM
80 92 U in per block hour. The variation is due to various reasons
which will be discussed in detail later in this paper.

292
Factors affecting progress of HOBCM RM 900-
The progress of all the blocks have been analysed along with reason
of less progress for a period of one year, following major factors
have been found;
1) Obstructions- In around 60 % of blocks where progress
was adversely affected, there were time losses of more than
15 minutes due to various obstructions found in the ballast
cushion. Mostly these obstructions were rail posts, boulders,
Signaling cable etc. HOBCM should invariably be deployed
in sections where BCMs have worked earlier.
2) Limited Scope- HOBCM has the limitation that it cannot do
deep screening of turnouts. In23% of blocks where progress
was adversely affected,the machine had to stop due to limited
scope as there were girder bridges or turnouts ahead. To
optimize the use of HOBCM one normal BCM RM 80-92U
shall be kept in the group of HOBCM which will tackle small
stretches and turnouts.
3) achine Failure- There were machine failures during the block
which mainly consist of tearing out of conveyor due to sharp
metal pieces, bending of conveyor supports due to boulders.
There were some incidences of malfunctioning of module of
machine. In 14% of blocks time loss was there due to machine
failure.

293
5. Works done to improve working of HOBCM and to reduce
maintenance efforts and idling of machine-
A) Improvement (Cost saving) done in Machine to reduce
maintenance:-
1) Corner roller which is costing 5.87 lakhs, need to be changed
after working of around 12 kms. There are three corner
rollers installed in the machine. These corner rollers life have
been increased by changing the bushes which are in body
of chain trough, after replacement of bushes in time, corner
rollers always remain in alignment which resulted in getting
optimum life of this part. These set of bushes are costing
around Rs. 3000 and only 30 minutes time is required for
replacement. These bushes are being replaced every month to
increase life of corner rollers. With this improvement, life of
Corner rollers is increased to three times i.e. around 45 kms.

294
2) Screen ballast plough unit near clamp 2 wears out frequently
by direct hitting of ballast. Additional rubber has been
provided over the plate on plough unit, with this wearing of
plough unit has been reduced.

295
 3) Frame body near A1 hopper damaged due to ballast
overflowed from the hopper H1. Rubber unit has been pasted
over the frame to avoid failure/breakage of frame.

4) To overcome the dusty atmosphere, Water Sprinklersystem

was required. OEM was approached forinstallation of
sprinkler system. Offer for installation ofSprinkler system
costing Rs. 59 lakhswas received. Sprinklersystem has been
prepared in house and installed on the machine, costing
about Rs. 50,000/-.

5) To adjust elongation of conveyor belts additional provision

of distance pieces has been done in A-1 belt. This has
reducedchances of misalignment due to elongation, early
replacement, additional cutting and jointing.

296
6) Hot joints of conveyor belts have been replaced at the time of
replacement of belts by cold joints which resulted into cost
saving, time saving.
7) Instead of securing rings provided in chain for chisels, Allen
bolt with self-locking nut have been provided. These bolts
protect chisels from dropping out during block and also
decreases time consumed in replacement of chisels.
Improvement done in working operations of HOBCM - 56549.
1) Clamp 2 opens at AT and FB Weld joints and at that location
there were chances of disturbance of alignment and levels.
About 14-15 sleepers i.e. about 8.5m track length is having
no ballast and only supported on clamp 2 after delinking of
chain till charged ballast is filled in hence in case of opening
of clamp 2 the track alignment as well as long level gets
disturbed. As interim measure, marking of weld joints has
started with that sudden opening of clamp 2 will be avoided.
2) Ramp-in & Ramp - out system adopted to improve
longitudinal levels at end of the work.
3) During Re-ballasting special attention is being given to avoid

297
 buckling or sudden sag in the track.
4) Chain linking/drinking is being done at the same locationwith
the help of marking done on, this reduced time loss for chain
linking/delinking.
Further following improvements are required for better
working of the machine;
a) For proper functioning of clamp 2 without disturbing
the alignment, Clamp 2 should be modified. Two sets
of clamp rollers shall be provided on each rail so that
in case one set of roller opens at obstruction, other set
remain in closed position holding the rail. About 14-
15 sleepers i.e. about 8.5m track length is having no
ballast and only supported on clamp 2 after delinking of
chain till charged ballast is filled in.In case of opening
of clamp 2 the track alignment as well as long level gets
disturbed. Clamp-2 holds the track just ahead of ballast
distributing unit hence it is under dynamic loading till
ballast is filled. It is desirable to provide double clamp
rollers in clamp-2 for firmly holding the track.
b) C-1 (LHS and RHS) and B-1 conveyor belts are riveted
type and there is no proper window available in the
channel to inspect the supports. In case any support
gets bend then that may damage the belts and for
replacement of belts machine needs to be idle for
minimum three days. Tracks of conveyor belts are
supported on bolts, in case of breakage of any bolt,
track get disturbed due to which support movement
gets hindered and hit the conveyor belts and conveyor
belts get damaged. It is recommended to provide proper
inspection windows on both side of frame of conveyor
belts and system to check the condition of supports and
also to repair/ replacement of any support.
c) HOBCM works on CAN communication system and
if CAN system fails then emergency backup system
also does not work and machine cannot be moved on
its own. Emergency backup system shall be provided
which will not work on CAN communication system.
d) The calibration of measuring system disturbs
frequently and there is no anysystem to check this
298
 during maintenance. Due to disturbance of calibration,
track parameters getdisturbed and this may lead to
unsafe track. There were cases of failure of sensors.
Whileworking in the block if any sensor failed then it
takes time to trace the defective sensor andrectification
also takes time. Sometimes it is not possible to rectify
in the block. System is required to check the status of
calibration in siding and also indication shall come for
any defective sensor.

6. Conclusion
1. To achieve high quality of cleaning of ballast along with maximum output,
HOBCM can be regarded as having proper excavating unit, measuring
and control system, screening unit and ballasting and muck disposal.
2. Looking into the Indian Track condition, some improvements have been
done to increase the output of machine and to reduce the downtime of
machine, also improvements have been done to get the track parameters
after deep screening within limits. HOBCM excavates 350 mm depth
which results into 350 mm clean cushion. The machine has consolidation
unit also inbuilt with which it is possible to get the track fit for 40kmph
after deep screening however some modifications are suggested in this
paper on the basis of failures happened in WR.
3. It can be seen through the above analysis that the Losses in the Output
of Machine are attributable to various factors ranging from improper
planning, Obstructions and machine failures. These account for huge
losses. Even during working, the rise is ineffective time is a matter of grave
concern which needs to be examined more closely and then analysing the
same for better appreciation and zeroing on the root cause of the loss in
effective hours of block.
4. Output of HOBCM can be significantly improved to a great extent by
meticulous planning, propermonitoring, strictly ensuring pre-requisites
for ballast cleaning, better co-ordination amongvarious concerned
departments, giving innovative inputs and deploying trained and skilled
staffto operate the machines.

299
300
 Comprehensive Analysis of Curve Flattening
and Yard Remodeling for speed raising using
Drone Surveys
Swapnil Chaurasia1

ABSTRACT
Alignments of almost all major routes in Indian Railways were planned and
designed more than 100 years ago. Prevailing speeds during those times was
much lower than what Indian Railways is now aspiring to achieve. Thus, all
the major routes have various sharp curves, high gradients, and yardswith
space constraints. All these constraints are the biggest hurdles in achieving the
desired high speeds aspired by Indian Railways.
Curves have the biggest impact as they constitute roughly 20% to 30% of the
sectional length and come in frequent intervals. Curves which could not be
flattened or redesigned to suit for the higher speeds would lead to PSRs in
those locations. Thus, for raising sectional speeds and reducing travel time,
it is paramount to also work on reducing the PSRs. It is a major challenge for
Indian railways to increase the sectional speeds on the existing infrastructure.
It requires a comprehensive study and planning by all departments to achieve
the best outcome.
Keywords: Increasing speeds in railways, curve realignment, graphical analysis,
AutoCAD, Photogrammetric Surveys and its application, GIS

1 Introduction
The desired results of speed raising in Indian Railways require large
scale curve easing and realignment. The first task is to find out the
speed potential of the existing curves as per the latest provisions (CS10
of IRPWM) of Indian Railways. Methodology of calculating the speed
potential of an existing curve is explained in section 6.6.3 of “Railway
Curves” book by IRICEN (4th edition).A railway curve comprises of 2
parts, viz-a-viz circular curve, and transition curve. IRICEN software
“SetUpCurves” is a very useful to give the final value of the speed potential
of curve. The basic principles behind calculation of the speed potential is
discussed here. The speed potential of the complete curve depends on the
individual speed potential in these 2 parts.
1
Sr. DEN/Central/Hubli, SouthWestern Railway

301
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of actual
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ate of introduction of actual cant criteria 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056⇒×𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎=×0.0056 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
:Rate of introduction ⇒ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
⇒ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 = of cant 2 deficiency
0.0056 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶criteria 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
⇒
0.0056 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 = × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
ate of introduction of𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿cant = 0.0056 deficiency
0.0056 ×
× 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × criteria
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3
troduction of cant deficiency criteria
ate of introduction of
iii V𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿3 : =
cant
Rate
deficiency
of introduction
criteria
0.0056 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ×of𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3cant deficiency criteria (1)
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
wever, Cd is not a constant 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 but a×variable 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3which depends (1) on the velocity (1)
(1)
( 1)
ever, C is not a constant However,but Cdaisvariable
not a constant which
2 butdepends
a variable on
which
thedepends on the
velocity
is not a dconstant butvelocity a variable which𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 depends
3 on the velocity
ever, Cd is not a constant𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶but 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +a𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶variable
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 which depends on the velocity
2 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
3
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
+ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 2
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 3 (2)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (2)
(2)
(2)
2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 2
⇒
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =− 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
3
− 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (3
( 3 )( 3 )
alue of Cd from equation (3) into equation (1).
romofequation
alue Cd from (3) Putting
equationintovalueequation
(3)of into (1).
Cd equation
from equation
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 2 (1). (3) into equation (1).
2 3
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 ×𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 �3 2 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =×0.0056 � ×− � 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
� × − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ×127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
0.0056 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 3
0.0056 3 × 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 3 3 − 0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0
0.0056 × 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 − 0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 3
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
− 0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
2 ax3+bx2+cx+d=0
cubic equationofaof
cubic equation
This is cubic
the the equation
form 3a𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥+ of3the+ 2form 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
+ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥++𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 0=0
3form a𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
tion of the 2
form a𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
where,
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0.0056
0.0056 ×× 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 0= 0𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = −0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎= −𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0.0056== × 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
= 127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
cubic 127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
cubic equation
equationisisrequired required to to arrive
arrive at the at value the value of theofVthe 3. Such
V3. cubic
Such equations
cubic equation
in
ation excelis using
required
in excel using 302 Cardano’s to arrive method, at
Cardano’s method, Newton Raphson the Newton
value Raphson
of the V method,
3 . Such Goal
cubic
method, GoalSeek feature
equations of
Seek feature o
ering iteration
Cardano’s method. Solution
method, of
Newton the above-mentioned
Raphson method, Goal cubic equation
Seek gives the value
featuregives
of the valu
er iteration method. Solution of the above-mentioned cubic equation
method. Solution of the above-mentioned cubic equation gives the value
 Putting value of Cd from equation (3) into equation (1).
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 2
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.0056 × � − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 � × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
0.0056 × 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 3
− 0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉3 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

This is a cubic equation of the form a𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

where,
Solution of a cubic equation is required to arrive at the value of the V3.
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Such cubic equations could be solved in excel using Cardano’s method,
0.0056 × 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −0.0056𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Newton Raphson = method, Goal Seek feature of𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 excel or any other
127𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
iteration method. Solution of the above-mentioned cubic equation gives
Solution of a cubic equation is required to arrive at the value of the V3. Such cubic equations
the value
could be solved of V3.
in excel using Cardano’s method, Newton Raphson method, Goal Seek feature of
excel or anySpeed
other iteration
potential method.
of theSolution
curve isofthethe minimum
above-mentioned of thecubic equation
three gives(V1,
velocities the value
of V3. V2,V3). After calculating the speed potential of the existing curve, we
Speed potential
can planofthe
the realignment
curve is the minimum of the
of curves threespeed
where velocities (V1, V2,V
potential ). After
is 3less thancalculating
the
the speed potential of the existing curve, we can plan the realignment of curves where speed
desired speed.
Table 1- Sample
Table calculation
1- Sample calculationofofspeed potential
speed potential of existing
of existing curves curves
Speed Speed Speed
Radius of the

Degree of the

Actual cant

Final Speed
curve (M)

Transition Potential Potential Potential

in mm
Curve

S. Between Curve Length Potential

length (In (Circular) (Ca) (Cd)
No Stations No. (m) (Minimum of
Metres) V1, V2, V3)
V1 V2 V3

1 KJG-SVNR 1 1061.0 1.65 90 513.50 100 121.23 138.89 120 120.00

2 KJG-SVNR 2 604.0 2.90 110 575.33 80 96.16 90.91 95 90.00
3 KJG-SVNR 3 604.0 2.90 110 506.97 80 96.16 90.91 95 90.00
4 KJG-SVNR 4 1951.0 0.90 50 377.86 80 146.06 200.00 130 130.00
5 KJG-SVNR 5 3018.0 0.58 30 506.05 40 169.12 166.67 120 120.00
6 SVNR-YLG 6 1850.0 0.95 30 759.00 100 132.41 416.67 130 130.00
7 SVNR-YLG 7 1581.0 1.11 30 599.00 60 122.41 250.00 105 105.00
8 SVNR-YLG 8 1170.0 1.50 80 526.77 100 123.91 156.25 120 120.00
potential is less than the desired speed.
potential is less than the desired speed.
2. CURVE REALIGNMENT
Curve
2 realignment
CURVE could be broadly classified into 2 categories:
REALIGNMENT
i. Modification of the existing
Curve realignment curve:beModification
could of the existing
broadly classified into 2curve does not require large
categories:
scale shifting or slewing of the track. Modification of curve includes works like increasing
cant,i increasing
Modification of length,
the transition the existing curve:
increasing ballastModification of the existing
cushion etc. Increasing the transition
length of the
curvecurve requires
does shifting of
not require curves
large scalelessshifting
than 1.0ormslewing
in general.of Such works are
the track.
generally feasible for implementation
Modification and do not
of curve includes worksrequire
likeextra works like
increasing construction
cant, increasing of new
formation, land acquisition etc.
ii. Redesign of thethetransition length,
existing curve: increasing
In complete ballast cushion
redesigning etc.curve,
of existing Increasing the the
we overhaul
transition length of the curve requires shifting of curves less
existing curve completely by changing the radius, transition length, alignment, formation than 1.0 etc.
Such works m inrequire comprehensive
general. Such works planning of land feasible
are generally acquisition, obligatory points (like
for implementation
bridges, turnouts
and doetc),notformation construction,
require extra worksmethodology of execution
like construction of new etc.formation,
However, some
land acquisition etc.
ii Redesign of the existing curve: In complete redesigning of existing
curve, we overhaul the existing curve completely by changing the
radius, transition length, alignment, formation etc. Such works
require comprehensive planning of land acquisition, obligatory
points (like bridges, turnouts etc), formation construction,
methodology of execution etc. However, some parameters of the

303
 curve like connecting straights, apex point, deflection angle are not
changed while redesigning of curves. These constant parameters
act as the guidelines while redesigning the curves.
Curve Realignment study is first carried out analytically based on the
curve parameters. The extent of work required (modification or redesign)
could be assessed from analytical studies. However, there are various
limitations to the analytical studies. Feasibility of carrying out the work
of curve redesign/modification on the field could not be ascertained
analytically. Graphical analysis by plotting the curves on AutoCAD after
carrying out field survey can overcome such limitations. We can obtain
the feasible solution of curve realignment. Execution of work should be
carried out only for the feasible solutions.
Benefits of Graphical solutions over analytical solutions
 Different obligatory points like P&C zones, bridges, OHE masts,
Signaling boxes, Land Boundary etc. are inherently incorporated in
the solution.
 Requirement of land acquisition could be easily calculated.
Location, area, length, type of land (built up or agricultural or
Forrest etc), all these details are available in graphical solution.
 It gives us the capability to visualize the solution.
 In case of curve realignment, many times we cannot achieve the
desired results (desired radius and transition length). In such cases,
we must decide the best possible solution which could be done by
trial and error. All such trial-and-error analysis could be done with
graphical solutions.
 Capability of looking at the problem at a glance with better
understanding of all the limiting features of the curve to arrive at a
more comprehensive solution.
It is necessary to carry out field surveys in both the kind of curve
realignment to identify all essential features and assess the quantum of
work. Most prominent method of field survey used in contemporary
times is Total Station survey. It plots the coordinates of the required
points and by connecting the obtained points, required geometry could
be produced in any CAD software like AutoCAD. In this paper, a new
methodology of carrying out field surveys using Unmanned Aerial
Systems (Drones) and its application in generating the geometry as per
the requirements of a railway engineer.

304
3 Photogrammetric survey using Unmanned Aerial Systems:
Photogrammetric survey using Unmanned Aerial Systems from now on
referred to as “Drone Survey” use hybrid technology to capture essential
ground features and assets on railway areas and develop a scale map with
following outputs:
a 5 cm resolution orthophoto Mosaic with clear visibility of all
features in ECW/TIFF Format (CAD Compatible).
b Topographical bas map of 1:500 scale covering all features but not
limited to buildings, tracks, platforms, yard boundary, electrical
mast, signals, FOBs, LC, RUB, ROB etc.
c Contours at 1M interval.
d Digital Elevation model with spatial resolution of 1 M.
In Sr. no. (a), ECW/TIFF files are generated of the required locations.
These high resolution ECW/TIFF files are an extremely powerful tools
which can be used by railway engineers in a myriad of applications which
generally requires total station and other surveying techniques. Some of
the application in railways where ECW/TIFF files could be opened are:
a Yard remodeling.
b Curve Realignment studies.
c Planning of alignment of new lines
d Land verification.
e Bridge works.
There is immense potential of use of Drone generated ECW files for
railways.These ECW files could be opener in most CAD software like
AutoCAD, Civil3D. Following are the steps for opening an ECW/TIFF
file:
a Insert command “MAPIINSERT”
b A window prompt for selecting the file will open.
c Open the location where ECW/TIFF files are saved
d Image correlation window will open, in which we can choose the
insertion values. The default insertion point will be as per the GIS
coordinates. Its preferable to choose the insertion point as the
default, so that other ECW files could be attached in the required
locations directly.

305
 ECW file will now open in the CAD software. Choose the scale of 1:1.00
for having meter as the default unit of measurement.

4 Curve Realignment Studies using Drone Survey:

4.1 Plotting of Existing curve:
For Curve Realignment Studies, ECW/TIFF files generated by
Drone Surveys should be opened in any AutoCAD as explained
in section 3. These files act as a canvas for accurately plotting the
required curve and other necessary features as shown in figure 2.

306
 The required track geometry can be plotted with ECW file in the
background using the following steps:
i Zoom in to the ECW file so the rail head could be clearly seen.
ii Mark a point at the gauge face side of the rail head on AutoCAD
using command “POINT”.

iii Mark points at regular intervals.

iv Connect the points using command “SPLINE” for a smoother
layout.
Any railway curve could be plotted on AutoCAD/Civil3D using the
above-mentioned method. After the existing track geometry is plotted,
the straight line continuing from both ends of the curve must be plotted
for at least 100 m on both sides.

307
 These straight lines then should be extended towards the Apex point.
After intersecting the 2 straights, angle of Deflection can be obtained.
Location of Apex point and Deflection angle are the two most important
features of any curve which remain constant even after redesigning of any
curve.
4.2 Graphical Realignment of Curves
The desired curve could be plotted between the extended straights
with the given deflection angle. The basic formulae concept of curve
laying is required to be followed at every point. For graphically
plotting any curve, some basic mathematical principles should be
adhered to. These principles are as follows:
Basic Geometric Principles used: The idea is to draw curves
accurately in AutoCAD, exactly as it would be in the field. The
method uses simple principles of geometry and can be used for all
kinds of curves with any complex geometry without need of solving
difficult trigonometrical equations, as under:
i A circle or a circular arc can be drawn between two lines
intersecting at a point (called apex). If we mark an equal
length T from apex on both lines (TP1 and TP2) then we
can locate the centre of curve by drawing perpendicular
lines from TP1 and TP2. The point of intersection of these
perpendicular lines will be the centre of curve. We can draw a
curve of radius R = T/tan ∆/2 from the centre.

308
 ii A tangent to a circular curve at a point on the curve can be
drawn by drawing a line perpendicular to its radius at the
point of contact. A corollary of this principle is that the
line joining a point on the circular curve and its centre is
perpendicular to the curve at that point.

Following are the steps for graphically plotting any desirable curve
between 2 straights with a given deflection angle.
1 Draw a circular curve of desired radius which is tangent to both the
ve of desired radius which straights. is tangent The relationto bothbetween radius of
the straights. curve
The (R), deflection angle
relation
urve (R), of
ar curve deflection
desired angle (∆)
radius(∆) and
which the
and the tangent length
tangentto
is tangent T
length is given
both Tthe
is givenby by The relation
straights.
s of curve (R), deflection 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 angle
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ×(∆) tanand∆ the tangent length T is given by
.
2 ∆
lar curve inside due to introduction 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ×oftan .
transition
2 curve of length LT. The
en by
circular curve inside due to introduction of curve
2 Now shift the circular inside
transition due of
curve to introduction
length LT. The of transition
s given by curve of (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇length
)2 LT. The value of shift is given by
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 2
24 × 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 )
of the circular curve by 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
half 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
the transition length on both ends of the
24 × 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
own
ngthinofthe
thefigure 4. curve by half the transition length on both ends of the
circular
ansition
as shownportion
in the on3 the Reduce
figure straight the
4. linelength on both of the
the circular curve
ends of the by halfcurve.
circular the transition length
approximately
of (LT/2)on
transition portion on
from both
the the ends
straightend of of
linethe circular
reduced
on both curve
circular
the ends as
curveshown
plotted
of the in the curve.
after
circular figure 4.
of circular.
ion is approximately4 (LMark T/2) from the start the end of reduced
of transition circular
portion oncurve plottedline
the straight afteron both the
ength of circular. ends of the circular curve. Start of transition is approximately (LT/2)
from the end of reduced circular curve plotted after deleting LT/2
length of circular.

309
 Theoretically, curve of any radius and transition length could be fit
between the 2 straight lines. However, field variables in longitudinal
and lateral directions must be considered while designing the curve.
Only those redesigned curves are feasible which satisfy all the boundary
conditions. Some examples of these boundary conditions are:
Longitudinal variables:
1 Presence of bridges.
2 Turnouts/yards
3 Other curves
4 LCs
Lateral variables:
1 Land boundary
2 Formation height
3 ROB/RUBs
There is no single solution to the problem of curve realignment. We must
decide the best possible solution under the given set of field variable.
Analytical solutions do not take all these field variables into account.
Thus, field surveys are extremely important in carrying out any curve
realignment study.
Accuracy of any drone survey could easily be verified with the use of total
station. A plot of total station could be opened on a CAD file and the
ECW file could be re-oriented to match with some of the features of the
310
5 Benefits of Drone Surveys over Total Station Survey:
1 The amount of data available with drone survey is much more than
that with the total station survey. We can see the details like OHE
masts, land boundary posts, bridges, Signalling boxes and various
other features in a drone survey. All these features could provide
various obligatory points and other limiting situations in carrying
out any work.
2 Elimination of manual errors: In drone surveys, a large length is
3 Error rectifications: Any error in any of the drawing
4 It is not possible to simply add more data on a Total Station Survey.
It requires redoing the whole survey again. In drone surveys, we
can easily customise our requirement.
5 Cost effectiveness
6 No need of visiting sites again and again

6 FIELD APPLICATION OF DRONE SURVEYS IN SWR

A Flattening of curve no 23 for 130 kmph
 Curve flattening of curve no 23 at km 453 in Hubli-Bangalore
route was carried out in collaboration with the construction
department.
 During the doubling work, curve flattening to 2.2° was
planned. However, on detailed analysis of the curve location
using drone survey, it was found that the curve could be
further flattened to 2.0°.
 Details of curve in various stages is shared as under:
Old Existing curve: SINGLE LINE
592 m- Radius (2.96 degree)
Speed Potential:90 kmph
Other details:
Length of curve = 360 m
Length of transition curve = 110 m
Deviation angle = 24°37’55”
Planned Curve in Doubling: (UP & DN Line)
800 m- Radius (2.19 degree)

311
 Speed Potential:105 kmph
Other details:
Curve Parameters UP Line (Old) DN Line (New)
Length of curve 424 m 424 m
Length of transition curve 80 m 80 m
Deviation angle 24°37’55” 24°37’55”
Maximum shift of curve 4.41 m NA

Revised Curve for 130 kmph: (UP & DN Line)

UP Line: 875 m Radius (2.00 degree), Speed Potential:130 kmph
DN Line: 800 m Radius (2.19 degree), Speed Potential:115 kmph
Other details:
Curve Parameters UP Line (Old) DN Line (New)
Length of curve 495 m 424 m
Obligatory points 453.380 453.440 (SEJ location)
Length of transition curve 120 m 90 m
Deviation angle 24°37’55” 24°37’55”
Maximum shift of the curve 6.18 m NA

Works done in flattening of curve:

UP Line
1 Transition length increased from 80 m to 120 m. Therefore, length of
curve is also increased.
2 2.21 m additional shift was required at the location (2.2° to 2.0°).
3 The speed of the revised curve could potentially be raised up to 130 kmph
by providingcant of 160 mm and taking cant deficiency as 100 mm.
DN Line
1 Due to top point chainage at 453.400, enough length is not available on
DN line for flattening of curve beyond 2.19°.
2 However, by increasing the transition length to 90 m, the speed potential
on DN line can be increased to 115 kmph.

312
Advantages of the work
1 Doubling and speed raising work carried out in one single block.
2 No added cost for flattening of curve as per the requirement of speed
raising.
3 No additional caution and slewing of track.
4 Work carried out before the electrification of the section. Therefore, cost
of shifting of OHE mast is saved.
5 As the location is in track circuited area, flattening of curve in later stage
would have warranted shifting of signals and cables. This work and cost
are also saved.

B Speed Raising Study of all curves in Dharwad-Bengaluru route

of Hubli division
Analysis of all curves between Hubli to Karajgi has been carried
out. It is found that all curves between km 403 to 461 could be
redesigned/modified to increase the potential of curves to 130
kmph. Drone Survey was carried out and feasibility of redesign/
modification of curves was studied keeping all the field constraints

313
 in mind.

After carrying out graphical study of the complete section (25 curves),
following results are obtained:
3 curves are found to be non-feasible for speed raising upto 130 kmph
(Curve no 2, 3 & 26). Curve no 2 and 3 require curve shifting beyond the
available railway land and curve no 26 is very close to a bridge which acts
as longitudinal constraint for flattening of the curve.

Further 2 curves require redesigning (Curve no 23 and 18). Redesigning

314
 of curve no 23 is already complete and discussed in section 6(A). Redesign
of curve no 18 is planned with the TFTR work in the section.
All other curves require modification like increasing TRL or increasing
cant.

Remodeling of Hubli yard for proposed construction of Pit Line no. 5

Work of construction of pit line no. 5 is being taken up at Hubli yard.
The planning and execution of the work is done graphically. Total station
survey of Hubli yard was carried out. Yard diagram made using the total

315
 station survey was superimposed over the ECW file of Hubli yard. Yard
diagram made by total station matches with the feature in the ECW/
TIFF file. This also proves the accuracy of the ECW/TIFF files. Further
analysis and planning of the yard remodeling could be done with the use
of Drone survey as all the field variables could be obtained from it.

7 Recommendations:
While planning for carrying out the work of sectional speed raising, one
round of photogrammetric survey using Unmanned Aerial Systems must
be carried out in the entire section. It provides enough data to analyze
the preliminary analysis of curve realignment and quantum of work
required.
Every curve provides with a unique set of boundary variables. Therefore,
all curves, that require realignment, must be analyzed using Drone
Surveys before carrying out the detailed work planning.
Graphical analysis have various advantages over the analytical solutions.
However, one is not the substitute of the other. For better planning and
execution of speed raising works, both the studies must be carried out.
Works like doubling/tripling are great chances for redesigning the

316
 existing curves. It should be included in the mandate of the doubling
works to carry out a comprehensive study for realignment of curves and
making them fit for at least 130 kmph in the circular curves.

8 REFERENCES
[1] “Indian Railways Permanent Way Manual,” Revised Edition- June 2020
[2] “Railway Curves” book by IRICEN, Fourth Revised Edition.
[3] C. Esveld, “Modern Railway Track”, Digital ed. 2014.
[4] ACS 10 to the Indian Railways Permanent Way Manual 2020, dated
07.11.2022
[4] A.K.Jain, S Chaurasia, “Graphical Solutions for complex layouts for
Introducing Higher Speeds on existing system”, IPWE 2019

317
318
 Role of Sleeper Spacing in Maintenance of
Points and Crossing and Curves for High
Speed and Higher Axle Load
Ravi Kant Bajpai1

Synopsis
The spacing between sleepers depends on several factors, such as type of rail,
the type of the sleeper, the ballast thickness, the bearing capacity of the subbase,
the axle loads, the volume and speed of the traffic. It must be considered that a
reduction in the distance between sleepers causes an increase in the stiffness of the
track. This effect is similar to the increase in the size of the sleeper. Normally, a
high stiffness is desirable and better than a low stiffness. However, both extremes
are detrimental. Sometimes to minimize the pressure on formation top especially
in case of poor formation the sleeper spacing is decreased. Similarly on loop line
where the speed is less (i.e. the dynamic impact is less) the sleeper spacing has been
kept on higher side. Points and crossing are one of the most critical components
of track on which both high speed and heavier axle load require sturdiness and
correct curvature of track for its proper response and thus desired life of track
structure. For points and crossing the sleeper spacing for 1 in 8.5/12/16 has been
given by RDSO which suits to turnout taking off from straight.
For track on curves the sleeper spacing must match with the required spacing as
per degree of curvature of main line to maintain perpendicular sleeper axis with
gauge face of rail. This will require higher spacing on outer gauge line and less
spacing on inner gauge line of track. Similar is the case for curved track where
turnouts are taking off from curves in such a manner as to maintain the correct
curvature of main line and at the same time taking care of desired layout of points
and crossing. Sleeper spacing for turnout taking off from curves have been given
in literature published by IRICEN based on the same principles on which RDSO
has derived sleeper spacing in RDSO drawing. Arrangement of insert in sleeper
has been made such that when it is laid properly the insert is parallel to the gauge
line of sleeper. This ensures perpendicular sleeper axis with the gauge line of rail.
This results in correct fixing of rubber pad, liner and the pandrol clip. As a result
of correct fixing of these elastic fittings the load on these small components is
normal and centric to its contact surface area, thus acting as per design, with
load distribution through maximum contact area. This paper deals with the
1
Chief Engineer/Bridge Rehabilitation. NE Railway, Gorakhpur

319
theoretical provisions of sleeper spacing straight track, on points and crossing
taking off straight track as well as for points and crossing taking off from curved
track vis-à-vis actual field conditions, its effect on maintenance and performance
of track and also the remedial measures for field application which are easier to
implement.

1. Importance of sleeper spacing in track:

(A) Sleeper spacing on curved track:
The arrangement of inserts in a PSC sleeper is such that it is parallel
to flange of Rail Foot and there is no direct contact between rail
flange and the surface of insert, instead it is through the liner
inserted between rail and sleeper insert. Normally for straight track
the sleeper spacing on left rail and right rail is kept same in such
a way that the sleeper axis is perpendicular to gauge line of track.
But when the track is laid on curve, the sleeper spacing for outer
side and inner side rail must be different being higher side on outer
gauge line as compared to inner gauge line as shown in figure.

The sleeper spacings on outer rail ‘Os’ and inner rail ‘Is’ are related
as under
Os =Is x K, where ;
K = (R+G/2)/(R-G/2), and;
R is radius of curve, and G is track gauge.
The difference in inner and outer spacing will depend on the
degree of curvature of track curve. By arranging sleeper spacing
as per above relation the sleeper axis will be perpendicular to rail

320
 flange at contact area with inserts, liners, and flange of rail. As a
result, the load transfer mechanism through fastening system will
be more or less same as in case of straight track. Though the ideal
situation would be when the inserts and liners are also having the
same curvature as that of the track. But practically it is difficult to
have such a vast inventory of sleeper, liners etc. for different degree
of curvature.
(B) Sleeper spacing on points and Crossing when laid taking off
straight track:
The sleeper spacing has been given in RDSO drawing for different
types of turnouts i.e. 1 in 8.5, 1 in 12, 1in 16 etc. The basic concepts
of sleeper orientation and sleeper spacing which has been adopted
are as under;
(i) In switch portion the sleepers are perpendicular to main line
track,
(ii) In lead portion the sleeper axis is at an angle θ/2, where θ
is bisector angle at any location between perpendiculars to
main line track on gauge line of main line and perpendicular
to turnout side track on outer rail gauge line of turnout at that
point.
(iii) In Crossing portion and beyond upto last common sleeper,
the sleepers are laid perpendicular to bisector of crossing
area.
The positioning of inserts on sleepers has been so designed that
when laid on track as per above principle i.e., as per RDSO drawing
correctly, it is parallel to rail flange thus having maximum area of
contact with rail foot through liners. The above design of sleepers
also facilitates the laying of same sleeper set for RH and LH turnout.
(C) Sleeper spacing on points and Crossing when laid taking off
from curved track:
The sleeper spacing for turnout taking off from curve has not been
given in RDSO drawings in general, however, IRICEN published
books have given the sleeper spacing for turnout taking off from
curve both in similar flexure and contrary flexure for 1in 12 and for
contrary flexure for 1 in 8.5 for main line curvature up to 5 degrees
following the same principles as narrated in (B).
Now if we rotate the sleeper making it skewed without following
above principles of keeping sleeper axis perpendicular to rail

321
 flange, then the contact area for load transfer mechanism from
liner to insert reduces thus stress concentration both on liner and
insert increases which may result in liner breakage or extra wear
and tear of liner and inserts. When sleepers are laid on curve
with sleeper axis perpendicular to rail flange, the contact area of
rail flange and insert through liner is inversely proportional to
the degree of curvature. In such a situation, if the sleeper is out of
square, the contact area further gets reduced thus leading to stress
concentration type of situation. This is the cause of breakage of
liners in points and crossing zone and sharp curves where the GFN
liners are getting broken and comes out of the position.

3.0 Effect of increase in Sleeper Spacing on speed and axle load:

The design sleeper spacing world over varies from 550 mm to 650mm
in most of the cases, and this spacing has been design keeping in view
the type of axle load, type of sleeper, speed of train etc. The study shows
that with increase in sleeper spacing pressure on ballast, rail stresses,
and forces on elastic fittings increases. Similarly with increase in speed
, the vertical accelerations being transferred to ballast through sleeper
increases manyfold if we increase the sleeper spacing beyond 650 mm,
which is not desirable for stability of track. Keeping above in view we
should respect the limits of variation in sleeper spacing of ±20 mm given
in IRPWM para 520 (3)(b). In addition to it the bending stress due to axle
load increases if the individual sleeper spacing increases resulting into
chances of fracture specially during the winter season when rail is already
subjected to tensile forces due to fall in temperature. This can be seen by
a simple example as under.
(i) Bending moment due to one static axle load of 25 T
With sleeper spacing of 600 mm; BM = 6.25 x 0.3 = 1.8775 TM
When sleeper spacing is increased to 700 mm, then BM = 6.25 x
0.35 = 2.1875

322
 Accordingly, the increase in bending stress will be 16.5 % or more.
As the bending stresses increase, the fatigue life of rail reduces
drastically and chances of rail/weld failure increases. The AT weld,
which is already poor in strength and having half the fatigue life as
compared to rail, if subjected to such a increase in sleeper spacing
the life of rail/weld gets further reduced resulting into premature
failures. Hence any increase in sleeper spacing is detrimental with
increase in axle load. Few actual field photographs of rail failure are
illustrated to substantiate the phenomenon;

4.0 Effect of sleeper getting out of square:

The sleeper and rail fixed properly work as a frame in LWR track. If toe
load is proper, there should not be relative movement between sleeper
and rail. Similarly, if the packing condition and adequacy of ballast is
same on both the ends of the sleeper, there should not be any movement
of sleeper in a skewed way. But sometimes the toe load exerted and
packing condition of ballast on both the ends of sleeper are not same

323
 and not adequate to keep the sleeper intact at its position. As a result,
there is relative movement of sleeper with respect to rail and may be in
skewed way. This gives rise not only increase in sleeper spacing but also
the sleeper getting out of square. Actual photo of sleeper out of square in
field is as under.

It can be seen in above picture that the liners cannot be fitted properly, and

324
 sleeper insert is directly subjected to high point force, in a way rail is also
subjected to increased point force which is a potential source of initiation
of a possible flaw or crack from bottom of flange. Thus, it can be concluded
that in case of sleeper getting out of square with increased sleeper spacing
is subjected to higher bending stresses and stress concentration at bottom
of flange which may result in premature failures of rail/weld. In addition
to it the condition of out of square sleepers produce gauge variations and
kink formations which are not desirable from passenger comforts point
of view especially for high/semi high speed routes. Hence proper sleeper
spacing on both gauge line is a very important aspect for track health.

5.0 Situation in ground on curved track:

As discussed in para 3.0 above the sleeper spacing on curved track should
be more on outer rail and less on inner rail to be in radial line making
sleeper axis perpendicular to rail flange. But it is a fact that the sleepers are
getting disturbed when subjected to movement of traffic during service.
To draw observations, sleeper spacing recorded in ground is as under;
Sample 1: Curve; Deg of curvature- 4.0 existing main line curve. Only few
stations. The design sleeper spacing in this track is 650 mm
Sleeper No Inner Rail outer Rail Sleeper No. Inner Rail Outer Rail
1 665 670 19 690 660
2 650 630 20 610 640
3 660 640 21 640 620
4 640 640 22 660 650
5 660 640 23 660 650
6 650 680 24 640 650
7 640 630 25 640 630
8 660 640 26 660 650
9 630 640 27 640 620
10 650 640 28 650 640
11 650 610 29 650 640
12 680 610 30 710 720
13 650 650 31 700 680
14 610 610 32 750 690

325
 15 710 690 33 650 650
16 610 620
17 670 680
18 620 620

Sample No.2 : Existing Main line on curve of 3.75 Deg; sleeper spacing on
approaches of points and crossing; normal sleeper spacing 650 mm.
Sl no Inner Outer Sleeper No Inner Rail Outer Rail
At EXIT of CMS CROSSING sl1 to Away from CROSSING
4E-1 750 840 16 680 660
2 680 650 17 680 660
3 620 640 18 660 685
4 640 630 19 630 660
5 640 640 20 620 670
6 640 660 21 620 620
7 660 615 22 670 670
8 620 610 23 650 645
9 640 675 24 635 680
10 640 620 25 640 665
11 660 690 26 650 650
12 660 580 27 650 600
13 630 635 28 645 670
14 620 705 29 675 680
15 640 600 30 620 620
At Approach of SRJ and Away from SRJ
1 660 650 16 685 700
2 530 530 17 620 640
3 620 620 18 660 655
4 650 600 19 640 640
5 620 610 20 660 655
6 730 730 21 675 650

326
 7 640 670 22 640 620
8 690 690 23 660 660
9 640 650 24 635 640
10 660 660 25 660 660
11 655 620 26 635 660
12 630 670 27 645 640
13 630 600 28 645 630
14 640 610 29 660 660
15 605 630 30 700 680
From the above two tables it can be seen that though the outer rail gauge sleeper
spacing has to be higher than the inner one but reality is different for most of
the sleepers. As a result the curve cant hold its true shape despite all efforts by
track machines and also the life of fastenings is totally unpredictable, the gauge
is not unform due to out of square sleepers. The sleeper spacing has increased
to the extent of 750 mm in first case and to the extent of 840 mm in second case
making it susceptible for breakage.
Sample 3 : Newly constructed yard line; design sleeper spacing 600 mm.
Sl no Inner Outer Sleeper No Inner Rail Outer Rail
1 600 585 15 620 600
2 630 578 16 600 630
3 570 615 17 630 595
4 620 626 18 575 610
5 570 594 19 645 596
6 620 605 20 585 580
7 610 596 21 580 623
8 600 546 22 630 595
9 640 635 23 645 596
10 565 620 24 630 608
11 620 610 25 610 595
12 600 600 26 590 609
13 640 610 27 620 595
14 580 585 28 595 630

327
Sample No4 : Degree of curve – 0.65 , Newly constructed doubling line; design
sleeper spacing 600 mm.
Sl no Inner Outer Sleeper No Inner Rail Outer Rail
1 580 610 21 600 600
2 620 670 22 590 610
3 630 570 23 640 580
4 580 570 24 600 580
5 600 670 25 580 630
6 600 590 26 630 650
7 550 610 27 580 560
8 520 610 28 600 610
9 630 570 29 600 570
10 600 630 30 610 610
11 580 630 31 600 620
12 630 590 32 630 600
13 600 620 33 620 600
14 590 570 34 580 580
15 600 610 35 630 620
16 620 600 36 620 610
17 610 630 37 600 600
18 620 630 38 550 580
19 570 590 39 620 600

From the above two tables for newly constructed line ready for
commissioning, just prior to CRS inspection, though the outer rail
gauge sleeper spacing has to be higher than the inner one, but reality is
different for 50% of the sleepers. As a result, the curve cannot hold its
true shape despite all efforts by track machines. Also, in such cases the
life of fastenings is totally unpredictable, the gauge is not unform and
permanent kink formation may take place due to out of square sleepers.
The sleeper spacing has become to the extent of 670 mm on higher side
and 520mm on lower side.

328
6.0 Situation on ground for sleeper spacing on points and crossing taking
off from straight:
Sample 1: Point No - 210 B, 1 in 12; TWS, newly laid point on main line
in AXXX yard in connection with doubling: refer table 1 at Annexure -1.
From the above table-1 at Annexure -1, it can be seen that sleeper No. 25
is out of place by 157 mm and away from SRJ from its design location.
Also, at the entry of crossing zone the sleepers are out of place by more
than 100 mm. In crossing zone because of groove location available
in CMS crossing, sleepers have been adjusted by reducing the sleeper
spacing to the extent of 500 mm at sl no 65 to 645 mm at sleeper no
73 against designed 550 mm. The sleeper No 73 which lies at HOC is
out and away by 112mm. This can be seen from following photograph.
Similarly, the last sleeper is out by 128 mm. These deficiencies if allowed
to continue will create improper toe load, undue stresses on fastenings
and formation of kinks etc.

Sample No 2 : Point No 211 B: I in 12 TWS newly laid point in Yard

SXXX; refer table -2 in Annexure-1.

329
 From table -2 of Annexure -1 it is seen that here most of the sleepers are
out of place. The sleepers in CMS crossing zone are totally disturbed. As
a result, even the ERCs and liners are not able to fit properly in the groves
made in CMS crossing. It is very difficult to adjust the sleeper spacing
after sleepers have been laid in track, ballasted and machine packed. This
can be seen in following photographs.

330
7.0 Situation on ground for sleeper spacing on points and crossing taking
off from curve:
Sample 1: 1 in 12 Turnout taking off from outer side of a 4.7 deg degree
curve: FYYY yard of NER. Refer Table-1 of Annexure -2. The design
sleeper spacing on main line is 650 mm. There is a speed restriction on
main line of 10 Kmph.
Sample 2: 1 in 12 Turnout taking off from outer side of a 2.8 deg degree
curve: MYYY yard of NER. Refer Table-2 of Annexure -2. The main line
sleepers are at spacing of 650 mm..
From these two tables, following observations are drawn.
(a) The laying of sleeper has been done following the sleeper spacing as
given in RDSO drawing for turnout taking off from straight, though
the point is taking off from 4.7 deg curve in contrary flexure.
(b) Though the sleepers in switch portion are designed as laid for

331
 straight as in RDSO Drg for Ordinary switches, but actual laying in
field differs because of curvature. The sleepers are trying to take the
shape of curvature by play available in holes and further elongation
due to overstressing etc.
(c) The sleeper after heel of switch should be at 526 mm on crossing
side as per RDSO drawing for T/O taking off straight and on other
side it should be 550 mm. For T/O taking off 4 deg this dimension
should be 508 mm and but the same has not been maintained here
in this case. The actual is 550 mm. In case of other T/O taking off
from out side of 2.8 degree of MYYY yard, the situation is slightly
improved and the sleeper spacing after heel of switch is 525 mm as
against calculated spacing for 3 deg curve of 518 mm.
(d) In case of T/O taking off 4.7 deg curve the difference in cumulative
design sleeper spacing and cumulative actual sleeper spacing in
lead and crossing zone is quite disturbed(Table 1 of Annexure -2),
as a result the alignment on both main line and turnout is bad. As
a result there is 10 KMPH caution imposed on main line to avoid
safety hazards. This could have been avoided if we lay the sleepers
as given in IRICEN book for T/O taking off from curve.
(e) In case of T/O taking off the curve 0f 2.8 deg curve(Table 2 of
annexure A) where no caution exists on main line except that of
sectional speed and speed suitable for curve, the parameters though
not as per design but are much better than the first case. This is
also reflected from the observations of sleeper spacing in lead and
crossing area. Hence if turnouts taking off from curves are given
due importance in terms of sleeper spacing, the deficiencies can be
minimized/eliminated.

8.0 Conclusion and Recommendations:

(i). In case of new laying of points the sleeper spacing should be
adjusted to correct spacing after laying but before packing and
thereafter should be checked by concerned SSE/P.WAY before
undertaking machine packing and boxing dressing etc. When
T/O are taking off from curve, the sleeper spacing suitable for that
degree of curve should be followed judiciously as given in IRICEN
books or otherwise.
(ii). In case of new line/doubling the sleeper should be laid with template
made of proper spacing suitable for straight track and if on curve

332
 the template for outer and inner spacing should be made according
to degree of curvature.
(iii). In case of existing turnouts there needs to be a provision made
in the inspection proforma of points and crossing in IRPWM for
recording sleeper spacing at least once in a year and corrective
action taken wherever required.
(iv) On similar line as above (iii) there should some legislation in
IRPWM about checking sleeper spacing for curves both for outer
and inner gauge lines.
(iv). The field official should be made aware of importance of sleeper
spacing and out of square both at the time of laying and maintenance.

9.0. References:
(i) IRPWM 2020
(ii) RDSO Drawing No.4218
(iii) IRICEN Book on Turnouts
(iv) A Paper on Sleepers Spacing Analysis in Railway Track Infrastructure
by Roberto Sañudo , Marina Miranda, and Valeri Markine.

ANNEXURE-1
Table- 1: Point No 210 B 1 in 12; TWS newly laid point on main line in
AXXX yard in connection with doubling:
Cum
Sleeper Actual Difference
sleeper
spacing sleeper Cum between
spacing
Sleeper from SRJ as spacing Sleeper design
from SRJ
no. per RDSO on spacing as value and
as per
DRG (A ground measured. measured
RDSO
side) (A side) values
DRG
1 150 140 140 150 10
2 457 480 620 607 -13
3 505 500 1120 1112 -8
4 745 740 1860 1857 -3
5 492 480 2340 2349 9
6 550 560 2900 2899 -1

333
7 550 550 3450 3449 -1
8 550 550 4000 3999 -1
9 550 550 4550 4549 -1
10 550 550 5100 5099 -1
11 550 550 5650 5649 -1
12 550 550 6200 6199 -1
13 550 550 6750 6749 -1
14 550 562 7312 7299 -13
15 550 545 7857 7849 -8
16 550 520 8377 8399 22
17 550 580 8957 8949 -8
18 550 545 9502 9499 -3
19 550 560 10062 10049 -13
20 550 550 10612 10599 -13
21 526 545 11157 11125 -32
22 549 565 11722 11674 -48
23 549 515 12237 12223 -14
24 549 575 12812 12772 -40
25 549 666 13478 13321 -157
26 549 410 13888 13870 -18
27 549 560 14448 14419 -29
28 549 550 14998 14968 -30
29 549 550 15548 15517 -31
30 549 550 16098 16066 -32
31 549 550 16648 16615 -33
32 549 545 17193 17164 -29
33 549 550 17743 17713 -30
34 549 550 18293 18262 -31
35 549 550 18843 18811 -32
36 549 545 19388 19360 -28
37 548 560 19948 19908 -40

334
38 549 550 20498 20457 -41
39 549 550 21048 21006 -42
40 549 540 21588 21555 -33
41 549 555 22143 22104 -39
42 549 550 22693 22653 -40
43 549 555 23248 23202 -46
44 549 564 23812 23751 -61
45 549 545 24357 24300 -57
46 549 555 24912 24849 -63
47 549 550 25462 25398 -64
48 549 538 26000 25947 -53
49 549 540 26540 26496 -44
50 549 558 27098 27045 -53
51 549 572 27670 27594 -76
52 549 530 28200 28143 -57
53 549 562 28762 28692 -70
54 549 555 29317 29241 -76
55 549 525 29842 29790 -52
56 549 570 30412 30339 -73
57 549 550 30962 30888 -74
58 549 560 31522 31437 -85
59 549 540 32062 31986 -76
60 549 570 32632 32535 -97
61 548 547 33179 33083 -96
62 549 540 33719 33632 -87
63 549 563 34282 34181 -101
64 549 550 34832 34730 -102
65 549 500 35332 35279 -53
66 550 505 35837 35829 -8
67 550 548 36385 36379 -6
68 550 525 36910 36929 19

335
 69 550 564 37474 37479 5
70 550 540 38014 38029 15
71 550 542 38556 38579 23
72 550 590 39146 39129 -17
73 550 645 39791 39679 -112
74 550 561 40352 40229 -123
75 550 548 40900 40779 -121
76 550 560 41460 41329 -131
77 550 560 42020 41879 -141
78 550 549 42569 42429 -140
79 550 540 43109 42979 -130
80 550 552 43661 43529 -132
81 550 558 44219 44079 -140
82 550 538 44757 44629 -128
83 550 550 45307 45179 -128

Table -2: Point No 211 B: I in 12 TWS newly laid point in Yard SXXX;
Sleeper Cum
Difference
spacing Actual sleeper
Cum between
from SRJ sleeper spacing
Sleeper sleeper the design
as per spacing from SRJ
no. spacing as value and
RDSO on ground as per
measured measured
DRG (A (A side) RDSO
values
side) DRG
1 150 162 162 150 -12
2 457 492 654 607 -47
3 505 482 1136 1112 -24
4 745 735 1871 1857 -14
5 492 494 2365 2349 -16
6 550 524 2889 2899 10
7 550 571 3460 3449 -11
8 550 562 4022 3999 -23

336
9 550 526 4548 4549 1
10 550 562 5110 5099 -11
11 550 546 5656 5649 -7
12 550 561 6217 6199 -18
13 550 551 6768 6749 -19
14 550 566 7334 7299 -35
15 550 508 7842 7849 7
16 550 558 8400 8399 -1
17 550 566 8966 8949 -17
18 550 548 9514 9499 -15
19 550 528 10042 10049 7
20 550 560 10602 10599 -3
21 526 552 11154 11125 -29
22 549 572 11726 11674 -52
23 549 567 12293 12223 -70
24 549 533 12826 12772 -54
25 549 530 13356 13321 -35
26 549 551 13907 13870 -37
27 549 545 14452 14419 -33
28 549 580 15032 14968 -64
29 549 552 15584 15517 -67
30 549 560 16144 16066 -78
31 549 555 16699 16615 -84
32 549 540 17239 17164 -75
33 549 556 17795 17713 -82
34 549 560 18355 18262 -93
35 549 530 18885 18811 -74
36 549 558 19443 19360 -83
37 548 554 19997 19908 -89
38 549 555 20552 20457 -95
39 549 550 21102 21006 -96

337
40 549 550 21652 21555 -97
41 549 555 22207 22104 -103
42 549 552 22759 22653 -106
43 549 544 23303 23202 -101
44 549 537 23840 23751 -89
45 549 569 24409 24300 -109
46 549 540 24949 24849 -100
47 549 560 25509 25398 -111
48 549 565 26074 25947 -127
49 549 533 26607 26496 -111
50 549 540 27147 27045 -102
51 549 558 27705 27594 -111
52 549 545 28250 28143 -107
53 549 560 28810 28692 -118
54 549 552 29362 29241 -121
55 549 548 29910 29790 -120
56 549 551 30461 30339 -122
57 549 538 30999 30888 -111
58 549 543 31542 31437 -105
59 549 556 32098 31986 -112
60 549 580 32678 32535 -143
61 548 538 33216 33083 -133
62 549 555 33771 33632 -139
63 549 538 34309 34181 -128
64 549 544 34853 34730 -123
65 549 543 35396 35279 -117
66 550 506 35902 35829 -73
67 550 568 36470 36379 -91
68 550 582 37052 36929 -123
69 550 558 37610 37479 -131
70 550 553 38163 38029 -134

338
71 550 491 38654 38579 -75
72 550 575 39229 39129 -100
73 550 621 39850 39679 -171
74 550 535 40385 40229 -156
75 550 536 40921 40779 -142
76 550 525 41446 41329 -117
77 550 562 42008 41879 -129
78 550 560 42568 42429 -139
79 550 524 43092 42979 -113
80 550
81 550
82 550
83 550

339
 ANNEXURE-2
Table 1: 1 in 12 Turnout taking off from outer side of a 4.7 deg degree
curve: FYYY yard of NER.

off contrary flexure of 4 Deg curve (B side)

cum sl spacing as measured inside (A side)

diff betn outside values and design values

measured cum spacing outside or (B side)

cum spacing as per design for T/O taking

diff between design cum value and actual

Sl spacing fom SRJ as per RDSO DRG (B
Sl spacing from SRJ as per RDSO DRG

cum sl spacing from SRJ as per RDSO

actual sl spacing outside (or B side)
actual sl spacion inside (A side)

cum values. (B side)

(Aside) or out side

side) or inside

DRG (A side)

(A side)
Sl. no.

1 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 0 0

2 457 457 460 610 480 630 607 607 -23 -3
3 505 505 510 1120 510 1140 1112 1112 -28 -8
4 745 745 695 1815 695 1835 1857 1857 22 42
5 492 492 550 2365 540 2375 2349 2349 -26 -16
6 550 550 550 2915 550 2925 2899 2899 -26 -16
7 550 550 550 3465 550 3475 3449 3449 -26 -16
8 550 550 550 4015 540 4015 3999 3999 -16 -16
9 550 550 550 4565 550 4565 4549 4549 -16 -16
10 550 550 550 5115 550 5115 5099 5099 -16 -16
11 550 550 550 5665 550 5665 5649 5649 -16 -16
12 550 550 550 6215 550 6215 6199 6199 -16 -16
13 550 550 550 6765 550 6765 6749 6749 -16 -16
14 550 550 550 7315 550 7315 7299 7299 -16 -16
15 550 550 550 7865 550 7865 7849 7849 -16 -16
16 550 550 550 8415 550 8415 8399 8399 -16 -16

340
17 550 550 550 8965 550 8965 8949 8949 -16 -16
18 550 550 550 9515 540 9505 9499 9499 -6 -16
19 550 550 550 10065 550 10055 10049 10049 -6 -16
20 550 550 550 10615 530 10585 10599 10599 14 -16
21 526 507.7 550 11165 540 11125 11125 11107 -18 -40
22 549 548.0 560 11725 520 11645 11674 11655 10 -51
23 549 548.0 530 12255 570 12215 12223 12203 -12 -32
24 549 548.0 550 12805 550 12765 12772 12751 -14 -33
25 549 548.0 540 13345 520 13285 13321 13299 14 -24
26 549 548.0 530 13875 550 13835 13870 13847 12 -5
27 549 548.0 540 14415 550 14385 14419 14394 9 4
28 549 548.0 580 14995 530 14915 14968 14942 27 -27
29 549 548.0 530 15525 540 15455 15517 15490 35 -8
30 549 548.0 540 16065 520 15975 16066 16038 63 1
31 549 548.0 550 16615 550 16525 16615 16586 61 0
32 549 548.0 550 17165 530 17055 17164 17134 79 -1
33 549 548.0 550 17715 550 17605 17713 17682 77 -2
34 549 548.0 540 18255 540 18145 18262 18230 85 7
35 549 548.0 580 18835 550 18695 18811 18778 83 -24
36 549 548.0 530 19365 530 19225 19360 19326 101 -5
37 548 547.0 530 19895 540 19765 19908 19873 108 13
38 549 548.0 550 20445 540 20305 20457 20421 116 12
39 549 548.0 530 20975 540 20845 21006 20969 124 31
40 549 548.0 560 21535 540 21385 21555 21517 132 20
41 549 548.0 540 22075 530 21915 22104 22065 150 29
42 549 548.0 540 22615 540 22455 22653 22613 158 38
43 549 548.0 530 23145 530 22985 23202 23161 176 57
44 549 548.0 600 23745 550 23535 23751 23709 174 6
45 549 548.0 510 24255 540 24075 24300 24257 182 45
46 549 548.0 570 24825 550 24625 24849 24805 180 24
47 549 548.0 570 25395 550 25175 25398 25353 178 3

341
48 549 548.0 520 25915 530 25705 25947 25901 196 32
49 549 548.0 550 26465 530 26235 26496 26449 214 31
50 549 548.0 550 27015 540 26775 27045 26997 222 30
51 549 548.0 550 27565 550 27325 27594 27545 220 29
52 549 548.0 540 28105 530 27855 28143 28093 238 38
53 549 548.0 540 28645 560 28415 28692 28641 226 47
54 549 548.0 540 29185 540 28955 29241 29188 233 56
55 549 548.0 550 29735 540 29495 29790 29736 241 55
56 549 548.0 550 30285 560 30055 30339 30284 229 54
57 549 548.0 530 30815 530 30585 30888 30832 247 73
58 549 548.0 530 31345 550 31135 31437 31380 245 92
59 549 548.0 530 31875 540 31675 31986 31928 253 111
60 549 548.0 560 32435 530 32205 32535 32476 271 100
61 548 547.0 550 32985 550 32755 33083 33023 268 98
62 549 548.0 510 33495 520 33275 33632 33571 296 137
63 549 548.0 570 34065 550 33825 34181 34119 294 116
64 549 548.0 540 34605 540 34365 34730 34667 302 125
65 549 548.0 540 35145 540 34905 35279 35215 310 134
66 550 550.0 550 35695 550 35455 35829 35765 310 134
67 550 550.0 540 36235 550 36005 36379 36315 310 144
68 550 550.0 560 36795 540 36545 36929 36865 320 134
69 550 550.0 550 37345 540 37085 37479 37415 330 134
70 550 550.0 550 37895 540 37625 38029 37965 340 134
71 550 550.0 520 38415 520 38145 38579 38515 370 164
72 550 550.0 550 38965 550 38695 39129 39065 370 164
73 550 550.0 540 39505 540 39235 39679 39615 380 174
74 550 547.9 520 40025 540 39775 40229 40163 388 204
75 550 547.8 530 40555 540 40315 40779 40711 396 224
76 550 547.8 550 41105 550 40865 41329 41259 394 224
77 550 547.8 530 41635 540 41405 41879 41806 401 244
78 550 547.8 550 42185 530 41935 42429 42354 419 244

342
79 550 547.7 520 42705 540 42475 42979 42902 427 274
80 550 547.7 540 43245 540 43015 43529 43450 435 284
81 550 547.7 530 43775 530 43545 44079 43997 452 304
82 550 547.6 530 44305 530 44075 44629 44545 470 324
83 550 547.6 490 44795 520 44595 45179 45093 498 384

343
 Table -2 : 1 in 12 T/O taking off from out side of 2.7 Deg Curve at MXXX
yard

measured cum spacing outside or

actual sl spacin on inside (B side)
Sl spacing from SRJ as per RDSO

cum sleeper spacing as measured

diff betn design cumvalue meas.

Sl spacing fom SRJ as per RDSO

taking off contrary flexure of 4 Deg

cum spacing as per design for T/O
cum sl spacing from SRJ as per
actual sl spacing O/S (A side)

diff betn actual and design

inside cum values. (Bside)
DRG (Aside) or out side

DRG (Bside) or inside

RDSO DRG (Aside)

valueso/s (A side)
inside(B side)

curve (B side)
Sleeper no.

(A side)

1 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 0 0

2 457 457 430 580 410 560 607 607 27 47
3 505 505 500 1080 520 1080 1112 1112 32 32
4 745 745 680 1760 680 1760 1857 1857 97 97
5 492 492 560 2320 560 2320 2349 2349 29 29
6 550 550 545 2865 550 2870 2899 2899 34 29
7 550 550 555 3420 550 3420 3449 3449 29 29
8 550 550 550 3970 555 3975 3999 3999 29 24
9 550 550 550 4520 550 4525 4549 4549 29 24
10 550 550 550 5070 550 5075 5099 5099 29 24
11 550 550 550 5620 550 5625 5649 5649 29 24
12 550 550 550 6170 550 6175 6199 6199 29 24
13 550 550 550 6720 550 6725 6749 6749 29 24
14 550 550 550 7270 550 7275 7299 7299 29 24
15 550 550 550 7820 555 7830 7849 7849 29 19
16 550 550 550 8370 550 8380 8399 8399 29 19
17 550 550 550 8920 550 8930 8949 8949 29 19
18 550 550 550 9470 550 9480 9499 9499 29 19
19 550 550 550 10020 550 10030 10049 10049 29 19
20 550 550 550 10570 550 10580 10599 10599 29 19
21 526 517.9 525 11095 560 11140 11125 11117 22 -15
22 549 548.5 555 11650 510 11650 11674 11665 15 24
23 549 548.5 535 12185 560 12210 12223 12214 29 13

344
24 549 548.5 565 12750 590 12800 12772 12762 12 -28
25 549 548.5 590 13340 535 13335 13321 13311 -29 -14
26 549 548.5 520 13860 555 13890 13870 13859 -1 -20
27 549 548.5 555 14415 550 14440 14419 14408 -7 -21
28 549 548.5 550 14965 555 14995 14968 14956 -9 -27
29 549 548.5 560 15525 540 15535 15517 15505 -20 -18
30 549 548.5 550 16075 550 16085 16066 16053 -22 -19
31 549 548.5 550 16625 540 16625 16615 16602 -23 -10
32 549 548.5 535 17160 540 17165 17164 17150 -10 -1
33 549 548.5 560 17720 560 17725 17713 17699 -21 -12
34 549 548.5 515 18235 560 18285 18262 18247 12 -23
35 549 548.5 585 18820 575 18860 18811 18795 -25 -49
36 549 548.5 535 19355 550 19410 19360 19344 -11 -50
37 548 547.5 555 19910 560 19970 19908 19891 -19 -62
38 549 548.5 540 20450 550 20520 20457 20440 -10 -63
39 549 548.5 555 21005 545 21065 21006 20988 -17 -59
40 549 548.5 555 21560 540 21605 21555 21537 -23 -50
41 549 548.5 530 22090 540 22145 22104 22085 -5 -41
42 549 548.5 550 22640 520 22665 22653 22634 -6 -12
43 549 548.5 520 23160 550 23215 23202 23182 22 -13
44 549 548.5 565 23725 565 23780 23751 23731 6 -29
45 549 548.5 530 24255 550 24330 24300 24279 24 -30
46 549 548.5 555 24810 575 24905 24849 24828 18 -56
47 549 548.5 550 25360 540 25445 25398 25376 16 -47
48 549 548.5 540 25900 540 25985 25947 25925 25 -38
49 549 548.5 540 26440 550 26535 26496 26473 33 -39
50 549 548.5 560 27000 530 27065 27045 27021 21 -20
51 549 548.5 530 27530 570 27635 27594 27570 40 -41
52 549 548.5 535 28065 540 28175 28143 28118 53 -32
53 549 548.5 540 28605 520 28695 28692 28667 62 -3
54 549 548.5 540 29145 570 29265 29241 29215 70 -24
55 549 548.5 545 29690 560 29825 29790 29764 74 -35
56 549 548.5 540 30230 540 30365 30339 30312 82 -26
57 549 548.5 575 30805 560 30925 30888 30861 56 -37
58 549 548.5 535 31340 545 31470 31437 31409 69 -33
59 549 548.5 565 31905 520 31990 31986 31958 53 -4
60 549 548.5 550 32455 550 32540 32535 32506 51 -5

345
61 548 547.5 540 32995 550 33090 33083 33054 59 -7
62 549 548.5 550 33545 550 33640 33632 33602 57 -8
63 549 548.5 535 34080 545 34185 34181 34151 71 -4
64 549 548.5 565 34645 590 34775 34730 34699 54 -45
65 549 548.5 555 35200 515 35290 35279 35248 48 -11
66 550 550.0 580 35780 570 35860 35829 35798 18 -31
67 550 550.0 555 36335 550 36410 36379 36348 13 -31
68 550 550.0 540 36875 600 37010 36929 36898 23 -81
69 550 550.0 540 37415 535 37545 37479 37448 33 -66
70 550 550.0 530 37945 550 38095 38029 37998 53 -66
71 550 550.0 565 38510 535 38630 38579 38548 38 -51
72 550 550.0 530 39040 565 39195 39129 39098 58 -66
73 550 550.0 555 39595 525 39720 39679 39648 53 -41
74 550 548.4 545 40140 560 40280 40229 40196 56 -51
75 550 548.4 525 40665 565 40845 40779 40744 79 -66
76 550 548.4 510 41175 555 41400 41329 41293 118 -71
77 550 548.3 580 41755 540 41940 41879 41841 86 -61
78 550 548.3 485 42240 570 42510 42429 42389 149 -81
79 550 548.3 570 42810 505 43015 42979 42938 128 -36
80 550 548.3 535 43345 550 43565 43529 43486 141 -36
81 550 548.3 540 43885 560 44125 44079 44034 149 -46
82 550 548.2 530 44415 555 44680 44629 44582 167 -51
83 550 548.2 560 44975 635 45315 45179 45131 156 -136

346
SESSION 5

347
348
 Safety and Reliability at higher Speed and
Heavier Axle Loads : International Track
Practices
J.S. Mundrey1

SYNOPSIS
European Railways have operated passenger trains at higher speed of 160-200
kmph and freight trains with axle loads of 22.5-30 tonnes at 100- 120 kmph
for many years. The practices followed by them in the design, construction,
monitoring and maintenance of track is discussed in this paper, which can be
advantageously adopted by Indian Railways in their operation to ensure safety
and reliability at higher speeds and heavier axle loads.

Ballasted Heavy Haul Track with Safelock Clip Fastening; BNSF; USA

1.0 TRACK STRUCTURE

Fig. 1 gives the Ballasted Track Structure as is being adopted on the
present-day Railway Systems:

1
P

349
 Fig.1:Ballasted Track Structure
The main function of the Track Structure is to transfer the Train Load
to the formation underneath in a safe and satisfactory manner. During
this transfer it has to be ensured, that each of the Track Component is
not subjected to loads beyond its bearing capacity. Stress reduction layer
by layer, from one component to the other component, downbelow, is
depicted in Fig 2:

Fig.2: Principle of Load Distribution of the Wheel Force Q through the

individual System Components of the Track

As expected, the maximum stress occurs between the wheel and the rail
and is of the order of 42000 N/cm2, which gradually comes down to
about 10 N/cm2 at the level of the formation.
In addition to direct stress caused by the oncoming traffic loads the track
under high speed and heavy axle load traffic is subjected to impact loads
and high frequency vibrations. They impart large amount of energy to
the railway track. For the safety and reliability of Railway Operation, the
track has to attenuate these vibrations and absorb the energy.From the
inception of railway transport system, the Railway Track consisted of
steel rails fastened to wooden sleepers laid on a good depth of ballast. To
obtain long satisfactory life from track components has been the topic of
extensive research all along these years. The result is the modern Track,
which consists of high strength rails held on concrete sleepers with elastic
fastenings laid over adequate depth of clean ballast, well designed and
compacted formation and fool proof drainage system.
1.1 Main Components of Track Structure
Main components of the Track Structure are Rails, Rail to Sleepers
Fastenings, Sleepers, Ballast and Sub-Ballast, and Sub-Grade. Most

350
 of the European Railways are operating at a speed of 140 kmph for
their passenger trains and up to 200 kmph for Express Trains. British
Railways are running their freight trains with 25 tonne axle load
at a speed of 100-120 kmph. German Railway, which till recently
were having an axle load of 22.5 tonnes for their freight trains and
running at 100-120 kmph, is planning to have an axle load of 25.0
tonne. The Track structure on most of these Railways is generally
the same as on Indian Railways,i.e.,60 kg, 90 UTS long welded rails
laid on concrete sleepers with adequate depth of ballast/sub-ballast
underneath.
The track, unlike normal civil engineering structures, is not
firmly embedded in the ground, but may be regarded to some
extent floating on its foundation. In this situation, the theoretical
analysis of track stresses is at the most approximate, and practice
without waiting for theory has determined the dimensions of
track components. No calculation of track stresses can therefore
be regarded as exact. The analytical treatment is however of great
value in the comparison of existing data with the probable track
stresses likely to come in by any new design of rolling stock.
Based on this tried and tested approach, common on world railways
60 kg, 90 UTS rails are considered good enough for the speed of
160-200 kmph for passenger trains and a speed of 100-120 kmph
for 25 tonnes axle load freight trains.
1.2 Rails on Indian Railways
Concerned with the rising trends of rail fractures in winter months,
Indian Railways have decided to alter the chemical composition
of standard UIC60 kg, 90 UTS rails to get rails of higher fatigue
strength. RH 260 rails being manufactured in India have different
chemical composition than En RH 260 rails. In IR, Cr and Va
have been added to raise the fatigue strength of the rails. With this
change, the UTS of the rail has also gone up, which has serious
implications. British Railways, a few years back, introduced
rails with such chemistry and found numerous problems, which
included excessive failures of thermit welding carried out in the
field. Such high UTS rails are also very sensitive to damages during
transport and handling, which remains a major issue on Indian
Railways.
Regarding increased rail fractures in winter months, these are
mainly on account of the absence of any reliable system of mapping

351
 the thermal stresses in rails during service, resulting in high level
of thermal load on the rails. Equipment is now available, which
determine the thermal load in rails in a non-destructive manner.
One such equipment is “Rail Scan” marketed by Electro Thermit of
Germany, which has an accuracy of ±3 degree centigrade; Fig. 3.
In view of the poor performance of such rails (with a changed
chemistry) it will be advisable that IR should go slow in introducing
these newly designed rails in track without having a proper
assessment of their performance under long term trials.
For controlling the high incidence of rail/weld fractures, Rail Scan
instruments should be deployed to assess the thermal conditions of
LWRS, and carry out de- or dis-stressing where needed before the
winter months.

Fig.3: Rail Scan Equipment marketed by Th. Goldschmidt Thermit,

Germany
European track practices include the use of long milled rails and
electric flash-but welding on the field. This reduces the number of
rail-weld failures.
1.3 Fastening System
The fastening system incorporating ERC Mark III clip, Fig. 4, has

352
 been a standard on Indian Railways for many years. Inspite of
adopting a UIC grade specification for track components, both the
ERC clip and the rubber pad have very poor service life in track.
The loss of clamping force of the clips and the loss of elasticity
in the rubber pads would be leading to the buildup of excessive
impact load on rails and could be the cause of their fractures. They
also cause faster deterioration of Track Geometry.

Fig. 4: Indian RDSO Mark III Rail Clip

On European Railway the clips or clamps, have a life, almost equal
to the life of rails requiring replacement only during rail renewal.
The rubber pads are designed for a service life of 10 to 30 years and
are replaced only at the end of the stipulated period.
Indian Railway has to take measures to obtain adequate service life
from the fastening components, if trouble free operation at higher
speed and heavier axle loads has to be ensured. This can be done
by following the procurement process as adopted on European
Railways viz single point responsibility for all fastening components
and stricter quality controls.
1.4 Ballast and Formation
Trains at higher speeds impart tremendous amount of energy to the
Railtrack. It has been found that the Track Superstructure absorbs
only 5-10 percent of the energy, the rest has to be decimated by
ballast and formation. For the ballast to be able to perform its
function, it must be elastic, it’s elasticity to be restored when loss
occurs, by deep screening of ballast.
353
 For the Formation to play itsrole, it needs to be well designed and
compacted to the laid down standards. Above all, it should have a
fool proof drainage system, which should function effectively and
efficiently under all weather conditions.
DRAINAGE IS THE MOST NEGLECTED ITEM ON INDIAN
RAILTRACKS. THE POSITION GETS WORSE AT STATION
YARDS WHERE, ON ACCOUNT OF LEVEL OR EASY GRADE,
SELF CLEANING VELOCITY IS NOT AVAILABLE IN THE
DRAINS. UNDER SUCH CONDITIONS, UNDERGROUND
DRAINS IS THE ONLY SOLUTION, WHIC WHICH HAS BEEN
EXTENSIVELY ADOPTED ON EUROPEAN RAILWAYS.
Both, BALLAST and FORMATION need concentrated attention,
while operating at higher speed and under heavy axle loads.

2. TRACK MAINTENANCEAND TRACK MONITORINGPRACTICES

ON EUROPEAN RAILWAYS
Following are the steps taken by European Railways for the safe and
comfortable travel on their system, whichcan, mutatismutandis, be
adopted on Indian Railway for successful operation.
A Higher speed routes are fully protected against ingress from
outsiders, with fencing or other means; even railway workers are
seldom seen on the track during the train operation.
B All track works are carried out with complete traffic blocks, which
are well planned, months in advance. The track works have been
fully mechanised, the latest is the deployment of Robel Track
maintenance train, which provides a protective environment for
the workers and ensures high quality work; Fig. 5.

Fig.5: Robel ROMIS Track Maintenance Train and internal Arrangement

354
 C On European Railways, in the last 2-3 decades, the formation
rehabilitation work on all the important routes has been carried
out on extensive scale. Not only the poor formation stretches have
been attended to, but an acceptable track stiffness gradient has
been ensured by working at vulnerable locations like, approaches
to bridges, viaducts and the yards.
The formation rehabilitation machines need long blocks. For
obtaining thedesired output from this costly equipment and to
ensure proper quality standards in the rehabilitation process, single
line working is introduced. Heavy capital investment has been
made by the railway authorities in installing appropriate signalling
arrangements for twin single line working. It is quite common
to introduce single line operation when major track works like
formation rehabilitation, track renewals or major track overhauling
work,requiring the deployment of a group of maintenance
machines, is carried out.Fig.6 shows a formation rehabilitation
machine.

Fig.6: Pl & Th Formation Rehabilitation Machine AHM 800 R

INDIAN RAILWAYS SHALL HAVE TO MAKE THIS INVESTMENT
IN TWIN SINGLE LINE OPERATION, FOR EFFICIENT
DEPLOYMENT OF FORMATION REHABILITATION MACHINES.
Ballast Elasticity assumes much greater importance in higherspeed and
heavy haul operation. Caked, unclean ballast will put excessive load on
formation causing its early degradation. It will not dissipate the energy

355
 imparted to it, causing extra strain on all other track components, vizrails,
fastenings, concrete sleepers, thereby reducing their service life in track.
On European Railways, Ballast Cleaning is resorted to when the fines
of less than 22-mm size in the ballast exceed the threshold value of 30
percent. Theoretically, these are the norms prescribed on Indian Railways
as well, but seldom followed in practice, for lack of serious consideration
at the top rung of administration.Fig. 7 shows a high output ballast
screening machine:

Fig.7: Pl & Th Ballast Screening Machine RM 802

As the traffic blocks are becoming costlier on busy lines, maintenance
machines have come into the market, which have a very high output
and are capable of carrying out multiple tasks, in single operation. Fig.
8 shows one such machines, which carries out tamping and stabilising
together. Machines are also available which carry out ballast recoupment
and ballast regrading, along with tamping and stabilising.

Fig.8: Latest Pl&Th Track and Turnout Tamper cumdynamic Stabilising

356
 Machine
Manual maintenance Gangs have no place on a higherspeed, heavy axle
load lines. It is highly risky to send gang men to work on unprotected
track onhigher speedlines. On European Railway higher speed lines, all
track works are carried out only after blocking the line to traffic.

3. Track Recording Cars and Track Monitoring Equipment

Present day, track recording cars not only record track parameters and
determine the riding quality of Track they have been equipped with
Ultrasonic Rail Testing Equipment. Track recording cars are also being
provided with Ground Penetrating Radars to tell about the conditions of
ballast, formation and drainage.
Easy Stiffness gradient in Track assumes great importance in higher
speedoperation. Swedish Railway has deployed separate Stiffness gradient
measuring cars, to have a control on stiffness gradient.
With increased levels of digitisation and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
getting into the Track Maintenance operation, the track recording data
gets communicated to the track maintenance machines for carrying out
their work with least human interface.
Fig.9 shows such a modern Track Recording Car:

Fig. 9: Pl & Th Track Recording Car EM 160

357
 Fig.10: Track Recording Car EM 50 with Ground Penetrating Radar
Antennas, Irish Rail`s

4. OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A UIC 60 kg, 90 UTS rails have been giving satisfactory service on
European Railways, operating their passenger trains at a speed
of 140-200 kmph and freight trains with an axle load of 22.5-25
tonnes at 100-120 kmph.
B Higher UTS rails produced with an addition of Cr & Va in Britain
created problems in service and are no longer favoured. Head
hardened rails are used where rail with higher UTS/ Hardness are
needed as on tight curves and steeper grades.
C Indian Railways may go slow in the use of their RH-260 rails
(produced with changed chemistry) and watch their behaviour,
particularly in respect to welding and handling/ transport.
D Effective fastenings providing good grip on rails and the deployment
of Rail Scan equipment, giving information of locked up thermal
stresses in rails, followed up by de-stressing of rails, can bring down
the Rail Fractures considerably.
E For ensuring safety, reliability and economy at higher speeds and

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 with heavier axle loads, extensive formation rehabilitation needs
to be carried out as has been on European Railways. As formation
rehabilitation machines need long traffic blocks, Signalling system
has been installed for switching over to twin single line operation
on most of important routes. This arrangement has also helped
in getting better productivity and quality from other costly track
machines.
F Manual track maintenance has no place on higherspeed and heavy
density lines. All track works has to be carried out under complete
track possession. Track Maintenance trains, which provide full
protection to workmen and small track machines while working
under adverse weather conditions, need to be deployed. This
ensures high quality standards for all field works, particularly the
welds.
G Manual patrolling of track is unproductive and dangerous in higher
speedoperation. Track Monitoring Systems have to be up graded
to a level, that all information about the track conditions becomes
available through the monitoring system and in time bound
manner to take necessary remedial measures. German Railway
has deployed such monitoring systems and need to be adopted on
higher speed routes of Indian Railway.
H Finally, it needs to be emphasised that while on Indian Railways
considerable technical advancements have been made in the rolling
stock, traction and signalling systems for running of trains at higher
speeds, nothing tangible has been done to improve formation,
drainage and track components. Even the manual-patrolling is still
being continued, which surely is unreliable, hazardous and unsafe
under higher speed operation.

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Rapid & Improved Span Load Test for Bridges
& Viaducts
Er Harsimran Singh1 And Er Biswanath Mukherjee2,

ABSTRACT
The Load testing of bridges is essential for checking their adequacy before putting
them into service and also during service life when some doubt arises about their
strength. With changing times, it has been felt to reduce time for testing so that
the structures can be put into service at earliest and also to avoid the large scale
disruption to traffic as may be needed in case busy areas within the cities and
town.. The paper explains one such method developed for conducting the load
tests on erected spans.

1. Bridges are required to be tested for several reasons. The objectives

of carrying out the load tests on the spans of the bridges are as given
below.
a. Identify of safe load carrying capacity of existing bridge
b. Evaluation of the performance of Structures, Bridges and Viaducts.
c. Determination of Dynamic properties of the Structures, Bridges
and Viaducts
d. Identify of the behavioral pattern of new and old Structures, Bridges
and Viaducts
e. Evaluation of the design of a typical and innovative type of bridge
super-structure about which experience is not available
f. Determination of the fatigue level which is regular practice for
railway steel girder bridge
g. Verification of design load vs Live load carrying capacity
h. Preparation of the rehabilitation plan for the Structures, Bridges
and Viaducts
i. Evaluation of additional load carrying capacity of the Structures,
Bridges and Viaducts
j. Identifying the Analytical Model of the Structures, Bridges and
1
IRSE, CPM/RVNL/Kolkata,
2
Area Manager/M/s AIMIL Ltd

360
 Viaducts
k. Evaluation of material degradation/ deformation level
l. Quantification of the Structure deformation & subsequent
corrective action required if any
m. Collection of historical data and comparison
Visual inspection, Structural health monitoring, Non-destructive
testing (NDT) and Finite Element- based structural models
are commonly utilized to address the issues related to a bridge.
However, the load testing gives the actual behavior of the structure
under the load.
1.1 NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE BRIDGE
LOAD TESTING:
1.1.1 Indian Railway Standard Code: Indian Railways have incorporated
guidelines for Load Testing of Bridge & Structure in the IRS-
Concrete Bridge Code. The live load to be considered is as per para
18.2 of IRS Concrete Bridge Code for the Concrete bridges. As per
Clause 18.2.3of IRS Concrete Bride Code 1997, The test loads to be
applied for the limit states of deflection and local damage are the
appropriate design loads, i.e. the characteristic dead and imposed
loads. When the ultimate limit state is being considered, the test
load should be equal to the sum of the characteristic dead load
plus 1.25 times the characteristic imposed load and should be
maintained for a period of 24 h. If any of the final dead load is not
in position on the structure, compensating loads should be added
as necessary.
As per Clause No. 18.2.5.3 of IRS Concrete Bridge Code, maximum
deflection during the 24 hours under load must be less than 40L2/H
(L-Effective span length in m & H= Overall depth of the structure
in mm). As per IRS for 31m span of 2m overall depth, maximum
deflection would be 19.22 mm. As per Clause No 8.2.5.5 if within
24 hours of the removal of the test load, pre-stressed concrete girder
does not recover at least 85% of the maximum deflection during
24hours of loading, the loading should be repeated. For RCC and
Composite structures, the limit is considered as 75% in place of
85%. The structure should be considered to have failed to pass the
test if the recovery after second loading is not at least 85% of the
maximum deflection shown during second loading.
1.1.2 Indian Road Congress (IRC) Code: Test load is taken as per clause

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 No 3.1.4 of IRC-SP-51, “serviceability performance can be tested
using test loads at a level equal to the design service load”. The
maximum Deflection is not specified in the code. The recovery
of deflection is noted as per clause No. 6.8.2. The percentage
of recovery of deflection for pre-stressed concrete bridges after
retention of test load for 24 hours should be at least 85%. For RCC
and Composite structures, the limit is considered as 75% in place of
85%.

2.0 Conventional Load Testing Techniques:

Load testing of bridges is very common and conventionally it uses sand
bags, concrete blocks, locomotives in case of Railway bridges and Truck
in case of road bridges has been adopted.
2.1 Load Testing With Sand Bags : Approximately weighed Sandbags
are stacked on the span and analog dial gauges are used for recording
deflections. Though this method can be adopted everywhere, but it has
several limitations as brought out below.
Loading & unloading masses cannot be well controlled. The loading
elements are not possible to be distributed uniformly over the tested
span. It is very tedious work to note data from Analog Dial gauges at a
certain height & after certain interval. Loading and unloading events are
labour intensive & tedious as well.

Fig.1: Conventional Load Test using Concrete Blocks or Sand Bags

2.2 Load testing with Loaded Trucks : Loaded Trucks filled with aggregates
like sand or stones are used as loading elements. LVDT or Dial Gauges
(Defection sensors) and Data Loggers are used to measure defection. It
is very useful method for load testing for Road Bridges requires very less
set-up & wrapping up time. But it has limitations as follows.
It is difficult to maintain incremental & decremental loading percentage

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 during Load Testing Cycles. This methodology is not suitable for Viaduct
or Railway bridges where the road vehicles cannot be used.

Fig. 2: Conventional Load Testing using Trucks loaded with Aggregates

2.3 Using Railway Locomotive for Load Testing : Railway Locomotive is
commonly used for span load testing of Railway bridges. LVDT or Dial
gauge or Piano wire (Defection sensor) are used to measure deflection.
Though set-up & wrapping up times are very less, but this method also
has several limitations. Percentage of Incremental or decremental loads
are not possible to apply. It is not possible to be adopted where the railway
track connectivity is not available.

Fig 3: Load Testing With Railway Locomotive

3.0 STRATEGIES & APPROPRIATE PLANNING FOR LOAD TESTING:

Appropriate planning & Strategies are the key for a perfect and successful
load Testing. Aim of the Load Testing should be clearly defined. It is
necessary to identify appropriate Loading Methodology depending upon,
Bridge Location, Type of Bridge, Availability of loading element, Available
space near Viaduct or Bridge, Availability of Loading arrangement,

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 etc. It is also required to identify right kind of sensors & measurement
technique appropriate for kind of structure whether Railway Viaduct or
Conventional Railway bridge or Bridge/ Via-duct over flowing river or
Metro Via-duct inside the populated/congested city.
It’s required to select the locations and numbers of sensors which
depends upon span length and type of bridges. Rate of Data acquisition
& Post Analysis of data are also critical. It is necessary to determine
how frequently data is to be logged. For dynamic load testing very high
speed acquisition rate is fixed whereas for static load testing low rate of
data acquisition is used. For post data processing, sensor temperature
compensation, unit conversion and graphical representation are very
crucial.

4.0 RAPID IMPROVED SPAN LOAD TESTING FOR BRIDGES

&VIADUCTS:
In this era of technology, more viaducts and pre-casted bridges are
coming up in large numbers while the constraints in construction and
testing are increasing such as the space availability especially in highly
congested metropolitan areas or old city. Therefore, the requirement of
rapid load testing is very essential and at the same time precision of load
testing is very much needed. It is required to get rid of the conventional
ways and find out innovative out of box solutions. One such innovative
method has been developed. The Highlights of the new improved rapid
span load testing method are as follows.
a. It is fast- less time requires for set-up & wrapping up and gives
accurate results
b. It can be used practically at any Bridge or Viaduct or Critical
Structure
c. It is quite well suited for Railway bridges & Viaducts (where Railway
Tracks are already installed) and loading by conventional methods
is either not possible or very cumbersome and clumsy
d. It can be easily adopted for new as well as existing bridges

5.0 CASE STUDY:

Name of the Job: Load testing of Metro Viaduct near Behala Bazar Metro
Station (Area Behala Manton, opp Ashoka Cinema Hall).
Span : Between Pier numbers 183 & 184

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Span Length : 28m
Type of Girder: Precast Segmental PSC Box Girder

Fig. 4 Load Testing Set Up and Transportation of Water Tanks to Test

Span
5.1 OBJECTIVE : Static Load testing was performed to measure vertical
deformation of the Viaduct span at mid-span and quarter span locations.
Measurement was recorded during loading, during 24 hours of maximum
load, during unloading and after removal of load. The main objective of
this type of testing is to compare field response of the viaduct under test
loads with it’s theoretical value.
Objective of this work is safety analysis “In Respect of ” behavior of
Viaducts for finding out the structural condition.
5.2 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTATION : As shown in the figure, two
types of sensors were used for load testing at L/4 span, mid span (L/2)
and 3L/4 span at Metro via-duct (P183 – P184) to measure the Load vs
Displacement response.
3-displacement sensors (potentiometer with temperature compensator)
were installed at the L/4, L/2 & 3L/4 to measure the displacement.
Moreover, 3 LVDTs were installed to cross check the displacement data.
Additionally high precision Optical Total Station with 1-sec accuracy was
used for monitoring any sudden mitigation during Load Testing.
High end multichannel standalone Data loggers were used to log defection
data against a pre-defined time interval with auto sensor temperature
compensation algorithm.

365
 Fig5. Schematic Diagram

5.3 SENSOR ADOPTED FOR SPAN LOAD TESTING: High precision

draw wire Rotary Encoders have been adopted that detect position and
speed by converting rotational mechanical displacements into electrical
signals and process the signals. Deflection-Rotary Encoder is used in
combination with Rotary Encoder sensor and Data Logger to record
deflection against time. Another set of sensors (LVDTs) were also used to
have comparison of the data and remove any inaccuracy.

High precision draw wire rotary encoder

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 Standalone Universal data logger LVDT
Fig 6: High Precision Deflection Sensors & Loggers
5.4 BATTERY POWERED LOGGING SYSTEM: This universal datalogger
that supports all kind of field measurements through appropriate
sensors, had been adopted for uninterrupted real time date logging. This
also supports field data monitoring of sensors during Load test. It has
both analog and digital channels with separate counter channels. It has
18 Bit Analog to Digital Converter which ensures very high accuracy in
measurement. The system is robust for field measurements. It is having
in-built battery for operation without direct power. The front end is
having LCD display with key pad for configuration of the data logger.
5.5 LOADING MECHANISM: Light weight & easily transportable
Polypropylene water tanks (Capacity 10,000 Litre) have been used as
Loading Unit. Tanks are placed on the steel platform provided over the
already built railway track. Total Load of 365.904 Ton was applied on the
Span (between P18- P19). Water Tanks were placed uniformly on ISMB
( I section) and 8 mm thick steel plate as show in the figure. Water was
fed from the both ends as show in the figure and precise incremental
Loading was applied in stages of 25%,50%,75%, 90% and 100%. Water
Layer of each Tank was measured accurately for uniform and perfect
loading pattern. Total 33 no of tanks were used for 28m span load test.

Applied Load Calculation: (as per drawing)

1) Load Component : ISMB+ Flat Steel Plate= 35.904 Ton
2) Weight of the water: 330 Ton (10,000 litre x 1kg/litre x 33 )

Total applied load: 365.904 Ton

Percentage 25% load 50% load 75% load 90% load 100%
of load load
Load in 91.48 182.96 274.44 329.33 365.904
Ton

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Water is filled in 5 Layer (450 mm, 720mm, 730 mm, 440 mm and 300 mm)
Total height of the Tank: 2640 mm

5th Stage 300 MM

4th Stage 440MM

3rd Stage 730MM

2nd Stage 720MM

1st Stage 450MM

Fig 7: Schematic Digram For Feeding Of Water In Both Sides Uniformly

368
 Fig. 8 : SECTIONAL VIEW

5.6 Rapid & Balanced Incremental Loading & decremental unloading

Pattern: Loading & Unloading Process is Fast, Smooth, Accurate,
Balanced and Clean. There is stage wise loading as well as unloading for
getting precise results with

Fig. 9 : LOADING AND UNLOADING PATTERN

5.7 Conducting the Test : Draw wire Rotary Encoder Sensors are installed at

369
 mid span and at quarter soans- L/4, L/2 and 3L/4. In this case for better
comparison, LVDTs were also installed. The water tanks are placed in
nearby station and carried to the test span on trolleys one by one. The site is
made ready by removing the 3rd rail(traction rail) for ensuring no damage
to it as it’s higher than the running rails and is very sensitive. The I-sections
and the plate of Mild Steel are placed on the rails of both tracks to provide
smooth surface to place the tanks. Water is fed from the water hydrant for
fire fighting as well as from the water tanker on the road. The recording
of readings of defection of the span is started right from the placement of
I-sections and the readings are taken till all the load is removed

Fig.9 : I-Sections and Plates Being Loaded on Span for placement of Tanks

Fig. 10 : Pumping of the water from the tanker

Fig .11 LVDT Sensors Fig .12 Rotory Encoder Sensors

370
 Fig. 13. Automated data recording
5.8 LOAD v/s DEFLECTION DURING INCREMENT OF LOAD:
Total Load applied in percentage (25%,50%,75% 90% and 100%) and
corresponding deflection readings are recorded at L/2, L/4 and 3L/4 are
recorded as in Table1 below.
TABLE NO. 1
% of Load (365.904 Ton) Down wards deflection in mm
L/4 L/2 3L/4
0 0.00 0.00 0.00
25% (91.48 T) 0.90 1.30 0.80
50% (182.96 T) 1.40 2.50 1.40
75% (274.44 T) 3.20 4.00 3.50
90% (329.33 T) 3.90 4.70 4.20
100% (365.904 T) 5.20 7.30 5.30

5.9 LOAD v/s DEFLECTION PROFILE DURING INCREMENT OF

LOAD : Graph is plotted showing incremental loading in percentage in
x-axis and deflection at L/2, L/4 and 3 L/4 in y-axis. Figure below presents
the graph.

371
 Fig. 14. Deflection Vs Loading
5.10 Comparing the Span Defection Value recorded by Rotary Encoder
and LVDT : In order to rule out any problem in recording and to ensure
that accurate results are obtained, apart from rotary encoder type sensors,
LVDT type sensors were also used. The comparison of the readings is
given in table below. It can be seen that the readings are almost same.

TABLE NO 2

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6.0 COMPARISION CHART BETWEEN THEORETICAL DEFLECTION
AND ACTUAL DEFLECTION AGAINST LOADING:
Loading stage corresponds to Loading percentage vs Actual deflection at
L/2,L/4 & 3L/4 against theoretical predicted deflection.
TABLE NO.3
LOADING DATE & % OF Predicted ACTUAL
STAGES TIME LOADING DEFLECTION DEFLECTION
(367.25 (mm) (mm)
Ton)
1st 06.11.2022 25% (91.48 L/4 = 1.43, L/2 L/4 = 0.90, L/2
on T) = 2.02, 3L/4 = = 1.30, 3L/4 =
09:30HRS 1.43 0.80
2nd 06.11.2022 50% L/4 = 2.85, L/2 L/4 = 1.40, L/2
on 14:20 (182.96 T) = 4.03, 3L/4 = = 2.50, 3L/4 =
HRS 2.85 1.40
3rd 06.11.2022 75% L/4 = 4.28, L/2 L/4 = 3.20, L/2
on 19:10 (274.44 T) = 6.05, 3L/4 = = 4.00, 3L/4 =
HRS 4.28 3.50
4th 06.11.2022 90% L/4 = 5.14, L/2 L/4 = 3.90, L/2
on 22:13 (329.33 T) = 7.26, 3L/4 = = 4.70, 3L/4 =
HRS 5.14 4.20
5th 07.11.2022 100% ( L/4 = 5.71, L/2 L/4 = 5.20, L/2
on 00:34 365.904 T) = 8.06, 3L/4 = = 7.30, 3L/4 =
HRS 5.71 5.30

6.1 COMPARISION PROFILE OF DEFLECTION WITH THEORITICAL

VALUE :
Theoretical predicted defection at L/2, L/4 & 3L/4 vs Action deflection at
L/2,L/4 & 3L/4.

373
 Fig. 15: Theoretical Vs Field Deflection
6.2 LOAD v/s DEFLECTION DURING DECREMENT OF LOAD: Table
below shows the decremental load vs deflection of the Span at L/4, L/2
and 3L/4
TABLE NO.4
% of Up wards Defection ( in mm)
DECREMENTAL L/4 L/2 3L/4
Load
0 ( 365.904 T) 5.20 7.30 5.30
10 (329.33 T) 5.00 6.90 5.10
25 (274.44 T) 3.70 5.70 4.00
50 (182.96 T) 2.90 4.10 3.10
75 ( 91.48 T) 1.90 2.80 2.10
100% (0 T) 0.20 0.30 0.20

6.3 LOAD v/s DEFLECTION PROFILE DURING DECREMENT OF

LOAD : A graph has been plotted to check the precise Decremental Load
vs deflection (Recovery) at L/4, L/2 & 3L/4

374
 Fig. 16: Recovery of Deflection during Unloading
6.4 Comparing the Readings of Rotary Encoder and LVDTs : Load v/s
deflection readings of rotary encoder and LVDT during unloading have
been plotted and found to be comparable.
Table No. 5

6.5 Time distribution for Rapid Load Testing Method : tentative time
required for the load test is ideally 5 days and may be upto 7 days

375
 depending upon site constraints. Details of time required for load testing
are presented in table below.
TABLE NO: 6
Sl Description of Event Remarks
Preliminary arrangement like
30hrs. It depends upon site
bed preparation, Loading
1 condition/Location/Availability of
empty water tank and placing in
resources.
position
30hrs. It depends upon sources of
2 Loading water in empty tank.
Water and their mobilization.
Retention of Maximum load for
3 24 hrs. This is fixed time
observations
30hrs. It depends upon site
4 Water unloading & site clearing condition/Location/Availability of
resources.

7.0 Cost Comparison with respect to the Conventional Method :

Comparison of cost for the rapid improved static span load test on
viaduct of 25m -31m spans (PSC BOX GIRDER / I- GIRDER) with
the conventional method has been brought out. This method basically
involves some capital investment and when more nos of spans are to be
tested,
TABLE NO: 7
Nos of Span Load tests to be
1 2 3 4 5 6
conducted
Cost for One Rapid
Improved Load Test (in 40.64 21.67 18.61 15.06 14.51 12.86
Lakh INR)

Cost of conventional Span Load test is normally of the order of Rs

14 to 15Lakh. Thus for about 5 and more tests, this method becomes
more cost effective. If we consider the value of the time saved and the
value of keeping the site neat and clean, then there are more indirect
cost benefits of this Rapid improved method.
For Large Railway Project, Span Load Testing adopting Polypropylene
Water Tank Loading is cost effective than Conventional Method. If
376
 number of Span Load Testing is more than 10 no cost of Polypropylene
Water Tank Loading methodology will be much cheaper.

Fig.17: Loading Area remains absolutely neat & clean after Load Test

8.0 ADVANTAGE OF RAPID & IMPROVED SPAN LOAD TESTING:

As brought out above, the various advantages of this method are
summarized below.
i. Rapid Load Testing uses Linear water pouring methodology from
two ends hence Loading Methodology is more accurate & precise.
ii. This method is faster and the testing is completed within about 96
hours from start of loading to completion of test.
iii. Linear & Level controlled water pouring arrangement is done which
provides controlled Loading pattern unlike conventional loading
system. It also ensures uniform Loading rate during Loading &
De-Loading. Load can be increased & decreased in well-defined
manner viz 25%, 50%,75%,90% 100% & vice versa. This results in
more effective & realistic Load vs Defection curve
iv. Loading components viz ISMB, Steel Plate, Polypropylene Water
Tanks can be handled very efficiently unlike Sandbags or Concrete
blocks.
v. Loading components are well spread & distributed unlike
conventional loading mechanism. This provides better and more
realistic results.

377
 vi. Transportations are hassle free, hence Multiple spans Load testing
is less time consuming
vii. Using Water as active loading component, hence it is very clean and
hassle free. Labour Cost for Loading & Un-Loading is also quite
less unlike Sand bags or concrete Blocks.
viii. Use of high end Rotary Encoder Type displacement Sensor requires
no structural supports as are required for Sensor Mounting & de-
mounting are less time consuming & hassle free
ix. Standalone multichannel Data logger requires no manual
interventions as are required for Data Acquisition & post data
processing viz Temperature compensation & unit conversion.
x. Set-up and winding-up time are very less unlike Sandbags or
Concrete Block Loading methodology where large amount of time
is needed for setting up and for removal of the set up.
xi. Ideal Load Testing Methodology for City bound Metro Viaduct
and Railway Bridge. This Load Testing Methodology can also be
adopted for Old & existing Bridge Via-duct after rehabilitation &
major repairing.

9.0 ADAPTABILITY FOR THE RAILWAY BRIDGES:

For running trains at higher speeds and with higher axle loads, it is
essential to check the strength of the bridges enroute and one of the best
ways to see the actual behavior of the bridge under the proposed load is
to carry out the load test. However, load testing of bridges is very time
consuming and the bridges on running line would require blockage of the
line, which is very difficult especially on important routes. Under these
conditions, sample bridges can be selected and load tests conducted on
these bridges as per the methodology proposed. Water can be arranged
from the river/canal in case of bridge spanning the river/canal,otherwise
water tankers can be arranged. If that is also not feasible, water from
nearby water pipe can be arranged or tubewell can be constructed. String
of Rotary encoders can be kept at an angle if it is not possible to keep
vertical. If the material for load testing is difficult to be carried through
road, it can be carried railway BFRs.

378
10.0 CONCLUSION:
This is a very precise and efficient way of Span Load Testing Methodology.
Till now, probably it has not been adopted anywhere in the country in a
popular manner. Initial set up for “Rapid Improved Span Load Testing
for Bridges & Viaduct” is quite precise fast and also cost effective for
larger project as compared to conventional Load Testing Methods but
due to it’s advantages and reusability of test elements/materials it can be
easily popularized. Resources can be reused and easily transported from
one to another place. “Rapid Improved Span Load Testing for Bridge &
Viaduct” methodology can also be incorporated into the IRS-Concrete
Bridge Code.

Acknowledgement:
IRC-Bridge-8 Committee 2022: Advice, Article & recommendation.

References:
1. Veneziano, D., D. Galeota, and M. M. Giammatteo. Analysis of Bridge
Proof- Load Data I: Model and Statistical Procedures. Structural
Safety, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1984, pp. 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-
4730(84)90013-4
2. Brühwiler, E., T. Vogel, T. Lang, and P. Lüchinger. Swiss Standards for
Existing Structures. Structural Engineering International, Vol. 22, No. 2,
2012, pp. 275–280. https://doi.org/10.2749/101686612X13291382991209.
3. Cochet, D., et al. Load Tests on Highway Bridges and Pedestrian Bridges
(in French). Setra– Service d’Etudes Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes,
Bagneux-Cedex, France, 2004.
4. Taylor, P., T. Hosteng, X. Wang, and B. Phares. Evaluation and Testing
of a Lightweight Fine Aggregate Concrete Bridge Deck in Buchanan
County, Iowa. InTrans Project 12-434; IHRB Project TR-648. Iowa State
University, 2016, p. 51.
5. Cochet, D., et al. Load Tests on Highway Bridges and Pedestrian Bridges
(in French). Setra– Service d’Etudes Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes,
Bagneux-Cedex, France, 2004. Rijkswaterstaat Centre for Infrastructure,
2017.
6. Ferreira, D., J. Bairán, and A. Marí. Efficient 1D Model for Blind
Assessment of Existing Bridges: Simulation of a Full-Scale Loading Test
and Comparison with Higher Order Continuum Models. Structure and

379
 Infrastructure Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 10, 2015, pp. 1383–1397. https://
doi.org/10.108 0/15732479.2014.964734.
7. IRC:SP:37 – 2010 : Guidelines for Evaluation of Load Carrying Capacity
of Bridges, Indian Roads Congress
8. IRC:SP:51 – 2015 : Guidelines for Load Testing of Bridges (First Revision),
Indian Roads Congress.

380
 FAI4CIM (Federarted Artificial Intelligence
for Comprehensive Infrastructure
Maintenance)
Rafael Ibeas Almazan1

Abstract
FAI4CIM (Federated Artificial Intelligence for Comprehensive Infrastructure
Maintenance) provides an innovative solution that responds to the challenges of
optimizing bridge maintenance and improving safety. The main concept handled
is that of Federated Continuous Monitoring, through which it is possible to earlier
Detection of possible anomalous behavior of the bridges, to subsequently Identify
the damage in order to Evaluate the situation and Taje decisions on the most
appropriate maintenance actions.
For this purpose, an Edge Computing architecture is used, based on data
acquisition through different systems (Cyber-physical System: accelerometers,
inclinometers, strain gauges, normal and multispectral cameras, RPAS), which
are processed in an HPC (High Performance Computing) node installed closed
to the infrastructure, in which computing algorithms are executed to develop the
Analysis and Decision Making functions. At the same time, these HPC nodes can
work collaboratively (Federated) among them, sharing learning and making the
whole set work as a single supercomputer.
This meets the main needs for the realization of an intelligent and optimal
maintenance, which guarantees the safety of the assets.
By integrally improving the maintenance of bridges, the cost of maintenance due
to intervention on bridges is reduced by approximately 50%, increasing the life
cycle of the bridge; eliminating 75% of preventive inspections actions (only when
the system warns of a possible problem) and avoiding 20% of operational stops
due to intervention. It also facilitates the improvement of design procedures (new
materials and structures) and processes.

1. Introduction:
FAI4CIM is a product based on Machine Learning and Edge computing
created to support the structural inspection processes of bridges in
real time. This new technology reduces the level of subjectivity and
1
Chief Engineer/Bridge Rehabilitation. NE Railway, Gorakhpur

381
 dependence on the inspectors’ experience, providing them with objective
information for decision-making related to bridge maintenance work,
and allowing and scalated installation of sensors according to the real
need.
In road and railway engineering, the conservation and maintenance
of bridges and structures is one of the most important activities to be
carried out in order to have a safe road and railway network. Today,
maintenance work on most bridges is visual and it is based on subjective
exams carried out by experts. In economic terms, it is essential to know
when to act, since costs increase exponentially when corrective actions
need to be taken instead of preventive maintenance ones. In terms of
safety, the detection of anomalous behaviors that could lead to collapses
would avoid the loss of human lifes.
Although the total length of bridges (in the case of Spain) accounts for
approximately 2% of the total length of the network, they account for
construction and maintenance costs of close to 25%.
In the state of Massachusetts, where several of FAI4CIM’s installations
have been carried out, a 2019 study revealed that 9% of its bridges are
structurally deficient. In other words, of its 4,768 bridges, nearly 500 are
in urgent need of repair, including some on which more than 100,000
vehicles travel daily. This study also indicated that 91% of the bridges
were in need of some kind of maintenance.
In any case, it is well known that this situation exists not only in
Massachusetts, but also in USA and by extension in the world, something
that makes FAI4CIM, or similar projects, very successful in their
presentations.
The use of electronic devices for the inspection of bridges has increased
considerably, but especially when we refer to large infrastructures or new
constructions. Most of the bridges we daily cross, without being even
conscious, were built years ago and following traditional methodologies.
The use of electronic devices in this type of bridges is expensive, because
for many of these to properly work, it is essential to model each of the
bridges, being technically difficult and increasing the maintenance costs
and times.
FAI4CIM allows to monitor in an automated way and in real time
the deterioration of bridge structures without having to make large
investments on infrastructure or electronic devices. The technological
leap that FAI4CIM raises, consists of the application of Machine Learning
and Edge computing techniques for the development of a product that
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 can be generalized to any type of bridge, regardless of its structure, age
or how it was built. This product eliminates many of the infrastructure
and post-processing requirements that exist in the State of the Art,
thus making it a user-friendly tool that allows quick decisions based on
objective data.

2. Solution Architecture
FAI4CIM is a highly innovative product, already installed in about
a dozen bridges in the USA and the European Union, and with some
installations accepted in KSA, and it has included knowledge from more
than 150 bridges, which allows infrastructure management companies
that have bridges among their assets to optimize their maintenance
costs (both by saving on them and by increasing the useful life of the
assets), and above all, making it possible to anticipate possible structural
problems in the bridges in order to avoid catastrophic situations from the
point of view of the safety of people and goods circulating on them.
The main components of the system are:

• Data collection : The system collects information necessary

for early detection of problems. Some sensors help us to detect
deterioration (accelerometers, inclinometers and strain gauges to
measure the dynamic behavior of the structure), others help us to
identify it (conventional cameras, high resolution multispectral
camera in RPAS (drone), corrosion and displacement sensors, but
also sensors for meteorological context (temperature and humidity
sensors, wind speed, GPS). If a SHM (Structural Health Monitoring)
monitoring system already exists, it can also be connected as a data

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 source without the need to incorporate additional sensors. For this
reason, the concept of “Clever Sensing” has been developed, which
means that the collection is performed in a specific CPS that carries
out all these tasks, based mainly on an architecture with a certain
degree of intelligence that generates a block of data continuously
(data stream) that feeds the HPC computing system through
• a physical wired or wireless connection, but using microsecond
synchronization. These CPS be specialized; currently there are
two devices: the one for capturing accelerometer, inclinometer and
temperature, humidity and wind speed signals (fixed CPS); and the
one for capturing images from the high resolution multispectral
camera (mobile CPS). New typologies may be added depending on
the monitoring objectives.

• Analysis Once the data stream is received, other context data

received by the HPC are incorporated, such as usage data
(traffic plans), and the replacement actions performed (previous
maintenance data). The algorithms are executed, and conclusions
are obtained continuously and in real time (consistent with
the bridge oscillation process), through the application of both
unsupervised and supervised machine learning techniques. In
summary, the unsupervised algorithms generate knowledge about
the evolution of behavioral patterns of the data; these patterns are
transformed into a model of the bridge behavior and then labeled,
evolving over time and allowing them to be treated as a supervised
problem, in the process known as novelty detection. The supervised
techniques allow diagnosis and/or prognosis, where both positive
(failures) and negative (non-failures) cases are counted, from which
a learning algorithm can label this operation. As a differential
factor, it should be pointed out that the comparison patterns can be
already obtained by the consortium in its facilities, as well as those
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 that are generated within the facilities that are carried out within
the Federated Learning concept.

• Decision support : The system supports decision making at

different levels. With the infrastructure permanently installed,
a bridge health indicator (KPI) is generated, whose evolution
is used by the system to assess whether there is a problem in the
infrastructure that is not due to normal aging of the infrastructure.
If the system detects a possible problem, it uses both the internal
analytical technique to diagnose the possible problem, and the
generation of an order to go to the infrastructure with a mobile CPS
(RPAS) to identify the cause of the problem, while asking the rest of
the HPCs if there is any similar pattern in their learning (and that
has not already been shared). All this information is processed by
the HPC device that controls the bridge, and generates indicators
that help the infrastructure manager to make a decision: launch
a specific maintenance, temporarily close the infrastructure,
launch the mobile CPS for automatic identification of cracking
and structural condition, or launch specific tests and analysis of
structural effects.

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• Reparation : As already mentioned, data from past repairs are
integrated into the analysis process. Protocols are defined to
facilitate decision making based on the structural analysis of the
results by the artificial intelligence tools, in order to proceed with
the repair of the different pathologies identified. This information
is useful for future maintenance operations.
• Evaluation : All the accumulated knowledge, within the federated
concept, is distributed throughout the entire installation. In fact,
it is also possible to continuously evaluate not only aspects such
as maintenance, but also the efficiency of the installed collection
elements themselves: it could be seen that there are sensors that do
not make a difference to the model and that could even be eliminated
in subsequent designs, establishing a continuous learning process
in the form of the installation itself. These last two elements are
stored in the Control Center for infrastructure management, where
a digital twin of the infrastructures is created.

In addition to the information provided above, emphasis is placed

on the following aspects:
• The concept of “Clever Sensing”, Cyber Physical System (CPS) for
real-time data capture, which allows isolating the data capture from
its analysis, and makes the final architecture highly flexible when
implementing the solution on bridges. Two types of CPS nodes
have already been developed: a fixed one to integrate signals from
the sensors that are permanently installed on the bridge, processing

386
 the information and generating the data stream to send it to the
High Performance Computing (HPC) node (which can be on the
same bridge as the collection, or on another, so it has a wired and
wireless synchronization and connection module), to perform the
Detection; and another mobile based on Machine Learning applied
to the processing of
images captured with RPAS, which is used for Identification
(once it is determined that there is a problem, delimit it, analyze
the causes and minimize or solve it). Few sensors are required
(between two and four accelerometers/inclinometers per span) to
detect anomalies in the structural behavior, although depending on
the degree of identification required locally, more can be installed.
It is estimated that in a conventional bridge, between two and four
accelerometers and inclinometers are installed per span, enough
to determine the health of the bridge, and then they could be
removed according to their level of relevance in the provision of
information. This removal is done based on domain knowledge and
with Machine Learning techniques called feature subset selection -
FSS. On the other hand, strain gauges (and other elements, such as
corrosion and displacement sensors) are installed at specific points
where problems may occur and specific monitoring is required, and
which require the model to consider them as new variables to be
considered. This section includes the development of a novel (and
inexpensive) state measurement system based on high precision
and very low cost accelerometry. The proposed solution is valid,
with adaptations, for the different bridge typologies. What would
change for each one is the type and placement of the sensors to be
installed and their adjustment.
• The analysis module is federated, i.e. learning is shared between
the different HPCs, acting as a global network. Then can be HPC
modules that are not physically connected to the bridges, but they
are being fed by external data to perform learning that is then
shared with the rest, using consensus techniques. This data could
be from other SHM systems in operation, such as validated Finite
Element models of different bridges that are available, in order
to be able to evaluate possible future problems by performing
behavioral simulations. Each HPC would subscribe to the learning
results of those that are comparable to the behavior of the bridge it
is managing.

387
 FAI4CIM helps to the manager when making decisions. Until
now, decisions were based on the information collected during
inspections and condition assessment of the bridges, simulating
various action scenarios in order to predict the future level of
preservation of each element and to optimize economic resources
to carry out actions to prolong the useful life of the bridges, while
maintaining an adequate level of service. In some special bridges, in
addition, continuous monitoring systems are installed (in general,
measurements with laser cable or accelerometers) that allow
partial feedback of these models (always based on a deep knowledge
of the behavior of the structure since it has been built). And with
all this, various effects are achieved when applying conservation
strategies in maintenance, as opposed to non-investment policies:
The models of future deterioration evolution of elements propose
a degradation forecast, based on different probabilistic theories.
There are deterministic models, models according to planned
evolution of damage or probabilistic, based on the current state of
the element and probability of a predetermined rate of deterioration
over time and cost valuation models that take into account an
economic analysis throughout the life cycle of the managed bridges;
and that in the end what they usually do is to feed some of the
previous graphs with empirical data.
The main advantage of FAI$CIM is that, thanks to real-time
monitoring and the use of dynamic algorithms, it is possible
to generate the degradation curve of the bridge in continuous
time, without having to know the initial state of the bridge or
its exact modeling; the effect would be that the system would be
continuously generating the base curve and would give the warning
that deterioration has occurred by controlling the slopes of the
evolution of behavior.
In this way, objective criteria are provided that make it easier to
determine at what point it pays to take the decision to carry out
conservation measures, taking into account the benefits of the
investment and the risks that deterioration may grow over time and
lead to much higher repair costs.

388
3. Salient Features
The uniqueness that FAI4CIM present with respect to other existing
systems can be seen with the following characteristics:
• Holistic treatment of the infrastructure : It manages the behavior
as a whole, providing an explainable single KPI that presents
information about the structural response of the bridge
o No need to analyze multidimensional data
o No need to be a structural analysis expert
• FAI4CIM combines the use of static algorithms (the usual ones),
and dynamic algorithms (which allow real-time detection or
prognosis of the process in changing environments). It´s not
necessary to have an exact theoretical model of the bridge to be
able to analyze its evolution; and without considering the original
situation of the bridge: the installation of one bridge learns jointly
with other similar bridges (Consensus Learning)
• FAI4CIM is complementary to any of the current systems: data can
be captured from third-party SHM systems, dataloggers, or logs.
• FAI4CIM allows to prioritize the maintenance in an objective way
according to the real dynamic degradation of the asset
• Critical algorithms are self-developed, and therefore can be
improved with incoming data.
• FAI4CIM runs in real time over Edge Computing devices (installed
closed to the bridge), so it´s providing a service that does not depend
on the cloud (internal or external), although a Control Center can
be used to consolidate the results and provide a centralized answer
to maintenance problems.

4. Advantages
The advantages that FAI4CIM brings to users/customers are clear, and
can be divided into five groups:
• Improved safety.
o Avoidance of accidents due to total or partial collapse
: Continuous monitoring reduces the risk of this type of
accident to practically zero (obviously excluding phenomena
such as earthquakes, tsunamis, large landslides, etc.).
o Early detection of damage : Normally, the growth of damage
over time is exponential in time. If there is an early detection,
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 an adequate corrective maintenance can be performed to avoid
greater evils. The risk of damage occurring unexpectedly and
causing serious damage is reduced to practically zero.
• Cost reduction in the short and long term.
o Reduction of visual inspections : Continuous monitoring
eliminates the need for a visual inspection, unless the system
detects a potential problem that requires attention. The
range of reduction in inspections could be, depending on the
conservatism of the responsible organization, between 50%
and 90%.
o Reduction of preventive maintenance : It is linked to
the previous one. Many of the actions linked to preventive
maintenance according to periodic action tables could be
avoided. This would not affect, for example, painting or
cleaning; we estimate that the reduction, depending on the
type of bridge, could be between 10 and 25%.
o Reduced repair costs : Since damage is detected early,
decisions on repair can be made when the cost is still small.
Savings of 20 to 50% could certainly be obtained, depending
on the type of repair. The other advantage is that action
packages could be made, achieving scale savings, usually
between 10 and 20%.
o Increased service life : The service life is often measured
on the basis of wear curves, corrected by maintenance.
The advantage of this system is that it would modulate the
baseline itself, which would allow, if the structure does not
present problems, to increase the service life as much as the
system says its health is correct.
o Insurance costs : Although currently if an infrastructure is
not monitored does not mean an increase in insurance, it is
a fact that insurance companies will be increasingly sensitive
to customers who avoid collapse or personal injury, and these
damages as mentioned above would be reduced to practically
zero.
o The estimated PRI (Payback Return on Investment) can go
from 4 to 7 years (real cases in USA and Europe)

390
• Processes
o Objectification of the criteria for damage assessment and
quantification of repairs. Damage valuation depends on the
estimation of the behavior, not on the inspectors’ criteria,
which homogenizes the actions. Although this is not a savings
parameter, it does introduce an important component of
“impartiality”.
o Better planning of resources (human and economic) linked to
maintenance. Linked to the possibility of prioritizing actions
(economic) and the creation of action packages optimizing
the parameter to be decided (cost, safety, use of resources).
It would be feasible to achieve improvements (speed of
action, reduction in personnel requirements, cost savings) of
between 10 and 20%.
o Obtaining information in continuous time to allow real-time
decision making. Visual inspections are normally carried
out every 2 to 5 years, which is the time when information
is no longer received, whether something happens or not.
Continuous time allows decisions to be made as alarms are
triggered. It allows planning to be much more in line with
reality.
o Facilitate the creation of new technical maintenance
standards. The technical standards could be modified
to incorporate the knowledge acquired from continuous
monitoring, which would complement that of the inspectors
themselves, and would certainly allow the creation of more
efficient actions, or even several levels of monitoring (basic
use, more economical, to detect the onset of degradation, and
an advanced, more expensive one, for when it is detected).
• Operability
o Reduction of infrastructure downtime : By deducting
preventive and corrective maintenance, the impact on traffic
will be reduced by a percentage similar to the reduction of
such maintenance, which could be 25% or more.
o Limitation of destructive tests : Destructive tests could
be limited, which, when carried out, usually mean that the
operability of the bridges is limited or non-existent.

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• Innovation -
o Facilitation of testing with new materials and sensors. By
being continuously monitored, lead times for incorporating
new materials (more robust, lighter and/or cheaper) could
be accelerated, since the risk of anomalous behavior could be
anticipated.
o Feedback of new forms of design : All the knowledge from
monitoring could be incorporated into new designs; just as in
machines, programs are modified according to the findings
of continuous time.

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 Challenges in Maintenance & Upgradation of
Track for Traffic Regime of Higher Speed in
Hilly Section
Vikram Gupta1 & Pinku2

SYNOPSIS
All the hill lines of NFR are being designed for a speed potential of at least 100 Km/
hr. However, the sections are getting opened at a maximum speed of 50-60 Km/
hrs. that too with many caution orders. In sections which were opened even 6-7
years back, still Railway’s is not able to increase the speed to the design potential.
Even on date there is no road map to increase the speeds to enjoy the full speed
potential. In this paper, the various challenges being faced in maintenance &
upgradation of track for traffic regime of higher speed in hilly section & suggestions
to improve the same are discussed.

1.0 Introduction:
N.F. Railway has opened and commissioned two major hilly sections
i.e., Lumding – Badarpur and Jiribam – Vangaichungpao – Khongsang
section where passenger train are running. Also there are many hilly
terrain projects where works are in progress like 1.khongsang- Tupul-
Imphal New Line Project 2.Bhairabi-Sairang New Line Project 3.
Dimapur Kohima New Line Projectetc. and likely to be commissioned
shortly.
The Lumding-Badarpur section is having hilly section from Lumding to
Chandranathpuri.e., 148.97 Km. This section was opened without CRS
sanction by GM/NFR on date 17.11.15 on the instruction of Railway
Board at a speed varyingfor different block section ranging from 30-60
KMPH. From then onwards, the hilly section is having various caution
order and even on date the sectional speed is as follows:
Section Speed Speed Speed as
Potential when on Dec
of Section opened 2022
(kmph) (kmph) (kmph)

1
Chief Engineer/Con-7
2
Dy.CE/Con/Jiribam, N.F. Railway

393
 Lumding-New Haflong 100 60 60
New Haflong-Ditokcherra 100 30 45
Ditokcherra-Chandranathpur 100 50 50

Only in the first year after opening i.e. in 2016 sectional speed was raised
for New Haflong-Ditokcherra section from 30 to 45 Kmph and no other
sectional speed has been raised. The Year wise speed limit in Lumding-
Silchar section from the date of opening is as follows:

SL YEAR SECTION Remarks

NO LMG- NHLG- DTC-
NHLG DTC CNE
1 2015 60 30 50 Goods train start in
March 2015 & Passenger
train start in Nov-2015
2 2016 60 45 50
3 2017 60 45 50
4 2018 60 45 50
5 2019 60 45 50
6 2020 60 45 50
7 2021 60 45 50
8 2022 60 45 50
9 2023 60 45 50

Apart from the lower sectional speed the section is also having many
permanent caution orders on various accounts. The details of Permanent
caution orders other than due to sharp curves is as follows:
Permanent speed restriction on section:

S Kilometres Restricted
Section Reason for restriction
N From To speed (kmph)
3 77/4 78/0 DJA-PDJ 30 Un Controllable gauge
Regular problem of
4 78/0 78/3 DJA-PDJ 30
falling of stone debris

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 Due to shifted track
alignment & presence
5 79/3 79/5 DJA-PDJ 20
os S-curve in transition
of sharp curve no. 143
6 79/7 81/0 DJA-PDJ 30 Settlement of formation
Problem of regular
7 81/1 81/4 DJA-PDJ 30
settlement of bank
8 82/0 82/3 DJA-PDJ 30 Settlement of formation
Problem of regular
settlement of bank,
DJA- slope failure & turn
9 82/3 83/5 30
MXR out laid on transition
of curve 4.375 degree
curve
PDJ-
10 84/0 84/1 30 Settlement of Track
MXR
MXR- Bad bank and problem
13 92/1 92/5 30
MGE on slope failure
NHLG- Water logging inside
16 98/8 99/7 30
JGLP tunnel no-9
NHLG-
18 109/4 109/6 15 Settlement of bank
JGLP
JGLP-
19 110/4 110/5 20 Settlement of formation
NHGJ
JGLP- Settlement of
20 110/5 110/7 20
NHGJ embankment
BXK- Problem of falling of
24 134/1 134/2 30
DCA stone debris

From the above table it can be seen that there are many cautions on
account of unstable formations/settlement of embankment/bad banks/
water logging in tunnels etc. Even after a passage of 7 years still Railway
is not in a position to relax these permanent cautions. Apart from these
permanents caution orders, there are also many temporary caution
orders which are continuining and may get converted into permanent
caution orders. The details

395
 Of caution order (speed restrictions)which have been imposed in the
sectionand continuining for long time are as follows.
Sl Section Kilometer Speed Reason Date of
No. From To From To KMPH Imposition
1 Dihakho Mupa 49/07 49/08 30 Settlement 01/10/2021
of Track
2 Dihakho Mupa 51/07 52/02 50 Deficiency 01/10/2021
of Camber
of Bridge
Girder No.
102
3 Mupa Maibang 61/02 61/04 30 Diversion 01/10/2022
of Track
through
Sharp Curve
4 Daotuhaja Phiding 78/00 78/03 30 Regular 01/10/2021
Problem of
falling of
stone debris
5 Daotuhaja Phiding 79/03 79/05 20 Shifted track 01/10/2022
Alignment &
presence of
S-curve
6 Daotuhaja Phiding 79/07 81/00 30 Settlement 01/10/2022
of formation
7 Daotuhaja Phiding 81/01 81/04 30 Problem 01/10/2022
of regular
settlement of
bank
8 Daotuhaja Phiding 82/00 82/03 30 Settlement 10/10/2021
of formation
9 Phiding Phiding 82/03 83/05 30 Settlement 01/10/2021
Yard yard of Bank,
failure of
slope
10 Phiding Mahur 84/00 84/01 30 5° Sharp 01/10/2021
Curve
No.-155 in
approach of
T-5

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 11 Phiding Mahur 86/05 86/09 30 5° Sharp 01/10/2021
Curve
No.-155 in
approach of
T-5
12 Mahur Migrendisa 92/01 92/05 30 Bad Bank & 01/10/2021
Slope failure
13 Migrendisa Migrendisa 92/08 93/02 30 Bad Bank 27/11/2022
YD YD
14 New Jatinga 98/08 99/07 30 Water 01/10/2021
Haflong Lumpur logging
inside the
T-9
15 Jatinga New 109/04 109/06 15 Settlement 01/10/2021
Lumpur Harangajao of Bank

Recently, in Oct’ 2022, the Vangaichungpao-Khongsang hill section

has been commissioned and as per CRS sanction, the section has been
opened for 60 KMPH, withspeed restrictions in between section. This
section is also designed for 100 KMPH, but CRS has opened this section
on 60 KMPH only.
Section Speed Potential Speed when Speed as on
of Section opened Dec 2022
(kmph) (kmph) (kmph)
Jiribam-Khongsang 100 60 60

Apart from low section speed, CRS has also imposed caution orders for
Vangaichungpao-Khongsang section which are as follows as per CRS
authorization.
Sl Section Kilometer
Speed Reason Date of
No. From To From ToKM Imposition
PH
1 Vangai Rani 19/01 19/06 45 CRS 26/11/ 2022
chungpao Gaidinlieu authorization
for minor bridge
No 37

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 2 Rani Thingou 39/08 39/09 20 CRS 26/11/2022
Gaidinlieu authorization
for minor bridge
No 53
3 Thingou Khongsang 46/08 47/02 30 CRS 26/11/2022
authorization for
minor bridge No
61 and 62

Now the question arises, how long will we go on running the trains with
50-60 kmph. Indian Railway must think for adoption of guidelines or
methodologies to increase the speed of the section to 100 Kmph for hill
sections. Since, most of the issues which are therein Lumding-Badarpur
section are also repeating in Vangaichungpao-Khongsang section. Thus,
it is high time that these issues are resolved so that the design potential of
hill lines can be achieved.
As no major change in construction methodology has been done,
probably same issues will come in the other sections like 1. Khongsang -
Tupul- Imphal New Line Project 2. Bhairabi - Sairang New Line Project
3. Dimapur Kohima New Line Project where works are in progress. Thus
a change in guidelines/methodologies is required and new should be
framed. These guidelines or methodologies may be kept uniform for all
hill sections without any exceptions. On observing the sites of hill section
which have been opened and are about to opened, many challenges have
been noticed. For these, a permanent solution is required in order to
mitigate the issues in hilly terrain. The solution must be opted with low
maintenance cost.
2. Challenges in Hill section
Although there are many challenges in Hill section but the major
challenges are as follows:
2.1 Breaches:
Every year during monsoon from the time the section has been
opened breaches are happening. The section gets closed and
restoration work takes long durations. The details since opening
for Lumding-Silchar line are detailed below:

398
 Breaches location since opening of Track
Sl Year Location Problem Number of days
no. hampered due to
breach
1 2015 DCA Yard Heavy rain 35 mnt
83/2-3 Hill slope slip 18 mnts
MXR Yard Slip earth 2.5 hrs
92/3-4 Land slide 1 hr
94/2-4 Land slide 11 hrs
109/4-6 Formation settlement 14 hrs
110/4-5 Formation settlement 15 mnt
110/5-9 Formation settlement 5 hrs
114/4-6 Formation settlement 5 hrs
114/6-9 Formation settlement 4.5 Hrs
117/6-7 Bridge approach 5 hrs
settlement
121/3-4 Bridge approach 11hrs
settlement
2 2016 66/9-67/0 Rock fall from hill side 03 hrs
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
83/2-5 Hill slope slip 04 Days
92/4-6 Formation uplift and slide 07 days
104/6-7 Formation settlement and 02 days
slide
104/7-9 Hill slope slip 03 days
109/4-6 Formation settlement Suspended Line-
01 in monsoon
season
110/6-8 Formation settlement
114/6-9 Sinkage and slope failure 02 days
115/2-5 Hill slope failure
116/7-9 Hill slope failure

399
2 2016 117/5-6 Bridge approach 01 Day
settlement
118/1-2 Culvert wing wall washed 04 Days
out
121/2-4 Bridge approach 01 Day
settlement
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill
3 2017 66/6-8 Rock fall from hill side 02 hrs
68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
81/1-3 Formation settlement 1 day
81/5-6 Formation settlement 1 day
83/0-1 Slipped earth 1 day
83/2-5 Hill slope slip 1 day
95/3-5 Formation settlement and 2 days
slope failure
98/4-6 Slipped earth 06 hrs
104/6-7 Formation settlement and 02 days
slide
109/4-6 Formation settlement Suspended Line-
01 in monsoon
season
110/0-1 Bridge approach
settlement
115/2-5 Hill slope failure
116/3-4 Slipped earth 1 day
116/7-9 Hill slope failure
117/5-6 Bridge approach
settlement
121/2-4 Bridge approach
settlement
130/0-3 Slipped earth 1 day
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill

400
4 2018 67/3-4 Rock fall
68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side
75/7-9 Slipped earth on track 01 Day
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
83/2-5 Hill slope slip 2 day
102/3-4 Slipped earth 1 day
104/6-7 Formation settlement and
slide
104/7-9 Formation slope failure 1 day
109/4-6 Formation settlement Suspended Line-
01 in monsoon
season
110/6-8 Formation settlement 04 Hrs
113/8-9 Cavity of Bridge approach 05 Hrs
115/2-5 Hill slope failure
116/7-9 Hill slope failure
117/8-9 Slipped earth 1 day
133/3-5 Formation slope failure, 04 Days
washed out
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill
5 2019 67/9-68/0 Rock fall from hill
68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side
75/3-5 Slipped earth 01 Day
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
82/0-3 Settlement of formation
83/2-5 Hill slope slip
84/0-1 Settlement of formation
89/1-2 Slip earth due to hill slope
failure, R/Wall failure
104/6-7 Formation settlement
105/0-1 Bridge approach 1 day
settlement

401
5 2019 108/7-8 Land Slide,Hill failure 04 hrs
109/4-6 Formation settlement Suspended Line-
01 in monsoon
season
110/4-5 Washed out formation 08 days
110/6-8 Formation settlement
113/8-9 Cavity of Bridge approach 7 Hrs
118/4-6 Bridge approach 2 days
settlement
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill
6 2020 68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side
75/3-5 Slipped earth due to hill 10 Hrs
slope failure& R/Wall
failure
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
92/7-9 Bridge D/S channel
washed out, Formation
slope washed out
104/6-7 Formation settlement and
slide
107/7-9 Land slide,Hill slope 06 hrs
failure & R/Wall failed
109/4-6 Formation settlement Suspended Line-
01 in monsoon
season
110/4-5 Formation settlement
110/6-8 Formation settlement
118/4-6 Bridge approach 1 days (Line No
settlement - 01)
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill
7 2021 68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side
78/0-3 Rock fall from hill
83/7-9 Hill Slope failure, land
slide

402
7 2021 109/4-6 Formation settlement
110/4-5 Formation settlement
110/6-8 Formation settlement
118/4-6 Bridge approach 2 days (Line No
settlement - 01)
134/0-2 Rock fall from hill
8 2022 68/0-1 Rock fall & Earth slip 6 hrs
from hill side
68/2-4 Washed out formation 54 Days
68/4-6 Rock fall from hill side 8 hrs
69/7-70/0 Earth slip due to hill slope 8 Hrs
failure
71/7-9 Formation washout 40 Days
72/7-9 Formation washout 40 Days
73/7-9 Earthslip over track due 20 days
to hill slope failure
74/0-5 Flow of muck over track 30days
due to Bridge waterway
blockage
75/3-5 Earthslip over track 5 dyas
76/3-5 Earth slip over track 5 dyas
77/1-6 Formation washout 56 dyas
78/0-4 Flow of muck over track 40 days
79/3-5 Formation washout 58 days
79/6-9 Formation washout 58 days
80/7-9 Settlement of formation 40 days
81/2-4 Settlement of formation 40 days
83/2-5 Earthslip over track due 10 days
to hill slope failure
89/4-5 Earthslip over track due 6 days
to hill slope failure
91/0-2 Earthslip over track 6 days
92/3-4 Earthslip over track 6 days

403
8 2022 92/7-9 Formation slope failure 1 day
92/8-93/2 Upliftment of formation 1 day
94/7-9 Settlement of formation 1 day
due to slope failure
95/3-5 Settlement of formation 1 day
due to culvert failure
97/5-98/8 land slide, slip earth etc 35 Days
104/6-7 Bridge approach washed 45 Days
out
105/0-1 Bridge approach 2 Days
settlement
108/7-9 land slide, slip earth etc 50 Days
109/4-6 Formation settlement 50 Days
110/4-5 Formation washed out 35 Days
112/0-1 Bridge waterway block 7 days
due to heavy flow of
malwa
113/5-6 land slide, slip earth etc 7 days
113/8-9 Bridge approach washed 15 Days
out
115/2-5 Slip earth, Flow of Malwa 2 Days
117/0-1 land slide, slip earth etc 20 Days
118/4-6 Bridge approach 7 Days
settlement
124/4-5 Wing wall of Bridge 2 days
failed, approach
settlement
127/8-9 Bridge approach and bank 7 Days
washed out
128/3-5 Bridge approach and bank 25 Days
washed out
131/0-1 Bridge approach washed 40 Days
out

404
8 2022 133/3-5 Slope failure in bridge
Approach
134/0-2 Boulder falling from hill 1 day
slope
134/3-5, slope failure due to
134/7-9 & erosion at toe of bank
136/9-137/0
135/3-5 Formation slope washed 9 Days
out due to erosion at toe
of bank

Thus every year breaches shut down the section and huge money
is spent for restoration works. Infact the sectional people are busy
throughout the year in restoring and strengthening the tracks.
Although we have spent huge money and attended many locations,
still breaches are happening every year.
2.2 Formation:
The common procedure being followed is that the work of tunnelis
taken upand rock fill material is dumped in the gorge portion
between the two tunnels to create embankment. Basically, rock fill
material is used for construction of formation in hill section. By
its very nature, this type of soil is poorly graded, thereby leaving
huge voids in the bankeven aftercompaction. Being a high rainfall
area with Intense flash floods, water ponds up on upstream side
form during rainy season and start seeping through the bank,
being porous. The constant seepage washes away the fines thereby
making the whole soil matrix loose and crumble under pressure.
The height of embankments in hill section are too high ranging up
to even 50m-60m. At many locations these have been constructed to
fill the gorges with minor bridge with 1.5H:1V slope. Most of these
formations are unstable and becomes a bottle neck in increasing the
speed. During high rain or flash floods water is confined and thus
there is chance of breaches in these parts of section. This formation
fails due to sudden release of confined pore water pressure.
These formations become bad bank. The track on these types of
formations keeps on settling and form unstable formation. This
can be seen from the list of temporary/permanent caution orders

405
 existing in the section.
There were many instances of slope failure in Lumding- Silchar
wherever embankment height was more than 20m during
construction itself.
Pic: Lumding-New Haflong Section.

2.3 Slope Stability:

In hill section embankment have been constructed with different
slopes. It is varying from 1:1 to 1.5:1 to 2:1. The steep slopes with
high banks are mostly prone to failure in hill sections. For Slope
stability analysis the input data are C & Phi values for which proper
investigations are not carried out at field level and thus slope which
appears to be safe in analysis is not actually safe on ground.
2.4 Tunnel Maintenance:
1. In these section all tunnels are ballasted tunnels. Although
now Railway Board has issued the circular for providing
BLT in all New tunnels, but for the tunnels which are earlier
executed no guidelines have been issued. The ballasted track
inside the tunnel have many issues:
(i) Water stagnation under the sleeper.
(ii) There is less space for maintenance of track inside the
tunnel.
(iii) Water seepage from joints
(iv) Danger to life in electrified areas.
406
 (v) Throwing of garbage from train
inside the tunnel further clogs the
holes and causes the stagnation of
water.
(vi) Fast detoriation of track inside
the tunnel.
(vii) Changing of broken sleepers
inside the tunnels is a big job.
2. Tunnel Portals of many tunnels
have short length with steep slope of
overburden. These slopes are protected
by prevailing techniques of rock bolt,
shotcrete, wire net etc. Since wherever the portalsare very
short and abutting the hill slope, as a result if anything slips
from hill slope over the portal it will land on the track. Also
the hill slope is required to be stabilized and kept clear of
loose soil/rock/boulders.”
2.5 Minor Bridges:
As far as possible minor bridges with small opening must be
avoided. These keep on clogging by muck. Many times, these
minor bridges havehigh outfall. The water falling at upstream gets
damage result in failure of bridges. These bridges have been found
to be constructed between two hills (gorge) having over burden
as high as 20-60 m. If these bridges are silted, either water start
passing below the bridge or water will breach the embankment and
bridge. Minor bridges in these locations have to be constructed
with long barrel length. The construction joints are formed during
construction stage. In such situation water starts passing through
construction joint below the bridge. The inspection of these bridges
also becomes very critical. It has also been observed that at many
locations no wing wall or return wall are provided due to the terrain
of the section. To support the bank, gabion box or boulder sausage
crates are generally provided. The Hilly terrains have high rainfall.
Thus, sections are more prone to breaches or landslides etc. in
filling locations. These also becomes vulnerable due to high bank.
Minor bridge: LMG-SCL

407
2.6 Track:
SWP/Free rails/LWR: Mostly gradient in hilly section is less than
1 in 100. Due to this the LWR can be provided only with approval
of PCE. Thus, most of the sections are having only SWP on PSC
sleepers, & thus creates maintenance problems & this frequently
creates low joints/ pumping joints and thus becomes a bottle neck
for increasing speed. A policy guideline must be issued for hill
section to make LWR track in hilly section considering the aspects
of minimizing Joints in Track.
2.7 Sharp Curves:
All the section in hill comprises of steep gradient and sharp curves
which results in lower speeds than the designed speed. In Lumding-
Silchar section there are number of sharp curves upto 7 degrees
with 1 in 60-80 grade. Here, it has been noticed that gauge have
increased. The sleepers, liners, insert grooves have damaged. These
challenges have increased the maintenance efforts in track. Thus,
efforts should be made to increase the speed potential of track by
choosing proper alignment with curves not more than 2.75 degree.
2.8 Trespassing:
Normally in hilly terrain there is no road network and thus, there are
no LC’s or ROB’s/RUB’s are planned. For e.g., in VNGP-Khongsang
section of 44 Km length, there are no track crossing of any type
(LC’s/ROB/RUB) has been planned/ executed. But in actual there
are many locations where trespassing is occasionally required.
Even in many cases for Railway maintenance work the trespassing
becomes essential. Due to the fear of unwanted incidents no P. Way
man wants to raise the speed more than 50 KMPH to 60 KMPH.

408
 2.9 Station Yards, Passenger amenities etc:
The tendency of Division is always to plan atleast 3 lines yards with
big station building with all other passenger facilities. For providing
2 High level platforms, 3 lines and other passenger amenities a lot
of cutting is done in the hilly terrain. Due to this the hill slopes
become unstable and may slide over the years. Thus it will be
advisable to have minimal facilities and longer block sections to
avoid steep slopes.

3.0 Other Maintenance Challenges:

3.1 Manpower in Hill section:Maintenance ofHill section is more
critical than plain section. Special and adequate efforts are required
for maintenance of track and other assets. Since,per km cost of the
construction of track in hill section is 10-15 times of the track in
plain section. Thus, the cost of maintenance of track should be
3-4 times the cost of maintenance of track in plain track. Also, the
requirement of manpower for maintenance in hill section is also
be more than that in plain section. A sectional AEN should not
have jurisdiction more than 40-50 Km and accordingly all the staff
below him like SSE/P-Way etc. should also have jurisdiction half of
the jurisdiction of plain area.
3.2 Jungle cutting:Jungle growth on the banks obstructs the view of the
slopes/ toe of the bank. Nature is kind enough and always gives
warnings before failure. But due to obstruction by jungle growth
and non-approachable toe and bank one cannot see the warnings
given before failure. Also it is very difficult to keep clear the slope
up to toe as jungle grows rapidly due to high rainfall in hilly terrain.
Thus continuous effort is required for jungle cutting.

4.0 Corrective action required in construction

1. Rockfill design:
The Rockfill used for formation must be designed. Proper sieve
analysis of the rockfill should be done and then blending as per
requirement to achieve MDD. No rockfill should be used straight
for making formation. Only designed rockfill should be used for
making formation.
2. Ensuring proper slope stability analysis:

409
 For Slope stability analysis the input data are C & Phi values for
which proper investigations should be carried out at field level. As
far as possible no steep slope should be recommended. Already
there is one challenge of high bank, one more challenge of steep
slope is added. It is prudent if such high banks and steep slopes are
avoided by viaduct or bridges. The stable natural hill has slope of
25-30 degrees. Thus, it is wise idea to adopt the slope of minimum
2H:1V.
3. Tunnels :
• All tunnels must be provided with BLT (Ballast Less Track).
Old ballasted tunnels must be replaced with ballast less track.
Agencies are available which can execute BLT work with
blocks of 10-12 Hrs. without closing the section.
• During construction proper gradient inside the tunnel must
be ensured so that no sump is created inside the tunnel.
• Tunnel size should be wide enough so that maintenance of
track inside tunnel can easily be done.
• The tunnel should be extended by Cut&Cover method to
avoid the falling of any debries or muck exit/entry of tunnel.
• To ensure safety in long run, the tunnel must be extended to a
length to protect the track from any type of slips.
4. Viaducts OR Minor Bridges
• More than 15-20m high embankments are not conducive
for ensuring safety not only during construction, but also
during maintenance of the track, as there is safety hazard for
safe train operation. It is better to provide the viaducts rather
than minor bridges in filling between hills specially where
overburden is more than 15-20 m on minor bridge.
• If minor bridges are to be provided these must be with large
opening and proper accessibility so that machines can enter it
to clear the debris.
• Wing wall/return wall must be provided with bridges to retain
the bank. At many locations gabion box or boulder sausage
crates have been provided. These must be replaced by wing
wall with proper weep holes and boulder backfill.
5. Proper Drainage:
Major challenge in hill section is water, which must be drained

410
 out. In hill section various types of Drains are used like Catch
Water Drains, side drains etc. These drains play important role in
channelizing the water. Sometimes drains have high wall at hill side
(called J drains). It can be seen in hilly area that wall of drain at hill
side gets tilted or fell down. This is due to huge pressure of confined
pore water. Hence, guidelines for such drains must be developed
that these weak areas can be strengthened.
• In hill sections the drains must be wider with steep slope.
The slope must be calculated from self-cleansing velocity
with high gradient. As said earlier rain water carries debris,
which must be washed away with water. The cleaning efforts
are reduced if wide drains are provided. In wide drain one can
easily use machineries for cleaning.
• The wall of drain at hill side must be provided weep holes
to release the pore pressure into the drain. The reason for
providing the weep holes is that it confines the water at hill
side which results in tilting/falling of drain wall. The proper
functioning of the drain must be ensured. There must not be
any clogging of weep holes. To ensure this there must always
be backfill of boulder/filter media.If boulders cannot be
provided, a layer of geo composite textile sheet to be provided
which will allow to pass clean water.
6. Small stations/Less Passenger Ammenities/Longer Block
sections:
As hilly terrain is having minimal passenger at stations thus
minimal passenger amenities should be provided. Long block
sections should be planned with halt stations. Some stations can
be 2 line stations with single platform. Even for 3-line station. One
side high level platform and other side rail level platform is good
enough.

5.0 Corrective action required in Maintenance

1. Manpower in Hill section
The requirement of manpower for maintenance in hill section is
more than that in plain section. A sectional AEN should not have
jurisdiction more than 40-50 Km and accordingly all the staff below
him like SSE/P-Way etc. should also have jurisdiction half of the
jurisdiction of plain area.The section in hilly terrain is quite critical

411
 and to be strengthened with manpower. The maintenance efforts in
this section is quite high as compared with plain section. So, the
value of zonal contracts/manpower contracts must be increased in
similar pattern for maintenance of the section.
2. Jungle cutting
If slopes are cleared up to toe, the behavior of slope movement can
be detected. Thus, continuous and regular maintenance effort is
required for clearing jungle.

6.0 Further Suggestions

1. Creation of Knowledge Centres
The hill sections are full of challenges. Even the day to day issues
need expert solutions. In the present system the section people
are totally dependent on their personnel knowledge to deal with
any challenging situation. No experts are readily available for
guidance. Normally the guidance comes from industry which is
highly motivated and each vendor focuses on supplying their own
products.
It is suggested that Railway should enter in MOU’s/create centre of
excellence in various technical institutions where the field people
can go and get the expert knowledge. Different center of excellence
can be setup for various topics in different educational institutions.
This will be a great help for the people working in hill section as
most of the wrong deeds are happening because of ignorance.
2. Periodical Technical Audit/Review of Hilly sections:
Team should be formed of Senior officers/experts to review every
hill project every quarter so that timely guidance can be given to
the field staff and the works can be technically audited.
3. Action plans for speed increase in Hill sections
All sections which have been commissioned must make an action
plan so that gradually design potential can be achieved.
4. Creating a model in Hill section
As works are going on in many hill sections, the best works done
so far should be made as model works of Indian railways so that
the same can be replicated wherever construction works are in
progress.

412
7.0 Conclusion
The caution order and speed restriction show the quality of works
being executed in hill section. These must be analyzed and methods
and guidelines must be prepared aided with above suggestions, so that
same type of problems can be minimized. The maintenance cost and
manpower must be increased. The maintenance efforts cannot be similar
to that of plain area.
Engineering solutions are available for all problems, we must analyze
and apply. Slope of embankment should be mild. The power of water
should not be underestimated. It must be drained out. Flow of water
through bank, drain, bridges should not be obstructed. The weep holes
should be constructed and cleaned for proper functioning. The warnings
of kind nature must be understood. The sharp curves in gradient must
be avoided. The alignment should be fixed with viaduct/bridges with
tunnel with straight alignment as far as possible. It is better to invest one
time cost with permanent and safe solution so that future costs of can be
reduced and the designed speeds in the hilly terrain can be achieved.

413
414
 Arresting Track Creep in Braganza Ghats
(Castle Rock -Kulem) through use of Sleeper
Bracings Using Provisions of RDSO Report
CT-30 on SWR
*Vipul Kumar1 & Danish Khan2

ABSTRACT
Castle Rock (CLR)-Kulem(QLM) is among the busiest and most critical ghats
on Indian Railways which has a ruling gradient of 1 in 37 and an annual GMT
of around 25.Due to steep gradient combined with sharp curvature upto 8.5
degree,alongwith movement of heavily loaded goods train which require 5 loco
(2 leading+ 3 banking)for movement up the ghat results in huge tractive efforts
on rails and consequently results in movement of rail in down gradient leading
to frequency adjustment of trackcreep. In this section almost entire workforce
of track maintainers round the year used to be involved in activity of Pulling
back of Creep to maintain the section. So in order to minimise the Pulling back
of creep in the stretch PSC sleeper bracing was done using the provisions of
RDSO report CT-30 on trial basis for 300m stretch for the purpose of reducing
railmovement(creep).This paper brings outanalysis of trial stretch that includes
comparison of creep before and after the bracing work; challenges faced;manpower
and time saving;improving overall safety of train operations; benefits in terms of
reduction in cost; etc.

1 INTRODUCTION
With the developing speed of the Indian railway, it is expected that train
speed and axle load, presently considered in railway design practice, will
get remarkably enhanced. These two parameters have an immense effect
on fatigue life of steel railway bridges. Now,fatigue failure is considered
globally the main cause behind premature failure of railway bridges (Ye
et al., 2014). Failure of ‘Old Jubilee bridge’ in Bandel city of West Bengal
is a burning example of this fact. Unfortunately, uncertainty effects are
very pertinent in deciding the fatigue life of railway bridges, as material
stiffness degradation, future train speed, extrapolated axle load that will
prevail in future are all uncertain, etc. (Leander, 2018). The dynamic
Shri Vipul Kumar has been former PCE/SWR
1

Mr Danish Khan is XEC/C/SWR (former ADEN/CLR/UBL Div)

2

415
 nature of moving load over railway tracks further adds to this problem
(Omishore, 2017).
Keeping all these in view, an attempt has been made in this study to assess
fatigue life of an existing railway bridge, namely, ‘Sampritisetu’. Response
surface method (RSM) is applied to obtain explicit mathematical forms
of fatigue failure limit states. Then, the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS)
is executed to incorporate the effect of uncertainty in the analysis. The
Palmgren Miner rule and S-N curve-based approach (IS:800-2007) are
used to estimate the fatigue damage. The method adopted here is new
and has not been applied before to tackle such a problem.
The conventional deterministic and proposed probabilistic fatigue life
assessment (PFLA) procedure approaches are presented in section 2
and 3, respectively. The details of the bridge considered are discussed in
section 4. The results and conclusions are then placed in sections 5 and 6,
respectively.

2) Materials used

a) Fabricated angle of size 75 x 75x 10 b) single Coil spring washer (T-10773)

c) Plate screw (RDSO /T-3913)

416
3) Drawing Number used
RDSO /T-8329

4) Methodology Used
a) Proper squaring and spacing of sleepers to be done.
b) Arranging required numbers of Duly chamfered angle section of
size 75 x 75 x 10mm.
c) Drill two holes to accommodate plate screw at the location
specified in the drawing (RDSO/T-8329).
d) Make notch in one angle section at intersection point as specified
in drawing.
e) Notched angle should be placed below the complete angle
section.
f) After placing the angle sections as per drawing, plate screw shall
be tightened to an extent that angles can freely rotate about the
hinged point.

5. Challenges faced during course of work

a) Fabrication of angle section (75 x75x10) was done at site as per
the RDSO drawing as due to non-availability of adequate cess
width in ghats only 30 to 40 angles were fabricated in advance
after their installation further fabrication was done.
b) After fabrication of angle section, fixing of angle section was a
difficult task as proper spacing and squaring of sleepers has to
be maintained which used to get disturb after passing of train,
therefore a workforce of about 30 personnelwas employed for
fixing angle in line block of 1.5 to 2hrs on daily basis therefore
daily progress of about only about 30 sleepers was obtained
c) This work also became challenging as being a single line section
getting a line block of 1.5 to 2hrs was also difficult as large no of
goods train are plying in section being the busiest route of south
western railways.

417
6. Comparison of Performance of Rail creep after implementation of
RDSO report CT-30.
6.1 Details of locations where cross bracing arrangement provided
Major section CLR-QLM
Block section CLR-CRZ
Location 25/284 to 25/584
Type of Track (LWR/SWP) Fish plated (13m free rails)
Length (m) 300 m
UP/DN/SL SL
Track structure 60 kg rail with 60 kg sleeper
with sleeper density 1660
Value of gradient steeper than 1 in 100 1 in 39
Degree of curve 6.95
Annual GMT 25
Measure taken to arrest creep ERC Mk-V (T-5919)
Vertical wear of rail 2.7 mm
Lateral wear of rail 4.0mm
Table 6.1.1

Fig 6.1.1. Cross Bracing arrangements at trial location

418
6.2 Before implementation of cross bracing frequency of creep attention and
sleeper squaring at trial location
S. DATE OF PBC DATE OF PBC DATE OF ATTENTION OF
No (LH RAIL) (RH RAIL) SLEEPER SQUARING
1 17.01. 2020 17.01.2020 15.01.2020
2 31.01.2020 20.02.2020 10.03.2020
3 17.02.2020 20.04.2020 18.05.2020
4 23.03.2020 28.05.2020 03.06.2020
5 23.04.2020 26.08.2020 22.08.2020
6 22.05.2020 02.12.2020 16.10.2020
7 13.07.2020 - 22.12.2020
8 12.10.2020 -
9 14.12.2020 -
Table 6.2.1

6.3 After implementation (March 2021 –December2022) frequency of creep

attention and sleeper squaring at trial location

S. DATE OF PBC DATE OF PBC DATE OF ATTENTION OF

No (LH RAIL) (RH RAIL) SLEEPER SQUARING

NIL as Sleeper maintained at

1 07.06.2021 01.06.2021
correct spacing
2 18.12.2021 22.12.2021
3 10.06.2022 12.06.2022
4 10.12.2022 24.12.2022
Table 6.3.1
After comparison from table 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, it is evident that before
implementation of cross bracing as per RDSO report, pulling back of
creep was required on an average every 40 days in LH rail and every
two months in RH rail which has reduced drastically to a frequency
of 6 months on both LH and RH rail, thereby reducing maintenance
operations and improving overall safety of track inghat section.

7. Benefits
419
 i. Reduction in creep frequency : As it is evident that before
implementation of cross bracing as per RDSO report, pulling
back of creep was required on an average every 40 days in
LH rail and every two months in RH rail which has reduced
substantially to a frequency of 6 months on both LH and RH
rail, thereby reduced creep frequency to a very large extent.
ii. Constant sleeper spacing : Secondly, maintaining sleeper
squaring was a cumbersome process which used to get disturbed
every two months in the stretch has now reduced to almost zero
as sleeper has maintained their spacing effectively.
iii. No hinderance during tamping : Cross bracings designed
anddone in sleeper has an advantage that these need not to
be removed during tamping as sufficient space is available for
working of tamping tool.

Fig 8.3.1
iv. Improving mobility : In addition to the above tangible benefits
there are some other intangible benefits such as due to reduction
in frequency of pulling back of creep caution order in the section
will reduced hence thereby improving mobility and running in
the section.
v. Enhancing safety and operational efficiency : Overall safety of
Ghat section will improve since due to movement of rail and
sleepers at fishplated joint large gap was created and closure

420
 need to be inserted and caution order is required to be imposed
making location critical in terms of safety and maintenance
becomes more difficult in monsoon period when track
maintainers strength reduces as they are employed in monsoon
patrolling,hence resulting in longer caution imposition in
section and consequently affecting operational efficiency and
punctuality.
vi. Reduced diesel consumption : Diesel loco moving up the ghat
consumes more diesel when speed is low as more tractive effort
need to be applied therefore with reduction in number of caution
orders in section on account of reduced interventions and also
in duration of caution order there will be overall saving in diesel
consumption of locomotives.
vii. Enhancing line capacity/section capacity : Everyday on an
average around two hours line block used to be required in
different block sections inorder to attend pulling back of creep.
As a result of implementation of cross bracing, frequency of
attention to pulling back of creep is reduced from one month
to about six months, thereby if cross bracing is implemented
for whole critical stretch will result in reduction of line block
requirement on account of pulling back of creep. Hence,
considering on an average around 15 days in a month when line
block will not be required. Thus, there will be additional capacity
in section for running goods train approximately 2/24*100
=8.33% thereby an additional rake can be accommodated and
which will ultimately increase revenue of railways.

8. Financial Benefits:
Though the improvement in safety of track is beyond quantification,
an attempt has been made to work out financial benefits by calculating
Savings over a period of 10 years for a total length of 6 kms which is the
most critical in CLR-QLM ghat section of UBL division. The analysis
along with assumptions made are as follows:
A. Fixed cost of Cross bracing
Work of fixing of cross bracing of angle will be fixed cost
i. Cost of fixing and fabricating angle (per kg) = Rs 61.73
ii. Cost of drilling hole in sleeper (per hole)= Rs. 441.78
iii. Cost of plate screw per sleeper (required two numbers) =
421
 39*2 =Rs 78
iv. Cost of single coil spring washer (required two numbers) =
5.90*2 = Rs 11.8
Total Fixed cost per metre (excluding contractor percentage
above /below) = 4409.07/m
Total cost for 300m =4409.07*300= Rs 13,22,721
Total cost of fixing cross bracing for a length of 6 kms =
4409.07*6000 = Rs 2,64,54,420
Note : The cost of fixing of angle will be fixed cost, once
fixed they will be required to be removed only during
deepscreeningor TSR which is done on an average around
10 years, after removal also cross bracing will have residual/
reusable value. Hence financial benefits are calculated for a
period of 10 years.
B. Savings in Track maintenance Cost
Saving of contractual Manpower = 16*2 (Used for doing PBC, LH
and RH Rail)+10 (Used for sleeper squaring)=42 nos
i. Effective months not requiring maintenance = 6-1 =5 months
ii. Cost of skilled Labour for working in ghat (assuming wages
working in construction and maintenance operations = 724
per day
iii. Total saving in 300m stretch location in one year = 42*5*724
= Rs. 1,52,040
Total savings in track maintenance cost for a period of 10 year
for 6kms = 152040 *6000 *10/300 = Rs. 3,04,08,000
C. Savings in Track fittings Cost
Due to regular rail creep rubber pad get crushed very frequently
and get displaced therefore every month need to be recouped
and metal liner also get wear and required to be changed every
six months when pulling back creep is done, in addition to the
above,ERCs which are required to be removed everytime during
PBC loses toe load as inside of insert gets wear due to regular
driving of ERCs every month during Pulling back of creep. Hence
ERCs are required to be replaced once in a year. Therefore, now as
result of cross bracing this cost of annualThrough fitting renewal
work will be saved.

422
 Cost of track fittings is as anlaysed below per sleeper:
i. Cost of GR composite pads 6mm RDSO T 6618 = Rs. 35.70
Number of rubber pad required per sleeper=2
Total cost= Rs. 71.4
ii. Cost of metal liner (T-3740) = Rs. 37
Number of metal liners required per sleeper= 4
Total cost = Rs. 148
iii. ERC Mk III (T-3701) = Rs.72.58
Number of ERC required per sleeper= 4
Total cost= Rs 290.32
Total cost of Track Fittings per sleeper = Rs. 509.72
a. Total saving on rubber pad cost per year per sleeper =
12 months -2 months = 10 months* 71.4= Rs 714
b. Total saving on metal liner cost per year per sleeper=
metal liner required to be replaced twice in a year = 2*
148 = Rs. 296
c. Total saving of ERC cost per year per sleeper= ERCs
required to be replaced once in a year = 1* 290.32 = Rs
290.32
Total saving in cost of track fittings per year per sleeper=
Rs 1300.32
Total savings in cost of track fittings for 300m = Rs.
6,47,560
Total savings in cost of track fittings for 10 years for a
length of 6 kms = 1300.32 *1660*6*5= Rs 6,47,55,936
Total savings of Cost in track maintenance and track
fittings = 6,47,55,936+3,04,08,000 = Rs 9,51,63,936
Total Effective Savings over a period of 10 years for 6
Kms = 95,163,936 - 26454420=Rs 6,87,09,516
Avg. Annual savings = Rs 6,87,09,516/10 = Rs 68, 70, 952
approx for 6 km
Avg. annual savings per km = approx. Rs 11,45,159/-
% Savings over 10 years = 68709516*100/26454420=
259.72%

423
 This is the direct saving in terms of money. Safety and Mobility
enhancement is something which is priceless for IR operations.
Note:
a) Sleeper density in section is1660.
b) Considering once in two years Fittings will be required to change as
due to sharp curve of more than 5 degree and gradient steeper than 1 in
100 as per ACS 2, IRPWM 2020 as against once a year which is present
frequency of fitting renewal in ghat thereby savings track fittings cost for
5 years in 10 years period.

9. Conclusions and Way forward

Braganza Ghat was commissioned in 1887 with MG line and Gauge
conversion was done in the year 1996 from the inception of this section
maintaining this ghat is one of the arduous task due to the presence of
steep gradient of 1 in 37 combined with sharp curves and heavy loaded
goods train movement up and down the ghat with several locomotives.
Further in addition to the above heavy rainfall during monsoon also
makes it more difficult and challenging for engineering staff to maintain
the section.
Over the years one of the major maintenance operation involved in ghat
section is pulling back of creep which is round the year activity but after
the implementation of cross bracing in the trial stretch it is found to be very
effective in minimizing the rail creep to a very greater extent frequency of
creep attention has been reduced from one month to six months which
has resulted in improved safety, improved mobility and also savings in
terms of track maintenance cost and other track components cost and
if implemented for the stretch of 6kms for a period of 10 years will give
a financial benefit of around 259.72 % making it viable and profitable
option.
In addition to the above, RDSO report CT-30 for continuation of LWR
on sharp curves and steep gradient has been worked out for plain track
and all guidelines and drawings have been issued by considering the
plain track sleeper. However, in Braganza Ghat section due to steep
gradient point and crossings in yards are also subjected to creep resulting
in sleepers getting out of square and tilting of point and crossings sleepers
which disturbs cross level and housing of sleepers and also results in
bending of S&T rods thereby resulting in frequent point failures and
rough running on points. Therefore, cross bracing on similar lines may

424
 be replicated on trial basis on point sleepers also to study its effectiveness.
It is understood that length of cross bracing angles will be different, as
spacing of points sleeper are different in different portions of points but
if found effective can solve major operations bottleneck in yards and will
drastically enhance the safety of yards inBraganza ghat.
10. References
1. RDSO Report CT-30 (Modified),” Continuation of long welded
rails on sharp curves and steep gradients”.
2. Indian Railways Permanent Way Manual 2020, corrected upto
ACS-4
3. South western Railway Unified Standard Schedule of Rates, 2021.
4. Ministry of labour and Employement F.No.1/26(3)/2021-LS-II)
dated 28/10/2021.)
5. SWRCNBCNST/09/2018/00615 dated 3.10.2019
6. SW Rly PO. No. SWR/W/TS/2017/04/E/04 (A), (B) & (C)/LL
Dt.1505.2018

425
 ANNEXURE A

Critical location in Braganza Ghat which require cross bracing to reduce

rail creep
S.No. From Km To Km Length (m)
1 25.200 25.500 300
2 25.800 26.100 300
3 26.400 26.700 300
4 26.900 27.200 300
5 27.800 28.100 300
6 28.450 28.650 200
7 29.200 29.500 300
8 30.100 30.400 300
9 30.900 31.200 300
10 32.600 33.100 500
11 34.000 34.400 400
12 35.100 35.400 300
13 35.600 35.900 300
14 36.200 36.400 200
15 36.700 37.000 300
16 37.700 38.000 300
17 39.300 39.600 300
18 40.200 40.500 300
19 40.700 40.900 200
20 41.400 41.700 300
Total 6000 m

426
 ANNEXURE B
DRAWING NO-RDSO /T-8329



427
428
 e-SETU Implementation : Enterprise
Resource Planning for Bridge & Engineering
Workshops
Qazi Mairaj Ahmad1 & Yogender2

Synopsis
Indian Railways Bridge & Engineering Workshops are in league to be one of the
Centres for excellence in Engineering Department. However, despite all round
efforts for High Speed and semi high speeds, somehow Engineering Workshops
have been left behind in the race of Digitalization and IoT as applied at the work
centers. It is noted that in most of the private sector, the situation is not different
where-in even though they have a substantially high productivity with the same
set of workers or CNC machines etc. as the Indian Railways, yet at both types of
organizations various jobs are not aligned along Assembly Lines. It depends upon
the skill of supervisors for each step of decision making in the fabrication process.
Not only it entails subjectivity and delays but also leads to wastage of skilled
technical staff. The e-Setu Enterprise Resource Planning has the features for
suggesting Steel Structure’s Fabrication Assembly Line, Live Progress Monitoring
and Component-wise Work Tracking. It has transparency with all Stakeholders,
wherein Quality checks and Authorizations at various stages are inbuilt as per
QAP & WPSS, thus not being able to manipulations during Final Quality
Passing activity. e-Setu has wider potential applicability over other Engineering
Bridge Workshops as well as over other Organizations. As different Workshops on
Indian Railways operate in silos, with the sharing of Technical information and
practices a higher level of achievements are on the anvil.

1. Requirement:
On Indian railways system, ambitious Indian Railway Workshop
Information System(IRWIS) is operational, but it focuses mainly
on Engines, Carriages & Wagons tracking & monitoring their
integrated maintenance schedules. Engineering & Bridge
Workshop need to have a focus on productivity based on principles
of Fabrication Line Assembly on Corporate Lines. Thus e-Setu:

1
IRSE,FICE,MASCE, PMP®, RChE, FIEI, FIIBE, FIPWE Present: Chief Engineer Track Modernisation,
NR & Immediate Prev.: Chief Works Manager, Bridge Works, Lucknow,NR
2
Technical Assistant

429
 Enterprise Resource Planning ERP is Conceptualized, Designed,
Developed and Implemented indigenously at Bridge Workshop,
Lucknow itself.

2. Modernization of Bridge Workshop, Lucknow & Implementation of

e-Setu ERP
2.1. Modernization of Bridge Workshop is carried out with procurement
and commissioning of the following machines, besides strings of
other procurements & measures:
• CNC Cutting Machines
• CNC Beam Welding Line Machine
• CNC Drilling Machine
• H Beam Welding Machine
• End Milling Machine
• Plate Straightening Machine
• MultiFlame Pug Cutting Machine.
2.2. At the Bridge Workshop, Lucknow, during fabrication process,
there were numerous zigzag movements of the components (77
movements of various sub-components & components were noted
for a typical 24.4m Plate Girder fabrication!). This was primarily
due to the Fabrication Machineries not being located in streamlined
order of fabrication, requiring to and from movement to the next
work centers. Thus,
• The Bridge Workshop, Lucknow was organized into 3
separate shed dedicated to Open Web Girders, Plate Girders
& FOBs/H Beams Sleepers.
• Assembly Line Fabrication was introduced by shifting/
relocating a few existing machines and getting installed new
machines as per the sequence, in which various fabrication
activities are performed on a girder.
2.3. As a part of ERP implementation, e-Setu is designed indigenously
to digitalise the entire process from receipt of Work Order from
the field for fabrication of Steel Structure to the delivery at the site
of working and completion of Work Order. Special Kiosks were
procured to work as Data Input locations strategically identified for
accessibility and direct data entry, equipped with big screens etc for
controlled accessibility to all Work Centers In-charges at:
430
 · Production Control office (SSE PCO)
· Cutting Steel Yard (SSE Yard)
· Template Shop (SSE Template)
· Fabrication (SSE in Charge, Shifts in Charge)
 Assembly Line Fabrication was introduced by shifting/ relocating a few
· Quality Control
existing (SSE
machines QC)
and getting installed new machines as per the
sequence, in which various fabrication activities are performed on a girder.
Further, Dash Board Monitoring
3.3. As a part of ERP implementation, e-Setu for Over all and
is designed Project wise
indigenously Monitoring
to digitalise
at Chief Works
the entire Manager
process (Bridge
from receipt of Work Works)
Order fromOffice
the field and Accessibility
for fabrication
Steel Structure to the delivery at the site of working and completion of Work
of to
Stakeholders for updated
Order. Special status
Kiosks were of Work
procured Orders,
to work as Data is also
Input incorporated
locations in
strategically identified for accessibility and direct data entry, equipped with big
the e-Setu
screensERP system.
etc for controlled accessibility to all Work Centers In-charges at:
● Production Control office ( SSE PCO)
2.4. The● e-Setu ERPYard
Cutting Steel is ( having
SSE Yard) reservoir of relevant Information
including
● the Work
Template Order
Shop ( SSE Details, Applicable Detailed Drawings,
Template)
● Fabrication (SSE in Charge, Shifts in Charge)
Cutting● Lists,Control
Quality Quality Assurance
( SSE QC) Plan, Welding Procedure Standard
Further, Dash Board Monitoring for Over all and Project wise Monitoring
Specification (WPSS), A.I.
at Chief Works Manager( Bridge Works) Office
enabled Expert’s procedures for
and Accessibility to
fabrication
Stakeholders for and assembly
updated ofWork
status of various
Orders,OpenWeb and Plate
is also incorporated in the Girders.
e-
Setu ERP system.
3.4. The e-Setu ERP is having reservoir of relevant Information including the Work
Order Details, Applicable Detailed Drawings, Cutting Lists, Quality Assurance
3. DetailsPlan,
of Welding
Implementation Procedure
Procedure Standard Specification (WPSS), A.I. enabled Expert's
procedures for fabrication and assembly of various OpenWeb and Plate Girders.
3.1. Details of Activities for the Users-:
4. Details of Implementation Procedure
4.1.A.
DetailsChief Works
of Activities Manager
for the Users-: /Bridges (Dashboard)
A. Chief Works Manager /Bridges (Dashboard)
a. Approval of Work Orders Digitally.
a. Approval of Work Orders Digitally.

b. Setting up priority of Work Orders.

b. Setting up priority of Work Orders.

431
 B. Production Control office (PCO)
a. Based on available Standard Drawings, developing all
B. Production the setoffice
Control of (PCO)
detailed working & execution drawings for
a. Based on available Standard Drawings, developing all the set of
various CNC Machines etc.
detailed working & execution drawings for various CNC Machines
b. Finalizing of Cutting list keeping in view availability of
etc.
b. Finalizing of Cutting list keeping in view availability of Raw Material.
Raw Material.
Cutting List
(to select type of span)
Link for Drawing

C. Template Shop
a. Shop
C. Template If required, ensuring availability of Templates.
a. If required, ensuring availability of Templates.
b. If Template
b. If Template is not
is not available, thenavailable,
finalizing the then finalizing the
list of Templates list of
Templates required and fabricating the same.
required and fabricating the same.

D. In-Charge Fabrication
a. Dashboard to see Work order Wise progress.

432
 D. In-Charge Fabrication
a. Dashboard to see Work order Wise progress.

Link to be opened

b. Controlling the Cutting and Fabrication work from Dashboard.

c. Releasing items for Cutting and Fabrication according to the
requirements.

E. Steel Yard
a. Getting the Steel Plates Ultrasonic Flaw Detection
Tested; uploading of the USFD Report after digital
signing
b. Accessing the Cutting List.
c. Live updating of Plate Cutting.

433
 E. Steel Yard
a. Getting the Steel Plates Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Tested; uploading
of the USFD Report after digital signing
b. Accessing the Cutting List.
c. Live updating of Plate Cutting.

Span released
for cutting by
In-Charge
Fabrication

To submit the
cutting progress.

F. Fabrication (On-field staff.)

a. Accessing the Cutting List ( Complete Standard Cutting
Lists are enlisted for various RDSO Standard Drawings)
b. Live updating of Fabrication at pre-defined
steps. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is built-in in the
methodology or the order in which various steps related
to fabrication and assembly are to be operated. Based
on highly experienced Technical Head’s procedure, the
Fabrication and Assembly process comes as a suggestion
for the various representative RDSO’s design for
· Open Web Girders 30.5m , 45.7m, 61.0m ;
· Composite Welded Girder 30.5m, 24.4m, 18.3m
&,12.2m
· Composite Plate Girder ( ROB) 24.4m.
c. The RDSO Drawings are also available at full screen at the
site- kiosks for any job’s field verification & cross check.
434
 Assembly process comes as a suggestion for the various
representative RDSO's design for
 Open Web Girders 30.5m , 45.7m, 61.0m ;
 Composite Welded Girder 30.5m, 24.4m, 18.3m &,12.2m
 Composite Plate Girder ( ROB) 24.4m.
c. The RDSO Drawings are also available at full screen at the site-
kiosks for any job's field verification & cross check.

Pre-defined Steps

Span released for

Fabrication by
In-Charge

G. Assembly and Internal Inspection by SSE In-Charge

a. Update Girder Assembly and Internal Inspection Status
b. If any defect found, return the item to fabrication with
remarks and photo.
H. Metalizing
a. Updation of live metalizing status component-wise in
each shift.
I. Dispatch
a. Updation of live dispatch status of Work Order.
J. Consignee
a. Transparency: Perusal of live progress of Work Order.
b. Able to see tentative completion date of Work Order:
so that prepatory works including sub-structure etc are
readied as per time line.

435
 photo.
b. If any defect found, return the item to fabrication with remarks and
H. Metalizing
photo.
a. Updation of live metalizing status component-wise in each shift..
H. Metalizing
I. Dispatch
a. Updation of live metalizing status component-wise in each shift..
a. Updation of live dispatch status of Work Order.
I. Dispatch
J. Consignee
a. Updation of live dispatch status of Work Order.
a. Transparency: Perusal of live progress of Work Order.
J. Consignee
b.
a. Able to see tentative
Transparency: Perusalcompletion date ofofWork
of live progress WorkOrder:
Order.so that prepatory
b. works
Able toincluding sub-structure
see tentative completionetcdate
are readied
of Work as per time
Order: line.prepatory
so that
4. Live Progress Monitoring
works including sub-structure etc are readied as per time line.
5. Live Progress Monitoring
4.1. Work
5.1. Work
5. Live Orders
Orders
Progress Wise
Wise & Section
& Section
Monitoring Wise Wise
5.1. Work Orders Wise & Section Wise

5.2. Date Wise

4.2. 5.2.
Date
Date Wise
Wise

5. Automatic generation of following documents-:

5.1. All Quality related Inspection documents, as per QAP and WPSS
are uploaded at every stage duly accounting for digital signature
for assurance of adherence to laid down Qualify Standards. In case
of any discrepancy found at later date, it has the provisions for
course correction and reworking.
5.2. Generation of Periodic (Weekly/ Monthly ) Reports
5.3. Further Reports may be generated to the given Format

6. Conclusion:
e-Setu Enterprise Resource Planning ERP need to be utilised in a big way

436
for Steel Fabrication Productivity to be given a Quantum Jump, besides
being aligned to Infrastructural Requirements of Indian Railways. Private
sector Manufacturing Units also need to adopt it and better linking and
sharing of information will pave way for achieving pinnacles of synergy.

437
438
MISCELLANEOUS

439
440
 A Dual Response Surface Method (DRSM)
- Based Approach of Probabilistic Fatigue
Safety Study Considering Higher Speed and
Heavier Axle Load Traffic Regime
Kishore Chandra Misra1, Nimai Chandra Das2,
& Soumya Bhattacharjya3

Abstract
In the last decade, fatigue is identified as the most vulnerable cause of failure of
railway steel track and structures. As a result, there is a fervent need of a handy,
easy, less time-consuming approach of fatigue safety evaluation, which is accurate,
as well. Also, the method should consider the worst effect of uncertainty, as the
fatigue life of structure gets severely affected due to uncertainty. The method should
be capable of considering the worsening effect of higher train speed and heavier
axle load, which is a vital need in future perspective. However, the conventional
Monte Carlo simulation (MCS)-based approach of probabilistic fatigue life
assessment (PFLA) is too time consuming to apply on real-life bridge and not
practically feasible also. Hence, the present paper proposes a new technique of
PFLA which is hinged on the concept of dual response surface method (DRSM).
By using the DRSM, the computational time is reduced drastically as by the
proposed approach it is not required to carry out the MCS for each set up of train
speed, and axle load values. Once the DRSM is developed for a particular bridge,
the PFLA can be done without any engineering expertise, like a black-box user.
Given, at any time, the known axle load and train speed for a particular year,
the fatigue life can be assessed just by a click on an excel sheet. The method is
elucidated with a practical real-life bridge. The predicted data well conforms to
the actual service life of the bridge under consideration. This attests the accuracy
and viability of the proposed approach.
Keywords : Fatigue life, train speed, axle load, dual response surface method,
Monte Carlo simulation, uncertainty.
1
Ph.D. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal - 711103, India.
2
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal - 711103, India.
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and
Technology, Shibpur, Howrah, West Bengal - 711103, India

441
1. Introduction:
It is well conceived now that fatigue is an important cause of railway
bridge failures all around the world. As a consequence, design standards
(IS800-2007, BS EN 1993-1-9:2005, ANSI/AISC 360-16) used in various
countries now make it mandatory to check fatigue safety of steel bridge
structural elements. It is now well recognized that the fatigue life
depends on so many factors. For example, axle load, Youngs’ modulus
of the bridge, detail category (i.e., the connection vulnerability of the
considered element), train speed, and coefficients of Basquin’s equation.
So, Conventional deterministic fatigue life assessments (DFLA) assume
fix values of these parameters can’t give satisfactory result. Thus, to have
a realistic picture of fatigue life of a steel bridge, it is required to examine
all such uncertain parameters judiciously and then frame a probabilistic
fatigue life assessment (PFLA) approach encompassing all these factors.
Imam et al (2008) presents fatigue life assessment procedure considering
train loading. Sanches et al (2015) report fatigue assessment technique
of a riveted joints considering clamping stresses and friction coefficient.
Karolczuk and Kurek (2022) presents a fatigue life prediction technique
for multi axial loading.
The above literature of PFLA have been executed in direct MCS
framework. As a result, the authors tested their algorithms for small
and simple mechanical systems. But, in practice, real life trussed bridges
are quite complicated and involves many parameters and limit states.
Application of MCS for such real-life structures will have prohibitive
computational cost. Also, evaluation of stress ranges for use in Basquin’s
equation will require numerous stochastic simulations run of the finite
element model of the structure to consider uncertainty. Hence, a meta-
model is felt essential which will relate the stress range with the input
parameters so that one can easily evaluate stress range for any set up of
train speed, axle load, detailed category, and Young’s modulus.
Metamodeling in terms of response surface method (RSM) has been
already applied by few past researchers. However, the RSM was used
in the existing fatigue evaluation literature for simple mechanical parts
only. Soltani et al. (2015) have evaluated the effects of applied stress and
temperature on the fatigue lives of polyethylene terephthalate modified
asphalt mixtures using response surface methodology (RSM). Gao et al.
(2018) investigated fatigue life of aero-engine turbine disc using RSM.
These application problems are low-dimensional and comparatively
much simpler than the railway bridge like structures. Zhu and Zhang

442
 (2018) proposed a PFLA procedure for coastal slender road bridges
using support vector regression. However, their approach requires long
term field measurements to define stochastic load models. Later Yan et
al. (2017) and several other researchers also used RSM to avoid repetitive
executions of finite element analysis module within the MCS loop during
fatigue reliability computations. However, in both of these studies, the
MCS as well as weigh-in-motion field measurements were used to define
stochastic traffic load.
Thus, it appears from the above state-of-the-art literature survey that the
direct MCS couldn’t be fully avoided by the researchers even they opt for
RSM-based techniques.
With the end-in-view to completely evade direct MCS, even for real-life
structure, a simple dual RSM-based approach is proposed in the present
study. In this study, the most uncertain parameter, that is the axle load,
which may even vary daily and hourly is taken to construct a two-level
RSM. This is what is termed in the paper as ‘Dual RSM’. For each design
experiment of RSM, axle load is perturbed to generate multiple samples,
and time-history analysis is carried out for each of these perturbed
samples. Then, for each design experiment set up, one will have a vector
of mean stress range and a vector of standard deviation stress range.
These are, in-turn, used to construct two response surfaces- i.e., mean
response surface of stress range, and standard deviation response surfaces
of stress range. Since, these two response surfaces are obtained from the
same group of samples, these are termed as ‘dual response surface’. Once
these are obtained, fatigue reliability index proposed by Adasooriya
(2016) can be readily obtained. This reliability index is a function of
fatigue assessment year. When, the said reliability index reduces to 1.3
that means 90% confidence level the fatigue failure is said to be achieved.
The proposed dual RSM-based procedure when integrated with
Adasoriya’s (2016) formulation can completely avoid direct MCS. Thus,
the proposed approach is supposed yield fatigue life in a computationally
efficient way even for practical structures.

2. Proposed DRSM-based PFLA

Basically, in the dual response surface approach, two empirical models,
one for the mean and the other for the standard deviation of the response,
are first established, and then the two fitted response surface models are
optimized simultaneously in a region of interest (x εδ).

443
 Typical second-order models for the mean and variance are:
k k k
a0   ai xi   aii xi 2   aij xi x j
y  (1)
i 1 i 1 i j
k k k k k k
b0a0 
yy
 biiaxiii 2xi2 
bi axi xi   
bijaxiji xij x j (1)
(2)

 1
i 1i  i 1i 1 i  ji  j

ere, y is the estimated value

Where, isy of
thethe
k
mean, yk  isvalue
k
the estimated
k k k
value of the standard deviation andthe
  ybestimated
0a0 bi xi ai xi  b of2 the
ii xa i 2 mean,
i ii x  bij xaisiijxxthe
ji x j
estimated
 value of (2)
(1)
& bi are constants. standard deviation
  i 1and
i 1 ai & i 1 bi
i 1are constants.i j i j

Where, yreliability
is the estimated2.1 Fatigue
value of the mean,k y assessment:
reliability is thek estimated value k
of the standard kdeviation k and
Fatigue assessment: y  b0   bi xi   bii xi 2   bij xi x j y  (2)
k
a0   ai xi   aii xi 2   aij xi x j
& bi arek constants. Basquin’s equation,
 i 1  i 1 i  j 
i 1 i 1 i j
squin‟s equation, k k

    ai xiy 
a0 Where, is the i   a
2
ii xestimated
a N(t)*CAFT value
ij xi x j ofmthe
=A mean, ymis the (3) (1)
estimated value of the standardk deviation k and k
.1 Fatigue i 1 reliability
i 1 assessment:
i j N(t)*CAFT =A y  b0   bi xi   bii (3) xi 2   bij xi x j
ai &k bi are constants.
k Where
ere N(t)=Number of stressN(t)=Number
k cycle at the life of stress
time t,cycle m=slope at the of life
S-Ntime curve,
t, m=slope
i 1 i of
A=fatigue S-N i j
1detail
asquin‟s
 b0  equation,
bi xi   bii xi 2   bij xi x j (2)is the estimated value of the mean, y is the estimated value of
y
fficient,
2.1 CAFT-constant
Fatigue curve,
reliability A=fatigue
amplitude
assessment: fatiguedetail coefficient,
threshol Where,  CAFT-constant amplitude  fatigue
i 1 i 1 i j N(t)*CAFTm=A (3)
e of the mean, y is thethreshol
estimated value of the standard
ai & bi are constants.
deviation andm=slope of S-N curve, A=fatigue detail
Where
mit state N(t)=Number
equation,
Basquin‟s  equation, of stress cycle at the life time t,

oefficient, CAFT-constant Limit state amplitudeequation, fatigueg(t)=Δ-D
threshol
N(t)*CAFT2.1 Fatigue
m
=A reliability assessment: (3)
(4)
Where
ere Δ is miner‟s N(t)=Number
g(t)=Δ-D of stress cycle
critical damage accumulation at the life time t, m=slope
index,equation,
Basquin‟s of
which is assumed S-N curve, A=fatigue
(4) to be lognormal detail
ent:
imit state equation,
ributioncoefficient,
with mean CAFT-constant
value Δ of is1.0amplitude fatigue threshol
and coefficient of variance (COV) of 0.3 D isN(t)*CAFT
andwhich the
m
Miner‟s=A
Where miner’s critical damage
g(t)=Δ-D accumulation index,
Where N(t)=Number of stress cycle at the life time (4)
is assumed t, m=slope of S
mage accumulation index, which is denoted as,
WhereLimit isstate equation,
to be lognormal damage distribution with mean valueis of 1.0 and to coefficient of
m
Δ N(t)*CAFT
miner‟s =A critical accumulation index,
coefficient, (3) which
CAFT-constant assumed
amplitude be threshol
fatigue lognormal
cycle at the life timevariance
t, m=slope (COV)
of S-N of 0.3
curve, N
and(tg(t)=Δ-D
) S
D
A=fatigue
m
is the
detailMiner’s damage accumulation index, (4)
istribution with mean value of 1.0 and coefficient reof variance (COV) of 0.3 and D is the Miner‟s
plitudeWhere Δ is miner‟s critical damage D= Limit state equation, (5)
amagefatigue threshol
accumulation whichindex,iswhichdenoted as, accumulation
is denoted as, A
index, which is assumed to be lognormal
g(t)=Δ-D
distribution with mean value of 1.0 and coefficient of variance (COV) of 0.3 and D is the Miner‟s
is equivalent
e Sre damage constant amplitude stress range
accumulation index, which is denoted )coefficient.
N (tWhereS re m Δ is miner‟s critical damage accumulation index, which is
g(t)=Δ-D D= as,distribution (4) with mean value of 1.0 and coefficient of (5) variance (COV) o
beNAlognormal
(t ) S=Δ‟+A‟-m*S
m
damageG(t)=ln(Δ)-ln(D)
accumulation index, =ln(Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(S
which is assumed to re)-lnN(t) re ‟-lnN(t) (6)
D= damagere accumulation index, which is denoted as, (5)
fere re iscoefficient
1.0Sand equivalent of constant amplitude
variance (COV) of 0.3stress
and Drange
is thecoefficient.
Miner‟s
A
umeis Δ‟=ln(Δ), A‟=ln(A), Here SreS‟isre=ln(S
equivalent constant amplitude stress range coefficient.
re) and they are random variables.
N (t ) S re m
hich denoted as,
Here Sre is equivalent constant amplitude stress range coefficient. D=
G(t)=ln(Δ)-ln(D) =ln(Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(S
N (t ) SG(t)=ln(Δ)-ln(D)
m re)-lnN(t) =Δ‟+A‟-m*S
=ln(Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(S re ‟-lnN(t)
)-lnN(t) =Δ’+A’-m*Sre’-lnN(t) A (6)
iability index, re
D= G(t)=ln(Δ)-ln(D) =ln(Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(SHere is equivalent
Sre (5) re
constant amplitude stress range coefficient.
(6) re)-lnN(t) =Δ‟+A‟-m*Sre ‟-lnN(t) (6)
ssume Δ‟=ln(Δ), AA‟=ln(A), S‟re=ln(Sre) and they are random ( variables.
  m *   ln N (t ))
mplitude stress range coefficient. G ( t ) G(t)=ln(Δ)-ln(D)
 A S=ln(Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(Sre)-lnN(t) =Δ‟+A‟-m*Sre‟-
AssumeΒ Δ‟=ln(Δ),
= Assume Δ’=ln(Δ),
A‟=ln(A), S‟re=ln(SA’=ln(A),
re) and theyS’ ==ln(S
are
re
randomre
) variables.
and they reare random variables. (7)
eliability index, G (t ) sqrt ( 2 A‟=ln(A),
 2  (mS‟*=ln(S
 ))2 )and they are random variables.
Δ)+ln(A)-m*ln(S sqrt ( =Δ‟+A‟-m*S
re)-lnN(t)
Reliability index, (
Reliability index, )
2 2
re ‟-lnN(t)
 ', A', GS(ret ) '
Assume Δ‟=ln(Δ),
 ', A ', Sre ' )
(6)  A re S
(  A  m * S  ln N (t ))
re
re

Reliability
= index,
(  
Β are
re=ln(Sre) and they = random variables. G (t ) A  m2* S  ln N (t2)) (7)
re

ere, λx and ξx denote Β mean

= ( (value Gand(t ) standard 2 2 deviation of (  2 (i.e,
= log(x)
sqrt 2  Ax=Δ,
 (mA*orGSS(t re) ) respectively)
) (7)(  A  m * 

re

sqrt G (t ) )  ) Β(=   A  (m *  Sre ) )

2 2

 ',(sqrt S '  )22))2 , re )  sqrt =

 ', A ', S '
x ln(x )  0.5* ,  (
2sqrt A ', (ln(1 / x  G (t ) sqrt (  2   A 2
sqrt ( (
re
G ( t ) (x  x  m *  re ln N (xt ))  ', A ', Sx ' x
 A  ',S A ', Sre ' re 2 2
)   ', A ', S ' )
Where, λx and ξbetween
e relationship x denote mean
= the value
response 2and
y & standard
x 2 deviation
independent of log(x)
(7)
variables x1, (i.e,
x(i.e, x=Δ, A ', Aor', represented
SSrere' respectively)
re

2, x3,…….x as:
re

G (tWhere,
) 2 2λx and ξx denote sqrt (mean2
  value
 ( and
m *  standard
) ) deviation of log(x) x=Δ, A or
n S respectively)
)   ', A ', S ' )Where, 2 λ andA ξ denote mean
2 Where,
valueλxandand/ standard
ξx denote meandeviation
re
value and standard of log(x)
deviation (i.e,of log(x) (i.e, x
 ln(  ) 0.5*   sqrt (ln(1  )) 
S
nd
 ', A ',xand
S re ' 

x ln( )  0.5*  x  ,
 x= xf sqrt  re
,
)),x  x ln(
nx)+ϵ / x
x2, x3x, ………..,x
xx2 2
 (x1, (ln(1
re

x x x , y x
and x )  0.5*
x x 2
,  x sqrt (ln(1  x )) x   x /  x
2
, 
he relationship
alue and standard between deviationx=Δ,ofthe
Alog(x)
or Sre respectively)
response y &Ayxor&independent and x variables x1x, x, 2x,x x, 3x,…….x n represented as:
The relationship between the(i.e, x=Δ,
response S re respectively)
x independent variables
The relationship between the response
1 2 3,…….xy n represented
& x independent as: variables x1, x2,
ypesqrt
3 response
(ln(1  x 2surface
)) ,  x  model,
x / x
x
y = fyn(x= 1f, (x
x21,, xx32,, xn………..,x
3, ………..,x n)+ϵn)+ϵ y = f (x , x , x , ………..,x n)+ϵ
sponse y & x independent variables x1, x2, x3,…….xn represented as: 2
 
1 2 3

The yi 
relationship 0 between  j x j the response  jj x jj y & x independent variables x (8)
, x ,
n typey =In3f type
response
(x1, x32, response surface
x3, ………..,x model,
surface model,
n)+ϵ j 1 j 1
In type 3 response surface model, 1 2
n n n n n n
el, yi ywe 0  j xj jx j
get,
i 0   
 jjx jjjj x2 jj 2 0    j x j   (8)
yi  jj x jj
(8)
2

n
444 equation
er optimization the above
n j 1 j 1
 j 1
j 1 j 1
 1 j 1
yi  0    j x j    jj x jj 2
After
j 1optimization
j 1 the above
   X T X  After
equation we get,
y (8)
X T optimization  
the above equation we get, (9)
fter optimization the above equation we get,


   X X   X T y
T 1

 
1
uation we get, matrix, y=response vector  T X T X
ere, X=design 1
 TX T y (9)
 G ( t ) (  A  m * S  ln N (t ))
Β= G ( t ) (  A  m * reS  ln N (t ))
= (7)
Β= G (t ) = (  2 2 A 2 2 (mre*  S ) 2 )2
sqrt (7)
sqrt ( ( G (t )  2 ', A2', S ' )
2 2
sqrt (    A  (m * reS ) )
 (',
sqrt ( A ', Sre ' )  re', A ',Sre ' )
', A ', Sre '
re

re, λx and ξx denote mean value and standard deviation of log(x) (i.e, x=Δ, A or S re respectively)
Where, λx and ξx denote mean value and standard deviation of log(x) (i.e, x=Δ, A or S re respectively)
and x   /
x xln(   2x , sqrtsqrt   x2 )) ,2 ))
2
ln( ) 0.5* x , (ln(1(ln(1 ,  x x  x /x  x
x )  0.5*
x
x x x
relationship between
The relationship the response
between y & yx&independent
the response x independent variables
variablesx1,xx2, ,xx,3,…….x n represented as:
x ,…….x represented as:
x3,…….xn represented as: 1 2 3 n

y = f (x1, x2,yx=3, fy………..,x

(x
= 1f, (x
x2,, xx3,, ………..,x
1 2 x
n
)+ε n)+ϵ
3, ………..,xn)+ϵ

pe
In3type
response surface
3 response In model,
type
surface 3 response surface model,
model,
n n n n
yi  
yi 0  j xj j x
0 
 jj xjjjj2x jj 2
j 
(8)
(8)

j 1
j 1j 1 j 1

r After the above

optimization
optimization After optimization
equation
the above wethe
we get,
equation get,above equation we get,
  X T X T X  X T XyT y
1 1
(9)
(9)

Where,
re, X=design
X=design matrix,
matrix,
Where, y=response
X=design
y=response vector
matrix, y=response vector
vector

3 3

445
 Fix range of uncertain parameters “Speed (V), axle load (P), Young‟s modulus
Start
(E), detail category”

By uniform design table generate N sample sets and start N=10

For each set changing time history load data and its position
generate k no sample set

Staad model Time history analysis in staad pro for k*N*3=3k*N no of sets

Generate response surface for Mean & SD of normal stress, shear stress for
Increase no of
distribution in the three trains
uniform design table

Validate the model

No Desired
accuracy

Yes

No Check whether mean

Proposed formula
stress follow log-
cannot be applied
normal distribution

Yes

Obtain parameter of log normal distribution by eqs 13,14,15

Obtain β for year=n

Increase
year n=n+1
Β=1.3 90% confidence level
No
Yes

Fatigue failure obtained

Stop
and fatigue life =n years

Fig. 1: Flow chart diagram

3. Numerical study Fig. 1: Flow chart diagram

4
446
3. Numerical study
• The bridge is of riveted cantilever truss type and composed of two equal trusses
3. Numerical study
• Number of track: 1
• The bridge is of riveted cantilever truss type and composed of two equal trusses
• The bridge is of riveted cantilever truss type and composed of two
• Length of bridge: 364m approximately (128m+109.7m+128m)
• Number ofequal
track: trusses
1
• Two •land spanof&bridge:
•
Length a central
Number cantilever
of
364m track: 1supported
approximately on two piers, to cost, including
(128m+109.7m+128m)
approach viaducts
• Two• land span
Length
& a of bridge:
central 364msupported
cantilever approximately (128m+109.7m+128m)
on two piers, to cost, including
• viaducts
approach Two land span & a central cantilever supported on two piers, to
cost, including approach viaducts

Fig. 2: Image of Old Jubilee Bridge

Fig.
Fig. 2: Image
2: Image of Oldof Old Bridge
Jubilee Jubilee Bridge

Fig.3:3:3D3D
Fig. staad
staad pro rendered
pro rendered viewjubilee
view of „Old of ‘Old jubilee Bridge’
Bridge‟
Fig. 3: 3D staad pro rendered view of „Old jubilee Bridge‟

Three types of rakes have been considered for the purpose of load
. Three types of rakes have been considered for the purpose of load calculation as follows: -
.calculation
Three types ofas follows:
rakes - considered for the purpose of load calculation as follows: -
have been
 Taken Over Coal Rakes (Composition – engine + 55 BOXN, Rake Length = 624.151 m, Total
 Taken Over Coal Rakes (Composition – engine + 55 BOXN, Rake Length = 624.151 m, Total
Weight• = 5140
Taken
t) Over Coal Rakes (Composition – engine + 55 BOXN, Rake
Weight = 5140 t)
 Passenger rakesLength = 624.151
(Composition m, Total
– engine + 15 Weight
coaches, = 5140
Rake t) = 373 m, Total Weight =
Length
 Passenger rakes (Composition – engine + 15 coaches, Rake Length = 373 m, Total Weight =
2175t) 2175t)
• Passenger rakes (Composition – engine + 15 coaches, Rake Length
 EMU  cars
EMU (composition –2 engines
cars (composition cum bogie
–2 engines + 7 coaches
cum bogie =153=153
+ 7 coaches m, Total Weight
m, Total =1195.2
Weight t) t)
=1195.2
= 373 m, Total Weight = 2175t)
• EMU cars (composition –2 engines cum bogie + 7 coaches =153 m,
5 5
447
 Total Weight =1195.2 t)
Detail category 80 of IS:800-2007 is considered based on the joint
condition observed during a field inspection The traffic growth
Detail categoryis80assumed to beis 10%
of IS:800-2007 enhanced
considered based onin thean interval
joint conditionofobserved
every during
10 years.
a field
inspection TheAccordingly,
traffic growth yearly cumulative
is assumed to be 10%numbers
enhanced inofantrain (ni)ofisevery
interval plotted in
10 years.
Accordingly, yearly
Fig. 4.cumulative numbers of train (ni) is plotted in Fig. 4.

Traffic Flow Data

1000
Detail category 80 of IS:800-2007 is considered based on the joint condition observed during a field
EMU
No of Trains run

800The traffic growth is assumed to be 10% enhanced in an interval of every 10 years.

inspection Train
600 yearly cumulative numbers of train (ni) is plotted in Fig. 4.
Accordingly, Passenger
400 Train
200 Traffic Flow Data Goods
1000
0 EMUTrain
No of Trains run

800
1900 1850
1950 2000 2050Train
600 Passenger
Year
400 Train
Fig. 4: Cumulative Traffic flow data Goods
200 Fig. 4: Cumulative Traffic flow data
0 Train
Based
1850
on the train1900
speed, axle load1950
data and young‟s modulus the2050
2000
time-histories of the three
types of rakes are obtained. One sampleYear time-history for 100 kmph train speed of EMU car is
presented
Based
in Fig.on
5. the train speed, axle load data and young’s modulus the time-
Fig. 4: Cumulative Traffic flow data
histories
The stress of theobtained
range three types of rakesanalysis
after software are obtained.
is capturedOne throughsample time-history
the DRSM (Eq. 8). The
for
predicted 100
stress kmph
range train
and its speed
standard of EMU
deviation car
(SD) is
by presented
the DRSM in
Based on the train speed, axle load data and young‟s modulus the time-historieswith
is Fig. 5.
validated thethree
of the software
analysis results in Fig. 6&7. It can be observed from Fig. 6&7 that the DRSM well captures the trend
types ofTherakesstress range obtained
are obtained. One sampleafter software
time-history analysis
for 100 kmph train is captured through
speed of EMU car isthe
of software
presented in analysis
Fig. 5. results. Thus, the implicit relationship between the stress range and its SD, train
speed, DRSM
axle load,(Eq.
The stress range
8). The
young‟s modulus
obtained
predicted
afterand
stress
detail
software
range
category
analysis of and itsarestandard
jointsthrough
is captured now deviation
the expressed
DRSM (Eq.a 8).
(SD)
closed-form
The
by
polynomial the
of DRSM
Eq. 8. is validated with the software analysis results
predicted stress range and its standard deviation (SD) by the DRSM is validated with the software in Fig. 6&7.
analysisItresults
can be observed
in Fig. from
6&7. It can Fig. 6&7
be observed from that thethat
Fig. 6&7 DRSM wellwell
the DRSM captures thetrend
captures the trend
of software
of software analysis
analysis results. results.
Thus, the implicitThus, the between
relationship implicittherelationship
stress range and between
its SD, trainthe
Load vs Time
speed,200
axle load, young‟s modulus and detail category of joints are now expressed a closed-form
stress range and its SD, train speed, axle load, young’s modulus and detail
LOAD (kN)

polynomial
150 of Eq. 8.
category of joints are now expressed a closed-form polynomial of Eq. 8.
100
50 Load vs Time
200
0
LOAD (kN)

150
0 2 4 6 8 10
100 TIME (sec)
50 Fig. 5: Load v/s Time Curve For EMU Car
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
TIME (sec)
EMU train SD of stress range of EMU
Fig. 5: Load v/s Time Curve For EMU Car
306 Fig. 5: Load v/s Time Curve For EMU Car train
304 3
Actual stress
302 EMU train N/mm2 2
SD of stress range of EMU
300
306 Model stress train Actual SD
298 1
304 N/mm2 Model SD
3
296 Actual stress 0
302
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N/mm2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Actual SD
300
Model stress 1
298 6:
Fig. 448 of model stress
Validation with
N/mm2actual Fig. 7: Validation of SD of model stress
Modelwith
SD actual
296 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 6: Validation of model stress with actual Fig. 7: Validation of SD of model stress with actual
 150

LOAD (
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
TIME (sec)
Fig. 5: Load v/s Time Curve For EMU Car

EMU train SD of stress range of EMU

306 train
304 3
Actual stress
302
N/mm2 2
300 Actual SD
Model stress 1
298 N/mm2 Model SD
296 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 6: Validation of model stress with actual Fig. 7: Validation of SD of model stress with actual
Fig. 6: Validation of model stress Fig. 7: Validation of SD of model
with actual stress with actual

6
4. Results and discussions
4. Results and discussions
From analysis results stress range histogram is shown in fig. 9 for EMU
From analysis results stress range histogram is shown in fig. 9 for EMU train and it is in log-normal
train and it is in log-normal distribution so the eqs. 7 can be applied to
distribution so the eqs. 7 can be applied to get fatigue reliability index. Also, from analysis results
get surface
response fatiguemodel
reliability index.
is done by eqs. 8 Also, from of
and variation analysis results
stress with response
axle load and trainsurface
speed is
shown model
is fig. 8is
fordone by eqs. 8 and variation of stress with axle load and train
EMU train.
speed is shown is fig. 8 for EMU train.
Yσ
2.605
0.16
2.6 2.434

2.4 2.262 0.14

probability density

2.091
2.2 0.12
Yσ (N/mm 2)

1.919
2.0
1.748 0.10
1.8 1.576
1.6 0.08
1.405
1.4 1.233 0.06
1.2 1.062
1.0 0.8900
0.04
0.80 0
1 140 0.02
V(k 8 0 6 0 1
200 8 0
160
0.00
mp )
h) 40
2
220
P (kN 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61
20 260 40
shear stress range (N/mm2)

Fig. 8:
Fig. 8:Variation
Variationof stress with train
of stress axle load
with train Fig.
Fig.9:9:Stress histogram
Stress and log-normal
histogram curve
and log-
and speed for EMU train fitting for EMU train
axle load and speed for EMU train normal curve fitting for EMU train

After confirming stress range histogram is in log-normal curve fitting,

After confirming stress range histogram is in log-normal curve fitting, eqs. 7 is applied to get fatigue
eqs. index
reliability 7 is applied to get fatigue
value corresponding to yearreliability index
and in fig. 10 valueforcorresponding
it is shown EMU train. With to
theyear
90%
and in
confidence fig.
level that10 it iswhen
means shown for EMU
the fatigue train.
reliability indexWith theapproximately
(β) value 90% confidence level
1.3 the fatigue
failure is considered
that means when and it is the
shown in fig. 11
fatigue for EMU train.
reliability index (β) value approximately 1.3
the fatigue failure is considered and it is shown in fig. 11 for EMU train.
7 1999 P
Year of Fatigue Failure (Year)

1.1*P
1.2*P
6 1998
Reliability Index

5 1997
4 449
1996
3
1995
2
 After confirming stress range histogram is in log-normal curve fitting, eqs. 7 is applied to get fatigue
reliability index value corresponding to year and in fig. 10 it is shown for EMU train. With the 90%
confidence level that means when the fatigue reliability index (β) value approximately 1.3 the fatigue
failure is considered and it is shown in fig. 11 for EMU train.

7 1999 P

Year of Fatigue Failure (Year)

1.1*P
1.2*P
6 1998
Reliability Index

5 1997
4
1996
3
1995
2
1994
1
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 20 40 60 80 100
Year Speed (kmph)
Fig. 10: Fatigue reliability index vs. year for EMU Fig. 11: Variation of fatigue life with train
Fig. 10:Train
Fatigue reliability index vs. Fig. 11: Variation of load
speed and axle fatigue
for EMUlifetrain
year for EMU Train
with train speed and axle load for
EMU train
7
After getting the fatigue failure life corresponding to axle load and train speed for all three t
with the help of totalgetting
After probability the resultant
the fatigue fatigue
failure life life corresponding
corresponding to train
to axle load and speed
train and axle l
calculated andspeed
it is shown
for allinthree
fig. train’s,
12 with the help of total probability the resultant
fatigue life corresponding to train speed and axle load is calculated and it
is shown in fig. 12

1995 P
Year of Fatigue Failure (Year)

1.1*P
1994 1.2*P

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

20 40 60 80 100
Speed (kmph)
Fig. 12:
Fig.Variation of fatigue
12: Variation life with
of fatigue traintrain
life with speed andand
speed axleaxle
loadload

450
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
PFLA of an existing steel rail-bridge in India is presented. To envisage
the effect of train speed, a time-history analysis is executed in modelling
and analysis software STAAD.Pro. A new approach of fatigue life
assessment in dual RSM framework is used to avoid direct MCS and
to make the approach computationally viable. The dual RSM is used
to generate response surfaces of mean and standard deviation of stress
range as functions of axle load, train speed, detail category and young’s
modulus. This is in-turn used to evaluate reliability index of the fatigue
failure limit state by a simple equation. When the reliability index reaches
approximately 1.3 that means 90% confidence level, the fatigue failure is
said to be attained.
By using the dual response surfaces direct MCS is completely avoided.
As a result, the proposed approach is computationally efficient. The
results show that fatigue life largely depends on train speed and axle
load. However, the train speed for which the fatigue life is minimum is
dependent on train type (i.e., train load configuration and axle loads).
This is because, depending on the particular train configuration,
different members and limit states govern the fatigue failure. Thus, the
entire PFLA problem domain gets changed and is entirely dependent on
train load configuration.

References
Datta, G., Bhattacharjya, S., & Chakraborty, S. (2020). Efficient reliability-
based robust design optimization of structures under extreme wind
in dual response surface framework. Structural and Multidisciplinary
Optimization, 62, 2711-2730. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-020-
02606-3
Haldar, A., & Mahadevan, S. (2000). Reliability assessment using
stochastic finite element analysis. John Wiley & Sons.
Miner, M.A. (1945) Cumulative Damage in Fatigue. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 3, 159-164.
Omishore, A. (2017, October). Assessment of steel bearing structures-
Estimation of the remaining fatigue life. In IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 245, No. 3, p. 032027). IOP
Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/245/3/032027
Nirosha D. Adasooriya (2016): “Fatigue Reliability Assessment of ageing
railway truss bridge: Rationality of probabilistic stress- life approach”;

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doi.org/10.1016/j.csse.2016.04.002
Soliman, M., Frangopol, D. M., & Kown, K. (2013). Fatigue assessment
and service life prediction of existing steel bridges by integrating
SHM into a probabilistic bilinear S-N approach. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 139(10), 1728-1740. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
ST.1943-541X.0000584
Prakash G (2021) Probabilistic Model for Remaining Fatigue Life
Estimation of Bridge Components, Vol. 147, Issue 10 (October 2021) J
Struct Eng. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0003114
Wang, C. S., Yen, B. T., Li, H. T., & Duan, L. (2015). Fatigue life
evaluation of in-service steel bridges by using bi-linear SN curves.
Advanced Steel Construction, 11(3), 269-282. https://doi.org/10.18057/
IJASC.2015.11.3.2
Adasooriya, N. D. (2016). Fatigue reliability assessment of ageing railway
truss bridges: Rationality of probabilistic stress-life approach. Case
Studies in Structural Engineering, 6, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
csse.2016.04.002
Ye, X. W., Su, Y. H., Han J. P., (2014) A State-of-the-Art Review on Fatigue
Life Assessment of Steel Bridges”, Mathematical Problems in Engineering,
Article ID 956473, https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/956473
Soltani, M., Moghaddam, T. B., Karim, M. R., & Baaj, H. (2015). Analysis
of fatigue properties of unmodified and polyethylene terephthalate
modified asphalt mixtures using response surface methodology.
Engineering Failure Analysis, 58, 238-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engfailanal.2015.09.005
Gao, H., Wang, A., Bai, G., Wei, C., & Fei, C. (2018). Substructure-based
distributed collaborative probabilistic analysis method for low-cycle
fatigue damage assessment of turbine blade–disk. Aerospace Science and
Technology, 79, 636-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2018.06.023
Zhu, J., & Zhang, W. (2018). Probabilistic fatigue damage assessment
of coastal slender bridges under coupled dynamic loads. Engineering
Structures, 166, 274-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.03.073
Yan, D., Luo, Y., Lu, N., Yuan, M., & Beer, M. (2017). Fatigue stress
spectra and reliability evaluation of short-to medium-span bridges under
stochastic and dynamic traffic loads. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 22(12),
04017102. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001137
Karolczuk, A., & Kurek, M. (2022). Fatigue life uncertainty prediction
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uniaxial and multiaxial cyclic loading. International Journal of Fatigue,
160, 106867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2022.106867
Sanches, R. F., de Jesus, A. M., Correia, J. A., Da Silva, A. L. L., &
Fernandes, A. A. (2015). A probabilistic fatigue approach for riveted
joints using Monte Carlo simulation. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, 110, 149-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2015.02.019
Imam, B. M., Righiniotis, T. D., & Chryssanthopoulos, M. K. (2008).
Probabilistic fatigue evaluation of riveted railway bridges. Journal
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(ASCE)1084-0702(2008)13:3(237)

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454
 Various Innovative works done in DFCCIL’s
Khurja-Dadri & Khurja-Saharanpur sections
for Accelerating the progress of work
Md. Tanveer Khan1 and Anil Kalra2

ABSTRACT
Construction work of Double Rail Line from Khurja to Dadri and Single Rail
Line from Khurja to Saharanpur came to stand still during the first phase of
nationwide Lockdown during March-April 2020 announced as a preventive
measure against the COVID-19 pandemic. During the last week of April 2020, the
work was resumed at Isolated locations with various restrictions by maintaining
all guidelines from Government and taking all mandatory requirements and
following the MHA guidelines issued from time to time. Essential items were
provided to all workforce including groceries, gas, medicine etc. during lockdown
so that they can stay at site only and after permission, the work is started
from those workforces only. Something beyond the regular work practices and
application of some innovative ideas is the need of hour to cope up with these
challenges. To accelerate the progress and further enhance the quality of the work
various innovative steps/practice were adopted and by adopting these practices
the desired acceleration and quality of work was achieved. This paper aims at
describing the various Innovative works done in DFCCIL’s Khurja-Dadri &
Khurja-Saharanpur sections for Accelerating the progress of work and found
useful and got appreciation from senior railway and World Bank officials.
Keywords: Covid-19, Innovative works, Project Acceleration.

1. Introduction
The existing trunk routes of Howrah-Delhi on the Eastern Corridor and
Mumbai-Delhi on the Western Corridor were highly saturated. Railways
lost the share in freight traffic from 83% in 1950-51 to 35% in 2011-12.
These projects (ie Khurja – Dadri and Khurja - Saharanpur) are the part of
Eastern Corridor. The total length from Khurja to Dadri section is about
46 kms (Double Line) and that of Khurja to Saharanpur is about 220Kms
(Single Line). The entire stretch of the project is located in the State of
Uttar Pradesh and passes through seven Districts namely Bulandshahar,
1
Joint Director/Gati Shakti/Civil, Railway Board, New Delhi
2
Chief General Manager, DFCCIL, Meerut

455
 Gautam Budh Nagar, Ghaziabad, Hapur, Meerut, Muzaffarnagar and
Sharanpur. The project is certified with ISO 14001:2015 and OHSAS
18001:2007.
Currently approx. 1450 nos. of workforce (including Labour and Staff/
Officers) are working in these projects safely. Contractor has established
a well-developed Safe Operating Procedure for site works so that all
workforce feels safe during their working hours but there was a need
to develop and implement some innovative ideas/practices so as to
accelerate the progress without compromising the quality.
In the subsequent paragraphs of this paper, various Innovative works
done in DFCCIL’s Khurja-Dadri & Khurja-Saharanpur sections for
Accelerating the progress of work are discussed so that they may be
implemented in other projects also based on the requirement.

3.0 Temporary Diversion to Cross the Rithori Village in Khurja-Dadri

section.
The work of track linking in Khurja–Dadri Section was in full swing and
almost 74 TKM track linking was done up to the location of hindrance
of 300m in Rithori Village in which there is stay order to maintain status
Quo by Hon’ble High Court due to which track linking got stuck up and
all track laying machinery were idle. However, work front was available
beyond this 300m hindrance.
So it was thought to make a temporary diversion in the railway land by-
passing this 300 Mtr. hindrance, so that the track linking in available
front can be done by using NTC Machine.
Consequently, this diversion was made in a very short period by duly
informing the IR Officials and NTC was use to pass over this diversion
(duly taking traffic block in IR 3rd Line to ensure safety) and track linking
was completed by NTC in the available work front on the other side of
this hindrance.

456
 PHOTOGRAPHS

BEFORE AFTER

4.0 Use of Emission Control Device in DG sets in Khurja-Dadri section.

This is an innovative technology to improve Ambient Air Quality
with potential to reduce 80% Particulates Matter (PM) from DG Sets.
The emission control device consists of heat exchanger followed by
an absorbing chamber. All particulates matter collected in absorbing
chamber. Whatever Particulate Matters are captured in device is used for
manufacturing INK.

5.0 OHE wiring as per Design Rail Levels

In order to avoid the dependency of final track levels from CST Contractor
for marking of Rail Level on OHE masts, the marking of Design Rail
457
 Level was adopted, and OHE Cantilever adjustment and SED Checking
was done on the basis of Design Rail Levels. This has helped to expedite
the OHE Works, without waiting for the Final Track Tamping and Final
Levels to be given by CST Contractor. Due to which, the project time was
reduced by more than three Months.

6.0 Decision for Viaduct in between MTJB MTC 138 & 139
Due to introduction of Delhi Meerut Expressway, heigh of this bridge
has increased significantly and these two bridges are in proximity to
each other, filling of earthwork between these two bridges was a major
challenge also much time consuming, an analysis of Earthwork Vs
viaduct was done. Hence a quick decision was taken to construct the
viaduct at this location which significantly saved project time and cost.

458
7.0 Secondary ballast supplying & Laying through BOBYN
By giving a temporary connection with the near by goods loop of the
IR station the Ballast rakes were directly taken on to the laid skeleton
track and thus the secondary ballast supplying, and laying are being
done directly on track through BOBYN hopper, it has reduced 2 steps
(stacking at site and again loading for dumping on track). It has expedited
the secondary ballasting work and better spreading.

8.0 Waste Material Minimization & Conservation.

8.1 Waste Material Minimization
Waste Minimization is a waste management approach that focuses
on reducing the amount and toxicity of waste generated. Waste
minimization techniques focus on preventing waste from ever
being created, otherwise known as source reduction and recycling.
These techniques can be practiced at several stages in most waste
459
 generating processes, but require careful planning, creative problem
solving, changes in attitude, sometimes capital investment, and
genuine commitment.
8.2 Wastage control of Cement at Site.
8.2.1 During Storage
 The cement should be used on first come first used
basis.
 Materials reconciliation should be done on monthly
basis and not to left to be done at the end of the project.
 Proper inventory management of cement. Make use of
Just in time order technique.
 During monsoon season cement, bags should be
covered with polythene.
 The cement bags should be kept close together to reduce
air circulation.
 The cement bags should not be hand stitched.
 Do not purchase cement bags, which are partially set
due to moisture.
 Do not purchase if there are small lumps in the bags.
 Cement should be stacked in a shed, which should be
dry, leak proof and moisture proof.
 Cement should be placed on wooden crates or on the
planks.
 Cement from different manufacturers should be stacked
separately

8.2.2 During Construction

460
  If the joints of brickwork and bed thickness are more
than specified, it would lead to wastage of material.
So, adhere to minimum thickness as specified in
specifications.
 Make use of mortar, which falls down while doing
brickwork by keeping jute bags adjacent to wall to carry
such mortar.
 Provide proper thickness of cement plaster to walls by
constructing masonry wall in plumb.
 Taking bulking of sand into account to avoid wastage of
cement.
8.3 Material Conservation by Waste Utilization
We are working on a principle of “Waste is not a waste until we
waste it” and believe that no resource can be wasted if planned
accordingly.
The management of waste is a key component in a business’ ability to
maintain Sustainable performance. We encourage our contractors
to improve our environmental efficiencies each year by eliminating
waste through resource recovery practices. Many inorganic waste
streams can be used to produce materials for construction.
8.3.1 Use of waste materials for making Workers Bathing Station

We have made Cement Workers Bathing Station at Batching

461
 Plants made with waste materials. Maximum efforts have
been taken care to use waste materials. All stands are made
up of waste steel, soak pit is prepared by waste concrete cubes,
display board is prepared on waste & discarded GI sheet etc.
“Waste is not a waste until we waste it”.
In addition to this, stands of site store are completely made
up of waste steel. Cement Worker Bathing Station by using
complete waste material is unique. Whenever any cement
worker, works in Cement Godown they used to take 5 min
bath for better health.
8.3.2 Waste to Wonder Park
This is a part of Waste Management at our site and is developed
at New Boraki Station Building site on REUSE Principle with
following specifications:
 Pedestrian Pathway from waste tiles discarded during
flooring of quarters.
 Pillars/ Delineators from waste concrete.
 Used Cold drink bottles for plantation.
 Site Induction Tree from scrap materials.
 Rejected Ballast and aggregates for beautification.

Waste reused Resource generated

Concrete waste: Con-

crete waste generated
during concreting of
structures is reused for
making delineators by
using PVC pipes.

Used cold drink bottles:

Empty cold drink bottles
are collected from
household of staffs
through mail circulation.

462
 Metal & Wood Scrap:
Metal and wood
scraps are collected
from Scrap yard of our
construction sites.

Tiles : Scrap tiles

generated during are
floor work / tiling of
IR Quarter Dhakaur.

9.0 Design and Commissioning of Electric Vehicle (EV) Motor Trolley

Description: In railway projects, once track is laid and where ROW is
limited inspection of ongoing works are done through IC Petrol/Diesel-
based IC (internal combustion) engine motor trollies. By redesigning it
to EV (Electrical Vehicle Motor), the efficiency got improved and carbon
emission were also reduced by significant levels.
Benefits: While using conventional Diesel/Petrol Motor Trolley, following
concerns were observed and same were eliminated with our Innovated
modified design where electrical motor supported with Lithium battery
has been used which are as follows:
1) Range has been increased by improvising & installing single cell
Lithium Cell battery specification of 48V/100 Amp. Range of more
than 100km with single charging cycle time of 3.5 to 4 Hrs.
2) Least Maintenance cost in comparison to IC engine where regular
maintenance like replacement of Engine oil, change of filters are
required on regular basis.
3) Easy to operate/Drive (No clutch/Gear available), Only accelerator
& forward-reverse function was there.
4) Save Petrol/Diesel cost in huge amount thereby leaving lesser
carbon foot prints.

463
Highlights:
The main highlights of this Motor Trolley - GO GREEN ENERGY.
1) Reduction in Carbon Emission due to Electric Motor-Lithium
Battery design.
2) Reduction in Noise Pollution in comparison to conventional IC
Engine Motor Trolley.
3) Eco friendly & light weight for carrying to move one track to nearby
another track.

464
 Assessing the Load Carrying Capacity of
Existing RC and PSC Bridges by Load Testing
for Running Higher Axle loads
Dr. Amaravel. R.*

ABSTRACT
Assessing the Load Carrying Capacity of existing RC and PSC Bridges by Load Testing
for Running Higher Axle loads at design speed is highly essential to minimize the
cost of strengthening and rebuilding of bridges and to decide the retention of bridges
to reduce the journey time. In this paper provisions for load testing of RC and PSC
bridges in IRS concrete bridge and bridge rule are discussed. The design loads and test
loads for bridges are defined. The test loads for various spans under different loading
standards are narrated. Load testing method with scheme of sketches and accepting
criteria including the concept of Non-destructive testing is explained. Load charts
and test load charts for the bridges with different loading standards and cushion
are depicted. The permissible deflections parameters of various span for all loading
standard are detailed. The provisions in IRC-SP-37 and IRC-SP-51-2014 are reviewed
for feasible consideration of methodology for rating and load testing of bridges.

1 GENERAL
The load test is a check on the quality of construction. This test cannot be
treated as a mere substitute for the design of bridge. Full Test loads shall
not be applied at a time. It is necessary to apply the test load in increments
and to remove the same with increments after sustaining the same on the
bridge for some time. For Load Tests on individual Precast Units The load
test will be conducted only when the strength and serviceability are to be
susceptible Testing/Rating of bridge is under the following circumstances
a) The design live load is less than that of the heaviest statutory vehicle
plying or likely to ply on the bridge
b) The design live load is not known and where records and drawings
are not available
d) The bridge, during inspections (routine or special), is found to
indicate distress of serious nature leading to doubts about its
structural integrity and/or functional adequacy
* SSE/Designs/CN/BNC/SWR

465
 1.1 Assessment of Condition of Bridge
1.1.a Inspection and maintenance.
Any signs of distress should be noted , Identifying the
effect of any deterioration, damage or settlement that
has taken place. Where such documentation is lacking
then in addition to the above field investigations,
dimensions of all the structural members should be
taken to prepare a complete set of as-built drawings
showing the geometric dimensions only.
However, where details of the reinforcement and pre-
stressing cables cannot be ascertained to a degree of
accuracy required for preparation of as-built drawings
or for structural calculations, it will become necessary to
resort to intrusive investigations at few critical sections
combined with desk study using parametric variation of
the likely ranges of the estimated data, including error
estimation of the capacity thus calculated.
1.1.b Data Needed for Assessment
The following documents/data are to be procured to the
extent available: i) IRS Code, Specifications as applicable
ii) Contract drawings updated to reflect as built details
iii) Design calculations iv) Site records of construction v)
Soil investigation data before and during construction vi)
Material test and load test data vii) Contract specifications
viii) Post-construction inspection and maintenance
reports ix) Details of all repairs/strengthening work
carried out till the date of investigations. Hydrological,
seismic and environmental data including changes if any
(revision of zone for seismic classification and retro-fitting
requirements as needed, and seismic retrofitting details, if
carried out.) Prevalent engine loads plying on the bridge
Other natural hazards identified, if any. Traffic survey data
1.1.c Structural condition.
Assessment of structural condition of bridge will take
account of the following information which has to be
collected during the detailed field investigation: i) Cracking,
spalling, honeycombing, leaching, loss of material or
lamination of concrete members in superstructure,

466
 sub-structure and foundations. ii) Corrosion of rebars,
exposure of rebars, corrosion in prestressing cables and
structural steel members iii) In-situ strength of materials iv)
Conditions of expansion joints, bearings and articulations
hinges vi) Settlement, deformation or rotation producing
redistribution of stress or instability of the structure.
vii) Any possible movements of piers, abutments, skew
backs, retaining walls, anchorages and any settlement of
protective works and foundations viii) Hydraulic data
covering scour, HFL, afflux, erosion at abutments variation,
if any, in ground water table and discharging arising out of
new irrigation projects or any other reason. The list is not
comprehensive but includes majority of factors likely to
influence load carrying capacity of the bridge.
1.1.d Detailed Assessment : The detailed structural
assessment should include a careful inspection of
full bridge using techniques appropriate to the kind
of deterioration or damage. Since all structural
inadequacies that adversely affect strength or
serviceability arise from: (a) Deficiencies within the
structure i.e. faults in design or detailing, material or
workmanship (b) Change in external circumstances e.g.
increase in axle loading, environmental influences etc.
resulting in excessive usage on the structure.
1.2 A systematic approach to the structural assessment
i Visual inspection of the structure - this should be carried
out in order to detect all symptoms of damage and defects
and should include a check on the actual dimensions of the
structural element concerned.
ii Study of existing documents - this should include all the
documents
iii Mapping of cracking pattern in the structural components.
All visible cracks should be mapped, with cracks of width
equal or more than 0.20 mm and duly recorded.
iv Assessment of behavior of the structure under dynamic
loading e.g. excessive vibrations and amplitude.
v Environmental influences - this should include effect of
aggressive agents in the atmosphere, ground, soil and effluents

467
 discharged in the river as well as effects of temperature, rain,
snowfall and seismicity at the location.
vi Study on material properties of steel and concrete during
several inspection by following testing techniques with
proper types of equipment
vii Estimate of loads for the prevalent heaviest axial load
plying on the bridges and the extent of GMT during
plying of various axle loads should be studied in detail for
permitting over dimensioned and higher axle loads.
viii Techniques of Inspection and Testing
ix Assessment of Strength of Materials
x Settlement, Deformation or Rotation of Structural Members
xi Full Scale Load Test on Bridges
1.3. Rating the load carrying capacity of bridge and permitting higher
axle loads methodology.
i Analytical Method is applicable when the as-built or contract
drawings and specifications followed are available, or when
such drawings can be prepared by site measurement to
an acceptable level of accuracy (e.g. for steel, masonry or
composite bridges). In any case correctness of the available
drawings shall be verified at site, since quite often “as-built”
drawings/data is not available.
ii Load Testing Method is suitable when no construction
drawings and specifications originally followed are available,
or when data for design cannot be obtained from reference to
literature and the condition survey, and/or when the extent
of corrosion and loss of strength cannot be assessed during
condition survey.
iii Correlation Method - In certain cases, it is possible to
ascertain the safe carrying capacity of the bridge structure by
correlating the sectional details of the structure with those
bridges having identical specifications and sectional details
and whose safe load carrying capacities are known.
1.4 Rating the load carrying capacity of recently built and new
bridge
In case of recently built bridges, some local defects such as
honeycombing, spading of concrete, onset of corrosion, local deep

468
 scour etc. may become apparent during routine and/or special
inspection. Such defects can be taken care of by localized repair,
and it is not necessary to re-evaluate the rating of bridge due to
the same. It should be realized that all codes have built-in margins
for time dependent loss of strength, and for localized reduction of
strength at sections, which are not critical. These are not explicitly
stated in the codes. However, local reduction up to 10 percent
estimated on the basis of calculations need not call for re-rating
of the entire bridge. Rating or Re-rating of Old Bridges Rating of
old bridges for which original designs are not available, and the
re-evaluation of previously rated structures in situations where
bridge had suffered deterioration of strength of any of the main
components from superstructure to foundations, requires careful
and detailed evaluation of many complex factors and conditions.
1.5 Loads and stresses
The loads to be considered in analysis of bridge for rating purposes,
are of three types:
a) Design live loads at the time of construction
b) Design live loads in force at the time of re-evaluation
c) Changes in other loads in loading standard (e.g. wind and
seismic loads)
d) Changes in other loads based on field observations such as
design flood level
The allowable stresses are to be taken as per the relevant IRS
Codes, governing the type of structure under review. The allowable
stresses normally take into account the long terms effects. However,
these may need to be downgraded in case of specifically observed
deterioration of materials in the form of permissible over stress.
The changes in the design codes from the time of original design also
need to be taken into account.
1.6 Materials
i) The information about the original material specifications
have to be obtained from the records. Knowledge of the year
of construction allows reference to be made to codes and
specifications which were in force at that time and allows one
to make an assessment of materials most likely to have been
used and their design strengths considered at that time. If
the information is not available, samples of materials taken

469
 from the bridge itself can be examined/tested to determine
the type and strength of steel, grade of concrete etc. While
making assessment of the strength of concrete based on the
core samples, many factors need to be taken into account.
ii) The loss of effective section of reinforcement, or prestressing
steel has to be based on the investigations specifically made
to assess the same. Long term prestressing losses are known
to be higher than those estimated using earlier codes. The
creep and shrinkage effects are also known to be higher. The
original warning about likely higher loss of prestressing force
may have come from actual observations during periodic
inspection, special inspection or due to unsatisfactory
performance such as excessive deflection, vibration etc. It is
possible in such cases that the defect may be observed in only
a part of the bridge (one or two spans out of many, or a few
piers/foundations). In such cases, re-rating need not be based
on the strength of the/ weakest span/pier/foundation but can be
carried out after repairing/ strengthening the affected portion
so that better overall rating could be maintained.

2. Planning of Load Testing, Load Test of Structures and Parts of

Structures
2.1 Selection of Spans and Flow Chart of Activities
For existing bridges after study of records and detailed inspection, the
critical span / spans for load test shall be decided. In case of new multi
span bridges, minimum one out of 15 spans shall be selected. Maximum
two span shall be selected out of total no of spans which exceeds 15
numbers (IRC-SP-51-1999). A method statement shall be prepared which
includes a detailed activity schedule for the load test as programmed for
timely completion of load testing. The method statement shall have the
following details for conducting the load test, A flow chart as indicated
in Fig. 14 shall be prepared for the above said activities as also any other
additionally required activities for satisfactory completion of load testing.
2.1.a Types of Load Tests
Static load tests are to be carried out to verify and ascertain the
actual structural behaviour of the bridge compared with theoretical
designs. Dynamic load tests may be carried out for special structures
where required. The primary objective of the load tests is to better

470
 understand bridge’s response to static and dynamic loadings.
i) Static Load Testing : Static load testing is performed to
measure vertical deformation of bridge at mid span or at
any predetermined locations. Measurement of recovery
of deflection and crack width will be part of static load
testing. In special bridges like suspension and cable
stayed, the measured and theoretical deflected shapes of
the superstructure during and after the static load tests
be also recorded.
ii) Dynamic Load Testing : The purpose of dynamic test is
to verify the dynamic behavior of bridges and specialist
literature may be referred for details of carrying out
such tests.
2.1.b Methods of Loading
The method of loading should be such as to either simulate the
specific class of vehicle or induce in the member(s) the calculated
forces, viz., the bending moments at critical sections, The test loads
shall be in the form of :a) Static Loads b) Mobile Test Vehicles
i) Static Loads : Simulation of the specific IRC Vehicles: Static
loads on wheel/track imprints of the specific class of vehicle
for which the bridge is to be tested The load effect on a span
can be produced by building up pre weighed units on loading
imprints spaced as per codal provisions. The imprints are
built either with steel plates or brick masonry or concrete
and rolled steel sections placed across pairs of imprints, so
that platforms could be built on a group of four imprints for
placement of pre weighed units. The area of each platform
depends on the magnitude of the load and unit weight of
individual unit. A pre-weighed unit normally comprises of
sand or soil filled gunny bags, concrete cubes, bricks etc,
which can be carried manually. Otherwise, large concrete
blocks, containers of water or (stone) ballast or steel ingots
could be used if mechanical handling facilities are available
to load and unload them. The loads are placed eccentrically
on the carriageway of a bridge in such a way that maximum
bending moment is produced in any longitudinal member.
ii). Other types of static loads : Any configuration which
produces the design forces (load effects) in the member(s)
could be adopted, for instance uniformly distributed load.
471
 Any of the appropriate methods of load distribution between
the girders can be adopted in arriving at the test load and its
configuration on the span. But the method of distribution of
loads should be the same as adopted in the approved design.
However, where the approved designs are not available the
owner of the bridge should specify the appropriate method of
load distribution. In the case of multiple girders, it is possible
that the design moments are simultaneously induced in more
than one girder. It may well happen that the magnitude of the
test load on the span could be greater than that of the design
IRC vehicle, however the forces induced in any member
should not exceed the specified design force of the load test.
iii). Mobile Test Vehicles : Use of mobile test vehicles duplicating
the axle loads for various classes of loadings should be
preferred as compared to the use of equivalent static load
which is difficult, time consuming and requires longer closure
of traffic on the bridge. The advantage of using such mobile
vehicles is that they can be quickly positioned in the exactly
required locations. Also being rolling loads, all cross sections
of superstructure are tested without having to workout special
loading patterns to represent envelope diagrams of the span
for bending and shear. In exceptional cases if commercial
vehicles are used, the number and spacing of such vehicles
need to be worked out, so as to produce equivalent B.M. and
shear at critical sections on those due to the Standard IRC
loading.
2.1.c Methods of Measurements - Instrumentation
i) Instruments for the Measurements
The correct type, number and location of instrumentation
used on a structure during a load test is critical to achieve
satisfactory outcome. Deflections, Strains and Inclinations
shall be measured with following devices.
a) Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
system with least count of 0.01 mm.
b) Dial gauges, with least count of 0.01 mm
c) Strain gauge and measuring system, with load-count of
1 micro strain
d) Inclinometer, with least count 0.1º

472
 e) Precision digital leveling instrument with bar coded
staff., with least count 0.1 mm
f) Total station, with least count of 0.1 mm.
g) Thermometers, Digital or Analogue with least count of
0.5ºC
In the Fig. 1 Photos P1 to P6 show typical instruments
generally used in bridge load testing.

P1 Linear P2 Dial P3 P4 Strain P5 Digital P6 Data

Variable gauges Inclinom- gauge Ther- Acqui-
Displace- eter mometers sition
ment system
Transduc-
er (LVDT)
Fig. 1 Instruments for the Measurements

ii) Placement of Instruments

LVDT’s and/or dial gauges shall be fixed to magnetic stands.
They shall be placed on firm scaffolding platforms with
steel plates so that the magnetic stands are firmly located.
Wherever dial gauges and analogue thermometers are used,
the reading shall be recorded at height from the closest range
possible to avoid parallax. Glass plate of size 50 x 50 x 5 mm
shall be fixed to the structure at the location of LVDT or Dial
gauges. The spindle of LVDT/Dial gauge shall be in touch
with the glass plate always while testing.
iii) Calibration of Instruments
All testing instruments shall be duly calibrated at accredited
laboratories before start of the load testing. The frequency of
calibration of testing instruments shall not exceed the periods
specified by the manufacturer or 1 year whichever is less.

473
2.1.d Mobilisation of Personnel and Testing Agencies
Only qualified technical personnel shall be engaged for bridge load
testing. The testing Agency shall have satisfactorily completed at
least five bridge load tests.
i) Supervision and Quality Assurance
1 The span under test shall be given a lime wash in order
to identify formation of cracks during load test.
2 Scaffolding system provided for instruments shall be
independent and shall not come in contact with any
bridge component or any part of scaffolding system
erected for recording readings from instruments
installed for the test span.
3 Whenever spans are tested in urban limits, where
pedestrian or vehicular traffic passes below, a safety
scaffolding system shall be provided, as a safety measure.
The scaffolding shall be able to take full load of test span
in case of any eventuality.
ii) Acceptance Criteria
The acceptance criteria of load test shall be as under:
1 Measured deflections and strains at critical
location of particular structural member/
members shall be equal to or less than theoretical
deflections and strains obtained from respective
designs.
2 The percentage of recovery of deflections for
various types of bridges after retention of test load
for 24 hrs. shall be :
3 The structure shall not show any cracks more
than 0.30 mm for (normal) moderate exposure
and 0.20 mm for severe conditions of exposure,
spalling or deflections which are incompatible
with safety requirements, as prescribed in the
relevant design codes.
4 Structures which do not meet the above criteria
shall be considered as noncompliant.

474
2.1.d Re-Testing after Strengthening Measures
i) In case any bridge fails to perform in load test, a detailed
analysis shall be carried out for non-compliance of load
test commencing from designs, execution of work, quality
control procedures adopted, existing reinforcements, existing
strength characteristics of various structural elements, etc.,
and causes for non-conformity shall be identified. The details
of required strengthening measures of such a structure be
worked out for meeting the acceptance criteria and executed
in order to restore the structure to its serviceable condition.
ii) Since one span or multiple spans of the bridge are
representative samples of the whole bridge, when any single
span fails to perform under load test, leading to its rejection,
whole of the bridge shall be rehabilitated and not the test span
alone.
iii) After satisfactory completion of rehabilitation exercise, of the
whole bridge, load test shall be carried out for any randomly
selected span, as per the method prescribed .
2.1.e Age of concrete during testing
The load test on RCC and PSC members should be conducted at
the age of whichever is earlier of concrete after expiry of 28 days
from the day of casting or the age at which the concrete has attained
the design strength of the mix. And also, suitable allowance shall be
accounted in the test results considering the effect of pre stressed
concrete forces.
2.2.f. Method of load testing
The test load shall be applied in increments. After placing the
full test load on the fully completed bridge, the test load shall be
maintained for 24 hrs. The test load on the fully completed bridge
is 1.25 times of characteristic imposed load, as the dead load of
member and super imposed dead loads already exists in the full
form of bridge. In case, the bridge to be completed is yet to be
augmented with components of SIDL, an appropriate equivalent
load which imparts same effect as that of SIDL shall be placed on
the bridge at right position, in addition to the proposed test load
of the bridge member concerned. Suitable precaution shall be
followed to maintain minimum gap between the member of bridge
being tested and the member which supports the instrumentations

475
 used for measuring the parameters, i.e. deflection and crack width
etc.
2.2.g Parameters to be measured at load testing
The deflection, crack width, temperatures and weather conditions
are to be recorded. Above parameters are measured immediately
after applying the test load. The same shall be measured at the end
of 24 hour sustained loading, and after removal of the test load.
The sufficient number of above parameters shall be measured for
ascertaining the distress or compliance of bridge under / removal of
test load.

3. Inference of results
The variation in temperature and humidity affects the deflection and
crack width of the member under load testing. As per the stipulation
of IRS Concrete bridge code, above parameters shall be taken in to
account while inferring the test results for certifying the strength and
serviceability of member. The following aspects should be complied.
3.1 Pertaining to crack width of member
The crack width (δ3) during or after load testing shall not exceed
the value (δ2) specified in the following Table. 1
Table. 1 The crack width (δ3) during or after load testing
Table. 1 The crack width (δ3), mm during or after load testing.
Sl. Description of items Exposure RCC PSC
No conditions
1 Crack width Δ1, under service Moderate 0.25 0
condition Severe 0.20 0
Extreme 0.10 0
2 Permissible Crack width during Moderate 0.167 0
testing (δ2 =( 2x Δ1/3) Severe 0.133 0
Extreme 0.067 0

476
Fig. 2 Permissible deflection (L/500, mm) vs Spans (m) for various
standard of IRS loading for spans from 1 to 130 m.

3.2 Pertaining to deflection of member and recovery of deflection

For the bridges with simply supported spans, the permissible
deflection is L/500. The maximum deflection under the application
test load on the span and under the test load sustained for 24 hours
should be less than the permissible deflection mentioned above as
shown in the Fig. 2
Theoretical deflection of RC members for Design and Test loads

477
a. Deflection coefficient (Kdc) for b. Deflection coefficient (Kdc) for
M15, M25, M40 and M60 M10, M20, M30 and M50
Fig. 3 Deflection coefficient (Kdc) for varying grades of concrete.

Using the deflection coefficient (Kdc), theoretical deflection for

design and test loads are arrived using the following equations. The
Fig. 3 shows the Deflection coefficient (Kdc) for varying grades of
concrete.

a) For design load, deflection,

( (K ×DESIGN LOAD)
δ= dc
(I) ) Where
Design load is sum of EUDL with CDA,DL+SIDL in KN and I is
the moment of inertia of RC member designed at mid span in m4.

b) For Test load, deflection, dc( (K ×DESIGN LOAD)

δ = dc
(I) ) , Where
Test load is sum of Part Test load, DL+SIDL in KN and I is the
moment of inertia of RC member tested at mid span in m4.
3.4. The recovery of deflection of member
The recovery of deflection of member shall be measured only when

the maximum deflection value exceeds the value of ( )(45L2)

H)
where h is the depth of construction in mm and L is the effective
span in m. The h is the sum of depth of super structure (as per
RDSO drawing and rail level to formation level h1.
The % of recovery is calculated using the following formula

478
 (δmax1-δmax2)×100
% of recovery=
δmax1
Where, δmax1 is the maximum deflection measured after sustaining
the test load for 24 hours. δmax2 is the residual deflection measured
after removal of the full test load in increments. For RCC members
of the bridge, if the % of recovery is not less than 75%, the bridge
member is considered to pass the load testing. For PSC members
of the bridge, if the % of recovery is not less than 85 %, the bridge
member is considered to pass the load testing. The load testing
shall be repeated for RCC and PSC members of the bridge, when
the % of recovery is less than 75 % for RCC member and is less than
85% for PSC member of bridge respectively.
3.5 Non-destructive Tests (NDT)
The member to be tested is spanned at its bearing points. The
magnitude of test load is equal to 1.25 times of the characteristic
imposed load as per bridge rule. The test load shall be sustained
on the member for 5 minutes. The deflection shall be measured
as per the stipulation of IRS concrete bridge code. The recovery of
deflection is measured only 5 minutes after the removal of test load
applied. The second time test load is applied on the member. The
recovery after removal of second loading shall be greater than that
is maximum of 90 % or the recovery during first test. And also, the
member should not exhibit any sign of distress or crack during and
after testing.
The nondestructive tests shall be conducted based on the approved
scheme of load testing. For assessing the monolithic action of
members (i.e. Precast composite beams, at fixed or continuous
supports and compression units), sufficient number of test are
conducted.
3.6 The magnitudes of various IRS loadings with CDA
The IRS loading consists of various standards. The bridges are
designed using the EUDL for shear and bending moment. The
values of EUDL with CDA under BM consideration for various
standards are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 for zero and 300 mm
cushion respectively. The values of CDA for various loading
standard and for 0,200,300,400 600 mm cushion are indicated in
Fig. 4.
The CDA is the Coefficient of Dynamic Augment. For the IRS

479
 loadings i.e. MBG 1987, HML 1995, DFC32.5 and 25t 2008, the
CDA for ballasted deck is given by

CDA =
[( 2-
D
0.9 { })
X 0.5 X
8
(6+L)
For the IRS loadings i.e. BGML 1926, the CDA for ballasted deck is
given by

CDA =
[( 2-
D
0.9 { })
X 0.5 X
20
(14+L)

Here the L is effective span in m.

a. CDA for MBG,HML,DFC and 25 b. CDA for RBG1975 and BGML1926

ton 2008
Fig. 4 CDA Values for different cushions and different loadings

480
Fig. 5 EUDL with CDA (tons) vs. Spans (m) for various standard of IRS
loading for 300 mm cushion

Fig. 6 EUDL with CDA (tons) vs. Spans (m) for various standard of IRS
loading for 400 mm cushion

481
4. Part Test Loads for various standards of IRS loadings.
The magnitude of part test loads are as given below.
Case 1.
The design load is the test load while testing the bridge for service
limit state. The design load is sum of dead load (DL), super imposed
dead load (SIDL) and imposed load (LL) with impact effect (CDA).
Design load =DL+SIDL+1.0 ×(LL×(1+CDA))
Total test load =DL+SIDL+1.0 ×(LL×(1+CDA))
Case 2.
The test load for ultimate limit state is sum of Dead load,
Superimposed Dead Load and 1.25 times of Characteristic imposed
load. The characteristic imposed load (LL) is the magnitude of
loads given in the clause 2.1 of IRS Bridge rule.
Design load =DL+SIDL+1.75 ×(LL×(1+CDA))
Total test load =DL+SIDL+1.25 ×(LL×(1+CDA))
Part test load =1.25 ×(LL×(1+CDA)), Part Test Load for various
spans and different standard of loadings with and without cushion
effects are shown from the Fig. 7 to Fig. 10.
The values of Part Test Load based on EUDL under BM
consideration for various standards, spans and cushions are shown
from Fig. 7 to Fig. 10. The total test load is sum of DL+SIDL+Part
Test Load. For the bridges with the superstructure. only completed,
the total test load is sum of SIDL+Part Test Load. For the bridges
with the superstructure and SIDL only completed, the total test
load is Part Test Load.

482
 Part Test Load (tons) RBG 1975

Part Test Load (tons) BGML 1926

Fig. 7 Part Test Loads for RBG 1975 and BGML 1926 Loading Standards

483
 Part Test Load (tons) for 300 mm cushion

Part Test Load (tons) for 400 mm cushion

Fig. 8 Part Test Load (tons) vs. Spans (m) for various standard of IRS
loading for 300 and 400 mm cushion and spans from 1 to 46 m.
484
Fig. 9 Part Test Load (tons) vs. Spans (m) for various standard of IRS
loading for 200 and 300 mm cushion for spans from 1 to 8 m.

Fig. 10 Part Test Load (tons) vs. Spans (m) for various standard of IRS
loading for 400 and 600 mm cushion for spans from 1 to 8 m.
4.1 Conduct of Load Test and Preliminaries for Load Testing
All preliminaries, like white wash to the underneath or/and for
critical locations of test span, providing scaffolding system for
instruments, scaffolding system for recording test measurements
and safety scaffolding system shall be provided. Thereafter, loads
shall be organized on the structure in any pre-approved form
for completion of load test. The testing agency shall prepare the
required method statement and flow chart of activities, for smooth
organization and completion of load test and for procuring
calibrated instruments, their erection and fixing at appropriate
locations, and recording all test measurements. Since the load test
is a process involving working continuously for a number of days

485
 all personnel involved shall be alert and cautious, while load test
is in progress. In case of excessive deflections, or strains beyond
allowable limits, test shall be stopped forthwith the span off -
loaded and certified accordingly. The test span shall be floodlit at
night while test is in progress.
4.2 Monitoring for Temperature Effects
The deflection values and ambient temperature data are generally
collected from dawn to dusk for two or three consecutive days at
1-hour intervals. The temperature vs. deflection data are collected on
these days and a curve drawn for each station (dial gauge location),
which is taken as the basic curve for temperature correction. The
temperature - deflection characteristics will be a linear line drawn
between points of minimum temperature- least deflection and
maximum temperature most - deflection. The deflection reading
at any location and temperature during load test is super-imposed
on the basic curve. The difference between the two values gives the
true deflection for the location under reference, corresponding to
the same temperature.
4.3 Main Load Test
Before start of loading, theoretical deflection at critical locations of
the span to be tested, shall be worked out, with design load. The test
load shall be applied in stages, so that timely action, such as stopping
the test, can be taken, if any untoward distress is observed at any
stage. The dead load is already acting and the test load is usually a
specified multiple of design live load more than one. The suggested
stages of test load placement are 50 percent, 75 percent, 90 percent
and 100 percent. These stages can be altered judiciously when
loading is by vehicles. While loading the structure in stages, the
next incremental loading should be added only after the deflections
under the previous load have stabilized, which is normally about
one hour, and this period is also called cooling time. Fig. 11. Shows
A typical view of actual load testing arrangement. Fig. 12 A Typical
Load Testing Scheme for PSC Box Girder Bridge Unloading should
also be in the same stages as that of loading.
The test span shall be constantly monitored for appearance and
widening of cracks at every stage of loading. The entire span under
test, i.e. underneath and all critical locations shall be flood lit for easy
visibility of cracks or distress, during nights. The load-deflection
characteristics at every increment should normally be linear and

486
any abnormal behavior will get reflected in the load vs deflection
data. If the deflection observed exceeds the calculated theoretical
deflections at any stage, further loading, shall be stopped and span
shall be allowed to stabilize for longer durations. In some cases
immediately after placing 100 percent load, deflections may exceed
marginally compared to theoretical deflections and deflections
will get retrieved less than theoretical deflections in a span of less
than two-three hours. If it does not come down then the load
shall be removed and placed again after 2 to 3 hours. Subsequent
action shall be taken after consulting all concerned Engineers.
Occasionally cracking sounds at the location of expansion joints
are heard, when the rotation capacity is exceeded, particularly, in
balanced cantilever bridges, spalling of delaminated concrete is also
possible during load test, however same needs to be investigated
before continuation of load test.
4.3.a The Pre-requisite for load test shall be as follows;
i) All visual defects shall be measured, mapped and
plotted.
ii) Bearings shall be ensured for their functional condition.
iii) Expansion joints, gaps shall be ensured for their
functional condition.
4.3.b The following precautions shall be taken
i) All stagings shall be stable and safe. Staging for
instruments and that for observers shall be independent.
ii) Staging for the instruments shall be rigid. Wherever
required depending on site condition a safety staging
shall be erected in order to avoid any eventuality to
traffic and/or pedestrian below the span under test.
iii) Due to temperature variation, the superstructure will
tend to hog or sag, therefore, it shall be ensured that,
contact with the spindle of the LVDT/ dial gauges is not
lost. Spindle extension shall be fixed to take care of this
aspect.
4.3.c Loading and Unloading Procedure
Loading operation stages from 0 percent, 50 percent,
75 percent, 90 percent to 100 percent of test load shall
be completed within 24 hours, similarly unloading
operations from 100 percent, 90 percent, 75 percent, 50
487
 percent, 0 percent shall be completed within 24 hours.
After complete loading the structure for 100 percent
of its test load, it shall be retained for 24 hours on the
structure. The structure shall be off loaded immediately
after 24 hours in the decremental stages of loading.
After 24 hours of unloading of 100% load from the
structure, all required measurements be recorded.
Narration of sequential operation of loading and unloading
Level of
Description of Stages Hours of duration
stages
Commencement of load
Stage - I 0 hours
testing
Start & completion of 50%,
On or before 24 hours after
Stage - II 75%, 90%, 100% of loading on
commencement of load test.
the structure
Retention of 100% load on the
Stage - III 24 hours
structure.
Start & completion of On or before 24 hours after
offloading structure in the completion of retention
Stage - IV
sequence of 100%,90%, 75%, period of 100% load on the
50%, 0% structure
24 hours after complete
Stage - V Structure without any load
offloading.

Photographs of Bridge Load Testing

488
 Fig. 11. A typical view of actual load testing arrangement

Fig. 12 A Typical Load Testing Scheme for PSC Box Girder Bridge

489
Fig. 13 The Cross sectional view of test loags on PSC box girder bridge

490
 Fig. 14. Flow chart for load testing scheme

4.3.d Recording Response of Bridge Components

Following parameters shall be observed, measured and
recorded:
i) Deflection and strain measurements at designated
locations (for instance for simply supported spans at

491
 mid span and at quarter span, in box girders it will be
under each of external ribs) from LVDT’s/dial gauges,
strain gauges, etc. shall be recorded.
ii) Deflection and strain measurements shall be recorded
before start of loading, during each stage of loading, at
regular intervals of one hour over a period of 24 hours
after completion of 100 percent loading, during each
stage of unloading, after off-loading the test loads and
after 24 hours of offloading the loads.
iii) Appearance of cracks and their development, length,
width, location, orientation shall be correlated with
load.
iv) Deformation of bearings during the load test shall be
recorded for incorporating corrections into deflection
measurements. LVDT’s/dial gauges shall be placed
at bearing locations of the super structure to record
deformation of bearings. The recording of deformation
shall be carried out as- and - when deflection
measurements of super structure is recorded.
v) Ambient temperature in the body of structure
shall be recorded for the purpose of incorporation
of temperature correction into the deflection
measurements. Temperature shall be recorded as - and
- when deflection measurements of super structure is
noted.
vi) In locations of very large head room or continuous water
flow below the structure, deflection of superstructure
can be measured using total station instruments by
placing prism of total station to bottom of girder or any
location in girder at critical location. Digital levels with
bar - coded staff can be used on top of superstructure
after removal of wearing coat.
4.3.e Measurement of Response from Load Testing
i) Deflection measurements shall be recorded through
LVDT’s or dial gauges with 0.01 mm least count.
Total stations and precision digital levels can be used
wherever water flow exists or head room is more than
6.0 m.

492
 ii) Wherever deflection measuring instruments cannot
be fixed from bottom of span due to water flow or due
to very large head room, prisms of total station can
be fixed to the bottom of girders or at any location in
girder along critical section.
iii) A precision digital level can also be used to record
deflection measurements from top of the superstructure.
In such circumstances wearing coat shall be removed at
measuring locations.
iv) Additional Measurements : Strain gauges may be fixed
and strain measurements recorded at locations of
LVDT’s or dial gauges or at any other specified location.
Electronic or optical devices like position sensitive laser
device may be used for recording of entire load test
operation.
4.3.f Analysis of Results
Measured deflections at critical locations shall be compared
with theoretical deflections for the purpose of acceptance/
rejection. Measured strains at critical locations shall be
compared with theoretical strains for the purpose of
acceptance/rejection. The percentage recovery shall be
calculated for the values of deflection. The percentage
recovery is calculated at 24 hours after removal of load, the
analysis is carried out as follows, after effecting temperature
correction, bearing displacement correction and or rotation
corrections to deflection data:
i) Initial value - deflections before commencement of
loading = R1
ii) Deflections at one hour, after placement of 100 percent
test load = R2
iii) Deflections at 24 hours after placement of 100% test
load = R3
iv) Deflection measurements immediately after removal of
test load = R4
v) Deflection measurements at 24 hours after removal of
test load = R5
vi) Total deflection δmax1= R3 - R1

493
 vii) Total recovery of deflection after 24 hours after removal
of test load δmax2 = R5-R1
viii) Percentage recovery of deflection 24 hours after removal
(δmax1-δmax2)×100
of test load δmax1

Where this value exceeds 100 percent it shall be restricted to 100 percent)
The recovery of deflections shall satisfy the following requirements for
various types of bridges as indicated in Table 2.

Table 2. Acceptance criteria for passing the bridge testing

Types of bridges Minimum percentage recovery of Deflection
at 24 hrs after removal of test load
1. Reinforced Concrete 75
2. Prestressed Concrete 85

5. Conclusion
1. The methods for rating the load carrying capacity of recently built and
new bridge based on permissible loads, stresses and on quality materials
are outlined for ensuring proper application.
2. Assessment of Structural Condition of Bridge are based on inspection
and maintenance and actual field data needed for Assessment
3. In this paper, the planning , types and method of load testing , selection
of spans and flow chart of activities methods of measurements and
instrumentation are detailed for enlightening Team of load testing.
4. Supervision and Quality Assurance, Acceptance Criteria, Age of concrete
during testing are given to confirm the effective load testing and to arrive
at correct response of various test output.
5. Guidance on Re-Testing after Strengthening Measures are stated
herewith to identify the correct and less number of bridges to be tested/
strengthened.
6 Method of load testing Parameters to be measured at load testing and
Inference of results are explained to ensure the precision in load testing
operations.

494
7. Pertaining to permissible crack width of member after load testing is
furnished to decide the compliance of bridge performance in load testing/
8. This paper imparts the methods pertaining to deflection of member,
recovery of deflection and theoretical deflection of RC members for
Design and Test loads for various IRS loadings.
9. Non-destructive Tests (NDT) method is briefed for understanding.
10 The magnitudes of various IRS loadings with CDA values for different
cushions and different loadings are arrived for using in estimation of part
test loads
11. PART TEST LOADS for various standards of IRS loadings are furnished
for easy reference by design engineer
From the figures shown above, it is possible to determine the part test
loads for the existing and new bridges. Using these part test loads, actual
total test loads on any bridge can be arrived for the super structures as per
RDSO drawings.
11. And also, these figures simplify task of calculating test loads for spans
varying from 1 to 46 m with cushion varying from 0 to 600mm for RC
slabs, PSC slab and girder bridges under the different IRS loads i.e. BGML
1926, RBG 1975, MBG 1987, HML 1995, DFC, 25 TON 2008.
12. For RC slab bridges, Part test loads are for the spans up to 2.44 m. For
PSC slab bridges, Part test loads are for the spans between 3.05 m to 6.10
m.
13. For PSC slab / I-girder bridges, Part test loads are for the spans between
9.15m to 18.3 m. For PSC box girder bridges, Part test loads are for the
spans between 24,4m to 30.5m.
14. Conduct of Load Test and Preliminaries for Load Testing is elaborated
15. Narration of sequential operation of loading and unloading is essential to
conduct load testing Monitoring for Temperature Effects is emphasised.
16 Methods to record Response of Bridge Components Measurement of
Response from Load Testing and Analysis of Results ,acceptance criteria
are explained

6. References:
1. Indian Railways Standard code of Practice for Plain, Reinforced, and
Prestressed Concrete for General Bridge Construction, Second Revision,
Research Design & Standards Organization, Lucknow, 1997

495
2. Indian Railways Standard, Bridge Rules, Specifying the Loads for Super-
structure and Sub-structure of Bridges and for Assessment of the Strength
of Existing Bridges, First Revision, Second Reprinting. Research Design
& Standards Organization, Lucknow, 2008
3. Indian Railways Standard code of Practice for the Design of Sub-
structures and Foundations of Bridges, Second Revision, Research
Design & Standards Organization, Lucknow, 2013
4. Indian Roads Congress: Special Publications: 37-2010, Guidelines for
Evaluation of Load Carrying Capacity of Bridges (First Revision)
5 Indian Roads Congress: Special Publications: 51-1999, Guidelines for
Load Testing of Bridges
6 Indian Roads Congress: Special Publications: 51-2014, Guidelines for
Load Testing of Bridges
(First Revisions)

496
 Challenges and Way Forward for EPC
Contracts in Indian Railway Eco-system
Shri.Neeraj Agrawal 1, Shri.V.K.Sailesh 2, Shri.N.P.Shrivastav 3

INTRODUCTION
Engineering, Procurement and Construction (‘EPC’) is a form of contracting
arrangement used popularly in many sectors, wherein, the EPC contractor is
made responsible for all the activities from design, procurement, construction,
commissioning and handover of the project to the client or owner. This is a
Lumpsum type of contract.

Traditionally, Item Rate Contracts are being adopted across Indian Railways,
wherein, the contractor quotes rates for individual items of work based on
scheduled quantities furnished by Railways.
Differences between item rate contracts and EPC contracts:

1
CAO/C/SCR
2
Dy.CE/C/G/SCR
3
XEN/C/P/SCR

497
 Sl.
Feature item rate EPC
no.
Detailed designs by
1 Plans and designs Complete in-house
contractor
2 Material supply Dept. supply Contractor supply
Divided into different
3 Scheduling Lumpsum scheduling
specific items
Based on stage
Based on items with
4 Payments completed and not
defined quantities
quantites specific
Complex and time
consuming due Simple and instant
Measurements
5 to involvement of due to stage specific
and billing
different items and payments
quantities
Less scope due to
More prone and time-
6 Variation advance meticulous
intensive
planning
7 Specification Flexible Rigid
High scope as
Little scope due
contractor strives for
to restrictions of
8 Innovation latest technologies and
fixed I tem and cost
practices in an effort
descriptions
to save cost
Slow due to multiple
problems of land, Brisk due to detailed
9 Speed of execution
plans, interface issues planning in advance
etc.
Less quality issues as
More chances of sub- bigger agencies are
10 Quality
standard work involved with higher
defects liability period.

Risk Comparison between item rate contracts and EPC contracts:

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 Sl.
Risks item rate EPC
no.
1 Cost Overrun High probability Less probability
Many as multiple Little as responsibility
2 Interface Issues
agencies are involved is on single agency
Complete material is
3 Wastage of Material More for dept. supply agency supplied. Less
scope for wastage.
To be planned in
advance. Laborious Complete risk free as
Just In Time/Stores
4 and high risk during materials are handled
Management
receipt, transfer, by agency
storage.
Standardisation of Delayed and In-advance design of
5
Plans staggered basic plans
Difficult as multiple Easy due to single
6 Project Monitoring
agencies involved point of responsibility
More as payments are
Less due to countless based on completion
7 Transparency items for payment of particular stage
during execution and independent of
any particular item
More inclination for Uniformity is assured
8 Priority of execution profitable/non-loss among different
items works
9 Incentive/Penalty Practically absent More likely
10 Level playing field Imbalanced Assured

Necessity of EPC in Indian Railways:

 Multi-fold increase in annual commissioning targets
In the effort to achieve annual targets of about 3-4 times that were
being achieved over the years in terms of commissioned lengths of
track, Indian Railways, in its transformational mode, has shifted gears
towards large scale use of EPC Contracts. The system of EPC Contracts
provides for fixed contract price, fixed completion date and single point
of responsibility.

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 Tackling of shrinking work force
In addition, with the pressure to optimize the work force of Railways,
the item rate contracts have been suffering from insufficient supervising
personnel. The situation will only become grim with no signs of easing
for deployment of efficient Railway personnel towards monitoring of
critical activities of project.

 Better risk management

The assignment of work through EPC mode makes it easier for better
management of risk and also to oversee and evaluate progress as the
contractor carries out the project. This arrangement also benefits
contractors with more control over the design and cost.
Policy Directions from Railway Board towards EPC adoption:

 Basic premise
From the perspective of policy support, the Railway Board has shown
the initial direction for adoption of EPC system by issue of directives,
delegation of powers, standard contract documents and RFPs for award
of EPC Contracts and also for engaging outside consultants towards
monitoring of projects in the form of PMS and PSS.

 Various steps taken by Railways

• 2015-16
As an initial step, Railway Board in Sep’15 recommended use of
EPC mode in one or two contracts from each Railway, by ensuring
required pre-requisites, in those projects assured with financing
through EBR(IF).
• 2016-17 & 2017-18
Hon’ble MR in his budget speech of 2016-17 has set a target of
implementing atleast 20 projects through EPC based contracting in
2016-17. In addition, it is pledged to make efforts for awarding of
all works valuing above Rs.300 Cr through EPC contracts by 2017-
18.
• 2018-19
A major policy change towards adoption of EPC contracts was
issued by Railway Board in Nov’18. As per this, all tenders for

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 NLs, Doublings, GCs, important bridges etc., with value more than
Rs.100 Cr, shall be on EPC mode only. In case of exception for
not adopting EPC contracts, personal approval of GM is required,
except major yards where CAO/C is empowered to take decision
for exclusion from EPC contracts.
• 2021-22
Further, in Apr’22, the restriction that EPC tenders shall be of value
more than Rs.100 Crhas been removed. This is to imply that EPC
tender may be adopted irrespective of tender value with the aim to
switch over completely to EPC contracts in future.
Need for paradigm shift in work culture:

 Change in mindset
As with hesitation to any new change, the success of EPC system across
Indian Railways also hinges on the progressive change in the mindset and
work culture among all the stakeholders involved.
For this, the education and awareness about the key advantages of
moving with EPC Contracts vis-à-vis item rate contracts shall be made.
With item rate contracts, experience has shown that these are more prone
to frequent changes and manipulation, thereby bringing in an element
of uncertainity with regard to cost and time towards completion of the
project, which will have a cascading effect on pre-determined timelines
and total cost of the project.

 Shift of power
Adoption of EPC Contracts will also place contractor, the main
stakeholder, on equal footing with Railways. The system enables the
contractor to have better control over timelines and cost with undertaking
of responsibility towards engineering aspects (design) of the project and
also with advantage of handing over reasonable compensation over delays
of proposals/clearances. The contractor, in turn, places special focus on
employing leading industry technologies, professionals and practices in
the attempt to reduce costs and adhere to timelines.
On date constraints in the path of EPC adoption:
 Land requirements
One of the major pre-requistes before calling of EPC tender is to ensure
availability of 95% of core land and 90% of non-core land. The EPC

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 document places complete responsibility upon Railways for handing
over land. As the invitation and award of EPC tender may take about
6-7 months, EPC tenders might be invited in the anticipation of requisite
land hand over in the near future. Since the process of land acquisition
is time consuming and co-ordination effort requiring relevant skilled
personnel, the work of land acquisition may be made part of EPC
agreement undertaking the main work.

 Strengthening of in-house arbitration system and professional legal

support
Due to involvement of professional and bigger agencies in execution
of EPC Contracts, the in-house arbitration arrangements need to be
strengthened by deployment of adequate trained personnel for quick and
effective response towards redressal of disputes. If required, the authority
may be supported to hire professional legal teams for representing in
Dispute Resolution Mechanisms.

 Flexibility to incorporate plans and drawings, submitted as part of

DPR, in tender documents
Under Annex-II of Sch-D, L-section is one of drawings to be enclosed
with RFP while inviting the tender. Since these drawings are to be
enclosedcompulsorily along with RFP, the processing of the same is
taking considerable time period often involving 3-4 months through co-
ordination with Divisional and HQ offices. It is suggested that such plans
and drawings, if already are part of DPR, which is earlier approved by
Railway shall be considered without the need for new plans and drawings,
to avoid delay in invitation of EPC tenders.

 Frequent change in scope

Whatever in-depth detail goes into planning, there’s always an element
of risk towards changes in scope of work. These changes may arise
and couldn’t have been anticipated due to latent site conditions, design
requirements, changes in the law, instructed changes to work and value
engineering. These lead to time overruns.

 Tentative plans/Concept plans

The employer in EPC projects shall provide the concept plans as a

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 pre-requisite for invitation of tender. If not appropriately documented,
it results in scope changes, delay in timeline and impact on the cost.
Preparation of detailed plan is a time-intensive task. The detailed plans
and drawings need approval from various sister depts. which places
limitation and confusion whether to go ahead with invitation of tender,
pending final approval.
 Assured cash flows
The contracts awarded under under EPC system shall be provided with
assured cash flows as funding risks are transferred to employer. The
delayed payments attract arbitration claims and avoidable complications
with implications on time and cost overruns for the project.
Way forward for large scale adoption and success of EPC system:

 Delineation of exact scope of work

The single most important parameter in deciding the success of an EPC
Contract is the Scope of Work. Project scope needs to be specified very
carefully and should be exhaustive. Ambiguity or uncertainty will always
lead to conflicts and confusion in the future, thereby leading to variation
and arbitration with avoidable focus on non-critical activities.In this
regard, there shall be minimum scope for deviation from initial scope
and should define clearly what works are expressly covered and what
works are expressly excluded.

 Delegating work scope delineation and estimating, scheduling to DPR

agency
Due to shrinking work force, the assignment of delineating the exact
scope of work may also be entrusted to consultant at the time of DPR
preparation. In addition, the consultant may be given additional
responsibility to prepare schedules along with specifications and
conditions and also necessary packaging for calling of EPC tenders
during the preparation of DPR itself.

 Delegating test checks to Consultants

Test checks are critical in ensuring the progress and completion of project
as per existing and pre-determined technical standards and specifications.
It is suggested for transferring the responsibility principally or in totality
along with bill payments to outside consultants engaged for monitoring

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 purposes.This way, the existing personnel can be deployed for other
critical activities of land acquisition, interface issues with other depts.
within and outside railways, assistance in getting approvals etc.

 Need of Third Party Quality and Proof Checking agencies

Further, reputed national level agencies may be engaged for Third Party
Quality Audit to have control on quality and methodology of execution.
In addition, top level institutes may be appointed for proof check of
structural drawings furnished by Contractor.

 Land Requirements
It is suggested for flexibility in terms of requirements of land before
invitation of tender subject to minimum availability. Often, it places
a constraint for calling of EPC tender which usually takes about 6-8
months to plan, invite and finalise tender for award of work. If required,
clause for staggered handing over of land indicating broad timelines may
be incorporated in EPC tender document to restrict/avoid compensation
to agencies, for delay, post award of work.

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