ME-322

Manufacturing Process

Contents

▪ Introduction
▪ Metal Casting Fundamentals & Processes
▪ Ch7 + Ch8
▪ Joining and Assembly Processes – Welding
▪ Material Removal Processes
▪ Fundamentals of Metal Forming
▪ Bulk Deformation Processes
▪ Sheet Metalworking
 METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Chapter 8 (Complete)

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations
 Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
▪ Advantage: more complex shapes possible
▪ Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
the time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
▪ Advantage: higher production rates
▪ Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open mold
 Overview of Sand Casting
▪ Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
▪ Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
▪ Castings range in size from small to very large
▪ Production quantities from one to millions
▪ Sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an
air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart
Foundry).
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
▪ Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
metallurgical properties
 Sand Casting (recap)
The Pattern & types of Patterns Core
Desirable Mold Properties
Foundry Sand & Binders Used with Foundry Sand
Types of Sand Mold
Buoyancy in a
Sand Casting Operation
Other Expendable Mold
Casting Processes
 Shell-mold Casting

(2) box is inverted so that sand

and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the
(1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag mixture to partially cure on the (3) box is repositioned so that loose
metal pattern is heated and placed surface to form a hard shell
over a box containing sand mixed uncured particles drop away
with thermosetting resin

(7) the finished

(4) sand shell is heated in oven (5) shell mold is stripped (6) two halves of the shell mold are casting with
for several minutes to complete from the pattern assembled, supported by sand or metal shot sprue removed
curing in a box, and pouring is accomplished
Shell-mold Casting
 Shell-mold Casting
❑ Mounted pattern of ferrous metal or Al
➔ heated to 175-370oC
➔ coated with silicone (parting agent)
➔ clamped to a box
➔ box contains sand having 2.5-4.0% thermosetting binder
➔ sand mixture blown over the pattern
➔ forming a shell ➔ gives light & thin mold

❑ Produces
❖ Smooth mold wall,
❖ low resistance,
❖ can produce thin sections,
❖ sharp corners,
❖ small projections
 Shell-mold Casting

Some Products Made by Shell Casting

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell Molding

❑ Advantages:
❖Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal
and better surface finish on casting
❖Good dimensional accuracy
❖Machining often not required
❖Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
❖Can be automated for mass production

❑ Disadvantages:
❖More expensive metal pattern
❖Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Expanded-Polystyrene Casting (Lost Foam)

❑ Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which

vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold
❑ Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process, evaporative-foam
process, and full-mold process
❑ Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and internal
cores (if needed)
❑ Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

(1) Pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound

(2) Foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the
pattern
(3) Molten metal is poured and polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.
 Expanded Polystyrene Process

(1) pattern of polystyrene is

coated with refractory compound
 Expanded-Polystyrene Casting (Lost Foam)
Advantages and Disadvantages
❑ Advantages:
❖ Pattern need not be removed from the mold
❖ Simplifies and expedites mold-making, since two
mold halves (cope and drag) are not required as in
a conventional green-sand mold
❑ Disadvantages:
❖ A new pattern is needed for every casting
❖ Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns

Applications:
❑ Mass production of castings for automobile engines
❑ Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
❖ Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
❖ Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold,

after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
❑ "Investment" comes from one of the less familiar definitions of "invest" -
"to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
❑ It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
 Investment casting (Lost Wax)

3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin

(1) wax patterns are produced layer of refractory material (5) the mold is held in an
(2) several patterns are attached to (4) the full mold is formed by covering inverted position and
a sprue to form a pattern tree the coated tree with sufficient heated to melt the wax
refractory material to make it rigid and permit it to drip out
(6) the mold is preheated of the cavity
to a high temperature,
which ensures that all
contaminants are (7) the mold is
eliminated from the broken away from
mold; it also permits the the finished casting
liquid metal to flow more parts are separated
easily into the detailed from the sprue
cavity; the molten metal
is poured; it solidifies
 Investment casting (Lost Wax)
❑ It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
 Investment casting (Lost Wax)

❑ Advantages:
❖ Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
❖ Close dimensional control and good surface finish
❖ Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
❖ Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process

❑ Disadvantages
❖Many processing steps are required
❖Relatively expensive process
 Plaster-mold casting
❑ Also called cope-and-drag investment casting
❑ Molds made of plaster of Paris (gypsum or calcium sulphate)
❑ low permeability ➔ metal poured in vacuum or pressure
❑ good surface finish
❑ Cools slowly (low conductivity) ➔ uniform grain structure

https://youtu.be/e_FqbuLxACY
 Ceramic-mold casting
❑ Similar to plaster mold
❑ Precision-casting process
❑ uses refractory mold materials
➔ suitable for high temperature applications

Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

23/53
Chap5_Topic01_Processes_S8-S10
 Vacuum Molding
❑ Also known as counter gravity low-pressure (CL) process
❑ A mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured
with amine vapor.
❑ Cope and drag pattern with tiny holes to enable a vacuum suction
❑ A vacuum equal to approximately 2/3 of atmospheric pressure is used.
❑ The molten metal is usually 55 K above the liquidus so solidification
occurs within fraction of seconds.

Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom
gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mod into the molten metal.
 Vacuum Molding:
Advantages and Disadvantages

▪ Advantages:
▪ Easy recovery of the sand,
▪ Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
done when binders are used
▪ Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related
defects are avoided

▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Slow process
▪ Not readily adaptable to mechanization
Permanent-Mold
Casting Processes
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
▪ Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:
▪ A new mold is required for every casting
▪ In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times

▪ The processes include:

▪ Basic permanent mold casting
▪ Die casting
▪ Centrifugal casting
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

▪ Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed

for easy, precise opening and closing
▪ Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
▪ Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory
material, due to the very high pouring temperatures
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Steps in Permanent Mold Casting

(1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and heat

dissipation
(2) Cores (if any are used) are inserted and mold is closed
(3) Molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Steps in permanent-mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated; (2) cores (if used) are
inserted, and mold is closed; (3) molten metal is poured into the mold; and (4) mold is opened.
Finished part is shown in (5).
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Advantages and Limitations

▪ Advantages:
▪ Good dimensional control and surface finish
▪ Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
▪ Limitations:
▪ Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
▪ Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
▪ High cost of mold
Applications and Metals for Permanent Mold Casting

▪ Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly

▪ Typical parts:
▪ automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain
castings for aircraft and missiles

▪ Metals commonly cast:

▪ Aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and
cast iron
▪ Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures
 Semi-Permanent Mold Casting
▪ The Semi-Permanent Mold Casting process uses the
same general procedures as Permanent Mold Casting
but, in this process, expendable cores of sand
 Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is

injected into mold cavity under high pressure

▪ Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is

opened, and part is removed

▪ Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the

name die casting

▪ Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what

distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes
 Die Casting Machines

▪ Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity

▪ Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine

2. Cold-chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Figure illustrates the sequence of die casting of a part in the hot-chamber process
• Pressure range up to 35 MPa
• Average pressure about 15 MPa
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
➢Low melting point alloys such as Zinc, Tin and lead are commonly cast.
➢Cycle time range 900 shots/hr.
➢Very small components such as Zipper teeth can be cast.
➢Dies are cooled by circulating water or oil.
Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure
during cooling and solidification
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
❑ Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting
container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
❑ High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because
of pouring step
❑ Casting metals: High melting point alloys such as aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
❑ Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-point
alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Figure illustrates the sequence in die casting

of a part in the cold-chamber process
• Pressure range 20-70 MPa
• Maximum pressure may go up to 150 MPa

▪ Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process.

▪ These machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high forces are required
to keep the two halves of the die closed under pressure.
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Cycle

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber; (2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification; and (3) ram is withdrawn, die is opened,
and part is ejected. (Gating system is simplified.)
Dr. Sulaiman Pashah 42
 Molds for Die Casting

▪ Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel

▪ Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used
to die cast steel and cast iron
▪ Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
▪ Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity surfaces to prevent
sticking
Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

▪ Advantages:
▪ Economical for large production quantities
▪ Good accuracy and surface finish
▪ Thin sections possible
▪ Rapid cooling means small grain size and good
strength in casting

▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Generally limited to metals with low metal points
▪ Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Squeeze-Casting
❑ This process combines the advantages of casting and forging
❖ solidify under high pressure ➔ promotes heat transfer ➔ fine
microstructure ➔ good mechanical properties

Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process.

 Semi-Solid Metal Casting
▪ Family of net-shape and near net-shape processes performed on metal
alloys at temperatures between liquidus and solidus
▪ Thus, the alloy is a mixture of solid and molten metals during casting
(mushy state)
▪ To flow properly, the mixture must consist of solid metal globules in a
liquid
▪ Achieved by stirring the mixture to prevent dendrite formation

Advantages
▪ Complex part geometries
▪ Thin part walls possible
▪ Close tolerances
▪ Zero or low porosity, resulting in high strength of the casting
 Centrifugal Casting

▪ A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
▪ The group includes:
▪ True centrifugal casting
▪ Semi-centrifugal casting
▪ Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
▪ Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part
▪ Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
▪ Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside
shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
 True Centrifugal Casting
F = m ω2 R = m v2/R

W= m g
True Centrifugal Casting
 True Centrifugal Casting

Example:
True Centrifugal Casting
 Semi-centrifugal Casting
▪ Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
▪ Molds use central sprue to supply feed metal
▪ Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of
rotation
▪ Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
▪ Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Semi-centrifugal Casting

The molten material for the metal

casting is poured into a pouring
basin and is distributed through a
central sprue to the areas of the
mold.
The forces generated by the
rotation of the mold ensure the
distribution of molten material to
all regions of the casting.
 Centrifuge Casting

▪ Mold is designed with part cavities

located away from axis of rotation, so
molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
▪ Used for smaller parts
▪ Radial symmetry of part is not required
as in other centrifugal casting methods

Schematic illustration of casting by

centrifuging.
The molds are placed at the
periphery of the machine, and the
molten metal is forced into the
molds by centrifugal forces.
 Slush Casting

Desired thickness of
Molten metal Metal mold
solidified skin is obtained

Remove the Pour out remaining Mold inverted or

casting molten metal slung

Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects and toys
from low melting point metals (Zn, Sn and Pb) are made by a process called slush
casting, which is based on this principle.
Slush Casting
 Low-Pressure Casting
❑ Also called pressure-pouring.

• The bottom-pressure casting process for the production of steel railroad wheels.
• The molten metal is forced upward by gas pressure into the graphite or metal mold.
• The pressure is maintained until the metal has completely solidified in the mold.
Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
 Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting

▪ This process is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a

vacuum is used to draw the molten metal into the mold cavity.
▪ The general configuration of the vacuum permanent mold
casting process is similar to the low-pressure casting operation.
▪ The difference is that reduced air pressure from the vacuum in
the mold is used to draw the liquid metal into the cavity, rather
than forcing it by positive air pressure from below.

▪ There are several benefits of the vacuum technique relative

to low-pressure casting:
▪ Air porosity and related defects are reduced,
▪ Greater strength is given to the cast product.
 Foundry Practice and Furnaces

❑ Furnaces are charged with melting stock, alloying elements, and

various other materials (such as flux and slag-forming
constituents).
❑ Flux ➔ refine molten metal by removing dissolved gases and
various impurities).
❑ Slag ➔ provide covering to molten metal surface against
atmospheric reaction and contamination ➔ also insulation to heat
loss.
 Furnaces for Casting Processes

▪ Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

▪ Cupolas
▪ Direct fuel-fired furnaces
▪ Crucible furnaces
▪ Electric-arc furnaces
▪ Induction furnaces
 Cupolas

▪ Vertical cylindrical furnace

equipped with tapping spout
near base
▪ Used only for cast irons
▪ Although other furnaces are
also used, the largest
tonnage of cast iron is
melted in cupolas
▪ The "charge," consisting of iron,
coke, flux, and any alloying
elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than
halfway up height of cupola
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

▪ Small open-hearth in which

charge is heated by natural
gas fuel burners located on
side of furnace
▪ Furnace roof assists heating
action by reflecting flame
down against charge
▪ At bottom of hearth is a tap
hole to release molten metal
▪ Generally used for
nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and
aluminum
 Crucible Furnaces
❑ Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture. Heated by
various fuels (gases, oil, fossil fuels etc.)
❑ Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
❑ Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature steel
alloy
❑ Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum
❑ Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting
Electric-Arc Furnaces
❑ Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
❑ Extensively used in foundries, high rate of melting, less pollution, ability to
hold molten metal for any length of time.
❑ High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be designed for high
melting capacity
❑ Used primarily for melting steel
Induction Furnaces
❑ Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in
metal. Induced current causes rapid heating and melting.
❑ Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
❑ Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity
❑ Commonly used for melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys
❑ Useful in smaller foundries, produce composition-controlled smaller melts
 Pouring, Cleaning and Heat Treatment
▪ Two common types of ladles to transfer molten metals to
molds:
▪ Crane ladle,
▪ Two-man ladle
 Additional Steps After Solidification

▪ Trimming
▪ Removing the core
▪ Surface cleaning
▪ Inspection
▪ Repair, if required
▪ Heat treatment
 Defects in Casting

❑ Depends on casting design and method

❑ Different names have been used in the past to describe the same defect
❖ Seven basic categories ( International Committee of Foundary
Technical Associations)

1. Metallic projections
2. Cavities
3. Discontinuities
4. Defective surface
5. Incomplete casting
6. Incorrect dimensions or shape
7. Inclusions
 Metallic projections

Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or
sand core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains
and metal

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 Discontinuities
Hot tear
Hot tears occur when the molten metal fills the cavity but does not solidify in an
even manner. A section of the part begins to solidify before another, and a pulling
apart takes place leaving a crack.
 Discontinuities

Cold Shut
Cold shut is caused when two streams of metal which are too cold meet
but do not fuse together. Due to premature freezing.
 Cavities

Shrinkage Cavity

Caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of molten

metal available in last region to freeze

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 Cavities

Shrinkage Cavity

✓ Shrinkage cavity can be avoided or eliminated by:.

❖ Use of riser to provide extra liquid metal to avoid shrink cavity.
❖ By increasing cooling rate:
➢ For alloys, mold materials that have higher thermal conductivity may be
used.
➢ Internal or external chills, to increase the rate of solidification in critical
regions.
✓ Internal chills (avoided) are usually made of the same material as the
casting and are left in the casting.
✓ External chills may be made of the same material or may by iron,
copper, or graphite.
✓ Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is another method of reducing
porosity (costly).
 Cavities

Thin sections solidify faster than thicker regions. Porous regions may develop at
their centers because of contraction as the surfaces of the thicker region begin to
solidify first

Various types of external chills.

 Cavities

Sand Blow or Blow Holes

Caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved
during the pouring of the casting.
Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the
surface or inside the casting.
 Cavities

Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets
entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Reaction of the water vapor with the accompanying elements. Metal oxides and
atomic hydrogen form, which diffuses into the liquid metal.

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Incomplete casting:
Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

 Incomplete casting:
Gap run-out
loss of metal from mold after pouring ,
caused by "hydrostatic pressure“ (buoyancy force).

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 Inclusions

Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become
entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 Incorrect dimensions or shape

Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative

displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Casting Alloys

❑ Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure

metals
❖ Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product
are better

❑ Casting alloys can be classified as:

❖ Ferrous
❖ Nonferrous
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

❑ Most important of all casting alloys

❑ Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other

metals combined

❑ Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white
cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons

❑ Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F), depending on

composition
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

❑ The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive

engineering material

❑ The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an

attractive shaping process

❑ Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:

❖Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other
casting metals  1650C (3000F)
❖At these temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal
must be isolated from air
❖Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

❑ Generally considered to be very castable

❑ Pouring temperatures low – melting temperature of aluminum

Tm = 660C (1220F)

❑ Properties:
❖Light weight
❖Range of strength properties by heat treatment
❖Ease of machining
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

❑ Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

❑ Properties:
❖Corrosion resistance
❖Attractive appearance
❖Good bearing qualities

❑ Limitation: high cost of copper

❑ Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump

components, ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

❑ Highly castable, commonly used in die casting

❑ Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C (786F)

❑ Good fluidity for ease of casting

❑ Properties:
❖Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to
prolonged high stresses
Product Design Considerations

Dr. Sulaiman Pashah 89

 Geometric Simplicity

❑ Although casting can be used to produce complex part geometries, simplifying

the part design will improve cast ability
Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
❖ Simplifies mold-making
❖ Reduces the need for cores
❖ Improves the strength of the casting

Minor changes in part design can reduce need for coring

 Corners, angles, and section thickness
Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, because they may cause cracking
and tearing during solidification

➢ Fillets radius should be selected

➢ to reduce stress concentration
➢ to ensure proper liquid-metal flow
during pouring
➢ If fillet radius is too large ➔ more volume
in those region ➔ lower rate of cooling

➢ largest circle that can be inscribed in

a particular region is critical ➔
shrinkage cavities and porosity
❖ larger circles are called hot spots

➢ Section changes should smoothly blend

into each other.
 Avoiding shrink cavities (Examples)
Uniform Thickness Providing Chill
 MODIFICATION IN PARTING LINE

The parting line is the boundary where the cope, drag and the part meet.

Location of parting line is important as it influences ➔ mold design, ease of molding,

number and shape of cores, method of support, and the gating system
 Dimensional Tolerances

❑ Depends on ➔ particular casting process, size of the casting,

and type of pattern used.
❑ Typical values in Table 8.2
❑ In commercial practice, tolerances usually are about 0.8 mm
(1/32 in.) for small castings and increase with size of casting,
say, to 6mm (1/4in.) for large castings.
 Draft and Taper
❑ A small draft (taper) is provided in sand-mold patterns to
enable removal of the pattern without damaging the mold.
❑ Depending on the quality of the pattern ➔ draft angles usually
range from 0.5 – 2 degrees.
❑ The angles on the inside surfaces on molds are typically twice
this range ➔ because the casting shrinks inward toward the core.
 Design Consideration: Allowances

❑ Pattern Design Considerations: (DFM)

❖ Shrinkage allowance
❖ Machining allowance
❖Draft angle

➢ Example: Pattern design

Final desired length ➔ add machining allowance ➔ add
shrinkage allowance ➔ draft
Machining Allowance
Machining Allowance
Add 3mm (for cast iron) to all surfaces
150 mm nominal diameter
➢ 150 + 2 (3) = 156 mm
100 mm nominal diameter
➢ 100 + 2 (3) = 106 mm
75 mm diameter hole
➢ 75 - 2(3) = 69 mm
200 mm overall length
➢ 200 + 2(3) = 206 mm
50 mm collar
➢ 50 + 3 + 3 = 56 mm
Shrinkage Allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
allowing 0.8mm/100mm in the cored hole
and 1mm/100mm for length

156 mm nominal diameter

 1 
156 +   156   158 mm
 100 
106 mm nominal diameter
 1 
106 +   106   107 mm
 100 
69 mm dia. hole
 0.8 
69 +   69   69.552 mm
 100 
206 mm nominal overall length
 1 
206 +   206   208 mm
 100 
56 mm nominal shoulder
 1 
56 +   56   56 .6 mm
 100 
Shrinkage Allowance
Draft (Taper) Allowances
Draft (Taper) Allowances
1mm/100 mm (for external dimensions)
2 mm/100 mm (for internal dimensions)

158 mm nominal diameter

 1 
158 + 2  56 .6   15 9 mm
 100 
107 mm nominal diameter

 1 
107 + 2  (208 − 56 .6)  110 mm
 100 

69.5 mm dia. hole

 2 
69.55 − 2   208   61.2 mm
 100 
 DESIGN CONSIDERATION (Summary)
The design principals established for casting are through practical
experience, the careful design in casting results in significant cost saving.
➢Sharp corners, angles, fillets and radii should be avoided
➢Large flat areas with minimum section thickness should be avoided
➢Proper selection of parting plane
➢Considering allowances for machining, shrinkage and draft for pattern design
➢Proper design of Sprue and selection of proper pouring rate (avoid Aspiration)
➢Proper design of Runners and Gating System
➢Turbulence must be minimized.
➢Multiple gates and runners for large and complicated castings
➢Design and selection of Risers (size, location, blind and open riser)
➢Gases must be allowed to escape.
➢Mold must collapsed during solidification
➢Uniform cooling rate during solidification (consideration of chill or pads)
➢Shrinkage and porosity should be minimized by proper temperature gradient.
 Costs Comparison for Different Casting Processes

❑ FIGURE 5.42 Economic comparison of making a part by different

casting processes. Note that because of the high cost of equipment, die
casting is economical for large production runs.