Fatigue Failure Resulting

from Variable Loading

• In Chap. 5 we considered the analysis and design
of parts subjected to static loading.

• The behavior of machine parts is entirely

different when they are subjected to time varying
loading.

• In this chapter we shall examine how parts fail

under variable loading and how to proportion
them to successfully resist such conditions.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• The condition frequently arises, however, in
which the stresses vary with time or they
fluctuate between different levels. For
example, a particular fiber on the surface of a
rotating shaft subjected to the action of
bending loads undergoes both tension and
compression for each revolution of the shaft.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• If the shaft is part of an electric motor rotating
at 1725 rev/min, the fiber is stressed in
tension and compression 1725 times each
minute.

• If, in addition, the shaft is also axially loaded

(as it would be, for example, by a helical or
worm gear), an axial component of stress is
superposed upon the bending component.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• If the shaft is part of an electric motor rotating
at 1725 rev/min, the fiber is stressed in
tension and compression 1725 times each
minute.

• If, in addition, the shaft is also axially loaded

(as it would be, for example, by a helical or
worm gear), an axial component of stress is
superposed upon the bending component.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• In this case, some stress is always present in
any one fiber, but now the level of stress is
fluctuating. These and other kinds of loading
occurring in machine members produce
stresses that are called variable, repeated,
alternating, or fluctuating stresses.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• machine members are found to have failed under
the action of repeated or fluctuating stresses; yet
the most careful analysis reveals that the actual
maximum stresses were well below the ultimate
strength of the material, and quite frequently
• even below the yield strength. The most
distinguishing characteristic of these failures
• is that the stresses have been repeated a very
large number of times. Hence the failure is called
a fatigue failure.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• When machine parts fail statically, they
usually develop a very large deflection,
because the stress has exceeded the yield
strength, and the part is replaced before
fracture actually occurs.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• When machine parts fail statically, they
usually develop a very large deflection,
because the stress has exceeded the yield
strength, and the part is replaced before
fracture actually occurs.
• Thus many static failures give visible warning
in advance.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• But a fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden
and total, and hence dangerous. It is relatively
simple to design against a static failure, because
our knowledge is comprehensive.

• Fatigue is a much more complicated

phenomenon, only partially understood, and
• the engineer seeking competence must acquire
as much knowledge of the subject as possible.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to
a brittle fracture, as the fracture surfaces are
flat and perpendicular to the stress axis with
the absence of necking.
• The fracture features of a fatigue failure,
however, are quite different from a static
brittle fracture arising from three stages of
development.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Stage I is the initiation of one or more
microcracks due to cyclic plastic deformation
followed by crystallographic propagation
extending from two to five grains about the
origin.
• Stage I cracks are not normally discernible to
the naked eye.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Stage II progresses from microcracks to
macrocracks forming parallel plateau-like fracture
surfaces separated by longitudinal ridges.

• The plateaus are generally smooth and normal to

the direction of maximum tensile stress. These
surfaces can be wavy dark and light bands
referred to as beach marks or clamshell marks
Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Stage III occurs during the final stress cycle
when the remaining material cannot support
the loads, resulting in a sudden, fast fracture.
A stage III fracture can be brittle, ductile, or a
combination of both. Quite often the beach
marks, if they exist, and possible patterns in
the stage III fracture called chevron lines, point
toward the origins of the initial cracks.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and
propagation. A fatigue crack will typically
initiate at a discontinuity in the material
where the cyclic stress is a maximum.
Discontinuities can arise because of:

• Design of rapid changes in cross section,

keyways, holes, etc. where stress
concentrations occur
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Elements that roll and/or slide against each
other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under
• high contact pressure, developing
concentrated subsurface contact stresses that
can cause surface pitting or spalling after
many cycles of the load.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool
marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint design;
improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.

• Composition of the material itself as processed

by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion, drawing,
heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and
submicroscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign
material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• Various conditions that can accelerate crack initiation
include residual tensile stresses, elevated
temperatures, temperature cycling, a corrosive
environment, and highfrequency cycling.

• Composition of the material itself as processed by

rolling, forging, casting, extrusion, drawing, heat
treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic
surface and subsurface discontinuities arise, such as
inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids,
hard precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
 Approach to Fatigue Failure in
Analysis and Design
• The methods of fatigue failure analysis represent
a combination of engineering and science.
• Often science fails to provide the complete
answers that are needed. But the airplane must
still be made to fly—safely. And the automobile
• must be manufactured with a reliability that will
ensure a long and troublefree life and at the
same time produce profits for the stockholders of
the industry.
 Approach to Fatigue Failure in
Analysis and Design
• While science has not yet completely explained
the complete mechanism of fatigue, the engineer
must still design things that will not fail. In a
sense this is a classic example of the true
meaning of engineering as contrasted with
science. Engineers use science to solve their
• problems if the science is available. But available
or not, the problem must be solved, and
whatever form the solution takes under these
conditions is called engineering.
 Fatigue-Life Methods

Fatigue Strength and the Endurance

Limit
• The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the
fatigue strength S versus cycle life N of a
material. The results are generated from tests
using a simple loading of standard laboratory-
controlled specimens. The loading often is
that of sinusoidally reversing pure bending.
 Fatigue Strength and the
Endurance Limit
• For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at
some point. The strength at this point is called the
endurance limit S9 ef and occurs somewhere between 106
and 107 cycles. The prime mark on S9 refers to the
endurance limit of the controlled laboratory specimen. For
nonferrous aterials that do not exhibit an endurance limit,
a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles, S9 e , may
be given, where again, the prime denotes the fatigue
strength of the laboratory-controlled specimen.
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Modifying factors are defined and used to
account for differences between the specimen
and the actual machine part with regard to
surface conditions, size, loading, temperature,
reliability, and miscellaneous factors. Loading
is still considered to be simple and reversing.
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
• The actual part may have a geometric stress
concentration by which the fatigue behavior
depends on the static stress-concentration
factor and the component material’s
sensitivity to fatigue damage.
 Fluctuating Stresses
• These sections account for simple stress states
from fluctuating load conditions that are not
purely sinusoidally reversing axial, bending, or
torsional stresses.

Combinations of Loading Modes

Here a procedure based on the distortion-
energy theory is presented for analyzing
combined fluctuating stress states, such as
combined bending and torsion.
Varying, Fluctuating Stresses; Cumulative
Fatigue Damage
• The fluctuating stress levels on a machine part
may be time varying. Methods are provided to
assess the fatigue damage on a cumulative
basis.
 Fatigue-Life Methods
• The three major fatigue life methods used in
design and analysis are the stress-life method,
the strain-life method, and the linear-elastic
fracture mechanics method.
• These methods attempt to predict the life in
number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific
level of loading. Life of 1 # N # 10 3 cycles is
generally classified as low cycle fatigue,
whereas high-cycle fatigue is considered to be
N10 cycles.
 Fatigue-Life Methods
• The stress-life method, based on stress levels
only, is the least accurate approach,especially
for low-cycle applications. However, it is the
most traditional method, since it is the easiest
to implement for a wide range of design
applications, has ample supporting data, and
represents high-cycle applications adequately.
 Fatigue-Life Methods
• The strain-life method involves more detailed
analysis of the plastic deformation at localized
regions where the stresses and strains are
considered for life estimates. This method is
especially good for low-cycle fatigue
applications.
 Fatigue-Life Methods
• The fracture mechanics method assumes a
crack is already present and detected. It is
then employed to predict crack growth with
respect to stress intensity. It is most practical
when applied to large structures in
conjunction with computer codes and a
periodic inspection program.
 The Stress-Life Method
• To determine the strength of materials under
the action of fatigue loads, specimens are
subjected to repeated or varying forces of
specified magnitudes while the cycles or stress
reversals are counted to destruction.
 The Stress-Life Method
• To establish the fatigue strength of a material,
quite a number of tests are necessary because
of the statistical nature of fatigue. For the
rotating-beam test, a constant bending load is
applied, and the number of revolutions (stress
reversals) of the beam required for failure is
recorded.
The Stress-Life
Method
The Stress-Life
Method
The Stress-Life
Method
 The Stress-Life Method
• we shall learn that S-N diagrams can be
determined either for a test specimen or for an
actual mechanical element. Even when the
material of the test specimen and that of the
mechanical element are identical, there will
be significant differences between the
diagrams for the two.
 The Stress-Life Method
• In the case of the steels, a knee occurs in the
graph, and beyond this knee failure will not
occur, no matter how great the number of
cycles. The strength corresponding to the
knee is called the endurance limit Se, or the
fatigue limit.
 The Stress-Life Method
• Fatigue failure from N 5 1 to N 5 1000 cycles is
generally classified as low-cycle fatigue, stress
cycles greater than 1000 classified as high-
cycle fatigue.
• Distinguish a finite-life region and an infinite-
life region cannot be clearly defined except for
a specific material; but it lies somewhere
between 106 and 107 cycles for steels
 The Strain-Life Method
• The best approach yet advanced to explain the
nature of fatigue failure is called by some the
strain-life method. The approach can be used
to estimate fatigue strengths.
 The Strain-Life Method
• A fatigue failure almost always begins at a
local discontinuity such as a notch,
• crack, or other area of stress concentration.
When the stress at the discontinuity
• exceeds the elastic limit, plastic strain occurs.
If a fatigue fracture is to occur, there
• must exist cyclic plastic strains. Thus we shall
need to investigate the behavior of
• materials subject to cyclic deformation.
 The Strain-Life Method
• In 1910, Bairstow verified by experiment
Bauschinger’s theory that the elastic limits of
iron and steel can be changed, either up or
down,by the cyclic variations of stress.

• In general, the elastic limits of annealed steels

are likely to increase when subjected to cycles
of stress reversals, while cold-drawn steels
exhibit a decreasing elastic limit.
 The Strain-Life Method
• R. W. Landgraf has investigated the low-cycle
fatigue behavior of a large number of very high-
strength steels, and during his research he made
many cyclic stress-strain plots.

• In this case the strength decreases with stress

repetitions, as evidenced by the fact that the
reversals occur at ever-smaller stress levels. As
previously noted, other materials may be
strengthened, instead, by cyclic stress reversals.
The Strain-Life Method
The Strain-Life Method
 The Strain-Life Method

Fatigue ductility coefficient eF is the true strain corresponding to fracture

in one reversal point A in Fig. 6–12. The plastic-strain line begins at this
point

Fatigue strength coefficient σF is the true stress corresponding to fracture

in one reversal (point A in Fig. 6–12). Note in Fig. 6–13 that the elastic-
strain line begins at σF/E
 The Strain-Life Method

Fatigue ductility exponent c is the slope of the plastic-strain line in Fig. 6–

13 and is the power to which the life 2N must be raised to be proportional
to the true plastic strain amplitude. If the number of stress reversals
is 2N, then N is the number of cycles.

Fatigue strength exponent b is the slope of the elastic-strain line, and is the
power to which the life 2N must be raised to be proportional to the true-
stress amplitude.
 The Strain-Life Method

the total strain is the sum of the elastic and plastic components. Therefore
the total strain amplitude is half the total strain range
 The Strain-Life Method

The equation of the plastic-strain line

The equation of the elastic strain line is

 The Strain-Life Method

the total-strain amplitude is (Manson-Coffin relationship between fatigue

life and total strain
The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Method
• The first phase of fatigue cracking is designated
as stage I fatigue. Crystal slip that extends
through several contiguous grains, inclusions, and
surface imperfections is presumed to play a role.

• The second phase, that of crack extension, is

called stage II fatigue. The advance of the crack
(that is, new crack area is created) does produce
evidence that can be observed on micrographs.
The growth of the crack is orderly.
The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Method
• Final fracture occurs during stage III fatigue,
although fatigue is not involved.

• When the crack is sufficiently long that Kı=Kıc for

the stress amplitude involved, where Kıc
is the critical stress intensity for the undamaged
metal, then there is sudden, catastrophic failure
of the remaining cross section in tensile overload.
Stage III fatigue is associated with rapid
acceleration of crack growth
• then fracture.
 Crack Growth
• Fatigue cracks nucleate and grow when
stresses vary and there is some tension in
each stress cycle.
• Consider the stress to be fluctuating between
the limits of σmax and σmin where the stress
range is defined as ∆σ=σmax-σmin
• The stress intensity;
 Crack Growth
• The stress intensity;

• Thus for ∆σ, the stress intensity range per

cycle is
 Crack Growth
• To develop fatigue strength data, a number of
specimens of the same material are tested at
various levels of ∆σ. An initial crack length of
ai, crack growth as a function of stress cycles
N will depend on ∆σ.
 Crack Growth
• The figure represents the crack length a as a
function of N of three stress levels ∆σ3> ∆σ2 >
∆σ1> where (∆Kı)3>(∆Kı)2>(∆Kı)1 for a given
crack size.
 Crack Growth
• When the rate of crack growth per cycle,
da/dN is shown in the figure. A group of
similar curves can be generated by changing
the stress ratio R= σmin/σmax
 Crack Growth
• estimating the remaining life of a cyclically
stressed part after discovery of a crack. This
requires the assumption that plane strain
conditions prevail.
• Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage
II, the crack growth in region II of Fig. 6–15 can
be approximated by the Paris equation,
 Crack Growth
• estimating the remaining life of a cyclically
stressed part after discovery of a crack. This
requires the assumption that plane strain
conditions prevail.
• Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage II,
the crack growth in region II of Fig. 6–15 can be
approximated by the Paris equation,

• where C and m are empirical material constants

and
 Crack Growth
• C and m are empirical material constants
 Crack Growth
• ai and af are the initial and final crack lengths
corresponding to failure. Nf is the estimated
number of cycles to produce a failure after the
initial crack
 The Endurance Limit
• The determination of endurance limits by
fatigue testing is now routine, though a
lengthy procedure. Generally, stress testing is
preferred to strain testing for endurance
limits.
 The Endurance Limit
• For preliminary and prototype design and for
some failure analysis as well, a quick method
of estimating endurance limits is needed.
There are great quantities of data in the
literature on the results of rotating-beam tests
and simple tension tests of specimens taken
from the same bar or ingot.
 The Endurance Limit
• the endurance limit
ranges from about 40 to
60 percent of the tensile
strength for steels up to
about 210 kpsi (1450
MPa). Beginning at
about Sut=210 kpsi
(1450 MPa), the scatter
appears to increase, but
the trend seems to level
off, as suggested by the
dashed horizontal line at
Se’=105 kpsi.
 The Endurance Limit
• The estimation of the endurance limit as

• The prime mark on Se’ refers to the rotating-

beam specimen itself.
 The Endurance Limit
• The estimation of the endurance limit as

• The prime mark on Se’ refers to the rotating-

beam specimen itself.
• Steels treated to give different microstructures
have different Se’/Sut ratios. It appears that the
more ductile microstructures have a higher ratio.
The Endurance Limit
The Endurance Limit
 Fatigue Strength
• A region of low-cycle fatigue extends from
N=1 to about 103 cycles. In this region the
fatigue strength Sf is only slightly smaller than
the tensile strength Sut.

• S-N curve indicates that the high-cycle fatigue

domain extends from 103 cycles for steels to
the endurance life of Ne which is about 106 to
107 cycles.
 Fatigue Strength
• the specimen fatigue strength at a specific
number of cycles;

• At 103 cycles
 Fatigue Strength
• Where f is the fraction of Sut represented by
(Sf’) 103 cycles
 Fatigue Strength
• The process given for finding f can be
repeated for various ultimate strengths.
 Fatigue Strength
• For an actual mechanical component, Se’ is
reduced to Se which is less than 0.5 Sut. For
the actual mechanical component

• where N is cycles to failure and the constants

a and b are defined by the points 103, (Sf)103
and 106, Se with (Sf)103=fSut.
 Fatigue Strength
• If a completely reversed stress σrev is given,
Sf= σrev, the number of cycles is;

• where N is cycles to failure and the constants

a and b are defined by the points 103, (Sf)103
and 106, Se with (Sf)103=fSut.
 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit
of a mechanical or structural member to
match the values with,

• Material: composition, basis of failure, variability

• Manufacturing: method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface
condition, stress concentration
• Environment: corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times
• Design: size, shape, life, stress state, speed, fretting, galling
 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Marin identified factors that quantified the effects of surface
condition, size, loading, temperature, and miscellaneous items.

• When endurance tests of parts are not available, estimation are made
by applying marin factors to the enduarance limit.
 Surface Factor (ka)
The surface modification factor depends on the quality of the finish of
the actual part surface and on the tensile strength of the part material.
 Size Factor (kb)
The size factor has been evaluated for torsion and bending as;

For axial loading there is no size effect so kb=1.

 Loading Factor (kc)
The size factor has been evaluated for torsion and bending as;

When torsion is combined with other loading such as bending, set kc=1
and the combined loading is managed by using the effective von Mises
stress.
 Temperature Factor (kd)
When operating temperatures are below room temperature, brittle
fracture is a strong possibility and should be investigated first. When the
operating temperatures are higher than room temperature, yielding
should be investigated first because the yield strength drops off so
rapidly with temperature.

Finally, it may be true that there is no fatigue limit for materials

operating at high temperatures. Because of the reduced fatigue
resistance, the failure process is, to some extent, dependent on time.
 Temperature Factor (kd)
It is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength
at elevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature.
 Temperature Factor (kd)
It is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength
at elevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature.

Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the

rotating beam endurance limit is known at room temperature
Reliability Factor (ke)
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor (kf)
Though the factor kf is intended to account for the reduction in
endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a
reminder that these must be accounted for, because actual values of k
are not always available.

Residual stresses may either improve the endurance limit or affect it

adversely. Generally, if the residual stress in the surface of the part is
compression, the endurance limit is improved. Fatigue failures appear to
be tensile failures, or at least to be caused by tensile stress, and so
anything that reduces tensile stress will also reduce the possibility of a
fatigue failure. Operations such as shot peening, hammering, and cold
rolling build compressive stresses into the surface of the part and
improve the endurance limit significantly.
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor (kf)
The endurance limits of parts that are made from rolled or drawn sheets
or bars, as well as parts that are forged, may be affected by the so-called
directional characteristics of the operation. Rolled or drawn parts have
an endurance limit in the transverse direction that may be 10 to 20
percent less than the endurance limit in the longitudinal direction.
Parts that are case-hardened may fail at the surface or at the maximum
core radius, depending upon the stress gradient.
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor (kf)
Corrosion
It is to be expected that parts that operate in a corrosive atmosphere will
have a lowered fatigue resistance.
Any part will fail when subjected to repeated stressing in a corrosive
atmosphere. There is no fatigue limit. Thus the designer’s problem is to
attempt to minimize the factors that affect the fatigue life; these are:
• Mean or static stress
• Alternating stress
• Electrolyte concentration
• Dissolved oxygen in electrolyte
• Material properties and composition
• Temperature
• Cyclic frequency
• Fluid flow rate around specimen
• Local crevices
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor (kf)
Electrolytic Plating
Metallic coatings, such as chromium plating, nickel plating, or cadmium plating,
reduce the endurance limit by as much as 50 percent. Zinc plating does not affect the
fatigue strength. Anodic oxidation of light alloys reduces bending endurance limits by
as much as 39 percent but has no effect on the torsional endurance limit.

Metal spraying
Metal spraying results in surface imperfections that can initiate cracks. Limited tests
show reductions of 14 percent in the fatigue strength.

Cyclic Frequency
If, for any reason, the fatigue process becomes time-dependent, then it also becomes
frequency-dependent. Under normal conditions, fatigue failure is independent of
frequency. But when corrosion or high temperatures, or both, are encountered, the
cyclic rate becomes important. The slower the frequency and the higher the
temperature, the higher the crack propagation rate and the shorter the life at a given
stress level.
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor (kf)
Frettage Corrosion
The phenomenon of frettage corrosion is the result of microscopic
motions of tightly fitting parts or structures. Bolted joints, bearing-race
fits, wheel hubs, and any set of tightly fitted parts are examples. The
process involves surface discoloration, pitting, and eventual fatigue. The
frettage factor k depends upon the material of the mating pairs and
ranges from 0.24 to 0.90.
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
It is pointed out that the existence of irregularities or discontinuities,
such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a part increases the theoretical
stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity.

For the materials, the effective maximum stress in fatigue is,

Where Kf is a reduced value of Kt and σ0 is the nominal stress. The factor

Kf is commonly called a fatigue stress-concentration factor reduced from
Kt because of lessened sensitivity to notches.
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation

where q is usually between zero and unity. The equation shows that if
q=0, then Kf=1, means the material has no sensitivity to notches at all.
On the other hand, if q=1, then Kf=Kt means the material has full notch
sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from the geometry of
the part. Then specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf as
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
Notch sensitivities for specific materials are obtained experimentally.
Published experimental values are limited, but some values are available
for steels and aluminum.
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
Notch sensitivities for specific materials are obtained experimentally.
Published experimental values are limited, but some values are available
for steels and aluminum.
 Stress Concentration and Notch
Sensitivity
In using these charts it is well to know that the actual test results
from which the curves were derived exhibit a large amount of scatter.
Because of this scatter it is always safe to use Kf=Kt if there is any doubt
about the true value of q.

The notch sensitivity of cast irons is very low, varying from 0 to about 0.20,
depending upon the tensile strength. To be on the conservative side, it is recommended
that the value q=0.20 be used for all grades of cast iron.
 Characterizing Fluctuating Stress
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal
pattern because of the nature of some rotating machinery.

It has been found that in periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum

and a single minimum of force, the shape of the wave is not important,
but the peaks on both the high side (maximum) and the low side
(minimum) are important.

where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude of the
alternating component of force.
Characterizing Fluctuating Stress
 Characterizing Fluctuating Stress
The steady, or static, stress is not the same as the midrange stress; in
fact, it may have any value between σmin and σmax. The steady stress
exists because of a fixed load or preload applied to the part, and it is
usually independent of the varying portion of the load.

The stress ratio

The amplitude ratio

 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The modified Goodman diagram of the figure has the midrange stress
plotted along the abscissa and all other components of stress plotted on
the ordinate, with tension in the positive direction. The endurance limit,
fatigue strength, or finite-life strength, whichever applies, is plotted on
the ordinate above and below the origin.

The midrange-stress line is a 45° line from the origin to the tensile
strength of the part. The modified Goodman diagram consists of the
lines constructed to Se (or Sf) above and below the origin. Note that the
yield strength is also plotted on both axes, because yielding would be the
criterion of failure if σmax exceeded Sy.
Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The abscissa represents
the ratio of the
midrange strength Sm to
the ultimate strength,
with tension plotted to
the right and
compression to the left.
The ordinat is the ratio
of the alternating
strength to the
endurance limit. The
line BC then represents
the modified Goodman
criterion of failure.
Note that the existence
of midrange stress in the
compressive region
has little effect on the
endurance limit.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
Another figure displays four of the
stress components as well as the
two stress ratios. A curve
representing the endurance limit
for values of R beginning at R=-1
and ending with R=1 begins at Se
on the σa axis and ends at Sut on
the σm axis. Constant life curves for
N=105 and N=104 cycles have been
drawn. Any stress state, such as the
one at A, can be described by the
minimum and maximum
components, or by the midrange Master fatigue diagram created for AISI 4340
and alternating components. And steel having and Sut=158 and Sy=147 kpsi.
safety is indicated whenever the The stress components at A are σmin=20,
point described by the stress σmax=120, σm=70, and σa=50, all in kpsi
components lies below the
constant-life line.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
When the midrange stress is
compression, failure occurs
whenever σa=Se or whenever
σmax=Syc as indicated by the
left-hand side of the figure.
Neither a fatigue diagram nor
any other failure criteria need
be developed.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress

The tensile side of Fig. 6–25 has been redrawn in terms of strengths, instead of
strength ratios, with the same modified Goodman criterion together with four
additional criteria of failure. Such diagrams are often constructed for analysis
and design purposes; they are easy to use and the results can be scaled off
directly.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress

Ensuing proposals included the parabola of Gerber (1874), the Goodman (1890)
(straight) line, and the Soderberg (1930) (straight) line. As more data were
generated it became clear that a fatigue criterion, rather than being a “fence,”
was more like a zone or band wherein the probability of failure could be
estimated.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
We include the failure
criterion of Goodman
because

• It is a straight line and

the algebra is linear and
easy.

• It is easily graphed, every

time for every problem.

• It reveals subtleties of
insight into fatigue
problems.

• Answers can be scaled Either the fatigue limit Se or the finite-life strength S
from the diagrams as a is plotted on the ordinate of the figure. These values will
check on the algebra.
have already been corrected using the Marin factor.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
Five criteria of failure
are diagrammed, e
Soderberg, the
modified
Goodman, the Gerber,
the ASME-elliptic, and
yielding. The diagram
shows that only
the Soderberg
criterion guards
against any yielding,
but is biased low.

Considering the modified Goodman line as a criterion, point A represents a limiting

point with an alternating strength Sa and midrange strength Sm. The slope of the
load line shown is defined as r=Sa/Sm.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The criterion equation for the
Soderberg line is

the modified Goodman to be

The Gerber failure criterion

The Langer first-cycle-yielding criterion is used in connection

the ASME-elliptic is with the fatigue curve
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The stresses nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm, where n is the facor of safety
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The failure criteria are used in conjuction with a load line, r=Sa/Sm=σa/σm. Formal
expressions for fatigue factor of safety are given. The first row of each table
corresponds to the fatigue criterion, the second row is the static Langer criterion, and
the third row corresponds to the intersection of the static and fatigue criteria.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The failure criteria are used in conjuction with a load line, r=Sa/Sm=σa/σm. Formal
expressions for fatigue factor of safety are given. The first row of each table
corresponds to the fatigue criterion, the second row is the static Langer criterion, and
the third row corresponds to the intersection of the static and fatigue criteria.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
The failure criteria are used in conjuction with a load line, r=Sa/Sm=σa/σm. Formal
expressions for fatigue factor of safety are given. The first row of each table
corresponds to the fatigue criterion, the second row is the static Langer criterion, and
the third row corresponds to the intersection of the static and fatigue criteria.
 Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress
For many brittle materials, the first quadrant fatigue failure criteria follows a
concave upward Smith-Dolan locus represented by

The fatigue diagram for a brittle material

differs markedly from that of a ductile
material because:

Yielding is not involved since the material may

not have a yield strength.

Characteristically, the compressive ultimate

strength exceeds the ultimate tensile
strength severalfold.

Brittle materials are more sensitive to

midrange stress, being lowered, but
compressive midrange stresses are beneficial.
Combinations of Loading Modes
It may be helpful to think of fatigue problems as being in three categories:

• Completely reversing simple loads

• Fluctuating simple loads
• Combinations of loading modes
The simplest category is that of a completely reversed single stress which is
handled with the S-N diagram, relating the alternating stress to a life. Only one type
of loading is allowed here, and the midrange stress must be zero.

The next category incorporates general fluctuating loads, using a criterion to relate
midrange and alternating stresses (modified Goodman, Gerber, ASME-elliptic, or
Soderberg).

The third category, involves cases where there are combinations of different types
of loading, such as combined bending, torsion, and axial.
Combinations of Loading Modes
The distortion energy failure theory proved to be a satisfactory method of combining
the multiple stresses on a stress element of a ductile material into a single equivalent
von Mises stress.

The first step is to generate two stress elements—one for the alternating stresses
and one for the midrange stresses. Apply the appropriate fatigue stress
concentration. (Kf)bending for bending stress, (Kfs)torsion for torsional stress, and
(Kf)axial for the axial stresses.

Von Mises stress is used for each of these two stress elements, σ’a and σ’m. Finally,
a fatigue failure criterion (modified Goodman, Gerber, ASME-elliptic, or Soderberg)
is selected to complete the fatigue analysis. For the endurance limit, Se, the
modifiers ka, kb and kc, is used for bending. The torsional load factor, kc=0.59
should not be applied as it is already accounted for in the von Mises stress
calculation.

The load factor for the axial load can be accounted for by
dividing the alternating axial stress by the axial load factor of 0.85.
Combinations of Loading Modes
Consider the common case of a shaft with bending streses, torsional shear stresses and
axial stresses. For the case, von Mises stress is the form of;

Considering that the bending, torsional, and axial stresses have alternating and
midrange components, the von Mises stresses for the two stress elements;