unit 5 notes

Respiration

➢ Its complex biochemical process, stored chemical potential energy (food

product) is released to do activity
➢ Aerobic: type of respiration in presence of ox3ygen, where oxygen is final
acceptor of hydrogen to form water
➢ Anaerobic
➢ Both have common where co2 is released
➢ Autotrophic: are the primary producers, produce complex compounds as co2,
using energy from light or inorganic chemical reaction
➢ Heterotrophic: are organisms feed on other plant or animals to get energy
➢ Energy: is the capacity to do work
➢ Anabolic: building up AS: nerve impulse, temperature and muscles
contraction
➢ Catabolic: breaking down

Why do we need the process of respiration?

➢ Glucose is very stable and activation energy it very high

➢ Glucose oxidizing release tremendous amount of energy
➢ Tremendous energy can’t be stored (only small amount need)
➢ Oxidation on its incomplete and inefficient
 ANT AMO

➢ A: ANABOLIC REACTIONS (SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SUBSTANCES FROM SIMPLER SUBSTANCES)

➢ N: NERVE IMPULSE TRANSMISSION
➢ T: PRODUCTION OF HEAT TO MAINTAIN BODY TEMPERATURE
➢ A: ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES AND IONS AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
➢ M: MECHANICAL WORK SUCH AS MUSCLE CONTRACTION AND LOCOMOTION
➢ O: IN SOME ORGANISMS ENERGY IS NEEDED FOR ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE AND BIOLUMINESCENCE
➢ AMOUNT OF OXYGEN CONSUMED AND WATER PRODUCED DEPEND ON SOME FACTOR
➢ Obligate aerobes: are organisms relay on oxygen to survive and can survive without
oxygen for limited time

➢ Felicitate aerobes: they can live with oxygen or without it

FADE

1. The type of food that is being respired

2. Level of activity of the organism
3. The state of disease and injury
4. External factors such as temperature and light
 The energy that is released in the process of respiration is transferred to
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) to form Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).  ATP can
be hydrolyzed by the enzyme called ATPase to yield 30.5 Kilojoules of energy,
converting to ADP

Where does respiration take place

➢ Glycoses take place in the cytoplasm > all he enzyme in the cytoplasm
➢ Link reaction and Krebs cycle take place in mitochondria matrix
➢ Oxidative phosphorylation take place in the cristae
➢ Number of mitochondria are directly proportional to the metabolic activity of the cell > so
more ATP more function
➢ Metabolic active > neurons, cardiac cells or myositis
➢ Non active > fat cells
➢ Redox have oxidation and reduction
➢ Reduction: gaining of hydrogen or electron or lose oxygen
➢ Oxidation: loss of hydrogen or gain oxygen

Hydrogen Donors and Hydrogen Acceptors:

➢ Throughout the process of respiration, there is a continuous loss of Hydride ions from the
substrate as it begins its journey from Glycolysis till Krebs’s cycle. These Hydride ions are
split in to proton and two electrons, which are accepted by two molecules:
➢ NAD > nicotine amide adenine dinucleotides > co enzyme from vitamin B3
➢ FAD > flavin adenine dinucleotide > vitamin B2 > FAD +H = FADH2

➢ Measuring the variables of respiration

➢ Measuring variables of respiration: Respiration is a dynamic
process and is subject to multiple variables in the environment.
Changes in the rate of respiration can be monitored and measured
using the apparatus called Respirometer. Respirometers consist of
a closed chamber which is made to be airtight so that no air comes
in or no air leaves out of the apparatus. Respirometers are used
for:  Calculating the rate of respiration  Calculating the
respiratory quotient  Determining whether aerobic or anaerobic
respiration is taking place

➢ Respiration = vol/time * mass

➢ RQ =vol of co2 / vol of o2
➢ Use potassium hydroxide
➢ RQ of glucose = 1
➢ RQ of fats = 0.7
➢ RQ of protein = 0.9
➢ In case of vol of co2 is available, but the oxygen is not available the RQ value
will be infinity
➢  The oxidation of glucose has the following equation: C6H12O6 +6O2
⟶6CO2+6H2O
➢ So, we can infer that the equation for glucose would be RQ: 6CO2/6O2 = 1
Therefore any unknown food substrate yielding respiratory quotient=1, then
that food substrate is glucose
➢ Fats have a lot of Hydrocarbons (C-H) in them, which require greater moles
of oxygen to oxidize, therefore fats have a respiratory quotient of
approximately 0.7
➢ The Proteins have a variable side chain and based on that; the approximate
respiratory quotient of proteins is around 0.9

➢
 How to measure the rate of respiration using
respirometer?

• Set an apparatus like the one above with known mass of maggots or wood lice in one test tube
and the same mass of glass beads in the other test tube (for the control experiment)

• Place in soda lime in both the test tubes beneath the maggots and the glass beads, separated
by a wire gauze

. • Ensure that the two are air tight, and by using the syringe in the control tube, adjust the
meniscus of the liquid so that both are level

. • Then by maintaining all the rest of the external variables constant, elicit the changes to the
rate of respiration by changes in temperature, then by changes in light, then by changes in
sound etc.

• Measure the length of the liquid column that has moved up by calculating the difference of
liquid meniscus at the start and the end of the experiment. And simultaneously measure the
time it took for the liquid level to rise.

• Then by using the formula of the volume of cylinder: πr2h, calculate the volume of the liquid
column that has changed during the experiment.

• Then use the formula: Volume change/mass of maggots x Time to calculate the rate of
respiration.
➢ Lung volume
➢ Tidal volume: the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each
respiratory cycle
➢ Expiratory reserve volume: the amount of extra air — above anormal breath —
exhaled during a forceful breath out.
➢ Residual volume the amount of air that remains in a person's lungs after fully exhaling
➢ Insperity reserve volume: the amount of air a person can inhale forcefully after
normal tidal volume inspiration
➢ Inspiratory capacity: The maximum volume of air that can be inspired after reaching
the end of a normal, quiet expiration
➢ Functional residual capacity: the volume remaining in the lungs after a normal,
passive exhalation
➢ Vital capacity: the total volume of air that can be displaced from the lungs by maximal
expiratory effort
 GLYCOSIS

➢ LYSOMENASE: change the molecule from isomer 1 to isomer 2

➢ KNEASES: add the phosphate group to the molecules
➢ MUTASES: transfer phosphate from one hydroxyl group to another
➢ DEHYDROGENASE: removes the hydrogen

➢ Glycoses: breaking down of sugar to make pyruvate

➢ GLUT: needed to transfer the glucose out of the cell (glucose transporter)
➢ Its help the bidirectional movement

➢ Source of glucose for glycoses

➢ Blood
➢ Glycogen
➢ Fat cells
➢ Liver cells
➢ Process of glycogenesis

➢ Process of glycoses
➢ 6 carbon compounds > move through GLUT (ATP donate its phosphate group to the glucose
using the hexokinase) > glucose 6 phosphate is formed > we isomerize using enzyme
(phosphohexose isomerase) > fructose 6 phosphate > we use enzyme called
phosphofructokinase > ATP is used >(6C) fructose 1.6 biphosphate > it breaks down into two
➢ ALDOASE is used to break the fructose 1.6 biphosphate into:
➢ Dihydroxy acetone phosphate (DHAP)
➢ Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
➢ And both can interchange by enzyme triose phosphate isomerase
➢ GA3P dehydrogenase is enzyme will change Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into (1.3) Di
phosphor glycerol
➢ (1.3) Di phosphor glycerol donate its phosphate molecule to integrate the ATP and we use
enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase then we will be left with 3-phosphoglycrate
➢ Then enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase change (3) phospho glycerol to (2) phosphors glycerol
➢ (2) phosphors glycerol will change into phosphonyl pyruvate by enolase enzyme
➢ Pyruvate kinase enzyme used to form pyruvate by donating phosphate to the ADP to form ATP
➢ 2 pyruvate, 4 ATP 2 used, and 2 molecules of NADH
➢ In the absence of oxygen
➢ The pyruvate acts as the hydrogen acceptor from the NADH to form NAD forming lactic acid by
using enzyme lactate dehydrogenase

➢ Why we can’t rely on anaerobic respiration

➢ Inefficient > gives 2 ATP only
➢ Lactic acid is toxic, DECREASE PH, enzyme will denature, protein will denature

➢ Oxygen dept
➢ Lactic acid increase while excersie , so additional oxygen is needed to covert the lactic acid to
pyruvate

➢ Why do athlete train

➢ Lactic acid increase, , chronically increase the lactic transporter
➢ They lung volume increase so their vital capacity increase
➢ They get greater hemoglobin, so more oxygen In the blood
➢ Makes the heart stronger for more blood is pumped, so cardiac output increase

➢ The plants have anaerobic respiration produces ethanol which is

responsible for making bread and cheese

➢ Pyruvate is going into 2 ways eathir link reaction ( in presence of

oxygen) or lactate in no oxygen
➢ Link reaction
➢ Pyruvate is changed by enzyme called pyruvate dehydrogenase into ACETYL CO A
➢ CoA is integrated giving co2 given of
➢ NAD > NADH

➢ Krebs cycle
➢ ACETYL coA(4c) will integrate into oxaloacetate
➢ Then citrate(6c) is formed by enzyme citrate synthases
➢ Then it’s converted into isocitrate(6c) by aconitase
➢ Isocitrate is converted into alpha ketoglutarate(5c) by enzyme called isocitrate dehydrogenase
(NAD > NADH)
➢ Alpha ketoglutarate > co2 is given out, NAD > NADH > and integration of coA by enzyme alpha
ketodehydrogenase forming succinyl coA(4c)
➢ Succinyl coA is converted by enzyme succinyl coA synthase into succinate(4c) (coA goes out)
➢ GDP > GTP (APD take the phosphate molecule to form ATP) (substrate level phosphorylation)
➢ Succinate is converted by succinate D.H, FADH2 is formed, and fumarate(4c) is formed
➢ Malate(4c) is formed by enzyme fumarase
➢ Oxaloacetate(4c) formed again by enzyme malate D.H

Citrate > isocitrate > alpha keto > succinyls coA > succinate > fumarate > malate >
oxaloacetate

1 glycose > 2 pyruvate > 2 acetyl coA

1 acetyl coA > 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + 1 ATP
2 acetyl coA OR 1 glucose > 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP
 ➢ Oxidative phosphorylation
➢ It takes place in the inner mitochondria (cristae)
➢ Chemo osmotic theory: whenever protonmotive force is developed potential
energy is absorbed from the protons moving doing the concentration gradient (it helps
to condense ADP+PI = ATP) and the product of the chemo osmosis is called oxidative
phosphorylation

➢ The process of oxidative phosphorylation

➢ The process Oxidative phosphorylation

of Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane called the Cristae.

The inner and the outer mitochondrial membranes are separated from each other through a space
called the intermembranous space.

➢ The chemiosmotic theory

Whenever protonmotive force is developed, potential energy is absorbed from the protons moving
down the concentration gradient. This energy is used up to condense ADP and inorganic phosphate
molecules together to form ATP.

The production of ATP through the chemiosmosis is called the Oxidative Phosphorylation.
1. NADH enters the first part of the electron transport chain called the NADH dehydrogenase, which is
also known as Complex 1, where is donates its electrons to the Flavin mononucleotide (FMN),
converting it to its reduced form (FMNH2) and regenerating oxidized NAD (NAD+) This takes complex 1 at
high energy state.

FMNH2 within the complex 1, donates these electrons to the second part of the electron transport chain
oxidizing back to FMN, called the Co Enzyme Q which then reaches a high energy state. The donation of
electron from complex 1 gives off energy which is used by the pore associated with complex 1 to pump
out Hydrogen ions in to the intermembranous space.
Co enzyme Q is the only non-protein, and mobile part of the Electron transport chain (ETC), which then
moves along the electron transport chain and donate this electron to the next part of the ETC.

2. FADH2 enters the specific part of the electron transport chain called the complex 2 or the Succinate
Dehydrogenase (which is also a part of the Kreb’s cycle), where it donates its electrons to FMN, forming
FMNH2 and the oxidized form of FAD is regenerated. This takes the complex 2 to a high energy state.

FMNH2 within the Complex 2 also donates these electrons to the Co enzyme Q, into the
intermembranous space. Complex 2 doesn’t have an associated pore therefore doesn’t pump Hydrogen
ions into the intermembranous space. Co Enzyme Q reaches a higher energy state after accepting these
electrons.

Co enzyme Q then passes on these electrons to Complex 3, also known as Coenzyme Q-cytochrome B-
oxidoreductase, raising it to higher energy. The energy that is generated from donation of electrons by
the Co Enzyme Q is NOT USED FOR PUMPING HYDROGEN into the intermembranous space since it
doesn’t have an associated pore with it.

➔ The Cytochromes have a heme component which has a central Iron atom.
➔ Iron is usually in Fe3+ state (ferric ion) which is converted to Fe2+ state (Ferrous ion) by the
addition of the electron in the ETC.

The Fe2+ within the complex 3 then donates the electron to the next part of the ETC, the Cytochrome C,
giving off energy which is used to pump hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space through the pore
associated with Complex 3
Cytochrome C also has a heme group which has Ferric ion (Fe3+) which is converted to Ferrous ion (Fe2+)
Cytochrome C also doesn’t have an associated pore with it so donation of electrons from the
cytochrome C to the next part of the ETC does not pump hydrogen ions into the intermembranous
space.

The Ferrous ion in the Cytochrome C then donates its electrons to the next part of the ETC called the
Complex 4, also known as Cytochrome Oxidase. This also contains a heme group, which has Iron in Fe3+
state, which is converted to Fe2+ state.

The Fe2+ in the Complex 4 donates its electrons to the Oxygen molecule, giving off energy which is used
to pump Hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, and
reacts with the hydrogen ions to form water.

All of the Hydrogen ions pumped into the intermembranous space then move down their
electrochemical gradient through the protein called the ATP Synthase, which uses the energy from this
potential difference to condense ADP with inorganic phosphate, forming ATP.

➔ Before the process of oxidative phosphorylation, the concentration of Hydrogen ions in the
mitochondrial matrix is same as that in the Intermembranous space.
➔ But towards the end of the process, the concentration of H+ in the intermembranous space
increases 2-folds, and this concentration difference accounts for the electrochemical gradient
resulting in the chemiosmosis.

The Complex 1, Complex 3, and Complex 4 pump out Hydrogens from the pores associated with them.

Complex 2, Co enzyme Q, and Cytochrome C do not have a pore associated with them, thus they do not
pump out Hydrogen into the intermembranous space.

One Hydrogen ion going through the ATP synthase gives rise to one ATP molecule.

Therefore;

• One NADH molecule gives rise to 3 ATP molecules, since the electrons from the NADH pass
through all the pore associated members of the ETC (complex 1, 3 and 4) and pump 3 H+ ions
• Whereas one FADH2 gives rise to 2 ATP molecules, since the electrons from FADH2 pass through
just 2 pore associated members of ETC (complex 3 and 4) and pump 2 H+ ions.
Background tally of products
1. Glycolysis
• 2 ATP (through substate level phosphorylation)
• 2 NADH

2. Link reaction/Transition state

• 2 NADH

3. Kreb’s Cycle
• 6 NADH
• 2FADH2
• 2ATP (through substrate level phosphorylation)

Therefore, aerobic respiration leads to a total of 10 NADH’s 2 FADH2’s.

➢ Since one NADH gives rise to 3 ATP molecules, 10 NADH will give rise to 30 ATP
➢ Since one FADH2 gives rise to 2 ATP molecules, 2 FADH2 will give rise to 4 ATP
➢ And 4 ATP are produced through substrate level phosphorylation
➢ Thus, one molecule of glucose completely aerobically respired gives rise to 38 molecules of ATP.
 ➢ Muscles
➢ Organs and tissues come from parenchyma and stroma
➢ Parenchyma: part of the tissue or organ to make a specific function of the organ
➢ Anything surrounds the parenchyma is stroma
➢ Connective tissues: they connect, support or separate other tissues or organs

➢ Skeletal tissue
➢ Bone: not flexible, hard, resist compress force, they made from osteolysis,
They are two types

Organic non-organic

TYPE 1 COLLAGEN calcium hydroxy aptitude

Strength

➢ Spongy bone: light and less dens bone, pelvis as example

➢ Cartilage

Arrangement of cell

Type of collagen extra cellar matrix

Divided into 3 types
➢ Hyaline
➢ Elastic
➢ Fibrous

Features Hyaline Elastic Fibrous

1) Type of Type 2 Type 2 Type 1

collagen

2) Arrangement Smallest chondrocytes Large chondrocytes Small chondrocytes

Arranged in isomers packed together arranged in rows
of cells groups

3) Perichondrium

4) distribution Nose Ears Inter veritable disc

Trachea Epiglottis
Bronchi Pubic symphysis

5) Properties Bendable Most flexible Strongest

Weakest Hard
➢ Tendons:
➢ Made from fibrous tissues
➢ Don’t have elasticity
➢ Shock absorber
➢ One expectation where the tendon connects one muscles to another, digastric muscles

➢ Ligaments
➢ Two bones
➢ Holding bones together in correct alinement
➢ Form capsule around a joint
➢ Holding bones together within a joint capsule
➢ Elastic to allow bones of the joint to move
➢ Type of collagen

➢ Classification of the joints

1) Build up material
➢ Synovial
➢ Fibrous
➢ Cartilage

➢ Synovial
1) Ball of socket
2) Pivot joint
3) Saddle joint
4) uniaxial hinge joint
5) Hinge joint
6) Joint in ankle bones (modified ball and socket)
 ➢ Classification on structure of muscles

STRIATED AUTONOMIC

Features Skeletal Cardiac Smooth

1) Shape of the Long fiber Shorter cells with Long unbranched cell
cells branches that connect that taper at each end
adjacent cells

2) Organization of Organized into parrel Organized into parrel Are not organized into
the contractile bundles of myofiber of myofibers parrel, they are
protein in the arranged into sheets
cell and band
3) Distribution Attached to skeleton heart Tubule structure that
and example had hollow or tube

4) Appearance in Striation at regular Striation at regular Don’t have striation

light intervals s intervals
microscopy

5) Cell structure Multinuclear Uni multicell that join Uni nuclear

/syncytium together

6) control Nervous system Myogenic

(somatic) (autonomic)
 ➢ structure of skeletal muscles
➢ EPIMYSIM: forms the outer most cover
➢ Muscle fascicle are enclosed within perimysium
➢ Within each muscle fascicle these are multiple muscle fibers within enshelled by endomysium
➢ 100-1000 contribute organelles which are called myofibers

➢ What is sarcomere
➢

➢ The gaps are the sarcomeres

What are intercalated discs?

Intercalated discs are complex structures that connect adjacent cardiac muscle cells.

Why are Skeletal muscles unbranched but cardiac muscles are branched?
Cardiac muscles are branched so that each cardiac muscle is in contact with 3 or 4 cardiac muscles. This
increases the speed of the wave of depolarization across all the cells for swift contraction of heart.
Skeletal muscles on the other hand do not need to be depolarized this fast.

Why is Smooth muscle not arranged in parallel myofibrils but skeletal and cardiac
muscles are?
Skeletal and cardiac muscles are arranged in a particular axis to do work along that axis. Smooth muscles
are found in organ viscera and not particularly oriented in a particular axis so which is why they are
arranged in the manner they need to perform the work.

What is neurogenic/ myogenic and autonomic/somatic?

Neurogenic means under the control of nerves. Myogenic means under self-control. Neurogenic is
further divided into somatic nervous system vs the autonomic nervous system. Somatic nervous system
is everything under your conscious control, whereas autonomic nervous system is not under conscious
control.

Heart is both autonomically controlled and is myogenic in nature. Which means that isolated heart
muscles undergo spontaneous muscular contractions. But the autonomic nervous system tunes the rate,
rhythm and the strength of contractions.

Structure of Skeletal Muscles

Every individual muscle is arranged in bulks surrounded by an outer covering called the Epimysium.
The Epimysium surrounds multiple Muscle Fascicles which are enclosed within Perimysium.

Within each muscle fascicle are multiple Muscle fibers (muscle cells/ myocytes) that are enclosed in
Endomysium.

Each muscle fiber in turn has several hundred to thousands of contractile organelles called Myofibrils,
which contain the sarcomeres, containing the thick and thin filaments.
What is a sarcomere?
Each muscle fiber has multiple basic functional contractile units called sarcomeres. Each sarcomere is
comprised of the thick and the thin filaments.

Bands and regions within a sarcomere:

The contractile units of the cells (sarcomeres) are divided into multiple bands and zones.

➢ Bands neighbor within sarcomere

Sarcomere: The functional unit of the skeletal muscle

.
Thin filament/actin: A protein that forms (together with myosin) the contractile filaments of
muscle cells, and is also involved in motion in other types of cells.

Thick filament/myosin : A fibrous protein that forms (together with actin) the contractile
filaments of muscle cells and is also involved in motion in other types of cells.
Troponin: A complex of three regulatory proteins that is integral to muscle contraction in
skeletal and cardiac muscle, or any member of this complex.

Tropomyosin : A protein involved in skeletal muscle contraction and that wraps around actin and
prevents myosin from grabbing it
.
I-band: The area adjacent to the Z-line, where actin is not superimposed by myosin.

A-band: The length of a myosin within a sarcomere.

M-line: The line at the center of a sarcomere to which myosin bind.

Z-line: Neighboring, parallel lines that define a sarcomere.

H-band: the area adjacent to the M-line, where myosin is not superimposed by actin.

How muscles cause locomotion?

Muscles exist in antagonistic pairs within each limb compartment, called the extensors and flexors.

This arrangement is important so that when the limb has contracted, it can return to its original position.
Therefore, when one muscle contracts, its antagonist pair relaxes and vice versa, to produce movement.

Examples include the biceps and triceps

➢ Types of muscles fibers

1) Slow twitch
2) Fast twit
• Each cytoplasm surrounding the myofibrils is termed as Sarcoplasm.
• The sarcoplasm contains numerous mitochondria providing energy for muscular contractions.
• The Endoplasmic Reticulum is also specialized in the muscle cells and it called the Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum. The Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores abundant Calcium ions which are released during
muscle contraction.
• The muscle cells also have a specialized protein called the Myoglobin which is very similar to the
hemoglobin. It also contains a heme group but with the difference that
1. hemoglobin can bind to 4 oxygen molecules; myoglobin can only bind to one
2. Hemoglobin shows a sigmoidal Oxygen dissociation curve, the myoglobin shows a hyperbolic
Oxygen dissociation curve
This is because at all partial pressures of Oxygen, the Myoglobin shows a higher affinity for
Oxygen compared to the hemoglobin.
➔ This is particularly advantageous since it holds on to Oxygen so that it can release oxygen at
very low concentrations, such as when exercising.
➔ This also means that Myoglobin readily accepts Oxygen and when the oxygenation is
appropriate, it stores back oxygen again immediately.
 Type of muscle fibers in a skeletal muscle
Slow Twitch muscle fibers:
The Slow twitch fibers are adapted for slower, but steadier contractions over a longer duration of time.

They are most abundant in the muscles concerning the body posture and those involved in long periods
of activity.

Adaptations of Slow twitch fibers:

1. They have rich blood supply which provides abundant glucose which is needed to be respired for
energy.
2. They have plenty of mitochondria
3. They have greater concentration of myoglobin.

Having greater number of mitochondria and myoglobin to maximize aerobic respiration, for as long as
Oxygen is available.

The heavy vascularity and abundant myoglobin make the slow twitch fibers red in color.

Fast Twitch muscle fibers:

The Fast twitch fibers contract very rapidly making them best suited for rapid brief movement.

They predominantly respire anaerobically (on glycolysis), which means that they fatigue relatively quite
quickly.

Compared to the slow twitch fibers;

1. They are relatively poorly vascular

2. They have lower level of myoglobin
3. They contain small number of mitochondria

Because of low vascularity and low myoglobin, fast twitch muscle fibers look a lot paler than the slow
twitch muscle fibers.

Adaptation of Fast twitch fibers:

1. They have rich glycogen stores which can be easily converted to glucose for both, aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
2. They contain high levels of creatine phosphate which can be used to form ATP from ADP.
3. Many Myofibrils are packed into the fast twitch muscle fibers since they have less mitochondria,
they have more space to add more myofibrils.

Fast twitch fibers can not produce ATP for long period of time but they are capable of very fast and
powerful contractions briefly.
Distribution of slow and fast twitch fibers in athletes:
Normal individuals have roughly the same number of slow and fast twitch fibers.
NOTE: THE NUMBER OF MUSCLE FIBERS DOES NOT CHANGE. THE SIZE and type of fiber can alter in
response to exercise.

➔ There are certain genetic factors which determine the distribution of slow and fast twitch
muscle fibers. Normally people have 50% of each.
➔ Some people may have more slow fibers or more fast fibers predominantly, by birth.
➔ These genetic differences already determine how good a person can be in a particular sport, for
example people born with e.g. 75% slow twitch fibers can be a good marathon runner but not a
good sprinter. Likewise, a person born with 75% fast twitch fiber can be a very good sprinter but
not a very good marathon runner.

The endurance athletes such as marathon runners, cyclists, swimmers, etc., have high number of Slow
twitch fibers

The Strength athletes such as weight lifters, sprinters, etc., have high number of fast twitch muscle
fibers

Practicing a particular sport or an exercise causes the concerned muscle fibers to hypertrophy (i.e.,
increase in size) For example endurance exercises causes the slow twitch muscle fibers to hypertrophy,
whereas the strength training causes the fast twitch muscle fibers to hypertrophy.

Trivia

New research indicates that there are also Superfast twitch fibers,
contracting even faster than the usual fast twitch fibers. This gives even
giver advantage to athletes such as sprinters
Thick filament is connected to the Z-disc/ Z line through a protein called the Titin. Titin also runs within
the thick filament, connecting to the M line. So not only does it anchor the thick filament to the Z disc, it
also attaches to the M line.

The Thin filament is attached to the Z disc through a protein called Nebulin. The dominant protein
within the thin filament are the dimers of actin monomers twisted around each other in a helical
fashion.

Actin is wound around by a rope like protein, which blocks its active sites from binding, called the
tropomyosin.

Troponin has three sites:

1. The site where calcium binds is called troponin C

2. The site where it binds tropomyosin is called Troponin T
3. The site where it attaches to actin is called the Troponin I

The Thick filament comprises of the myosin molecules, which have a tail, a neck and two heads.

The heads 1. binds into the actin active sites

2. Has an ATPase activity

Sequence of events in a muscle contraction

The action potential reaches the Motor endplate / Neuromuscular junction from the motor neuron.

The depolarization at the end of the motor neuron causes the opening of calcium ion voltage gated
channels.

The influx of Calcium ions causes the vesicles containing the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, to
exocytose into the synaptic cleft.

Acetylcholine depolarizes the sarcolemma and an action potential is generated.

This leads to a release of Calcium ions from the T-tubules and the Sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Calcium ions bind to the Troponin (at the troponin-binding site), causing it to change its shape.

Troponin moves Tropomyosin away from the Myosin binding site on actin, which becomes available to
bind to the myosin heads.
Myosin gets attached to Actin, forming cross bridges called Acto-Myosin, and the (previously attached)
ADP gets released.

The Myosin heads tilt 45o to move actin 10 nm towards the M line in the process called the
Powerstroke.

The ATPase part of the myosin head hydrolyzes the ATP, which provides energy for the myosin head to
get detached from the Actin. This process is known as recocking and the cross bridges break.

The Myosin head reaches further along the actin filament. This leads to the shortening of individual
sarcomeres, causing the shortening of all the myofibrils and thus result in the contraction of muscle
through this rachet mechanism.

➔ This process repeats between 50-100 times per second on a microscopic level.
➔ Muscle contraction stops when nervous stimulation stops, no more calcium ions are released
from the T tubules, and Tropomyosin recovers its original position on the actin binding site.

The following changes occur during the muscle contraction:

1. The I-band shortens

2. The H-zone shortens
3. The Z lines come closer together and the sarcomere shortens.

However, the A-band remains the same length.

 The pituitary gland

➢ It have an anterior lobe and posterior lobe

➢ Its under control of the hypothalamus
➢ The hypothalamus contains neurosecretory cells
➢ It secrets ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)

The release of second messenger

➢ Second messenger activate a number of enzymes within the cell

➢ Most common Is (CAMP)
➢ Bind to another chemical that pass into the nucleus and acts as
transcriptional factor
➢ This how (ADH) associated with homeostatic blood concentration
Osmoregulation: it’s the maintenance of the osmotic potential in the body
, in a living organism

Water potential: it’s the tendency of water molecules to move from one
rejoin to another

➢ The osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the decrease in the

water potential
➢ ADH is released by the posterior pituitary gland travels in blood to the
receptor protein
➢ Once the enzyme in each cell is activated the vesicles which contain
water channel move and fuse with the cell surface membrane
increasing the collecting duct membrane to water
➢ As a result the water leaves the tubules by the osmosis into the
surrounding capillaries so blood plasma receives more water from the
filtrate

The liver and homeostasis

The deamination occur in the liver, the amino group in removed of the amino acid
Which combines with extra hydrogen ion > ammonia
Ammonia is very toxic so its converted to urea and can be extracted by kidney
The reaction cycle called ornithine cycle
 Kidneys
Ultrafiltration
➢ There’re 2 types of nephrons:
➢ 1- cortical > In the renal cortex
➢ 2- juxtamedullary > have long lopes of Henle that penetrate right through
the medulla
➢ It occurs in the glomerulus and the bowman’s capsule, when small
molecule such as glucose is filtered through the capillary endothelium,
basement membrane and the wall of the bowman’s capsule
➢ Under pressure due to the afferent having wider diameter than efferent
➢ Some molecules are held back as protein since they can’t pass through the
basement membrane

Selective reabsorption
➢ Occur in the proximal convoluted tubule
➢ When large parts of the glumural filtrate is reabsorbed in the capillary
network
➢ 1- active transport
➢ 2- active transport and facilitated diffusion of minerals ion
➢ 3- osmosis of water molecules back into the blood

Adoption of PCT
1- Micro villi: provide large surface area for absorption
2- Large number of mitochondria: provide atp
Thermoregulation: it’s the control of the core of body
temperature through feedbacks
Thermos receptor : in the skin to detect the change in the temp while
the receptors in the hypothalamus

IN WARM ENVIROMENT
➢ The thermos receptors detect the increase in temperature
➢ The heat loss in the hypothalamus is activated
➢ Vasodilatation occur , where the sphincter muscles around the
arterioles leading to superficial capillaries to relax
➢ More blood flows
➢ More heat is lost by conduction and radiation since blood is flowing
close to the body surface
➢ Hair erector muscles relax > less air trapped > less insulation
➢ Muscle shivering stops
➢ Reduction of the metabolic rate > lower the heart generated

IN cold ENVIROMENT
➢ The thermos receptors detect the decrease in temperature
➢ The heat loss in the hypothalamus is activated
➢ Vasoconstrictions occur, where the sphincter muscles around the
arterioles leading to superficial capillaries to contract
➢ less blood flows
➢ less heat is lost by conduction and radiation since blood is flowing away
to the body surface
➢ Hair erector muscles contract > more air trapped > more insulation
➢ Muscle shivering occur
➢ Increase of the metabolic rate > increase the heat generated
 HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM WORKS

1- In mammals the sensory neuron carries impulses from receptors in the

cell to the CNS
2- Control nervous System

Brain spinal cord

3- The relay neuron is found inside the central nervous system links the
sensory by syenpthsis to motor neuron
4- Motor neuron carries from CNS > effector
5- Dendron carries impulses to the cell body axons carry impulses away
from the cell body

- The sensory neuron

➢ Has single long dendron
➢ Single axon
➢ It has myelin sheath made from Schwann cells
➢ between the Schwann cells there are nods call nod of Ranvier
 The speed of nerve transfer

- the speed depends on 2 things

1- diameter of the nerve impulse
➢ the thicker the faster
2- presence or absence of the myelin sheath
➢ the presence helps the impulse to travel faster

how does myelin sheath speed ups the transmission

➢ by insulation the axon
➢ sodium ions will only pass through the nod of Ranvier resulting in
depolarization
➢ action potential jumps from the one nod to the next , speeding the
transmission of the impulses known as : saltatory conduction
 Transmission of nerve impulses

Resting potential: in a resting axon, the inside of the

membrane has (-) effect compared to outside > -70 MV

Both K AND NA channels is closed, and they are pumped by

active transport

Depolarization AKA: action potential: when a neuron is

stimulated, the sodium ion channel open, allowing the NA ions
to diffuse into the axon, the potential difference change to (+)
40

Repolarization: the sodium ion channel close m the

potassium open, and diffuse out along the conc gradient, the
membrane becomes , hyper polarized

Refractory period: it’s the time delay before the section

of the axon be stimulated
➢ the voltgated NA channel is closed preventing the entry of NA
ions
➢ impulses can only flow in one direction
➢ limiting the frequency of action potential
Gray matter and white matter:
➢ Gray matter is made up of motor nerve fibers > axons
➢ White matter is made up of long fiber running along the length of the
spinal cord
➢ Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment and translate the
energy in the stimulus to electrical impulses in the sensory neuron

➢ Secondary receptor: consist of one or more specialized cells, that are

sensitive to a particular type of stimulus

➢ This cells synapsis with the normal sensory neuron EX rods and cons

➢ Photoreceptors: are sensitive to electromagnetic stimulation, humans >

visible light, insects > UV

How just sensory receptors work?

➢ Sensory receptors detect a stimulation as pressure , and converts the

pressure exerted on it into electric impulses producing generating
potential
➢ The greater the intensity of the stimulus the greater the generator
potential
➢ If the generator level reaches the threshold level , an action potential is
generated in the sensory neurons
➢ If the stimulus is weak there will be no action potential generated coz
its below the threshold level
➢ Increase the strength of stimulus above the threshold level will
generate the same action potential
Stimuli > local change in permeability > generator potential > action
potential

➢ The rods in the eyes work differently

 Importance of conversion or submission

➢ Submission makes the organism more responsive to weak stimuli which

might not on their own trigger an action potential in the sensory
neuron
➢ Generation potential coming from several sensory receptors EX rod cells
on the retina , can add together to reach the threshold required to
trigger an action potential

The Human Eye

➢
➢ The human eye is sensitive to electromagnetic radiation from 400-700
nm
The role of the retina (rods)
➢ There are 2 types of photoreceptors in the retina
> rods and cons
➢ The rods spread evenly across the retina except at the fovea
➢ Rods provide black and white vision and damn light

➢ Cons: are tightly packed in the fovea, which are used mainly for vision
in bright light and to see color

➢ Rods: contain light sensitive pigments called rhodopsin, several rods

synapse with the same bi-polar cell, which connects to the sensory
neuron

➢ Several generator potentials can summit or coverage to trigger action

potential in the sensory neuron

➢
How rods work? (The effect of light on rhodopsin)
➢ Rhodopsin is formed from retinal and opsin
➢ Retinal exist in 2 forms cis-retinal and trans-retinal
➢ In dark its all in the cis-retinal form
➢ When light hits rhodopsin (cis) and it becomes trans
➢ This changes the shape of the rental and puts a strain on the bonding
between opsin and retinal As a result rhodopsin breaks up into opsin
and trans-retinal
➢ This breaking up referred as splitting

How changes in the rhodopsin translated into an imagine in

the brain?

➢ The membrane of most sensory receptors are relatively impermeable to

sodium ions but rod cell membrane are very permeable to it
➢ Sodium ions move in rod cell through sodium ion channel and sodium
pumps move them out again
➢ When rhodopsin is bleached or broken down , the opsin makes the rod
cell membrane less permeable to sodium , while sodium pump
continues to pump sodium ions out of the rod cell the interior of the rod
cells becomes more negative ( hyper polarization )
➢ That means glutamate inhibits the bi-polar cells which connects the rod
cells to the sensory neuron in the optic nerve
➢ When there’s less inhibition an action potential forms in the sensory
neuron , and transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve
Cranial reflexes
➢ In bright light
➢ Sensory receptors in the retina causes impulses to travel through the
sensory neuron in the optic nerve to the brain
➢ The impulses are detected in the control center in the mid brain
➢ In the control center the nerve impulses synapse with parasympathetic
cranial nerve, which then transfer impulses to the iris , causing THE circular
muscles to contract and radial to relax
➢ By reducing the amount of light entering the eye in bright conditions, this
reflex avoid damage to the rods and cons

In dem light
➢ The action potential in the sensory neurons fall
➢ The impulses travel from the control center in the brain along the
sympathetic nerve to the iris , the circular muscle relax and radial muscle
contract , widening the size of the people
➢ this allows as much light as possible to fall on rods to maximus virtual
The peripheral nervous system:
➢ Consist of pair nerve that joins the brain and spinal cord
➢ They bring info the central nervous system and takes other information
away to CNS

The motor nerve in the peripheral nervous system are two types:
1- Voluntary nervous system involves motor neuron that are under
control of cerebellum
2- Autonomic: involves motor neuron that the brain can’t control

Sympathetic and parasympathetic:

The brain
The brain is part of central nervous system, and its where information is
processed, and give a fully coordinated response

Cerebrum Vision, thinking, emotions

Cerebellum Control the balance and movement

The hypothalamus Thermoregulation, osmoregulation

and autonomic nervous system

Medulla Relax control of breathing rate ,

heart rate and blood pressure
Medical images technology
➢ Enable surgeons to determine:
1- Size of the damage
2- Location

CT SCAN
➢ Uses x-rays
➢ It produces still image of the part being examine
➢ A special dye is usually injected into the blood or tissue
➢ The CT doesn’t peak very fine details, it has low resolution of the image
➢ Using x-rays expose patient for some risks AS damaging the tissues

MRI
➢ Is produced using magnetic field and radio waves
➢ Removes the risk of damages of x-rays
➢ Have higher image resolution

FMRI
➢ Allows brain activity to be seen in the real time
➢ Uses radio waves or magnetic field
➢ It monitors the uptake of oxygen in the brain areas
➢ The active areas of the brain get more oxygen, so these area don’t absorb
and therefore MRI signal are reflected

PET scan
➢ Shows how the brain actually working
➢ Gives a 3D image
➢ Patient is injected with radioactive isotope which is like glucose
➢ Cancer cells absorbs more radioactive
➢ Pet scan shows cancerous cells clearly
Habituation
➢ Its form of learning in which an organism ignores repeated harmless

Explanation
➢ With a repeated stimulation which is harmless to the organism, calcium
ion channel becomes less responsive on the presynaptic members
➢ Less calcium ions cross in the presynaptic membrane as result, fewer
vesicles move to the presynaptic membrane, fuse and discharge the
neurotransmitters
➢ Less neurotransmitters are available to bind to the receptors on the
voltage gated sodium ions channels on the post synaptic membrane
➢ Therefore the post synaptic excitatory potential isn’t high enough to
trigger action potential , so there’s no responds

Importance of habituation:
1- Ignorance an important stimulus
2- Becomes more responsive to important stimuli
3- Less time wasted with gills withdrawn
4- More time of oxygen uptake
 Tropic response in plant

➢ Tropisms are growth responses, where the direction of growth, responds is

determined by the direction of the external stimulation
➢ If the plant grows towards the stimulus its aid to be positive tropic
responds
➢ Phototropism are plant growth movement, in response to direction of light
➢ the plant stem grows towards light
➢ this positive photo tropism is an adaptive response, directing shoot
towards some light needed for photosynthesis
➢ roots show negative phototropism, where they bend away from the light
➢ this responds enables the root to grow down into the soil to absorb water
and mineral ions and to anchor the plant

how auxins are involved in phototropism

➢ they are made at the tip of the shoot , and diffuse down the zone of
elongation where it has effect
➢ the first auxin to be discovered indoleacetic acid (IAA)
➢ light causes distribution of the auxins across the shoot
➢ producing a greater concentration of auxin on the darker side
➢ more auxins diffuse down cell elongation on the dark side
➢ this stimulate greater cell elongation and growth on the dark side of the
shoot
➢ which then bends towards light
 how auxins work in plants

➢ auxins affect the plant cell wall ability to stretch

➢ IAA is made in the tip of the shoot , then diffuses back to the zone of
elongation
➢ The molecules of IAA, bind on specific receptor side on the cell surface
membrane
➢ This provides the optimum PH for enzymes to break bonds between the
cellulose microfibers
➢ When cell stick in water by osmosis , the flexible sir wall stretch allowing
the cell to elongate
➢ As the cells mature the IAA is destroyed by enzyme , the PH rises again the
enzymes are inhibited and the bonds form between the cellulose
microfibers
 The effect of gibberellin

➢ Are plant growth regulators , that are synthesized in most parts of the
plant
➢ They present in high concentrations in the seeds and control germination

➢ The water initiates germination

1- Seed absorbs water
2- Embryo is activated
3- Embryo secretes gibberellin that diffuse to the aleurone layer
4- The aleurone layer synthesis amylase in response to gibberellin
5- Amylase hydrolysis starch to maltose which is broken down into glucose
(in the endosperm) which will be used for respiration
6- The products released by the endosperm, are used to make new cells
germinate
 Phytochrome and flowering

➢ Day length and night length , is the environmental queue or signal that
determines changes flowering in plants

Photo period:
➢ Relative length of day and night varies during the time of year
➢ Photo periodic : respond of the plant due to the change in day or night
length
➢ On absorbing natural sunlight or red light, the phytochrome is converted
from the inactive form PR to active form PFR
➢ In dark PFR slowly reverts to PR

Photo periodic of flowering

➢ Plants flowering is triggered by photo period is often placed in 3 groups :

1- Long day plants

➢ When day is long, and night are short

2- Short day plants

➢ When the day short and the night is long , Ex strawberry

3- Day neutral plants (DNP)

➢ Grows where the day length is the same all the year
➢ Experiment above demonstrate that photo periodic control of flowering
depends on the length of an interrupted darkness EX : short day plants
have their long night interrupted by flash of light they can’t flower

Photochrome and detection of night light

➢ Photo periodism requires mechanism for detection of length of the

darkness
➢ this done by a receptor called phytochrome
➢ the normal sunlight contains more red light than far red light
➢ so, during the day most of the phytochrome will be in PFR
➢ if the night is long enough, most of PFR will be converted to PR , thus the
relative amount of two forms of phytochrome could indicate the day/night
length
➢ the balance between the two phytochrome control flowering in short/long
day
➢ in long day plants, build up of PFR that stimulates flowering
➢ in long night plant, buildup of PR that stimulates flowering
➢