Bio Hand PDF

AIM FREE EDUCATION TO ALL (APUL)
Chapter 1
The Living World
What is living
Taxonomy & Systematics
The Living World
Taxonomic Categories
Taxonomic Aids
LIVING
Living
Characteristics
Non Define (with exception) Define
(without any exception)
(Not a characteristic
Growth feature of living) Reproduction
Consciousness
Metabolism
Increase in Increase in
Mass Cell Number Cellular Organization
Asexual Sexual
Reproduction Reproduction
(Uniparental) (Biparental)
e.g., mostly multicellular and
unicellular organisms
By Budding (Yeast, Hydra)
e.g., Regeneration (Planaria)
Fragmentation – Fungi and Filamentous
algae and protonema of mosses
Non Defining Characteristics
z Growth + Reproduction → Mutually Inclusive Event → Unicellular
z Growth + Reproduction → Mutually Exclusive event → Multicellular
Note:
z Growth in plant is localised & indefinite (throughout life)
z Growth in animal is diffused and definite (up to a limit)
Important:
z Reproduction is not a characteristic feature of living e.g., mules, worker
bees and infertile human.
Irreversible change
z In living — Growth
Intrinsic (occurs due to increase protoplasm)
Defining Characteristics
(a) Metabolism → Catabolism + Anabolism. It mean some of all catabolic
and anabolic reactions in our body.
In vitro → Not a living thing but is a living reaction.
Metabolism is a characteristic feature of living things inside a cell.
(b) Cellular Organisation → Metabolic reaction inside the cell, it mean
cellular organization strictly require for metabolism to define the feature.
(c) Consciousness → The state of being aware of what is around you
and able to sense environment. Consciousness therefore, become the
defining property of living organism.
TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS

z Identification: Correct description of organism.
z Nomenclature: Scientific naming → Binomial nomenclature given by
Linnaeus.
z Classification: Give a particular position of an organism in a particular taxa.
ICBN → International Code for Botanical Nomenclature.
ICZN → International Code for Zoological Nomenclature.
Binomial nomenclature given by Carolus Linnaeus.
Name with two components
Generic name Specific epithet
System Naturae – written by Linnaeus.
Hand Book (Biology) 2

TAXONOMIC CATAGORIES
Taxonomic Arrangement
All categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.
Each category referred to as a unit of classification, infact, represent a rank
and as commonly called as taxon (Pl. Taxa):
(i) Species: Group of individual with fundamental similarities e.g., nigrum,
tigris.
(ii) Genus: Group of closely related species e.g., Mangifera
(iii) Family: Group of less related genus e.g., Solanaceac
(iv) Order: The similar characteristics are less in number as compaired to
different genera. Assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar
characteristics e.g., Polymoniale.
(v) Class: Group of related orders e.g., Primata.
(vi) Phylum/Division: In division, related plant classes come in group but in
case of animal, related classes became a part of phylum e.g., Chordata.
(vii) Kingdom: Group of similar phylum or division e.g., Animalia and
Plantae.
Kingdom
↑
Division/Phylum
↑
Class
↑
Order Taxonomic hierarchy
↑
Family
↑
Genus
↑
Species
TAXONOMICAL AIDS
Collection of samples or preserved organisms which help in extensive research
for the identification of various taxonomic hierarchy e.g.,
(i) Herbarium: It is a store house of collected plant specimens that are
dried, pressed and preserved on sheets (42 × 29 cm).
3 The Living World

(ii) Botanical Gardens: Collection of living plant for reference in a
specialised gardens e.g., Kew (England), Indian Botanical Garden,
Kolkata (W.B.).
(iii) Museum: Collection of preserved plants and animal specimens in
colleges for study purpose and reference.
(iv) Zoological Parks: A place where wild animal kept under human care
for learn about food habits and behaviour.
(v) Key: Keys are generally analytical in nature. Keys are based on
contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet. Each statement
in the key is called lead.
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Chapter 2
Biological Classification
ROBERT H. WHITTAKER (1969)

Organisms Two Kingdom
Classification
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic z Given by Linnaeus
z Divided into Plantae
Monera & Animalia
Unicellular Multicellular
Three Domain of
Protista
Life (Six Kingdom)
With cell wall Without cell wall z This system divide
the Kingdom
Monera into two
Phototrophic Heterotrophic
domain.
Plantae Fungi z Remaining
Kingdom in 3rd
domain.
Characteristics of Five Kingdoms
Five Kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in some Present with Present Absent
(Polysaccharide + chitin (cellulose)
amino acid)
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multicellular/ Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/
organisation loose tissue organ system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition (Chemosynthetic and (Photosynthetic) (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn- (Holozoic/
photosynthetic) and and Hetero- Parasitic) thetic) Saprophytic
Heterotrophic (sapro- trophic etc.)
phytic/parasitic)
MONERA
Kingdom Monera
Archaebacteria Eubacteria
(primitive bacteria) (true bacteria)
Methanogens Halophiles Thermoacidophiles

(methane producing (salty/marine (present in acidic
bacteria) bacteria) sulphur springs)
On the basis On the basis On the basis

of staining behaviour of structure of nutrition
Autotrophic
Gram-Positive Gram-Negative ○ Photosynthetic
Bacteria Bacteria bacteria
○ Purple-sulphur
bacteria
Cocci Bacilli Spirillum Vibrio
Heterotrophic
(rounded) (capsule) (Spiral) (comma-like)
○ Saprophytic
○ Symbiotic
○ Parasitic
PROTISTA
• True nucleus (membrane bound)
Single celled eukaryotes
• Membrane bound organelles
The boundaries of protistia are not well defined
Photosynthetic Plants
protista
Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). Diatoms have left
behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation
over billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty, this
soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the chief
‘producers’ in the oceans.
Dinoflagellates
Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between the wall plates. Very often, red dinoflagellates
(Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the
sea appear red (red tides).
Euglenoids
Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of
sunlight, they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
Slime Moulds
Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. During unfavourable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their
tips. The spores possess true walls.
Protozoans
Amoeboid: They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia
(false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their surface.
Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.
Flagellated: Free-living or parasitic in nature. The parasitic forms cause
disease such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.
Ciliated: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the
presence of thousands of cilia.
Sporozoans: The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which
causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering effect on human population.
FUNGI
Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend on living
plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts—
in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as
mycorrhiza.
Phycomycetes
Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores
(non-motile). Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus and Albugo.
Ascomycetes
Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly multicellular,
e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). The
asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium
called conidiophores. Sexual spores are called ascospores.e.g., Aspergillus,
Claviceps and Neurospora.
7 Biological Classification
Basidiomycetes
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs. The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about
by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.
e.g., Rusts and Smuts.
Deuteromycetes
Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative
phases of these fungi are known. Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum
and Trichoderma.
KINGDOM PLANTAE
Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms
commonly called plants.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
Virus
The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised by having an
inert crystalline structure outside the living cell. Viruses contain protein and
genetic material, that could be either RNA or DNA.
Viroids
In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was viroids and
they contain only RNA and strictly found in plants.
Prions
It is a types of infectious protein aggregates that can cause different types of
disease. The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its
analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
Lichens
A symbiotic form of algae and fungi, in which algae provide food and fungi
provide shelter as well as nutrition to algae.
Lichens are very good pollution indicators—they do not grow in
polluted areas.
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Chapter 3
Plant Kingdom
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT KINGDOM

Plant Kingdom
Algae Embryophytes
Embryo Stage Absent Embryo Stage Present
Green Brown Red Bryophytes Tracheophytes

Algae Algae Algae Vascular Tissues Absent Vascular Tissues Present
Liverworts Mosses Pteridophytes Spermatophytes

Seed Absent Seed Present
Including Ferns
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Seed Naked Seed Inside Fruit
Cycads Conifers Gingkoales Dicots Monocots

Living fossils Two cotyledons One cotyledons
in seeds in seeds
ALGAE
Classification of Algae
Item Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae
Common name Green algae Brown algae Red algae
Habitat Fresh water Marine water Marine water
Pigment Chl a, b, Xanthophyll Fucoxanthin Chl a & d
and Carotene Chl a, c and carotenoids r-phycoerythrin
Reserve food Starch Laminarin, Manitol Floridean Starch
Flagella Equal flagella Unequal flagella Flagella absent
Sexual reproduction Present Present Present
z Green Algae
h Microscopic, eukaryotic, unicellular green algae.
h Generally found in ammonium salt rich habitat.
h Reproduce by both sexual and asexual means.
h Asexual reproduction through Zoospores, Palusetta stage, Aplanospores
and Hyponospores.
h Sexual reproduction through isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
h The holdfast cell is non-photosynthetic and lost the ability to divide.
z Brown algae, Sargassum, is a menace to shipping.
z No unicellular brown algae is known.
z Laminaria and Nereocystes (20–30 m) due to their giant size are called
as giant kelps.
z Alginic acid is obtained from phycocolloids from kelps.
z In deeper oceans, Red algae acquire deeper colour. The pigment
r-phycoerythrin in red algae can do this job of capturing light of available
wavelength for red algae.
z The common name for brown and red algae is sea weed.
z Polysiphonia, a red algae, has anti-bacterial property.
z Life cycle in green algae is of three types:
h Haplontic: Zygotic meiosis e.g., Ulothrix, Spirogyra.
h Diplontic: Gametic meiosis e.g., Caulerpa.
h Diplohaplontic: Haploid and diploid phases are well developed and
multicellular.
z Economic Importance of Algae:
Cattle food Sargassum, Fucus, Macrocystis (rich in Vit. A & E).
Human food Laminaria, Spirulina (richest in protein), Chlorella (rich in
protein & carbohydrates).
Algenic acid Laminaria, Ascophyllum, Macrocystic.
Carrageenin Chondrus crispus (Irish moss)
Agar Gelidium and Gracilaria.
Iodine Laminaria digetata
Nitrogen Anabaena, Nostoc
fixation
Space algae Chlorella

BRYOPHYTES
z Commonly called as plant amphibian.
z Alternation of generation is observed.
z Vascular tissues are absent.
z They lack true stem, leaves and roots.
z Gametophyte is enchored (attached) by rhizoids.
z Sporophyte (sporogonium) is dependent on gametophyte for nutrition.
z Spores are produced by the sporophyte in a spore capsule.
z Water is essential for fertilization.
z Sex organs are multicellular and jacketed. Male-antheridium, female-
archegonium.
z Fertilization produced an embryo inside the archegonium. Embryo grow
into a sporophyte.
z Protonema is the juvenile gametophyte.
z Zygote and spores are the first cell of sporophytic and gametophytic
generation respectively.
z Life cycle of Moss Plant—Funaria.
h Commonly called as cord moss or fire moss.
h Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation and gemmae.
h Sexual reproduction by syngamy.
h Archegonium attract sperm by sucrose present in their mucilage.
h Sporophyte consists of three parts-foot, seta and capsule.
h The capsule is further differentiated into 3 parts: apophysis, theca
and operculum.
h Theca contain sterile columella.
h Funaria is monoecious and autocecious (male & female sex organs
on different branches).
h Fossilised Sphagnum produces peat which is used as fuel as well as
manure.
PTERIDOPHYTES OR FERNS
z Commonly called snakes of plant kingdom.
z First vascular plants without seeds.
z Main plant body is sporophyte and distinguishes into root, stem and leaves.
11 Plant Kingdom
z The stem is underground rhizome.
z Alternation of generation between spore producing diploid sporophyte
and gamete forming haploid gametophyte.
z Ornamental leaves are called frongs.
z Reproduction is of vegetative, asexual and sexual type.
z Sperms are flagellated.
z Sporangia occurs on leaves in clusture called sori. Fertile leaves are called
sporophylls.
z A sorus is covered by a flap like outgrowth from its surface (true indusium)
or turned margin of the sporophyll (false indusium).
z Selaginella is heterosporous i.e., small male and large female spores.
z Smallest pteridophyte—Azolla (a bio-fertilizer).
z Apogamy—Development of sporophyte (n) from gametophyte without
fertilization.
Apospory—Development of gametophyte (2n) from sporophyte without
meiosis.
(a) Selaginella (b) Equisetum

Pteridophytes

z Selaginella is popularly known as club moss or spike moss.
z Dryopteris is commonly called as male shield fern. Adiantum is commonly
called as walking fern, maiden hair fern.
z Pteridophytes formed dominant flora in carboniferous period, palaezoic
era. Most part of coal is formed from pteridophytes plants.
GYMNOSPERMS
z Vascular plants with naked seeds.
z Perennial plant of colder region. Annual and herbaceous forms absent.
z Leaves dimorphic—foliage & scale leaves.
z Sporophyll produces stobili or cones. Flowers are absent.
z Integument is three layered. Each one has a mass of tissue called nucellus
(equivalent to megasporangia).
z Female gametophyte develops archegonia. Neck canal cell absent.
z Endosperm (2n) gametophytic.
z Gingko and Cycas are called as the living fossils.
z Sequoia gigantica—Tallest gymnosperm
Red wood tree—Father of the forest
Cycas—Sagopalm
Chilgoza from Pinus girardiana
Dwarf Shoot
Long Shoot
Seeds
Ginkgo
z Meroblastic development i.e., only a part of zygote forms embryo.
z Holoblastic development—when complete zygote form embryo.
13 Plant Kingdom
z The three generations which are represented by seed are:
1. Testa, tegmen and perisperm represent parental sporophyte;
2. Endosperm represent female gametophyte;
3. Plumule, radicle, suspensor & cotyledons (embryo) represent future
sporophyte.
z Polyembryony: It is the formation of more than one embryo inside a
single seed. It was reported by Leeuwenhoek in oranges.
Simple Polymbryony is due to fertilization of many eggs e.g., Pinus
ovule has 2-8 archegonia.
Cleavage polyembryony is true polymbryony and very common. It is
due to splitting of embryo tissue.
Adventive Polymbryony is the formation of extra embryos directly from
diploid cells.
z Male cones are homologous to dwarf branches wherever females cones
are homologous to long branches.
z 4-cells in male gametophyte of Pinus are two prothallial cells, one
antheridial cell & one small generative cell.
z The number of archegonia in Pinus ovule is 2-8.
z Gnetum, Ephedra & Welwitschia are exceptional gymnosperms having
primitive vessels in xylem.
z The wood in Pinus is Pycnoxylic (hard & compact wood) & monoxylic
(having only one ring of xylem).
z Development of sporangium in Pinus is eusporangiate i.e., a group of
sporangial initial gives rise to a sporangium. Leptosporangiate is the
condition when only one sporangial cell give rise to sporangia.
z The fertilization in Pinus is Siphonogamous i.e., by pollen tube.
ANGIOSPERM
z In angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed in fruits, the pollen grains and
ovules are developed in specialized structures called flowers.
z Highly evolved plants group.

z Sporophylls are aggregated to form flowers. Therefore, angiosperms are
also called flowering plants.
z Both microsporophylls and megasporophylls are specialised.
A microsporophyll or stamen consists of a filament and an anther.
A megasporophyll or carpel consists of a stigma, style and ovary
containing ovules.
z Female gametophyte or embryo sac develops, upto 8-nucleate state prior
to fertilization.
z Archegonia are absent. Instead, there is one oosphere surrounded by two
specialised synergid cells that attract the pollen tube. The latter brings
two naked non-flagellate male gametes.
Life cycle of an angiosperm
15 Plant Kingdom
Life cycle patterns

(a) Haplontic, (b) Diplontic and (c) Haplo-diplontic
z There is double fertlization in angiosperm. One produces embryo or
new sporophyte. The other forms primary endosperm cell.
z Endosperm is formed through triple fusion and is generally triploid (3n).
z Fertilized ovules ripen into seeds, the seeds are covered by fruits. A fruit
is technically a ripened ovary. Fruits not only protect the seeds but also
help in their dispersal.
z Xylem contains vessels.
z Phloem possesses sieve tube and companion cells.
z A gametophyte can be haploid or diploid but always produces gametes.
z Monocots do not grow in girth though they grow in length and produce
new leaves and flowers. Dicots have indefinite growth and new roots,
shoots, leaves, bark and wood are formed year after year.

Difference between Dicots and Monocots
S.N. Dictos Monocots
1. There are usually two cotyledons. The seeds contain one cotyledon.
2. Flowers are generally pentamerous or Flowers are usually trimerous (floral parts
tetramerous (floral parts in sets of 5 and in sets of three or its multiples).
4 or their multiples).
3. Pollen grains commonly have three Pollon grains generally possess a single
germ pores. germinal furrow.
4. Leaves possess reticulate venation. The leaves possess parallel venation with a
few exceptions.
5. Primary root often long lived forming Primary root is short-lived. Tap root is
tap root system. Adventitious roots occur absent. Instead, adventitious roots are
in some cases. found.
6. Stem possesses concentric arrangement Tissue systems are not differentiated in the
of tissue systems—epidermis, cortex, stem. Ground tissues are present
endodermis, pericycle, pith etc.
7. Vascular bundles of the stem are Vascular bundles are scattered.

arranged in a ring.
8. Vascular bundles of the stem possess A cambium is absent (vascular bundle

cambium (vascular bundles open), so closed).
that secondary growth is possible.
9. In root, a pith is absent or small. The In root, a pith is always present. Vascular
vascular bundles are few (8 or less). bundles are many (more than 8).
10. Vessels are polygonal in outline. Vessels are rounded in outline.
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17 Plant Kingdom
Chapter 4
Animal Kingdom
INTRODUCTION
♦ Need to classify animals
♦ Classification helps in assigning a systematic position to newly described
species.
♦ Characteristics:
□ Eukaryotic organisms
□ Division of labour
□ Definite growth pattern
□ Multicellular and their cells lack cell wall
□ Heterotrophic with holozoic mode of nutrition
□ Capable of locomotion With some exceptions
□ Sensory and neuromotor mechanism (Poriferans)
BASIS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION
Levels of Symmetry Germ layer Coelom Segmentation Notochord

Organisation Organisation
Cell Radial Diploblastic Acoelomates Segmented Chordates

Bilateral Triploblastic Pseudocoelo- Unsegmented Non-
Asymmetric mates chordates
Tissue Coelomates
Organ
Organ system
19
Hierarchy Level of Types of Symmetry Germ Layers Body Cavity/Coelom Phylum(s) Metamerism/ Notochord
Organisation (mesodermal lining) Segmentation
Simple Cellular Asymmetrical Acoelomates Porifera No

Any plane passing through (No body cavity)
the centre does not divide the
Ectoderm
organism into 2 equal halves
Mesoglea Coelentarata No
Endoderm Ctenophora No
Radial
Any longitudinal plane passing through
the central axis of the body divides Acoelomates Platyhelminthes No
the organism into 2 identical halves (No body cavity)
Mesodermal pouches
Flatworms
Absent
Aschelminthes No
Roundworms
Organ Bilateral Triploblastic Pseudocoelomate
Only one longitudinal Ectoderm Scattered pouches
Animal Kingdom
plane passing through the Mesoderm of mesoderm between Ectoderm
Coelom
centre of the body divides the Endoderm ecto and endoderm Annelida Yes
organism into identical right and left halves Mesoderm Arthropoda Yes
Mollusca No
True coelomates Echinodermata No
Complex Body cavity lined Hemichordata No
by mesoderm Chordata Yes
Endoderm Present
• Metameric Segmentation Body is externally and internally divided into segments with a serial repetition of at least some organs.
• Notochord Mesodermally derived rod like structure formed on the dorsal side during embryonic development in some animals.
• Animals without notochord Non-chordates (Porifera to echinoderms)
• Animals with notochord Chordates

COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT FROM PORIFERA
TO ASCHELMINTHES
Parameters Porifera Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
(Sponges)
Habitat/Habit Mostly marine, some are fresh Mostly marine, some are fresh water
water (Spongilla) (Hydra), sessile or free swimming
Exoskeleton No Coral forms have skeleton of CaCO3
Endoskeleton Spicules/spongin fibres No
Digestive • Digestive system absent • Digestive system incomplete
system • Intracellular digestion • Mouth on hypostome leading to
body cavity gastro-vascular cavity
• Intra and extracellular digestion
Respiratory Cell surface Body wall
structure
Circulatory Circulating fluid (water) Circulating fluid (water)
system
Excretory Through body surface Through body surface
system
Nervous system No Neurons appear
Asexual Fragmentation, gemmule Budding
reproduction formation
Sexual • Present Present
reproduction • Hermaphrodites
Fertilization Internal External
Development Indirect, larva (motile) Indirect/direct
morphologically distinct from adult
Unique • Water canal system • Name derived from cnidoblasts/
features and ↓ Food gathering cnidocytes containg mematocysts,
examples Functions Respiratory exchange present on body and tentacles.
Removal of wastes
Anchorage, Defense
Parameters Ostia Osculum Functions
Capture of prey
• Number Many Usually
• Location Body One • Obelia exhibits 2 basic forms:
surface body Asexually
surface Polyp Alternation of Medusa
Sessile generation/ Free swimming
• Size Minute Large Cylindrical Metagenesis Umbrella like
• Water flow Entry Exit Sexually
• Choanocytes/collar cells Examples:

line the spongocoel Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
(central cavity). Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia
Examples: (Sea-fan), Meandrina (Brain coral)
Euspongia Spongilla Sycon

(Bath sponge) (Fresh water sponge) (Scypha) Adamsia Aurella
(Sea anemone) (Jelly fish)

Parameters Ctenophora Platyhelminthes Aschelminthes
(Sea walnuts) (Flatworms) (Round worms)
Habitat/ Exclusively marine Free living or parasitic Aquatic, terrestrial,
Habit parasitic in plants and
animals
Exoskeleton No No No
Endoskeleton No No No
Digestive • Extracellular • Digestive system incomplete • Complete alimen-
system and intracellular with single opening tary canal with
digestion • Extracellular digestion muscular pharynx
• Some forms absorb food • Extracellular
directly from body surface digestion
Respiratory Body wall Free living-body surface Free living-body
structure surface
Circulatory No No No
system
Excretory Body surface Flame cells (Protonephridia) Excretory tube opens
system for excretion and out through excretory
osmoregulation pore
Nervous Yes Yes Yes
system
Asexual No High regeneration-Planaria No
reproduction capacity
Sexual • Present • Present Distinctly dioecious
reproduction • Hermaphrodites • Hermaphrodites
Fertilization External Internal Internal
Development Indirect Indirect through many larval Indirect/direct (young
stages one resembles adult)
Unique • 8 external rows • Dorsoventrally flattened • Circular in cross-
features and of comb plates body section
examples for locomotion, • Hooks and suckers present in • First ones with
hence, called parasitic forms organ system level
comb jellies • First ones with bilateral of organisation
• Exhibit sysmmetry, organ level • Females longer
Bioluminescence of organisation and than male
i.e., property to Tribloblastic • Posterior end
emit light Examples: curved in males
Examples: Examples:
Ctenoplana Wuchereria
(Filaria worm)
Ancylostoma
(Hookworm)
Ascaris
(Round worm)
Teenia Fasciola
(Tapeworm) (Live fluke)
Pleurobrachia Male Female
21 Animal Kingdom
COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT FROM ANNELIDA TO HEMICHORDATA
 All have complete alimentary canal with extracellular digestion
 All can reproduce sexually and are usually oviparous
Parameters Annelida (Segmented worms) Arthropoda

(Arthos-Joint; Pod- Leg)
(Joint appendages)
Largest Phylum
Habitat Aquatic and Terrestrial Aquatic and Terrestrial
Body divisions/ Distinct segments metameres/annuli Head, thorax, abdomen
appearance
Locomotory ○ Longitudinal and circular muscles Jointed appendages
structure ○ Parapodia/lateral appendages in some
Exoskeleton No Chitinous/Cuticle
Digestive Yes Yes
system
Respiratory Body surface Gills, book gilis, tracheal
system/surface system, book lungs (Scorpion)
Circulatory Closed Open
system
Excretory Nephridia Malpighian tubules
system
Nervous system Paired ganglia with double Paired ganglia with double
ventral nerve cord ventral nerve cord
Sense organs Eyes, Tentacles Eyes (simple, compound),
Antennae, Statocyst
(balancing)
Mono/ Monoecios – Earthworm, Leech Mostly dioecious
Dioecious Dioecious – Nereis (aquatic form)
Development Direct/Indirect Direct/Indirect
Unique ○ First ones with metameric Examples:
features and segmentation and true coelom ○ Economically important
Examples Examples: insects - Apis (Honey
Pheretima (Earthworm- Decomposer) bee), Bombyx (Silkworm),
Laccifer (Lac insect)
○ Vectors - Anopheles,
Culex, Aedes (Mosquitoes)
○ Living fossil - Limulus
(King crab)
○ Gregarious pest-Locusta
Hirudinaria
Nereis (Blood sucking leech)
Locusta (Locust)
Prawn
Scorpion

Parameters Mollusca/Soft bodied Echinodermata Hemichordata
Second Largest Phylum (Spiny skinned) (Half chordates)
Habitat Aquatic and Terrestrial Exclusively marine Exclusively marine
Body divisions/ Head, muscular foot Star like Proboscis, collar,
appearance visceral hump trunk (worm like)
Locomotory Muscular Foot Water vascular No
structure system
Exoskeleton Calcareous shells Spines No
Digestive Mouth with file like Mouth-lower Yes
system rasping organ, radula for side(ventral)
feeding Anus-upper
side(dorsal)
Respiratory Feather like gills in Water vascular system Pharyngeal gill slits
system/surface mantle cavity
Circulatory Open Open Open
system
Excretory Gills No Proboscis gland
system
Nervous system Yes Yes Yes
Sense organs Tentacles Yes Yes
Mono/ Usually dioecious Dioecious Dioecious
Dioecious
Development Indirect Indirect with free Indirect
(Trochophore larva) swimming larva
Unique features ○ Soft and spongy layer ○ Water vascular ○ Presence of
and Examples of skin forms a mantle system that rudimentary
over the visceral helps in
Locomotion stomochord
Capture and
hump. transport of food ○ Earlier
○ Space between hump Respiration considered as
and mantle is mantle ○ Presence of subphylum under
cavity. Calcareous ossicles phylum chordata
Examples: Examples: but now placed as
Sepia (Cuttlefish), Loligo Cucumaria (Sea separate phylum
(Squid), Pinctada (Pearl cucumber) under non-
oyster), Dentalium (Tusk Echinus (Sea urchin) chordata
shell), Chaetopleura Antedon (Sea lily) Examples:
(Chiton), Aplysia Saccoglossus
(Seahare) Balanoglossus
Blue blood
due to
Proboscis
haemocyanin
pigment
Collar
Ophiura
Pila (Brittle star) Trunk
(Apple snail)
Balanoglossus
23 Animal Kingdom
General Features:
Triploblastic organisms
Bilaterally symmetrical
Coelomates
Organ-system level of organisation
Closed circulatory system
Basic Plan of a Chordate

Salient features Chordates Non-chordates
Notochord Yes No
Central nervous system Dorsal, hollow and single Ventral, solid and double
Paired pharyngeal gill slits Yes No
Post anal tail Yes No
Position of heart Ventral Dorsal (if present)
Sub-phyla
Parameters Urochordata/ Cephalo- Vertebrata

chordata
Protochordates
Habitat Exclusively marine

Polar ice caps,
deserts, mountains,
forests, grasslands
and dark caves
Notochord Only in Extends from Present in
larval tail head to tail and embryonic stage
persists and is replaced by
throughout cartilaginous or
their life bony vertebral
column in the adult
Examples Salpa, Branchiostoma Scoliodon (Dog sh),
Doliolum Amphioxus or Rana (Frog),
(Lancelet) Crocodilus (Crocodile),
Pavo (Peacock),
Canis (Dog)
Ascidia
Pavo Neophron Chelone Chameleon

(Peacock) (Vulture) (Turtle) (Tree lizard)
All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates

Parameters
Habitat Marine
Habit
No (Poikilothermous)
Exoskeleton Scales are absent
Endoskeleton Cartilaginous cranium and vertebral column
Appendages Unpaired fins
Digestive system Circular and sucking mouth without jaws
Respiratory system 6-15 pairs of gill slits
Circulatory system Closed type
Excretory system Kidneys
Reproductive system ○ Migrate to fresh water for spawning
○ After spawning, the adult dies within few days
Development ○ Indirect: Larvae return to ocean after
metamorphosis
Examples
Petromyzon (Lamprey)
25 Animal Kingdom
COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF GNATHOSTOMATES
Characteristics Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia
Carboniferous period
(Age of Amphibians)
Habitat Marine Marine and fresh Both on land and in
water water
Habit Predaceous – Dual life
Temperature Poikilothermous Poikilothermous Poikilothermous
regulation (Cold blooded) (Cold blooded) (Cold blooded)
Exoskeleton Placoid scales for tough Cycloid and ctenoid ○ Scales are absent
skin scales ○ Skin is moist
Endoskeleton Cartilaginous Bony Bony
Digestive ○ Ventral mouth Terminal mouth Cloaca present
system ○ Teeth are modified
scales & backwardly
directed
○ Powerful jaws
Respiratory Gill slits without 4 pairs of gill slits Gills, skin and lungs
system operculum with operculum
Circulatory 2 chambered heart with 2 chambered heart 3 chambered heart
system 1 auricle and 1 ventricle with 1 auricle and with 2 auricles and
1 ventricle 1 ventricle
Excretory Kidneys (Excretion and Kidneys (Excretion Kidneys (Excretion
system Osmoregulation) and Osmoregulation) and Osmoregulation)
Eye Eyes present Eyes present Eyes with eyelids and
a nictiating membrane
Ear Tympanum absent Tympanum absent Tympanum represents
ear
Fertilisation Internal as pelvic fins of Usually external External; Internal-Sal-
males bear claspers amandra, Ichthyophis
Oviparous/ Many are viviparous Mostly oviparous Oviparous
Viviparous Salamandra-Viviparous
Development Direct Direct Indirect
Unique ○ Streamilined body ○ Streamlined body ○ Body divided
features ○ Notochord persists ○ They have air into head and
throughout life bladder/swim trunk, tail in some
○ Absence of air bladder that e.g., Salamander
bladder, hence, swim regulated buoyancy ○ Alimentary canal,
continuously to Examples: Marine urinary tract and
avoid sinking – Exocoetus (Flying reproductive tracts
Examples: Carcharodon fish), Fresh water – open into a
(Great white shark), Labeo (Rohu), Clarias common chamber
Trygon (Poisonous sting (Magur); Aquarium known as the cloaca
ray), Torpedo (Electric ray) – Betta (Fighting fish), Examples: Bufo
Pterophyllum (Angle fish) (Toad), Hyla (Tree
frog), Ichthyophis
Scoliodon (Dog sh)
(Limbless amphibia)
Hippocampus Catla Rana Salamandra

Pristis (Saw sh) (Sea horse) (Katia) (Frog) (Salamander)

Characteristics Reptilia Aves Mammalia
Habitat Mostly terrestrial Mostly terrestrial Terrestrial, aquatic
Habit Creeping and crawling Most of them can fly except Limbs adapted to fly and
flightless birds live in water
Temperature Poikilothermous Homeothermous Homeothermous
regulation (Cold blooded) (Warm blooded) (Warm blooded)
Exoskeleton Epidermal scales or ○ Scales on hindlimbs Skin may possess hair
scutes with dry cornified ○ Body covered by
skin feathers and skin is dry
Endoskeleton Bony Bony (Fully ossified) Bony
Pneumatic bones
Digestive system No ○ Additional gizzard Different types of teeth in
and crop the jaws
○ Beak (modified jaws) present
Respiratory Lungs ○ Lungs Lungs
system ○ Air sacs supplement
respiration
Circulatory 3 chambered heart with 4 chambered heart with 4 chambered heart with
system 2 auricles and 1 ventricle 2 auricles and 2 ventricles 2 auricles and 2
except crocodile ventricles
(4 chambered heart)
Excretory Kidneys (Excretion and Kidneys (Excretion and Kidneys (Excretion and
system Osmoregulation) Osmoregulation) Osmoregulation)
Sense organs Eyes with eyelids Eyes with eyelids Eyes with eyelids
Tympanum represents ear Tympanum represents ear, External ear/pinna
& many reptiles do not many birds have external ear present
have external ear opening opening
Fertilisation Sexual dimorphism Internal Internal
Oviparous/ Oviparous Oviparous Viviparous except egg
Viviparous laying Platypus
Development Direct Direct Direct
Unique features Snakes and lizards shed ○ Forelimbs modified ○ Presence of mam-
their scales as skin cast into wings mary glands to
Examples: Chelone ○ Hindilimbs of birds feed young ones
(Turtle), Testudo are modified for walking, Examples: Oviparous-
(Tortoise), Calotes swimming or clasping Platypus
(Garden lizard), Aligator the tree branches Viviparous Macropus
(Aligator), Hemidactylus ○ Skin is dry without (Kangaroo), Pteropus
(Wall lizard), Poisonous glands except oil gland (Flying fox), Camelus
snakes – Bangarus at the base of tail (Camel), Macaca
(Krait), Vipera (Viper) Examples: Flying birds (Monkey), Rattus (Rat),
-Turtle & alligator Corvus (Crow), Columba Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat),
→ Ureotelic (Pigeon) Flightless birds – Elephas (Elephant),
Aptenodytes (Penguin) Equus (Horse),
-Crocodiles Delphinus (Common
-Ammonotelic dolphin), Panthera tigris
(Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion)
-Lizards & Snakes- Bats are the only mam-
Uricotelic Psittacula Struthio
mals capable of flight.
(Parrot) (Ostrich)
Omithorhynchus
(Platypus)
Crocodilus Naja
(Crocodile) (Cobra)
Balaenoptera
(Blue whale)
27 Animal Kingdom
Chapter 5
Morphology of
Flowering Plant
INTRODUCTION
z Angiosperms show a large diversity in morphology.
z A plant has root system and shoot system.
ROOT
z Elongation of radicle form primary root.
z Primary root bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as
secondary, tertiary etc. roots.
TYPES OF ROOTS
z Tap root system: • Includes primary root and its branches
• Seen mainly in dicots eg. Mustard
z Fibrous root system : In monocots, primary root is short lived and
replaced by a large number of roots originate from the base of the stem.
z Adventitious roots : Roots that arise from parts of plants other than radicle
eg. grass, Monstera and banyan tree.
z Functions :
h Absorption of water and minerals from soil.
h Provide anchorage to plant parts.
h Storage of reserve food materials.
h Synthesis of plant growth regulators (PGRs)
REGIONS OF ROOT
Region of Some epidermal cells

maturaton of this region form root
hairs
Root hair
Region of Cells of this region gradually

Thimble like structure elongation differentiate and mature
covering root apex
Region of meristematic Small, thin walled cells

activity with dense protoplasm
Root cap
MODIFICATIONS OF ROOT
Storage of food
z Tap root - Carrot, turnip
z Adventitious root - Sweet potato
Prop root
z Arise from branches to support them
z eg. Banyan
Stilt root
z Supporting root coming out from lower nodes
z eg. Maize, sugarcane
Pneumatophore
z Root growing vertically upward for oxygen in plants of swampy area
z eg. Rhizophora
STEM
z Develops from plumule.
z Bears nodes, internodes, buds (terminal or axillary).
z Functions:
h Spread out branches bearing leaves, flowers, fruits
h Conducts water, minerals and photosynthates
29
M orphology of Flowering Plant
Modifications of Stem
z Underground stem: For storage of food, also act as organ of perennation
to tide over conditions unfavourable for growth.
eg. Potato, ginger, turmeric, Colocasia, Zaminkand
z Tendrils: Axillary bud may modify into tendril, help plants to climb.
eg. Grapevines and Gourds (Cucumber, Pumpkin, Watermelon).
z Thorn: Axillary buds modify into woody pointed thorn eg. Bougainvillea,
Citrus
z Flat or cylindrical photosynthetic stem: eg. Opuntia (flattened),
Euphorbia (cylindrical)
SOME OTHER MODIFICATIONS OF STEM

z In mint and jasmine, a slender lateral branch arise from base of the main
axis and after growing aerially arch downward and touch the ground.
z Aquatic plants like Pistia and Eichhornia have lateral branch with short
internodes and each node bear rosette of leaves and tuft of roots.
z In banana, pineapple and Chrysanthemum, lateral branches arise from basal
and underground stem, grow horizontally and then come out obliquely
upward to form leafy shoots.
z Underground stem of grass and strawberry spread to new niches and when
older part dies, new plants are formed. Underground storage stem also
acts as organ of perrenation.
LEAF
z Lateral generally flat structure, develops at node and bear a bud in its axil.
z Arise from shoot apical meristem and arranged in acropetal order.
z Consist of 3 parts: Leaf base, Petiole and Lamina.
z Stripules: Two lateral small leaf like structures at leaf base.
z Pulvinus: Leaf base may become swollen in leguminous plants.
Types of Leaves
z Simple Leaf: Lamina is entire or when incised, incision do not reach
midrib.
z Compound Leaf: Incision of lamina reaches up to the midrib breaking
it into leaflets. It is of two types
(i) Pinnately compound–Leaflets are present on a common axis, the
rachis. eg. Neem
(ii) Palmately compound–Leaflets are attached at a common point i.e
at the tip of petiole. eg. Silk cotton
Venation
Reticulate
z Veinlets form network
z eg. generally in dicots
Parallel
z Veins run parallel to each other
z eg. most monocots
LEAF
Modifications of leaves
z Tendril eg. Pea
z In Australian Acacia, petiole expands and become photosynthetic
z Spines eg. Cactus (for defense)
z Fleshy leaves for storage e.g. Onion, Garlic
z For traping insect eg. venus-fly trap, pitcher plant (insectivorous plant)
Phyllotaxy
Alternate : Single leaf at each node arranged in alternate manner eg. china
rose, mustard, sunflower
Opposite : Pair of leaves arise at each node eg. Guava, Calotropis
Whorled: More than two leaves arise at each node eg. Alstonia
INFLORESCENCE
z Flower is a modified shoot
z During flowering
h Shoot apical meristem modifies into floral meristem
h Internode do not elongate and axis gets condensed
z Solitary flower: Shoot tip transforms into a flower
z Inflorescence: Arrangement of flowers on floral axis
Two major types
Racemose
z Main axis continues to grow
z Flowers borne laterally in acropetal succession
Cymose
z Main axis terminates into a flower (limited growth)
z Flowers borne in basipetal succession
31
Flwer can divided into two equal halves in Flower can be divided into two similar halves
any plane passing through centre eg. Chilli, only in one particular vertical plane eg. Pea.
mustard, datura Pea, bean, cassia, gulmohur
Actinomorphic (Radial symmetry) Zygomorphic (Bilateral symmetry)
Symmetry
Flower either have
androecium or carpels Unisexual Trimerous – Floral appendages are multiple of 3
TYPES TYPES Tetramerous – Floral appendages are multiple of 4

FLOWER
Flower have both TYPES
Bisexual Pentamerous – Floral appendages are multiple of 5
stamens and carpels
Hand Book (Biology)

Epigynous
THE FLOWER (REPRODUCTIVE UNIT)
Hypogynous Perigynous
z Gynoecium occupies highest z Gynoecium situated in centre, z Margin of thalamus grows

position, other parts are other parts located at the rim upward enclosing ovary
situated below it. of thalamus completely and get fused with
z Superior ovary z Ovary half inferior it, other parts arise above the
Eg. BMC → China rose z Eg. 2PR→ Rose ovary.
↓
↓
↓ Mustard ↓ Peach z Eg. Guava, cucumber and ray
Brinjal Plum florest of sunflower
h A flower is asymmetric (irregular) if it cannot be divided into similar halves by any vertical plane passing through the centre. eg.-Canna
32
PARTS OF A FLOWER
Calyx
z Outermost whorl
z Members called sepal
z Protect flower in bud stage
z Generally green
May be
z Gamosepalous (sepals united)
z Polysepalous (sepals free)
Corolla
z Members called petals
z Brightly coloured
May Be
z Gamopetalous (petal united)
z Polypetalous (petals free)
Androecium
z Composed of stamens
z Stamens consist of filament + anther
z Each anther is bilobed and each lobe has two chambers
z Sterile stamen - Staminode
z Male reproductive part
Gynoecium
z Made of one or more carpels
z Consist of stigma, style and ovary
z Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flat cushion like
placenta.
z Carpels may be free, apocarpous (eg. lotus, rose) or united, syncarpous
(tomato, mustard)
When calyx and corolla are not distinct termed as perianth (unit tepal) eg. lily.
Aestivation: Made of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud w.r.t. other
members of the same whorl.
33
TYPES
Valvate
z Sepale/petals in a whorl just touch one another at the margin without
overlapping eg. Calotropis.
Twisted
z One margin of the appendage overlaps the next one and so on.
z eg. China rose, lady's finger, cotton.
Imbricate
z Margins of sepals of petals overlap one another but not in any particular
direction.
z eg. Cassia, gulmohur.
Vexillary
z Five petals, one largest (standard) overlaps two lateral petals (wings)
which in turn overlap two smallest anterior petals (keel)
z eg. Pea, bean
STAMEN
Attachment with other floral whorl
z Epipetalous : Attachment with petals (brinjal)
z Epiphyllous : Attachment with perianth (lily)
Attachment with each other
Free
z Free : Polyandrous
z Monoadelphous : United with each other in one bundle
e.g., China rose
z Diadelphous : United in two bundles
e.g., Pea
z Polyadelphous : United in more than two bundles
There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower as

in Salvia and mustard. 

PLACENTATION
Arrangement of ovules within the ovary
Types
Marginal
Placenta forms a ridge along ventral suture of ovary and ovules are borne on
if forming two rows e.g., pea
(
)a
(
)a
Axile (
)a
Placenta axial ovules attracted on it in a multiocular ovary. e.g., China rose
tomato, lemon
(
)a
Parietal
Ovules develop on inner wall of ovary or on peripheral part Ovary is one
chambered but become two charmbered due to false septum e.g., Mustard,
Argemone
Free Central
Ovules are borne on central axis and septa are absent e.g., Primrose, Dianthus
35
Basal
Placenta develops at the base of ovary and a single ovule is attached to it e.g.,
Sunflower, marigold
FRUIT AND SEED

Ovule
Turns into seed
SEED COAT (TESTA, TEGMEN)

Embryo
Dicot Seed
z Contains two cotyledons
z Usually lack endosperm except castor
z Embryo consists of embryonal axis (radicle + plumule) and 2 cotyledons
z Hilum is a scar on the seed coat.
z Above hilum is a small pore called micropyle
E.g., Bean, gram, pea
Seed coat
Cotyledon
Plumule
Hilum
Radicle
Micropyle
MONOCOT SEED
z Single large shield shaped cotyledon called scutellum
z Endospermous in orchid non-endospermic
z In cereals, seed coat is membranous and generally fused with fruit wall
z In maize, endosperm is bulky and stores food. The outer covering of
endosperm separates the embryo by a proteinaceous layer called aleurone
layer.
Seed coat & fruit-wall Endosperm
Aleurone layer
Scutellum
Coleoptile
Endosperm
Plumule
Embryo
Radicle
Coleorhiza
OVARY
z Ripens into fruit
z Fruit
SEEDS
Pericarp
z May be dry or fleshy
z Divide into
♦ Epicarp
♦ Mesocarp
♦ Endocarp
Parthenocarpic fruit : Fruit formed without fertilization.

Mango and coconut are drupe type of fruits, develop from monocarpellary,
superior ovaries and one seeded, In mango, mesocarp is fleshy edible
and in coconut, it is fibrous. Both have hard stony endocarp 
DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

Fabaceae
z Earlier called Papillionoideaea, subfamily of Leguminosae
z Stem : Erect or climber
z Leaves : Alternate, pinnately compound pulvinate, stipulate, reticulate
venation
z Inflorescence : Racemose
37
z Flower : Bisexual, zygomorphic
z Calyx : 5, gamosepalous, valvate/imbricate aestivation
z Corolla : 5, polypetalous, papilionaceous corolla, vexillary aestivation
z Androecium : 10. diadelphous, anther dithecus
z Gynoecium : Superior ovary, monocarpellary, unilocular, many ovules,
marginal placentation
z Fruit and seed : Legume, non-endospermic seed
%♀♂K C A G
(5) 1+2 + (2) (B) + 1
Solanaceae
z Commonly called potato family
z Stem : Herbaceous, rarely woody solid/hollow, hairy, underground as
in potato
z Leaves : Alternate, simple, rarely pinnate, reticulate venation
z Inflorescence : Solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum
z Flower : Bisexual, actinomorphic
z Calyx : 5, gamosepalous, persistent, valvate aestivation
z Corolla : 5, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation
z Androecium : 5, epipetalous
z Gynoecium : Bicarpellary, obliquely placed, syncarpous. superior,
bilocular, placenta swollen, axile placentation, many ovules
z Fruit and seed : Berry/capsule, endospermous seed
♂ K (5) C
⊕♀
(5) A3 G(2)

Liliaceae
z A monocotyledonous family also called lily family
z Stem : Underground bulbs/corms/rhizome
z Leaves : Mostly basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate, parallel venation
z Inflorescence : Solitary/cymose, often umbellate clusters
z Flower : Bisexual, actinomorphic
z Perianth: Tepal 6(3 + 3), often united in tube, valvate aestivation
z Androecium : 6(3 + 3). epitepalous
z Gynoecium : Tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, trilocular, axile
placentation, many ovules
z Fruit and seed : Capsule rarely berry, endospermous seeds
♂ P
Br⊕♀
(3 + 3) A 3 + 3 G (3)
39
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCES
Fabaceae
z Pulses : (Gram, arhar, sem, moong, soyabean)
z Edible oil : (Soyabean, Groundnut)
z Dye : (Indigofera)
z Fibres : (Sunhemp)
z Fodder : (Sesbania Trifolium)
z Omamental : (Lupin, sweat pea)
z Medicine : (Muliathi)
Solanaceae
z Food : (Tomato, potato, brinjal)
z Spice : (Chilli)
z Medicine : (Belladonna, Ashwagandha)
z Fumigatory : (Tabacoo)
z Ornamental : (Petunia)
Liliaceae
z Vegetable : (Asparagus)
z Medicine : (Aloe)
z Ornamental : (Tulip, Gloriosa)
z Colchicine : (Calchicum autumnale)
Floral formula of mustard
⊕♀♂K C A G
2+2 4 2+4 (2)
Floral diagram of mustard
qqq

Chapter 6
Anatomy of
Flowering Plants
INTRODUCTION
Anatomy: Study of internal structure of plants.
TISSUES
Group of cells having a common origin and usually performing a common
function.
TYPES
Meristematic Tissues
z Actively dividing cells.
z Two types according to appearance in life
Primary meristem (Appear early in life)
Apical Meristem
h Found at tips of roots and shoots.
h Some shoot apical meristem cells that are left behind during stem
elongation and leaf formation constitute axillary buds.
h Axillary buds are capable of forming a branch or a flower.
Intercalary Meristem
h Occurs between mature tissues.
h Occurs in grasses regenerate parts removed by razing herbivores.
h Secondary meristem (appear later than primary meristem)
h Also called Lateral meristem.
h Cylindrical meristem found in mature regions of roots and shoots.
TYPES
Found between xylem and phloem in a conjoint
Intrafascicular Meristem
vascular bundle.
Interfascicular Meristem Found between two vascular bundles.
Cork Cambium Extrastelar cambium formed in cortical region.
Permanent Tissues
z Newly formed structurally and functionally specialised cells.
z Do not divide further.
Simple
z Two types
Complex
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUES (MADE OF ONLY ONE
TYPE OF CELLS)
Parenchyma
z Forms major component within organs.
z Spherical, oval, round, polygonal or elongated in shape.
z Thin walled, living.
z Cellulosic cell wall.
z May have small intercellular spaces.
Functions
1. Storage
Intercelluar
2. Secretion space
3. Photosynthesis (if have chlorophyll)
Collenchyma
z Occurs in layers below epidermis.
Thickened corners
z Cells may be oval, spherical or polygonal Protoplasm
in shape. Vacuole
Cell wall
z Thick walled, living.
z Corners of cell deposited with cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
z Intercellular space absent.
Functions
1. Provide mechanical support to growing parts of plants.
2. May perform photosynthesis (if cells contain chloroplast).
Sclerenchyma
z Long, narrow cells with thick lignified wall.
z Dead.
z May be elongated and pointed-Sclerenchyma fibre.
z May be spherical, oval or cylndrical-sclereid (Common in fruits, nuts,
pulp of guava, pear, etc.).
Lumen
Thick cell Pits
wall
Lumen
Thick
A bre A sclereid cell wall
Function
Mechanical support
COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUES (MADE OF MORE

THAN ONE TYPE OF CELLS)
Types
Xylem (Four components)
Tracheid:
h Elongated, tube like with tapering ends, lignified, dead and without
protoplasm.
h Water transporting element.
Vessel:
h Long cylindrical tube, absent in gymnosperm.
h Multicelled, dead, devoid of protoplasm, lignified with large central
cavity.
h Main water conducting element in angiosperms.
Xylem Parenchyma:
h Living, thin walled.
h Involved in radial conduction of water, may store food.
Sclerenchyma Fibres
h Dead, lignified wall with obliterated lumen.
43 Anatomy of Flowering Plants

Phloem (Four components)
Sieve tube elements (Gymnosperms have sieve cells):
h Long, tube like, perforated end walls, lack nucleus at maturity.
h Peripheral cytoplasm with large central vacuole.
h Transport of food material.
Companion cell (Gymnosperms have albuminous cells):
h Specialised parenchyma cell, connected to sieve tubes by pit fields.
h Helps to maintain pressure gradient in sieve tubes.
h The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion
cells.
Phloem parenchyma:
h Elongated, tapering cylindrical cells.
h Stores food material, resin, mucilage, latex etc.
h Absent in most of the monocots.
Bast fibres (Phloem fibres):
h Elongated, sclerenchymatous, unbranched, pointed needle like apices.
h Jute, flax and hemp produce commercial bast fibres.
h Generally absent in primary phloem but found in secondary phloem.
XYLEM TYPES
Primary Xylem
z Protoxylem (First formed with narrow vessel).
z Metaxylem (Later formed with broader vessel).
Secondary Xylem
Formed during secondary growth.
PHOLEM TYPES
Primary Phloem
z Protophloem (First formed and have narrow sieve tube).
z Metaphloem (Later formed and have broad sieve tube).
Secondary Phloem
z Formed during secondary growth.
z Endarch - Protoxylem lies towards pith/centre and metaxylem towards
periphery e.g., Stems.
z Exarch - Protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem towards
pith e.g., Roots.
TISSUE SYSTEM
Epidermal Tissue System
Forms outermost covering of plant body.
Epidermis
h Parenchymatous, usually single layered, outermost covering.
h Often covered by waxy cuticle (absent in roots).
Stomata
h Consist of guard cells and subsidiary cells.
h Bean/kidney shaped guard cells - Dicot and Dumbell shaped - Monocot.
h Stomatal aperture + guard cells + subsidiary cells = Stomatal apparatus.
Root hairs
h Unicellular elongation of epidermal cells.
h Absorb water and mineral from soil.
Trichomes
h In shoot system, usually multicellular.
h Branched/unbranched, soft or stiff.
h Can be secretory, prevent water loss.
Ground Tissue System
In leaves
h Ground tissue consists of thin walled chloroplast containing cells
called mesophyll.
In stem and root
h Made up of all the tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles.
h Consist of parenchymatous cortex, pericycle, pith, medullary rays and
conjunctive tissue (between xylem and phloem in roots).
h Hypodermis - Found in stem absent in roots.
Vascular Tissue System Types
Consists of xylem and phloem.
Presence/absence of cambium
h Open - Cambium present e.g. Dicot stem.
h Closed - Cambium absent e.g., Monocot stem.

According to arrangement of xylem and phloem
h Conjoint - Xylem and phloem on same radius e.g., Stem, leaves
h Radial - Xylem and pholem are on different raddi in alternate manner
e.g., Root.
COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT

ROOT
Features Dicot root Monocot root
Epiblema With root hairs With root hairs
Cortex Thin walled parenchymatous Thin walled parenchymatous with
with intercellular space intercellular space
Endodermis Barrel shaped cells with casparian Barrel shaped cells with casparian
strip strip
Pericycle Thick walled parenchymatous, Thick walled parenchymatous,
form lateral roots and vascular form lateral roots
cambium
Vascular Radial, exarch, 2-4 xylem and Radial, exarch, usually more than
bundle phloem patches 6 xylem bundles (polyarch)
Pith Poorely developed or absent Well developed
COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT STEM

Features Dicot stem Monocot stem
Epidermis With cuticle and stomata With cuticle and stomata
Hypodermis Collenchymatous Sclerenchymatous
Cortical Parenchymatous Large parenchymatous
Cortex
layer
Endodermis Starch ich referred to as Absent
starch sheath
Pericycle Semi-lunar patches of Absent
sclerenchyma
Vascular Conjoint, open, endarch Conjoint, closed, scattered and each
bundle and arranged in a ring surrounded by sclerenchymatous
sheath, smaller peripheral ones, larger
central ones, water containing cavity
in vascular bundle
Pith Parenchymatous with Absent
intercellular spaces

COMPARISON BETWEEN DICOT AND MONOCOT LEAF
Features Dicotyledonous leaf Monocotyledonous leaf
More on lower (abaxial) surface Equally distributed on both adaxial

Stomata as compared to upper (adaxial) and abaxial epidermis, isobilateral
one. It is called dorsiventral leaf. leaf.
Covered by cuticle. Covered by cuticle, may have

large, empty, colourless bulliform
Epidermis
cells on upper epidermis, to
minimise water loss.
Two types - Adaxially placed Only spongy parenchyma is found,

palisade parenchyma (elongated palisade parenchyma absent.
cells, vertically and parallely
Mesophyll arranged to each other), spongy
parenchyma - loosely arranged
with air cavities, below the
palisade cells.
Conjoint, size vary according Conjoint, nearly similar sized due

Vascular
to thickness of veins, has thick to parallel venation.
bundle
walled bundle sheath.
SECONDARY GROWTH
z Occur in most dicots to increase girth.
z Tissue involved are lateral meristem - Vascular cambium and cork
cambium.
Vascular cambium
z Form secondary vascular tissues.
z In dicot stem formed by Intrafascicular cambium and Interfascicular
cambium (formed by dedifferentiation of cells of medullary rays).
z Vascular cambium cuts off cells
Towards pith Towards periphery I
Form secondary xylem Form secondary phloem

z Since cambium is more active towards innerside, thus amount of secondary
xylem produced will be more than secondary phloem.
z Primary and secondary phloem gradually get crushed while primary xylem
remains more or less intact.
z Vascular cambium also produces secondary medullary rays in radial
direction.
Cork cambium
z Replaces outer broken cortex and epidermis.
z In dicot stem formed by dedifferentiation of cortex cells.
z Couple of layer thick and composed of narrow thin walled nearly
rectangular cells.
z Phellogen or cork cambium cuts off cells
Towards outer side Towards inner side
Form suberin deposited impervious Form parenchymatous secondary cortex,

cells, cork/phellem phelloderm
Phellem + Phellogen + Phelloderm → Periderm.

z Bark: Non technical term referring all tissues exterior to vascular cambium,
it can be early bark (produced early in the season) or late bark (produced
in the end of season).
Lenticels:
z Lense shaped opening formed by rupturing of epidermis.
z At certain region, phellogen produces closely arranged parenchymatous
cells instead of cork cells.
z Permit gaseous exchanges in woody parts.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WOODS
Spring wood Autumn wood
z Form in spring season z Form in autumn season

z Also called early wood z Also called late wood
z Cambium usually more active in z Cambium is less active in autumn
spring z Contains fewer xylary elements
z Contains more xylary elements z Vessel have narrow cavities
z Vessels have wider cavities z Darker in colour, higher density
z Lighter in colour, lower density
Spring wood + Autumn wood ⇒ One annual ring

(in temperate region plants) (used to estimate age of tree)

Heart wood Sapwood
z Secondary xylem of center most z Formed by secondary xylem of

region peripheral region
z Dead with lignified wall z Living
z Dark in colour, hard, durable z Lighter in colour
z Deposited with tannin, resin etc. z Involved in conduction of water and
z Do not conduct water but provide minerals
mechanical support
SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOTS
Occurs Through
Vascular cambium Cork cambium
z Completely secondary in origin z Formed by cells of pericycle, rest

z Formation: activity is similar to dicot stem
(i) A portion of pericycle
(ii) Tissues just below phloem
z Similar to dicot stem
z In roots, cambium do not show
seasonal activity
z Endodermis is innermost layer of cortex in roots and dicot stem.

z Primary meristem contributes to the formation of primary plant body.
z Secondary meristem are responsible for producing secondary tissue.
z Stele: All tissues on the innerside of endodermis such as pericycle,
vascular bundles and pith. 
qqq

Chapter 7
Structural Organisation
in Animals
TISSUE
♦ Human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various function.
♦ Division of labour contributes to survival of multicellular organisms
e.g., Hydra.
♦ No division of labour in unicellular organism.
♦ A group of similar cells along with intercellular substances which per-
form a specific function.
♦ Organs such as stomach, lungs, heart and kidney comprise a specific
proportion and pattern of all basic types of tissues.
♦ Organ system: Two or more organ perform a common function by
physical/chemical interaction e.g., Digestive system.
Different types of cells
♦ Hydra
Number of cells in thousands
♦ The skin is the largest organ in the body.
TYPES OF TISSUES
Based on: Structure of cells vary according to their function
Epithelial Connective Muscular Neural

tissue tissue tissue tissue
CELL JUNCTIONS
Tight Junctions Adhering Junctions Gap Junctions

Prevent leakage Perform cementing Facilitate the cells to communicate
of substance to keep neighbouring with each other by connecting the
across a tissue cells together cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid
transfer of ions, small molecules and
sometimes big molecules.
Characteristics Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated Glandular
51
Figure I.*
II.**
Cells Single thin Single layer of Tall and slender Cuboidal or Cuboidal or
layer of flattened, cube-like columnar columnar
irregular boundaries
Nucleus Central Central At base Central or at Central or at
Simple
base base
epithelium
(single-layered)
Function Diffusion Secretion and Secretion and Move particles Specialised
boundary absorption absorption or mucus in a for secretion
specific direction
Example: Cavities, Duct, Tubules

Location Air sacs of Tubular parts of Stomach and Inner surface of Salivary
lungs, walls nephron (PCT), intestine inner organs, glands
(Avascular)
of blood vessels ducts of glands bronchioles and
fallopian tubes
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2 or more cell layers
Function Protection against mechanical and chemical stresses
Structural Organisation in Animals

Limited role in secretion and absorption
epithelium
Compound
(multi-layered)
Location Dry surface of skin, buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and pancreatic ducts
Example: Skin
Free surface of epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue provides a Its cells are compactly Microvilli present in PCT of
faces body fluid or outsides covering of a lining for packed with little nephron and small intestine
environment some part of the body intercellular matrix increase surface area for
absorption
Transitional Epithelium Stratified Epithelium
Thinner and more elastic Type of compound epithelium
Lines the inner surface Found in dry surface of skin
of the urinary bladder and moist surface of buccal
and ureter cavity and pharynx
Glands (Glandular epithelium)

I.* Based on the number of cells
• Number of cells Unicellular Multi-cellular
• Example Goblet cells Salivary glands
(Secrete mucus) (secrete saliva)
II.** Based on the mode of pouring their secretions
Exocrine glands Endocrine glands

Ducts Present Absent
Secretions Mucus, saliva, Hormones
earwax, oil, milk,
digestive enzymes and
other cell products
Endocrine glands directly release their secretions into the
fluid bathing the gland
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (VASCULAR)

Most abundant and widely distributed tissue
Linking and supporting other tissues and organs
Range from soft connective tissues to specialised types
Components of Connective tissue:
Matrix/ground substance: Modified polysaccharides or intercellular
material
Cells: Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes etc.
Fibres: Fibroblasts secrete collagen or elastin fibres
In all connective tissues except blood have fibroblast cells
to produce fibre of structure of proteins called collagen or elastin
Fibres provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue


THREE TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
I. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cells and fibres are loosely packed in semi-solid ground substance
Types
Areolar tissue Adipose tissue
Major cells Fibroblasts, Adipocytes

macrophages, mast cells
Function(s) Serve as support Reservoir of stored
framework for epithelium fats
Location Beneath skin Mainly beneath skin
Macrophage
Fat storage
Fibroblast area
Collagen Nucleus
fibres Plasma
membrane
Mast cell
Excess of nutrients not meant for immediate use are converted to fats
and are stored in adipose tissue 
II. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Fibroblasts and fibres are compactly packed in matrix
Types
Dense regular Dense irregular

Cells and Parallel bundles of Fibroblasts and fibres
fibres collagen fibres are oriented differently
Function(s) Tendons (attach skeletal Skin
muscles to bone)
Ligaments (attach bone to bone)
Arrangement Collagen fibre Collagen fibre
53 Structural Organisation in Animals

III. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Skeletal Connective Tissues
Cartilage Bones
Matrix Solid, pliable Hard and non-pliable
Cells in Chondrocytes Osteocytes

lacuna
Location/ Tip of nose, outer ear joints, Constitutes main structural

Functions between vertebrae, limbs and framework
hands in adults Interact with skeletal muscles
Most of the cartilages in to bring movements
vertebrate embryos are Bone marrow in some bones
replaced by bones in adults is the site of production of
blood cells
Support & protect softer
tissues & organs
Diagram
Collagen fibers
Collagen fibers
Cartilage cell
(chondrocyte)
• Cartilage resists compression.

• Calcium salts and collagen fibres in ground substance provide strength to the bones.
• Lacunae are small cavities enclosing bone cells within matrix secreted by them.
2. Fluid Connective Tissues

Blood – main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances
Composed of plasma, RBC, WBC, platelets
Fibroblasts and fibres are absent in blood
RBC Platelets WBC

MUSCULAR TISSUE
nMyofibrils nMuscle fibres Muscle
Show contractility and return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion
Play an active role in all movements
Parameters Skeletal muscle Smooth/Visceral Cardiac muscle
fibres muscle fibres fibres
Shape Cylindrical Spindle/fusiform Cylindrical
No. of nuclei Multi-nucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
Location of nuclei Peripheral nuclei Central Central
Striations Striated Non striated Faint striations
Branching Unbranched Unbranched Branched
Under control of Yes (Voluntary) No (Involuntary) No (Involuntary)
will
Junctions Absent Present Present
Attached to bones Blood vessels,
Location e.g., Biceps stomach, intestine Heart wall
Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the

cells of cardiac muscles to contract as a unit

NEURAL TISSUE
Exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
Neural Tissue
Neurons Neuroglial cells

Composition Unit of neural system More than one half the
volume of neural tissue
Excitability Yes No
Function Respond to changing conditions Protect and support neurons
through various stimuli
Axon
Cell body with nucleus
Dendrite
Neuroglea
Upon suitable stimulation, the electrical disturbance generated travels swiftly along
the plasma membrane of neuron. 
Our heart consists of all four types of tissues.
Complexity in organ and organ systems display certain discernable trend called
evolutionary trend.
INTRODUCTION (Cockroach)
Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Genus : Periplaneta
Species : americana
Characteristics
Size 0.6-7.6 cm (1/4 inches to 3 inches)
Colour Brown or black colour; Bright yellow, red and green
coloured reported in tropical regions
Habitat Damp places throughout world
Habit Omnivorous, Nocturnal
Economic Residents of human homes and are
importance serious pests & vectors of several diseases and spoil
food & contaminate it with their smelly excreta
MORPHOLOGY Exoskeleton: Head, brown chitinous plates

called sclerites Dorsal plates – Tergites
Ventral plates – Sternites
Plates connected by a thin, flexible articular/
arthrodial membrane.
34-53 mm long with wings extend
beyond the tip of abdomen in males. Pronotum Appendages:
Body Division: Compound eye Filiform antennae
• Long, sensory thread like
Head (6 segments) • Segmented arise from membranous
• Triangular, right angle to socket
longitudinal body axis • Present in front of eyes
• Help in monitoring environment
Mesothoracic wings/
Thorax (3 segments) Forewings/Tegmina (1 pair)
• Prothorax • Opaque, dark and leathery
• Mesothorax • Cover hindwings at rest
• Metathorax • Do not help in flight
Metathoracic wings/
Hindwings (1 pair)
• Transparent and
membranous
• Meant for flight
Abdomen Legs (3 pairs)
(10 segments) • 1 pair of walking legs on
Broader in females than males Anal cerci (1 pair) each thoracic segment
Neck: Head connected to thorax by short extension of prothorax.

It provide great mobility of head in all directions.
The sclerite of prothorax is large and is known as a pronotum.
Head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes. 

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Alimentary canal Accessory glands

Well developed with a mouth Salivary gland
surrounded by mouth parts • 1 pair
Foregut (Lined by cuticle entirely) • Present near crop
• Pharynx (shorts tubular)
• Oesophagus (Narrow tubular) Salivary reservoir
• Crop (sac like for temporary
storage of food) Hapatic/gastric caecae
• Gizzard/proventriculus • Ring of 6-8 blind tubules
• Outer thick circular muscles • At the junction of foregut
and inner six chitinous teeth and midgut
• Grinding of food particles • Secrete digestive joice
Mesenteron/Midgut Malpighian tubules (part

(Between foregut and of excretory system)
hindgut) • 100-150 in number
• Yellow coloured, thin
filamentous tubules at the
Hindgut (Broader than midgut) junction of midgut and
• Ileum hindgut
• Colon
• Rectum (Opens out through anus)
Head bears appendages forming biting and chewing type of mouth parts
Ocellus Labrum
Compound eye Upper lip
Mandible
Maxilla
Grinding region (Grinding

Incising
region of food)
Mandidble
Mandible
Hypopharynx
Labrum
Labium
Maxilla Labium Maxilla

Lower lip

BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM
Open type
Heart Blood vessels Haemolymph
Elongated muscular tube with Poorly developed Composed of

13 chambers colourless
Open into haemocoel
plasma and
Lying along mid dorsal line of
haemocytes
thorax and abdomen
Visceral organs
Funnel shaped chambers with
bathed in
ostia on either on either side
haemolymph
Blood flows anteriorly in heart
Anterior Alary muscles Chambers of

aorta heart
Open circulatory system of cockroach
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Network of trachea (thin, branching tubes) that open
through 10 pairs of spiracles present on lateral side of the body.
Opening of spiracles is guarded by sphincters.
Site for exchange of gases: Tracheoles by diffusion.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Malpighian tubules, lined by glandular and ciliated cells.
They absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric acid which
is excreted out through hindgut.
Excretory product: Uric acid (Uricotelic).
Other excretory structures: Fat body, nephrocytes and uricose glands.

NERVOUS SYSTEM (Spread Throughout Body)
Parameters Head Ventral part of body
Proportion Bit of nervous system Most part of nervous system
of nervous Supra-oesophageal Paired longitudinal
system ganglion (brain) connectives with series
Supply nerves to of fused segmentally
Antennae and compound arranged ganglia
eyes (Each compound • 3 ganglia in thorax
eye consists of 2000 • 6 ganglia in abdomen
hexagonal ommatidia
& situated at dorsal
surface of head)
• Sense organs: Antennae, Labial palps, Eyes, Maxillary palps, Anal cerci
• Cockroach has mosaic vision with more sensitivity and less resolution
• If head of cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as long as one week 
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM [Dioecious]

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Testis
1 pair, lateral side Phallic gland
th th
4 -6 abdominal Long tubules Mushroom
segments Small tubules gland
th th
6 -7
External genitalia/gonapophysis abdominal
Seminal vesicle segments
Components Vas deferens Accessory
reproductive
Ejaculatory duct gland
1. Chitinous asymmetrical structure Opens through male genital
2. Present around male gonopore pore which is ventral to anus
3. Three phallomeres: Anal cercus
(a) Right phallomere Pseudopenis
(b) Ventral phallomere Caudal/anal style
Tibillator
(c) Left phallomere 1 pair, only in males
th th
Male genital pouch Dorsally by 9 and 10 terga
th
(Lies at the hind end Ventrally by 9 sternum
of abdomen) Contains dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore gonapophysis

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovary
1 pair
nd th
2 -6 abdominal segments
1 ovary contains 8 ovarioles
• Each ovariole contains chain
of developing ova
Spermatheca Oviduct
1 pair
th Common oviduct or vagina
6 abdominal segment
Collaterial gland
1 pair
Secrete ootheca
Genital chamber
Genital pouch
Gonapophyses Vestibulum
th th th
7 sternum (boat shaped) along with 8 and 9 sterna
Female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands Anterior

part
Path of sperms
Testes → Vas deferens → Seminal vesicle → Ejaculatory duct →
Male genital pore → Spermatheca of female during copulation
Path of ova
Female genital pore Common oviduct/Vagina Oviduct
Ovary (Ovarioles)
Sperms
Ova Sperm
Anal cerci Anal style
Paired, long Paired, short Female genital pouch (brood pouch)
Fertilisation
Jointed Unjointed
Secretion of collaterial glands form ootheca
Filamentous Thread like On an average, female produces 9-10 ootheca
Both ♀ & ♂ Only ♂ each containing 14 to 16 fertilised eggs
• Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown capsule about 3/8" (8 mm) long.
• Female deposits ootheca in crack or crevice
13 times moulting (Paurometabolous development indirect)
• Nymph Adult
• Next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have wings
qqq

Chapter 8
Cell: The Unit of Life
INTRODUCTION
Cell, basic unit of life, makes an organism living. All organisms are composed
of cells.
CELL
z Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living
organisms. Anything less than a cell does not ensure independent living.
z Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell.
CELL THEORY
z In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number
of plants and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of
cells which form the tissues of the plant.
z At the same time, Schwann (1839) a British Zoologist, reported that
animal cells had a thin layer called plasma membrane. He concluded that
plant cells have cell walls. Schleiden and Schwann together formulated that
cell theory but this theory did not explain as to how-new cells are formed.
z Rudolf Virchow explained that new cells arise from pre-existing cells
(Omnis cellula-e cellula) and finally modified the cell theory as:
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
z Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities for example, Mycoplasma
is smallest cell (0.3µm), Egg of an ostrich is the largest isolated single
cell. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells. (RBCs- 7µm in diameter,
Bacteria – 3-5µm, Virus - 0.02 – 0.2µm).
z Cytoplasm is main arena of cellular activities in both plant and animal
cells.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
z Lack membrane bound nucleus and cell organelles.
z Represented by bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma or PPLO (0.1µm).
z In addition to genomic DNA, many bacteria have small circular DNA
outside the genomic DNA called plasmids. Plasmid DNA confers certain
unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria. One such character is
resistance to antibiotics. Plasmid DNA is used to monitor bacterial
transformation with foreign DNA.
z All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane
(except mycoplasma)
Cell Envelope and its Modifications
z Most prokaryotic cells have cell envelope which is tightly bound three
layered structure.
z The outermost glycocalyx → Cell wall → Plasma membrane
z Glycocalyx may be a loose sheath called slime layer or thick and tough
called capsule.
z The cell wall prevents bacteria from bursting or collapsing.
z Mesosomes: Extension of plasma membrane into the cell in the form
of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. It helps in cell wall formation, DNA
replication, distribution of daughter cells, respiration, secretion process
and increase the surface area of plasma membrane.
z In cyanobacteria, chromatophores contain pigments.
z Each layer of the cell envelope performs distinct function, they act together
as a single protective unit. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable
in nature and interacts with the outside world. It is structurally similar
to that of eukaryotes.
z Bacteria may be motile or non-motile. If motile they have flagella,
composed of three parts: Filament (longest portion), hook and basal body.
z Pili and fimbriae do not play role in motility.
z Bacteria, on the basis of the staining, can be Gram positive or Gram
negative.
Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
z Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles.
z Found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

z Also found in cytoplasm, mitochondria & RER.
z Ribosomes are 70S, has subunits 50S and 30S, Several ribosomes may
attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosome or
polysome.
z Ribosomes are associated with plasma membrane.
z The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
Inclusion bodies
z Reserve material is stored in the form of inclusion bodies in prokaryotic
cytoplasm. Eg. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen
granules.
z Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS (10-20µm)

z Besides the nucleus, eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound structure
called organelles like ER, Golgi complex etc.
z The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi. Plant
cells have large vacuole. Animals cells have centrioles which are almost
absent in plant cells.
z Cytoplasmic ribosomes are of 80S. Small subunit is 40S and large 80S.
Cell Membrane
z Chemical studies on the cell membrane, especially in human RBC enabled
scientists to deduce the possible structure of plasma membrane.
z Cell membrane is mainly composed of proteins and lipids
(mainly phospholipids).
z Phospholipids consist of polar head (outward) and non-polar tail
(hydrophobic) inner side. In human RBC, 52% is proteins and 40% lipids.
z Membrane proteins can be integral or peripheral.
z Most accepted model for structure of cell membrane is fluid mosaic model
given by Singer and Nicolson (1972).
z Membrane is selectively permeable.
z Passive transport: Many molecules can move across the membrane
without any requirement of energy.
z Osmosis: Movement of water by diffusion.
z Active transport: Many molecules require energy/ATP for their transport
e.g. Na+/K+ pump.
63 Cell: The Unit of Life

z The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins
within the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the membrane is
measured as its fluidity.
z Polar molecules cannot move through the non-polar lipid bilayer.
FUNCTIONS
z Cell growth
z Formation of intercellular junctions
z Secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
CELL WALL
z Non-living rigid structure forms an outer covering of the plasma membrane
in fungi and plants.
z Primary wall: Cell wall of a young plant cell is capable of growth which
gradually diminishes as the cell matures.
z Secondary wall: is formed on inner side (towards membrane) of the cell.
z Middle lamella: is a layer mainly of calcium pectate.
z Cell wall of Algae: Cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate.
z Cell wall of plants: Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
z While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its
structure and function, many of these are considered together as an
endomembrane system because their functions are coordinated.
Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Cisternae
Ribosome
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus

Endoplasmic
Golgi apparatus Lysosome Vacuole
reticulum (ER)
Reticulum of tiny These were named These are The vacuole is the
tubular structures Golgi bodies after membrane membrane bound
scattered in the discoverer name bound vesicular space found in
cytoplasm. Camillo Golgi. structures formed the cytoplasm,
by the process of membrane is called
packaging in the tonoplast.
Golgi apparatus.
RER: ER which They consist of They are rich in Contain water, sap,
has ribosomes on cisternae, which hydrolytic enzymes excretory product
surface are concentrically (lipases, proteases and other materials
SER: In absence arranged near carbohydrases), not useful for the
of ribosomes, they the nucleus with optimally active at cell. In Amoeba,
appear smooth. distinct convex cis acidic pH (5.5). contractile vacuole
or the forming face is important for
and concave trans excretion.
or the maturing
face.
RER is involved Principally performs These enzymes In many cells.

in protein synthesis the function of are capable as in protists,
SER is involved in packaging of of digesting food vacuoles
lipid synthesis. materials. carbohydrates, are formed by
It is the important proteins, lipids and engulfing the food
site for formation nucleic acids. particles.
of glycoproteins
and glycolipids.
MITOCHONDRIA
z Mitochondria are visible under microscope only after staining.
z Each mitochondria is a double membrane bound structure with inner
compartment called matrix. The two membranes have their own specific
enzymes.
z Outer membrane: Forms the continuous limiting boundary of the
organelle.
z Inner membrane: Forms cristae.
z Sites of aerobic respiration. They produce cellular energy in the form of
ATP, hence called 'power house of the cell'.
z Matrix has single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (70S) and the components required for the synthesis of proteins.
‘S’ (Svedberg's unit) stands for sedimentation coefficient. It is an indirect
measure of density and size.
Outer Inner-membrane
membrane space
Inner Outer membrane
membrane
Crista Inner membrane
Matrix Granum
Thylakoid
Stroma
lamella
Stroma
Structure of mitochondria
(Longitudinal section) Sectional view of chloroplast
PLASTIDS
z Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoids. Based on the
pigments, plastids can be classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
z Chloroplast contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments.
z Leucoplast are colourless plastids.
z Amyloplasts store carbohydrates e.g. Potato, Elaioplasts store oils and
fats whereas the aleuroplast store proteins.
z Chloroplast are also double membrane bound structure which has
membranous sac like structure called thylakoids and the matrix is called
stroma. It also contains small, ds circular DNA and ribosomes.
z Carotenoid is fat soluble pigment e.g., Carotene, xanthophyll etc.
z The ribosomes of the chloroplasts (70S) are smaller than cytoplasmic
ribosomes (80S).
z Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular-granum). Flat
membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids
of the different grana.
z Stroma contain required enzymes for carbohydrate and protein synthesis.
z Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.
CYTOSKELETON
z An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in
the cytoplasm.
FUNCTIONS
z Mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA
z Hair like outgrowths of the cell membrane. Flagella are comparatively
longer and responsible for cell movement.
z The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally
different from eukaryotic flagella.
z The central core- Axoneme.
z Arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred to as the 9 + 2 array.
z Both cilium and flagellum arise from centriole like structure called
basal bodies. They are covered will plasma membrane.
Plasma
membrane
Peripheral
microtubules
(doublets)
Central
sheath
Interdoublet
bridge
Central
Radial microtuble
spoke
Structure of cilia/flagella
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

z A non-membrane bound organelle usually containing two cylindrical
structures called centrioles. They are surrounded by amorphous
pericentriolar materials and lie perpendicular to each other.
z The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is proteinaceous
called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets
(nine) by radial spokes made of protein.
z Helps in cell division.
NUCLEUS
z Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early
as 1831. Later, the material of nucleus was given the name chromatin
by Flemming.
z Interphase nucleus has chromatin, nuclear matrix and nucleolus. Nucleus
has the membranes and the space between two membranes is perinuclear
space.
z Outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
z The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
z During different stages of cell division, cells show structured chromosomes.
Chromatin contains DNA, some basic histones, some non-histones and
some RNA.
z Every chromosome has primary constriction called centromere on the
sides of which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present.
z Based on the position of centromere, the chromosome can be classified
into four types.
Secondary
Satellite constriction
Short arm
Short arm
Centromere
Centromere
Long arm
Metacentric Sub-metacentric Acrocentric Telocentric

(V-shaped) (L-shaped) (J-shaped) (Rod-shaped)
z Satellite: Sometimes, a few chromosomes have non staining secondary

constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a small
fragment.
z Nucleolus: Not a membrane bound structure and site for active ribosomal
RNA synthesis.
MICROBODIES
z Membrane bound minute vesicles.
z Enzymes are present in both plant and animal cells.

Chapter 9
Biomolecules
BIOMOLECULE
All the carbon compounds that we get from living tissues can be called ‘biomolecules’.
However, living organisms have also got inorganic elements and compounds in them.
Chemical Analysis
Living tissue + Trichloroacetic acid
(Plant tissue/animal (Cl3CCOOH)
tissue/microbial paste)
Thick slurry
Cheese cloth
Entire chemical composition of living tissues or organism
Filtrate (Acid soluble) Retentate

Roughly cytoplasmic components (Acid insoluble)
(Macromolecules from
cytoplasm and organelles)
Organic Organic
Inorganic
Biomicromolecules Biomacromolecules
• Water • M.wt. - 18-800 Da • M.wt. - > 10,000 Da
+ + 2+
• Ions (e.g., Na , K , Ca , • Monomeric form • Polymeric form
2+ 3– 2– E.g., Simple sugars Polysaccharides
Mg , Po4 , So4 , etc.)
Nucleotides Nucleic acids
• Gases
Amino acids Proteins
Lipids (Not a polymer)
• Not strictly biomacromolecule

• M.wt < 800 Da
• Relative abundance of carbon and • Cell membrane fragments form vesicles
hydrogen of living organism > Earth crust which are not water soluble.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
Elemental analysis gives elemental composition of living tissues in the form
of hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, carbon etc.
Weight
Living tissue Wet weight
Dry
Dry weight
‘Ash’ (contains only

Dried living tissue Burn
All carbon compounds inorganic elements)
oxidise to CO2 and H2O
Comparison of Elements Present in

Non-living and Living Matter
Element % Weight of Earth’s crust Human body
Hydrogen (H) 0.14 0.5
Carbon (C) 0.03 18.5
Oxygen (O) 46.6 65.0
Nitrogen (N) very little 3.3
Sulphus (S) 0.03 0.3
Sodium (Na) 2.8 0.2
Calcium (Ca) 3.6 1.5
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 0.1
Silicon (Si) 27.7 negligible
Order of element in Earth crust > Si > Ca > Na > Mg > H > C > S > N
Order of element in Human body > C > N > Ca > H > S > Na > Mg > Si
Molecular formula
Analytical technique
Structure of compound
Average Composition of Cells in Descending order

Component % of the total cellular mass
Water 70-90
Proteins 10-15
Nucleic acids 5-7
Carbohydrates 3
Lipids 2
Ions 1
True Macromolecular fraction = Polysaccharides + Polypeptides + Polynucleotides
Water is the most abundant chemical in living organism

Oxygen is the most abundant element in living organism

METABOLITES
Primary metabolite Secondary metabolite

Identifiable functions Not involved in primary metabolism
Play known roles in Seems to have no direct function in growth
physiological processes and development of organisms
E.g., Sugars, amino acids Many of them are useful to human welfare
lipids, nitrogen bases, etc. E.g., Rubber, drugs, spices and pigments
Some have ecological importance
E.g., Flavonoids, antibiotics etc.
Some Secondary Metabolites

Pigments Carotenoids, Anthocyanins
Alkaloids Morphine, Codeine
Terpenoides Monoterpenes, Diterpenes
Essential oils Lemon grass oil
Toxins Abrin, Ricin
Lectins Concanavalin A
Drugs Vinblastine, curcumin
Polymeric substances Rubber, gums, cellulose
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Monosaccharides/sugar No. of Carbon 5C 6C
Single unit Formula C5H10O5 C6H12O6
Example Ribose Glucose
Structure HOCH2 O CH2OH
O
OH
OH OH OH
2. Polysaccharides OH OH
OH
Acid-insoluble pool
Long chains of sugars
Linked together by glycosidic bond formed by dehydration
Homopolysaccharides Heteropolysaccharides
Same monomer units Different monomer units
Features Glycogen Starch Inulin Cellulose Chitin
Found in Animals Plants Plants Plants Animals
Function Storage Storage Cell wall Exoskeleton
(Structural) of arthropods
Monomer Glucose Fructose Glucose N-acetyl
glucosamine
Colour with I2 Red Blue No No
Chitin-Building blocks of Glycosamine and N-acetylgalatcosamine
– Complex polysaccharide
– Exoskeleton of arthropods – Homopolymers
• Glycogen Right end is reducing while left end is non-reducing
• Starch hold I2 in helical portion • Cellulose can not hold I2 as no helical portion
• Cotton fibre Cellulose • Paper is made from plant pulp
71 Biomolecules
NUCLEIC ACIDS (Acid Insoluble Fraction)
Polymer of nucleotides
Sugar/monosaccharide
Heterocyclic Nucleoside
Each nucleotide comprises Nucleotide
nitrogenous base
Phosphate
Nitrogenous base Nucleoside Nucleotide
Adenine Adenosine Adenylic acid
Adenine
Substituted
Purines
Guanine Guanosine Guanylic acid

Thymine Thymidine Thymidylic acid
Cytosine Cytidine Cytidylic acid
Uracil Uridine Uridylic acid
Pyrimidine
Substituted
Uracil
Watson-Crick model of B-DNA

DNA exists as double helix (secondary structure).
Two polynucleotide strands are helically coiled around a common axis.
The two polynucleotide strands are antiparallel i.e., run in opposite direction
and complementary to each other.
Ribose sugar and uracil exist in RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
2-deoxyribose sugar and thymine exists in DNA [Deoxyribonucleic Acid]
DNA and RNA act as genetic material.
Phosphate moiety links 3-carbon of one sugar of one nucleotide to
5-carbon of sugar of succeeding nucleotide.
Nitrogen bases are perpendicular to backbone and faces inside.
At each step of ascent, strand turns 36°.
1 turn = 10 base pairs
1 complete turn = 34Å
Rise per base pair = 3.4Å
2 hydrogen bonds
Phosphodiester bonds
(formed by dehydration)
Ester bond
3 hydrogen bonds

LIPIDS
Generally water insoluble
Could be simple fatty acids (R – COOH) where R group could be
• Methyl (–CH3), ethyl (–C2H5), higher no. of –CH2 (C–1 to 19)
Types of fatty acids
Parameter Saturated Unsaturated
No. of C = C No One or more
double bonds
Example Palmitic acid (16 carbon Arachidonic acid (20 carbon
including carboxyl carbon) including carboxyl carbon)
CH3 – (CH2)14 – COOH
Many lipids are esters of fatty acids and glycerol
Type No. of fatty acids Glycerol (trihydroxy propane)
Monoglyceride 1 1 CH2 – CH – CH2
Diglyceride 2 1 | | |
Triglyceride 3 1 OH OH OH
Melting point State in winters Examples

Fats Higher Solid Ghee, Butter
Oils Lower Liquid Gingelly oil
Triglyceride (R1, R2 and R3 are fatty acids)

Some lipids have phosphorous and phosphorylated organic compound called
phospholipids e.g., Lecithin - found in cell membrane
Neural tissues structure - More complex lipids
Phospholipid (Lecithin)
Cholesterol have lipid like properties
Cholesterol
73 Biomolecules
AMINO ACIDS
Organic compounds containing an amino group and an acidic group as
substituents on same carbon i.e., -carbon, hence called -amino acids.
Substituted methane, four substituent groups occupying four valency positions.
Chemical and physical properties of amino acids are essentially of amino,
carboxyl and R-functional groups.
Types of amino acids
I. On the basis of R-group
R-group Amino acids
–H Glycine
–CH3 Alanine
(methyl)
–CH2 – OH Serine
(hydroxy methyl)
II. On the basis of Nature of amino acids

Nature Amino acids
Acidic Glutamic acid
Basic Lysine
Neutral Valine
Aromatic Tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine
III. On the basis of Body’s requirement

Non-essential Essential
Synthesised Not synthesised Mnemonics:
by body by body VILL PMT THA
Not required Required
in diet in diet
10 in number 10 in number
Zwitterionic Form
A particular property of amino acids
is the ionisable nature of –NH2 and
–COOH group.
In solutions of different pH, the
structure of amino acids changes.
N N N
Zwitterionic form
(Both positive and negative charge)

STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Each protein is a heteropolymer of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
(formed by dehydration) and only 20 types of amino acids participate in
their formation.
Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids.
Biologists describe structure of proteins at four levels:
Level Typical Structure
Primary Positional information of COOH
NH2
sequence of amino acids
Left end Right end
Protein thread as
• N-terminal • C-terminal
extended rigid rod • First amino acid • Last amino acid
Secondary Thread folded in the form

of a helix i.e., similar to
revolving stair case
Only right handed helices
observed in proteins
Tertiary 3-dimensional view, like
hollow woolen ball
This structure is absolutely Hydrogen bond
necessary for many
Disulphide bond
biological activities
of proteins
Quaternary More than one polypeptide
chains are involved e.g.,
Haemoglobin consists of
4 subunits: 2 and 2.
It is based on how individual
polypeptide are arranged
with respect to each other.
SOME PROTEINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Protein Functions
Collagen Intercellular ground substance
Trypsin Enzyme
Insulin Hormone
Antibody Fights infections agents
Receptor Sensory reception (smell, taste, hormone)
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells
• Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.

• RuBisCO is the most abundant protein in the whole of the biosphere.
75 Biomolecules
DYNAMIC STATE OF BODY CONSTITUENTS
ATP: Energy Currency

Used in anabolic reaction
ATP
Produced during catabolic reactions
Pentose sugar ribose is present in ATP.
Living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work.
Living process is a constant effort to prevent falling into equilibrium.
Living state and metabolism are synonymous.
Without metabolism, there can not be a living state.
Metabolism is sum total of all the reactions (do not occur in isolation) within
the body.
There is no uncatalysed metabolic conversion in living system.
Metabolic pathways (Series of linked reactions)
Catabolic pathways Anabolic pathways

• Degradation pathways • Biosynthetic pathways
• Complex structure converts into • Formation of complex structure
simple structure from simple structures
• Energy released (stored in ATP) • Energy is used
• Examples: • Examples:
Amino acids Proteins
Glycolysis
Glucose 10 steps Pyruvic acid
Carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Carbonic anhydrase is present in cytoplasm

With enzyme - 6,00,000 molecules of H2CO3 formed in 1 sec, Rate increase
10 million times
Without enzyme - 200 molecules/hr
• Rate refers to the amount of product formed per unit time,

expressed as rate = P/t
• Rate double or decreases by half for every 10°C change in either direction.
• Flow of metabolites through metabolic pathways has a definite direction,
this is called dynamic state of body constituents.
• Biomolecules are constantly being changed into some other biomolecules
and also made from some other biomolecules called turnover.
• Glucose concentration in blood: 4.2 - 6.1 mmol/L.
• Hormone concentration = nanograms/ml

ENZYMES (BIOCATALYST)
Properties:
Tertiary structure. Unchanged at the end of reaction.
Highly specific. Not used up in the reaction.
Proteinaceous in nature except ribozymes (nucleic acids).
Increases rate of reaction by lowering activation energy.
Have active site/pockets where substrate binds.
Inorganic catalysis work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures
while enzymes get denatured at high temperature (>40°C) except enzymes of
thermophilic organisms (can tolerate 80°-90°C).
For metabolic conversion, substrate ‘S’ has to bind the enzyme at its active site
and results in obligatory formation of ‘ES’ complex (Transient phenomenon),
essential for catalysis.
Structure of substrate gets transformed into structure of products(s).
E + S ES EP E + P
‘Altered structural states’
(unstable)
• Difference in average energy content of ‘S’ from that of transition state is

called ‘Activation energy’.
• Transition state – High energy unstable state.
• ‘P’ is at lower level than ‘S’ – Reaction is exothermic.
• ‘S’ is at lower level than ‘P’ – Reaction is endothermic.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Temperature
Enzyme shows highest activity at optimum temperature.
Low temperature Enzyme is temporarily inactive.
High temperature Tertiary structure of enzymes destroyed due to denaturation.
pH
Enzyme shows highest activity at optimum pH.
Rate of reaction declines both below and above optimum pH.
Substrate concentration
Initially rate of reaction increases with increase in substrate concentration but
becomes constant when all enzymes get saturated with substrate.
Binding of specific chemicals (Inhibitors)
When binding of chemicals shuts off enzyme activity, the process is called
inhibition and chemical is called inhibitor.
Vmax = Maximum
Michaelis constant [KM] = Concentration at which rate of reaction
the reaction velocity reaches half its maximum velocity.
77 Biomolecules
Competitive inhibitor:
Inhibitor resemble the substrate and compete with substrate for the active site of enzymes.
Closely resembles substrate in molecular structure and inhibits enzyme activity.
Consequently, substrate can not bind and as a result enzyme action declines.
E.g., Malonate closely resembles the substrate succinate in structure.
Inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate.
Application: Control of bacterial pathogens.
Note: Effect of the competitive inbibitor can be reversed by increasing the concentration of the substrate.
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES

Most of these enzymes have been classified into different groups based on the
type of reactions they catalyse. Enzymes are divided into 6 classes each with
4-13 subclasses and named accordingly by a four-digit number.
Class Name Function

I Oxidoreductases/ Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between
dehydrogenases: two substrates S and S
S reduced + S oxidised S oxidised + S reduced
II Transferases: Catalyse a transfer of a group, G (other than hydrogen)

between a pair of substrates S and S
S – G + S S + S – G
III Hydrolases: Catalyse hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide,
glycosidic, C – C, C – halide or P-N bonds.
IV Lyases: Catalyse removal of groups from sub-strates by

mechanisms other than hydrolysis leaving double
bonds.
X C
| |
C–CX–Y+C=C
V Isomerases: Catalyse inter-conversion of optical, geometric
or positional isomers.
VI Ligases: Catalyse the linking together of two compounds, e.g.,
enzymes which catalyse joining of C-O, C-S, C-N,
P-O etc. bonds.

CO-FACTORS
Enzymes
Simple enzymes Conjugated enzymes

Only protein
Apo-enzyme (inactive) Co-factor

Protein part Non-protein part
Catalytically active enzyme
Prosthetic group
Organic, tightly bound to apoenzyme
Haem is prosthetic group for catalase and peroxidase
Co-factor Co-enzyme
Organic, loosely bound to apo-enzyme for transient
period (just during catalysis)
e.g., NAD, NADP (Contain niacin vitamin)
Metal ions
Form coordination bond with active site and one or
more coordination bond with substrate
+2
Zn for carboxypeptidase
Catalytic activity is lost if co-factor is removed
79 Biomolecules
Chapter 10
Cell Cycle and Cell Division
INTRODUCTION
z All cell reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise
to two daughter cells each time they divide.
z Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells, indeed of all living
organisms.
CELL CYCLE
z It is sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises
the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter
cells.
z Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus (N) and
cytoplasm (C). It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to
restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio (N/C).
z Cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) is a continous process.
z Duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organims and also from
cell type to cell type.
e.g., Yeast - 90 minutes
Human - 24 hours
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
Interphase M-phase
z Called resting phase. z Actual cell division phase.
z Cell is preparing for division by z S t a r t s w i t h n u c l e a r d i v i s i o n
undergoing both cell growth and DNA (karyokinesis) and usually ends with
replication in an orderly manner. division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
z Lasts more than 95% of the duration
of cell cycle.
INTERPHASE G0
z Divided into three phases

(i) G1 phase (Gap 1)
Cy G1
(ii) S phase (Synthesis) tok
in
Teloph esis
M phase
ase
(iii) G2 phase (Gap 2) Anaphase e
as S
taph se
Me pha
o
Pr G2
z Some cells do not divide further, exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage
called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
G0 z Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate
unless called on to do so depending on the requirement of the organism.
e.g. Heart cells.
z Interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.

z Cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not replicate
G1
its DNA.
z Most of the cell organelles duplicate.
z Marks the phase of DNA replication and chromosome duplication.

z Amount of DNA per cell doubles but there is no increase in initial
S chromosome number.
z In animal cells, centriole duplicates in cytoplasm.
z DNA replication begins in nucleus.
z Proteins are synthesised in preparation for mitosis while cell growth

G2
continues.
In animal cells, mitotic division is only seen in diploid somatic cells.

Plant cells show mitotic division in both haploid and diploid cells. 
M PHASE (MITOSIS)
z Most dramatic period of cell cycle.
z Chromosome number in parent and progeny cells is the same hence called
equational division.
81 Cell Cycle and Cell Division

DIVIDED INTO
Karyokinesis
1. Prophase
z First phase, follows the S and G2 phases of interphase.
z Marked by the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material
which becomes untangled.
z Centrosome starts to move towards opposite poles.
z The completion of prophase can be marked by:-
(i) Chromosomes condense to form compact mitotic chromosome.
(ii) Each centrosome reach at pole and radiates out microtubules called
asters. The two asters together with spindle fibres form mitotic
apparatus.
z At the end of prophase, cells do not show Golgi complex, ER, nucleolus
and nuclear envelope.
Early Prophase Late Prophase

2. Metaphase
z The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of
metaphase.
z Condensation of chromosomes is completed and can be observed
clearly under microscope and morphology of chromosomes is most
easily studied.
z Each chromosome has two sister chromatids which are held together
by the centromere.
z All the chromosome coming to lie at equator.
z Each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibre from
one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle
fibre from the opposite pole.
z The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred
to as metaphase plate.

(a) (b)
Transition to Metaphase Metaphase
3. Anaphase
z Centromere of each chromosome split simultaneously
and chromatids separate.
z Two daughter chromatids, now referred to as daughter
chromosome begin their migration towards the two
opposite poles.
z The centromere of each chromosome remain directed
toward the pole and arms trailing behind, (leading to Anaphase
different shapes of chromosomes).
4. Telophase
z Final stage of karyokinesis.
z Chromosomes that have reached their respective poles
decondense and lose their individuality.
z Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome cluster
at each pole forming two daughter nuclei.
z Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.
Telophase
Cytokinesis
z It is division of cytoplasm at the end of which cell division gets
completed.
z Achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane in
animal cell (Centripetal).
z Cytokinesis is achieved by wall formation in plant cell that starts in
the centre of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral
wall (Centrifugal).
z The formation of new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple
precursor, called the cell plate that represents the middle lamella between
the wall of two adjacent cells.
z When karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
multinucleate condition arises leading to formation of syncytium, e.g.,
liquid endosperm in coconut.
Kinetochore is a disc shaped structure at the surface of centromere,

serves as the site of attachment of spindle fibres. 
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
z Identical genetic complement in daughter cells.
z Growth of multicellular organisms.
z Cell repair.
z Continuous growth of plants throughout their life.
z In some lower plants and in some social insects, haploid cells also divide
by mitosis.
MEIOSIS
z Specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by
half results in the production of haploid (n) daughter cells.
z Ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms.
z Fertilisation restores the diploid phase.
z Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear division i.e. meiosis I
and meiosis II but only single cycle of DNA replication.
z Meiosis I initiated after parental chromosomes have replicated.
z Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
MEIOSIS I (REDUCTIONAL PHASE)

Prophase I
Typically longer and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
1. Leptotene
z Chromosomes become gradually visible under the light microscope.
z The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
2. Zygotene
z Homologous chromosomes called synapsis.
z Synapsis is accompanied by formation of complex structure called
synaptonemal complex.

z The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes
is called bivalent or a tetrad
z Leptotene and zygotene are relatively short lived compared to the
pachytene.
3. Pachytene
z Four chromatids of each bivalent become distinct and clearly appears
as tetrads.
z Appearance of recombination nodule, the sites at which crossing over
occurs between non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
z Crossing over is exchange of genetic material between two homologous
chromosomes. It is an enzyme mediated process, enzyme involved is
called recombinase.
z Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material which is
completed by the end of pachytene leaving chromosomes linked at the
sites of crossing over.
4. Diplotene
z Recognised by the dissolution of synaptonemal complex and tendency
of the recombined homologous chromosomes of the bivalent to separate
from each other except at the site of crossovers.
z This X-shaped structures (site of crossing over) are called chiasmata.
z In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years.
5. Diakinesis
z Marked by terminalisation of chiasmata.
z Chromosomes are fully condensed and meiotic spindle is assembled to
prepare the homologous chromosomes for separation.
z By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope
also breaks down.
z Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
Metaphase I
Bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate (Double metaphasic plate).
Microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the kinetochore
of homologous chromosomes.
Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain associated
at their centromere.

Telophase I
z The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear.
z Cytokinesis follows and this is called as dyad of cells.
MEIOSIS II (EQUATIONAL PHASE) - RESEMBLES A

NORMAL MITOSIS
Prophase II
z It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis.
z The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II.
z Chromosomes become compact.
Metaphase II
z Chromosomes align at the equator.
z Microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
kinetochore of sister chromatids.
Anaphase II
z Splitting of centomere allowing chromosomes to move towards opposite
poles of the cell by shortening of microtubules attached to the kinetochores.
Telophase II
z Meiosis ends with telophase II
z Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear
envelope.
z Cytokinesis follow resulting in the formation of tetrad of cells.
Prophase I Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

Prophase II Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
z Conservation of specific chromosome number of each species in sexually
reproducing organisms, results in reduction of chromosome number by
half.
z Increases genetic variability in the population of organisms which is
important for the process of evolution.

Chapter 11
Transport in Plants
INTRODUCTION
z In a flowering plant, the substances that would need to be transported are
water, mineral nutrients, organic nutrients and plant growth regulators
(PGRs).
z Water and mineral nutrients are taken up by roots and food is synthesised
in the leaves.
z Short-distance movement is through-diffusion, cytoplasmic streaming
and active transport and transport through longer distances is through
vascular system (xylem and phloem) and is called Translocation.
z Transport in xylem is essentially Unidirectional (of water and minerals)
from roots to leaves through the stems.
z Organic and mineral nutrients undergo multidirectional transport.
z From senescent plant parts, nutrients are withdrawn and moved to growing
plants. So, the transport is complex but orderly. Each organ is receiving
some substances and giving out some other.
SHORT DISTANCE MOVEMENT

Simple Facilitated Active
Property
Diffusion Diffusion Transport
1. Need special membrane proteins No Yes Yes
2. Highly selective No Yes Yes
3. Transport saturates No Yes Yes
4. Uphill movement No No Yes
5. Need ATP No No Yes

1. Diffusion is the only means for gaseous movement within the plant
body.
2. Porins are proteins that form large pores in outer membrane of plastids,
mitochondria and some bacteria.
3. In facilitated diffusion, extracellular molecule is bound to transport
protein which then rotates and releases the molecule inside the cell,
e.g., water channels-made of 8 different types of aquaporins.
Transport
protein
Transported
molecule
Outer side Inner side
Outer side of cell of cell
of cell
Membrane Membrane
Fig. Facilitated diffusion

4. Passive symports and antiports
z Symport: Two molecules move together in the same direction and
in opposite direction in antiport.
z Uniport: A molecule moves across a membrane independent of other
molecules in one direction.
Carrier protein
Uniport A
Antiport A
B
Symport A
B
Membrane
Facilitated diffusion
89 Transport in Plants
PLANT-WATER RELATIONS
Water is essential for all physiological activities of plant. Because of its high
demand, water is often the limiting factor for plant growth and productivity.
Terms:
1. Water Potential: Water molecules possess kinetic energy. The greater
the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its kinetic energy
or water potential.
(i) Pure water have greatest water potential.
(ii) Water moves from a system at higher water potential to the one
having low water potential.
(iii) It is denoted by Psi or Ψ and expressed in pascals.
(iv) Water potential of pure water at standard temperature, which is not
under any pressure, is taken as zero.
2. Solute Potential: The magnitude of lowering of water potential due to
dissolution of solute is called solute potential or ΨS.
(i) ΨS is always negative.
(ii) More the solute molecules, the lower ts the ΨS.
3. For a solution at atmospheric pressure.
(Water potential) ΨW = ΨS (Solute potential).
4. Osmotic pressure = – Osmotic potential.
5. Pressure Potential: Pressure builds up in a plant system when water
enters a plant cell due to diffusion, it makes the cell turgid, this increases
the pressure potential.
(i) It ts usually positive.
(ii) Though negative potential or tension, xylem plays a major role in
water transport.
6. Water Potential is affected by both solute and pressure potential.
ΨW = ΨS + ΨP
Osmosis
1. Diffusion of water across a differentially or selectively permeable
membrane.
2. Net direction and rate of osmosis depends on both pressure gradient
and concentration gradient.
3. Water moves from higher chemical potential to region of lower chemical
potential until equilibrium is reached.
Pressure
Sucrose
solution
Membrane
Water
(a) (b)
Demonstration of osmosis - Thistle funnel experiment.
1. Transport proteins of endodermal cells are control points, where a

plant adjusts the quantity and types of solutes that reach xylem.
2. Root endodermis because of suberin, actively transports ions in one
direction. 
Plasmolysis
1. Occurs when water moves out of the cell and cell membrane of plant
cell shrinks away from its cell wall.
2. This happens when a cell or tissue is placed in hypertonic solution.
3. Reversible process if kept in hypotonic solution.
4. When water flow into the cell and out of the cells are in equilibrium,
the cells are said to be flaccid.
A B C
H2 O H2 O H2 O
Plasmolysed Flaccid Turgid
Imbibition
1. Special type of diffusion when water is absorbed by solids-colloids
causing them to increase in volume.
2. Water potential gradient between the absorbent and the liquid imbibed
is essential for imbibition.
3. For any substance to imbibe any liquid, affinity between the adsorbent
and the liquid is also a pre-requisite.
Example: Absorption of water by seeds and dry wood
LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT

1. Diffusion is a slow process. It can account for only short distance
movement.
2. Long distance movement of water and minerals and food generally
occur by mass or bulk flow.
3. Mass flow is en masse movement due to pressure differences between
the two points.
4. Bulk movement is through vascular tissues called Translocation.
5. Xylem mainly translocates water, mineral salts, some organic nitrogen
and hormones.
6. Phloem translocates a variety of organic and inorganic solutes.
7. Water is absorbed by two distinct pathways:
• Apoplast: A system of adjacent cell wall except at casparian strips
of endodermis. This movement is dependent on the gradient.
• Symplast: A system of interconnected protoplasts.
Plasmodesmata Plasma membrane
Epidermis Cortex Endodermis Pericycle
Xylem
= symplast Casparian strip
= apoplast
8. In some plants, symbiotic mycorrhizal association of fungus with root

system help in water and mineral absorption e.g., Pinus seeds.
WATER MOVEMENT UP A PLANT

1. Root Pressure: Only provide a modest push in overall process of water
transport. They do not play a major role in water movement up tall plants.
• The greatest contribution of root pressure is to re-establish the
continuous chains of water molecules in xylem.

• In many herbaceous plants, grass blades, root pressure is the cause
of loss of water in the form of liquid droplets called Guttation.
2. Transpiration Pull: Cohesion-tension-transpiration pull model of water
transport accomplishes water movement in tall plants.
↓
Transpiration is the evaporative loss of water by plants through stomata.
↓
The opening of stomata is caused due to change in turgidity of guard cells.
↓
Opening is also aided by radical orientation of cellulose microfibrils
in cell wall of guard cell.
Microbrils
Guard cell
Stomatal
aperture
Stomatal aperture with guard cells
Palisade
Xylem
Phloem
Guard
Diffusion into Stomatal Cell
surrounding air pore
Water movement in the leaf

↓
Transpiration driven ascent of xylem sap depends mainly on physical
properties of water.
TRANSPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS A COMPROMISE

1. An actively photosynthesising plant has a need for water.
2. Photosynthesis is limited by available water which can be swiftly
depleted by transpiration.
3. A C4 plant loses only half as much water as a C3 plant for the same
amount of CO2 fixed.
4. Temperature, light, humidity and wind speed affect transpiration.
5. Plant factors like number and distribution of stomata, water status of
plants, canopy etc. affect transpiration.
UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS

1. Plants obtain their carbon and most of their oxygen from CO2 in the
atmosphere. However, their remaining nutritional requirements are
obtained from water and minerals in the soil.
2. Most minerals must enter the root by active absorption into the
cytoplasm of epidermal cell.
3. The active uptake of ions is partly responsible for the water potential
gradient in roots and therefore for the uptake of water by osmosis.
4. Some ions also move into epidermal cells passively.
5. Mineral ions are frequently remobilised from older, sensescing, dying
parts (leaves) to younger leaves.
6. Elements most readily mobilised are phosphorus, nitrogen and
potassium. Some elements like calcium are not remobilised.
PHLOEM TRANSPORT: PRESSURE FLOW OR MASS FLOW

HYPOTHESIS
1. Food, primarily Sucrose, is transported by vascular tissue phloem from
source to sink.
Source: Leaf (synthesise food), roots (storage).
2.
Sink: Where needed or stored (buds of trees)
3.
4. Since source - sink relation is variable, so direction of movement of
phloem can be bi-directional.
5. Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose but other sugars, hormones
and amino-acids are also translocated through phloem.
GIRDLING EXPERIMENT
(i) Identifies the tissues through which food is transported.
(ii) Shows that phloem is the tissue responsible for food translocation.
(iii) Transport takes place in one direction, i.e., towards the roots.

Sugars leave sieve tubes;
water follows by osmosis
Tip of stem
Sugar solution ows Sugars enter sieve tubes; = High

to regions of ow water follows by osmosis turgor
turgor pressure Phloem pressure
Sugars leave sieve tube
for metabolism and
storage; water follows
by osmosis
Root
Mass Flow Hypothesis

1. The accepted mechanism used for the translocation of sugars from
source to sink is called the pressure flow hypothesis.
2.
Glucose → Sucrose → Companion
(Prepared (Converted to cell
at the source) disaccharide) Loading
↓ (Active transport)
↓
Unloading Living phloem sieve

(Active transport) tube cells
↓ ↓
Builds osmotic pressure
Sink Water from xylem
↓
(used
or stored)
3. Loading and unloading are active processes.
Chapter 12
Mineral Nutrition
INTRODUCTION
Macromolecules are required for growth and development.
METHODS TO STUDY THE MINERAL REQUIREMENTS
OF PLANTS
z In 1860, Julius von Sachs, a prominent German botanist demonstrated for
the first time that plants could be grown to maturity in a defined nutrient
solution in complete absence of soil.
z This technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution is known as
hydroponics.
CRITERIA FOR ESSENTIALITY

(a) The element must be absolutely necessary for supporting normal
growth and reproduction.
(b) The requirement must be specific and not replaceable by another element.
(c) The element must be directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.
Based on Quantative requirement
Macronutrients Micronutrients
z The are generally present in plant z Also called trace elements, are
tissues in large amounts (in excess of needed in very small amount
10 mmole kg–1 of dry matter) (less than 10 mmole kg–1 of dry
z C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg matter).
z Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni.
Essential elements can also be grouped into four broad categories on the basis
of their diverse functions. These categories are:
(i) Components of biomolecules and structural elements of cells (C, H, O
and N).
(ii) Components of energy related chemical compounds in plants (Mg in
chlorophyll and P in ATP).
(iii) Activate or inhibit certain enzymes. (Mg2+ activates Rubisco and PEP
case. Zn2+ activate alcohol dehydrogenase and Mo activate nitrogenase).
(iv) Essential elements which alter osmotic potential (K).
Apart from 17 essential elements, there are 4 beneficial elements - Na,

Si, Co, Se required by higher plants. 
ROLE OF MACRO AND MICRONUTRIENTS

S.No. Mineral Absorbed Required in Functions
element as
– –All parts of the Major constituents of
NO3, NO2
1. Nitrogen plants, particularly proteins, nucleic acids,
or NH+4 meristems. vitamins and hormones.
Developing fruits,
–
H2PO4 or seeds, storage Constituent of cell
2. Phosphorus membrane, certain
HPO2– organs, young
4 proteins, all nucleic acids.
meristems.
Meristems, buds, Maintain turgidity of cells,
3. Potassium K+ leaves and root required for opening and
tips. closing of stomata.
Required for middle lamella,
Meristems and mitotic spindle and for
4. Calcium Ca2+ differentiating certain enzymes.
tissues
Accumulates in older leaves
Constituent of ring
Seeds, leaves,
structure of chlorophyll
5. Magnesium Mg2+ growing areas of
and helps to maintain
root and stem.
ribosome structure.
Constituent of two
amino acids cysteine and
Young leaves and
6. Sulphur SO2– methionine and main
4 meristems.
constituents of several
coenzymes and vitamins.
Main constituents
of ferredoxin and
All parts of cytochromes. It activates
7. Iron Fe2+
plants. catalase enzyme and is
essential for the formation
of chlorophyll.
97 Mineral Nutrition
S.No. Mineral Absorbed Required in Functions
element as
The best defined function
of manganese is in the
8. Manganese Mn2+ Leaves and seeds. splitting of water to
liberate oxygen during
photosynthesis.
Activates various
All parts of the enzymes especially
9. Zinc Zn2+
plants. carboxylases, also needed
for auxin synthesis.
Associated with certain
All parts of the
10. Copper Cu2+ enzymes involved in
plants.
redox reaction.
Required for uptake
and utilisation of Ca2+,
membrane functioning,
BO2–
3 or
11. Boron Leaves and seeds. pollen germination,
B4O2–
7 cell elongation
and carbohydrate
translocation.
All parts of plants
Component of nitrogenase
12. Molybdenum MoO2+ and commonly in
2 and nitrate reductase.
roots.
Essential for water
splitting reaction in
– All parts of the
13. Chlorine Cl photosynthesis and for
plants.
anion and cation balance
in cells.
DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

z The concentration of the essential element below which plant growth is
retarded is termed as critical concentration.
z The element is said to be deficient when present below the critical
concentration.
DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN PLANTS INCLUDE:

(a) Chlorosis: Due to deficiency of N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Mo.
(b) Necrosis: Due to deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K.
(c) Inhibition of cell division: Due to deficiency of N, K, S, Mo.
(d) Delay in flowering: Due to deficiency of N, S, Mo.
(e) Stunted plant growth.

Mobile Elements
z Transported from older leaves to younger leaves.
z Deficiency symptoms first appear in older/senescent leaves. Example
N, K, Mg.
Immobile Elements
z Not transported out of the mature leaves.
z Deficiency symptoms tend to appear first in the young leaves. Example Ca.
TOXICITY OF MICRONUTRIENTS
z The requirements of micronutrient is always in low amounts while their
moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate
increase cause toxicity.
z Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight of
tissues by about 10 percent is considered toxic.
z Many a times, excess of an element may inhibit the uptake of another
element.
For example, Manganese competes with iron and Mg for uptake and with
Mg for binding with enzymes. Mn also inhibit calcium translocation in
shoot apex.
MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS:

z In the first phase, the rapid uptake of ions is into apoplast. It is passive.
z In the second phase, the ions move into symplast. It requires energy;
so it is active.
TRANSLOCATION OF SOLUTES
Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with the ascending stream
of water, which is pulled up through plant by transpiration pull.
SOIL AS RESERVOIR OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Soil not only supplies minerals but also harbours nitrogen fixing bacteria.
METABOLISM OF NITROGEN
Nitrogen Cycle
Atmospheric N2
(Pseudomonas)
Biological Industrial Electrical Denitrification
N2 fixation N2 fixation N2 fixation
Nitrification (Thiobacillus)
Nitrosomonas – –
NH3 NO2 NO3
Soil 'N' Pool
Nitrosococcus Nitrobacter
(Ammonification) (Uptake)
Decaying biomass Plant biomass
Animal biomass
The nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs. 
BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

Only certain prokaryotic species are capable of fixing nitrogen. Reduction of
nitrogen to ammonia by living organisms is called biological nitrogen fixation.
Enzyme nitrogenase is exclusively present in prokaryotes.
Nitrogenase
N=N NH3
N2 FIXERS
Bacteria Nitrogen fixation Aerobic/anaerobic
Azotobacter Free living Aerobic
Beijerinckia Free living Aerobic
Bacillus Free living Anaerobic
Clostridium Free living Anaerobic
Rhodospirillum Free living Anaerobic

Anabaena Symbiotic or —
Nostoc Free living —
Rhizobium Symbiotic —
Frankia Symbiotic —
Rhizobium fixes nitrogen in legumes.

Frankia in non-leguminous plants such as Alnus. 
NODULE FORMATION
Nodule formation involves a sequence of multiple interactions between
Rhizobium and roots of host plant.
z Rhizobia multiply, colonise the surroundings of the roots and get attached
to epidermal and root hair cells. Root hair curls and bacteria invade the
root hair.
z An infection thread is produced carrying the bacterial into the cortex of
the root where they initiate nodule formation in the cortex.
z The nodule thus formed, establishes a direct vascular connection with
the host for exchange of nutrients.
Soil Hook
particles
Root hair
Infection
Bacteria thread
containing
bacteria
Bacteria Inner cortex and Mature nodule
pericycle cells
under division
z Nodule contains nitrogenase and leghaemoglobin.

z Nitrogenase is Mo-Fe protein and highly sensitive to the molecular
oxygen, thus requires anaerobic conditions.
z To protect nitrogenase, nodule contains an oxygen scavenger called
laghaemoglobin.
Rhizobium and Frankia live as aerobes under free living condition but
as symbionts during nitrogen fixing events they become anaerobic. 
The ammonia synthesis by nitrogenase requires a very high input of energy 8
ATP for each NH3 produced.
N2 + 8e– + 8H+ + 16ATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi

Product
Substrate [ammonia (NH3)]
[nitrogen gas (N2)]
Reduction
Reduction Reduction Release

of products
Enxyme Brinding +2 H +2 H +2 H Free nitrogenase

(nitrogenase) of substrate
can bind another
molecule of N2
FATE OF AMMONIA
At physiological pH, the ammonia is protonated to form NH+4 ions while most
of the plants can assimilate nitrate as well as ammonia ions, the latter is quite
toxic to plants and hence cannot accumulate in them.
z NH+4 is used to synthesize amino acids in plants by two ways:
Reductive Amination Transamination

In this process, ammonia reacts It involves transfer of amino group from
with a-ketoglutaric acid and forms one amino acid to the keto group of a
glutamic acid. keto acid. Glutamic acid is the main
a-ketoglutaric acid + NH+4 + NADPH amino acid from which the transfer of
amino group takes place and other amino
Glutamate
Dehydrogenase
Glutamate acids are formed through transamination.
+ H2O + NADP The enzyme transaminase catalyses this
reaction.
The two most important amides - Asparagine and glutamine found in plants,
are a structural part of proteins. The are formed from two amino acids namely
aspartic and glutamic acid respectively.
Amides contain more nitrogen than amino acids, they are transported to
other parts of the plant via xylem vessels. Nodules of some plants like
soyabean export fixed nitrogen as ureides (High N : C ratio). 

Chapter 13
Photosynthesis in
Higher Plants
INTRODUCTION
z Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which plants use light
energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds.
z Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons:
(a) Primary source of all food on earth.
(b) Responsible for the release of oxygen into the atmosphere.
WHAT DO WE KNOW?
z Experiment for starch formation on variegated leaf or a leaf that was
partially covered with black paper & exposed to light showed that
photosynthesis occurred only in green part of leaves in the presence of
light.
z Experiment where a part of leaf is enclosed in a test-tube with some KOH
soaked cotton (which absorbs CO2). while other half is exposed to air
and set-up kept in light proved that CO2 is needed for photosynthesis.
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
(1) Joseph Priestley
Using a burning candle, a mouse, mint plant and a bell jar for closed space,
hypothesised that plants restore to the air whatever burning candles or
breathing animals remove.
(2) Jan Ingenhousz
In an elegant experiment with an aquatic plant, showed that in bright
sunlight, plants produce oxygen.
(3) Julius von Sachs
Found that glucose is made in green plant parts and stored as starch.
(4) T.W. Engelmann
Using a prism, green alga Cladophora and aerobic bacteria, described
the action spectrum of photosynthesis, which roughly resembles the
absorption spectrum of chlorophyll- a and b.
(5) Cornelius van Niel (Work on Purple and Green Bacteria)
Demonstrated that photosynthesis is essentially a light dependent reaction
in which hydrogen from suitable oxidisable compound reduces CO2 to
carbohydrates.
H2A + CO2 D 2A + CH2O + H2O
H2O, the hydrogen donor in green plants is oxidised to O2.
H2S is hydrogen donor for purple & green sulphur bacteria.
The oxidation product is sulphur or sulphate in purple & green sulphur
bacteria and not O2.
Light
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
(By using Radio isotopic technique)
WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE

In green parts of the plants, mainly in the mesophyll cells in the leaves, which
have large number of chloroplasts.
CHLOROPLAST ALIGNMENT
Parallel Perpendicular
In low or optimum light intensity to get In extremely high light intensity to avoid
maximum incident light photo-oxidation.
There is a clear Division of Labour within the chloroplast.
CHLOROPLAST
Membranous System Stroma
(Grana + Stroma lamellae) Enzymatic reactions to synthesise sugar,
Responsible for trapping light & which in turn forms starch, takes place.
synthesis of ATP and NADPH. Dependent on products of light reactions
Directly light driven, called Light (ATP & NADPH).
Reaction (photochemical reactions) By convention called Dark Reactions
(Carbon reactions).

HOW MANY TYPES OF PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
z Leaf-pigments of any green plant can be separated through paper
chromatography.
z The colour in leaves is due to four pigments, that have the ability to absorb
light, at specific wavelengths.
Colour of The Pigments in The Chromatogram
(i) Chlorophyll-a = Bright or blue green
(ii) Chlorophyll-b = Yellow-green
(iii) Xanthophyll = Yellow
(iv) Carotenoids = Yellow to yellow-orange
Rate of photosynthesis
Absorption
Light absortbed
400 500 600 700

Wavelength of light in nanometres (nm)
z The wavelength of light at which there is maximum absorption by

chlorophyll-a i.e., in blue and red regions, also shows higher rate of
photosynthesis.
z Chl-a is the chief pigment associated with photosynthesis.
z Chl-b, carotenoids and xanthophyll are accessory pigments. They absorb
light and transfer the energy to Chl-a and also protect chlorophyll-a from
photo-oxidation.
LIGHT REACTION
z Light reactions or the photochemical phase include:
(a) Light absorption
(b) Water splitting
(c) Oxygen release
(d) ATP and NADPH formation
105 Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
PHOTOSYSTEM
PS-I PS-II
LHC-I (Hundred of pigments) LHC-II
Reaction One molecule Reaction

centre of Chl-a centre
z Absorption peak at 700 nm (P700) z Absorption peak at 680 nm (P680)
z Named in the sequence of their discovery and not in the sequence of

their function.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
z Z-scheme (due to its characteristic shape): Whole scheme of transfer of
electrons starting from PS-II → uphill to the acceptor → down the ETC to
PS-I → Excitation of electrons → transfer to another acceptor → finally
downhill → NADP+ → reducing to NADPH + H+.
z This shape is formed when all the carriers are placed in a sequence on a
redox potential scale.
SPLITTING OF WATER
z PS-II continuously supplies electrons which becomes available by splitting
of water.
z Water splitting complex is associated with PS-II, which itself is
physically located on inner side of membrane of thylakoid.
z H2O → 2H+ + [O] + 2e–
CYCLIC AND NON-CYLIC PHOTO-PHOSPHORYLATION

z When both PS-I and PS-II are involved, the process is non-cyclic,
producing ATP, NADPH + H+ and oxygen.
z Only PS-I is functional, cyclic flow takes place to produce only ATP.
z A possible location for cyclic flow is the stroma lamellae membranes
which lack PS-II and NADP reductase enzyme.
h Cyclic photo-phosphorylation also occurs when only light of
wavelengths beyond 680 nm are available for excitation.
h The membrane of lamellae of the grana have both PS-I and PS-II.

CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS
z ATP synthesis in photosynthesis is linked to the development of a proton
gradient across the membranes of thylakoid and protons accumulate in
the lumen of thylakoids.
z The proton gradient is caused by:
(a) Protons or hydrogen ions (H +) produced by splitting of water,
accumulate in the lumen of the thylakoids.
(b) The primary acceptor of electron located towards outer side of
membrane transfers its electron to an H carrier, which removes a
proton from stroma while transporting and electron to thylakoid
lumen.
(c) The NADP reductase enzyme located on stroma side of membrane,
removes protons from stroma, while reducing NADP+ to NADPH + H+.
+
NADP +H+ NADPH
+
Stroma (low H ) H +
Light Light FNR

Cytochrome Fd
B6f
P680 PQ
PS II PQH
P700
PC PS I
Plastoquinone H+
Plastocyanin
H2O 1 +
2 O2+H
Oxidation
of water H+
H+ H+
High Lumen
Electrochemical H+ (high H+)
potential CF0
Thylakoid gradient
membrane
Stroma
Low ATP CF1
Synthase
ADP+P1
H+ ATP
ATP Synthesis Through Chemiosmosis

h Within chloroplast, protons decrease in stroma and accumulate in
lumen. This creates a proton-gradient across thylakoid membrane as
well as a measurable decrease in pH in the lumen.
h Breakdown of this gradient leads to synthesis of ATP, when protons
move across the membrane to the stroma through transmembrane
channel of the F0 of the ATP synthase.
ATP Synthase (Two parts)
F 0 = Embedded in the thylakoid F0 = Protrudes on outer surface of thylakoid
membrane. A transmembrane channel membrane on the side that faces stroma. It
for facilitated diffusion of protons synthesise ATP.
h Pre-requisite for Chemiosmosis - a membrane, a proton pump,a

proton gradient and ATP synthase.
WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?

z O2 diffuses out of chloroplast while ATP and NADPH are used to
synthesise sugars in the biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis.
z Melvin Calvin used radioactive 14C in algal photosynthesis studies to
discover the first CO2 fixation product, the 3-C organic acid (3-PGA)
(C3-pathway).
z In another group of plants, the first stable product was 4 carbon, oxaloacetic
acid OAA (C4-pathway).
CALVIN CYCLE
z Calvin cycle occurs in all photosynthetic plants whether they have C3 or
C4 (or any other) pathways.
z Calvin cycle can be described under three stages.
(1) Carboxylation: Most crucial step.
RuBisCO
RuBP 2 × 3 – PGA
(5C) (3C)
CO2 + H2O
(2) Reduction: A series of reactions that lead to formation of glucose.

Utilises 2 ATP and 2 NADPH per CO2. (The fixation of 6CO2 and
6 turns of the cycle are needed to form one molecule of glucose).
(3) Regeneration: Regeneration of RUBP is crucial for the cycle to
continue. This step require one ATP.
In Out
6CO2 1 Glucose
18ATP 18 ADP
12 NADPH2 12 NADP+

C4-PATHWAY
z Plants adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4-pathway.
z C4-plants are special; They have special type of leaf anatomy, tolerate
higher temperatures, show response to high light intensities, lack
photorespiration and have greater biomass productivity.
z C4-plants have leaves showing Kranz Anatomy the particularly large
cells around the vascular bundles, which may form several layers and
are called bundle sheath cells, characterised by having a large number
of chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange and no
intercellular spaces.
z The pathway is cyclic & called the Hatch and Slack Pathway. It is partly
completed in mesophyll & partly in bundle sheath cell.
MESOPHYLL CELL BUNDLE-SHEATH CELLS
1. Primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-C 1. Malic Acid/Aspartic Acid
compound PEP.
2. Enzyme for this fixation is CO2 3-Carbon molecule

PEPcase.
3. Lacks RuBisCO. Transported to

mesophyll &
converted to PEP
4. C4-acid formed is OAA which Enters - Calvin cycle, a pathway
forms malic acid or aspartic common to all plants.
acid and transported to bundle 2. Rich in RuBisCO but lack PEPcase.
sheath cells.
PHOTORESPIRATION
z RuBisCo, the most abundant enzyme in the world, has the active site that
can bind to both CO2 and O2. This binding is competitive and depends on
the concentration of O2 and CO2.
z RuBisCo, has a much greater affinity for CO2, when the CO2: O2 is nearly
equal than for O2.
z In C3-plants, some O2 does bind to RuBisCO and hence CO2 fixation is
decreased, due to the following reaction.
RuBisCo
RuBP + O2 3 PGA (3C) + 2 phosphoglycolate (2C)
This is called photo-respiration.

z In photo-respiration, there is neither synthesis of sugars nor of ATP. It
results in release of CO2 with utilisation of ATP.
z The biological function of photorespiration is not known yet.
z In C4-plants, photo-respiration does not occur as they have a mechanism
that increases the concentration of CO2 at the enzyme site.
RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase minimising the oxygenase activty.
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is under the influence of several factors, both internal (plant)
& external.
Internal Factors:
z The plant factors include the number, size, age & orientation of leaves,
mesophyll cells and chloroplasts, internal CO2 concentration & the amount
of chlorophyll.
z The plant or internal factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition
& growth of the plant.
External Factors:
z Include availability of sunlight, temperature, CO2 concentration and water.
Rate of Photosynthesis
B C
E
D
Light intensity
z Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factor:

(i) Light: Light saturation occurs at 10% of the full sunlight. Except for
plants in shade or in dense forests, light is rarely a limiting factor in
nature.
h There is a linear relationship between incident light & CO2
fixation rates at low light intensities.
At higher light intensities, gradually the rate does not show
further increase as other factors become limiting.
(ii) CO2 concentration: Major limiting factor. The concentration of
CO2 is very low in the atmosphere (0.03 & 0.04%), so increase in
concentration upto 0.05% can cause increase in CO2 fixation rates,
beyond this levels, it can become damaging over longer periods.
h At low light conditions, neither group responds to high CO2
conditions.
h C4-plants show saturation at 360µ1L–1.
h C3-plants saturation is seen at 450µ1L–1.
h Some greenhouse crops like tomatoes and bell pepper show
higher yields in CO2 enriched atmosphere.
(iii) Temperature: Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature
controlled. Light reactions are also temperature sensitive.
h C4-plants show higher yield at high temperature.
h C3-plants have a much lower temperature optimum.
(iv) Water: Effect of water as a factor is more through its effect on the
plant rather than directly on photosynthesis.
h Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing CO2
availability.
h Water stress also makes leaves wilt, thus, reducing the surface area
of leaves and their metabolic activity as well.

Chapter 14
Respiration in Plants
INTRODUCTION
● All living organisms need energy for carrying out daily life activities
like absorption, transport, movement, reproduction or even breathing.
● All the energy required for ‘life’ processes is obtained by oxidation
of macromolecules called food.
● Cellular respiration: Mechanism of breakdown of food material
within the cell to release energy and trapping it for synthesis of ATP.
The process takes place in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondria.
● Respiratory substrates: Compounds that are oxidised during this
process like carbohydrates, proteins, fats and even organic acids.
● The process involves a series of slow step-wise reactions controlled
by enzymes and the released energy is trapped as chemical energy
in the form of ATP which is broken down whenever and wherever
energy needs to be utilised.
DO PLANTS BREATHE?
● Plants have stomata and lenticels to ensure O2 availability.
● A very little transport of gases from one plant part to another.
● Roots, stems and leaves respire at rates far lower than animals do.
● Complete combustion of glucose produces CO2 and H2O as end
products and yields energy in the form of heat.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
● Plants oxidise glucose in several small steps and energy released is
coupled to ATP Synthesis.
● Facultative and obligate anaerobes can respire in absence of O2.
GLYCOLYSIS
● Greek-glycos = sugar and lysis = splitting
● Scheme given by Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas, referred as
EMP-pathway
● In anaerobic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.
● Occurs in cytoplasm and present in all living organisms.
● Glucose Partial oxidation 2 Pyruvic acid
● In plants, glucose comes from Sucrose (the end product of
photosynthesis) or from storage carbohydrates.
● Sucrose Invertase Glucose + Fructose (enter the glycolytic
pathway readily).
● In glycolysis, a chain of ten reactions produces pyruvate from
glucose by the help of different enzymes.
● In glycolysis, 2 ATP are utilised and total 4 ATP, 2 NADH + H+ and
2 molecules of pyruvic acid are produced.
● Pyruvic acid is the key product of glycolysis and its metabolic fate
depends on cellular need.
Pyruvic Acid
Three major fates
Lactic acid Alcoholic Kreb’s cycle

fermentation fermentation
Under anaerobic Aerobic

conditions (Needs O2 supply)
113 Respiration in Plants

STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose
(6C)
ATP
ADP
Glucose-6-phosphate
(6C)
Fructose-6-phosphate
(6C)
ATP
ADP
Fructose1, 6-bisphosphate
(6C)
Triose phosphate Triose phosphate

(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) (Dihydroxy acetone
(3C) phosphate)
NAD+ (3C)
NADH+H +
2 × Triose bisphosphate
(1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid)
(3C)
ADP
ATP
2 × Triose phosphate
(3-phosphoglyceric acid)
(3C)
2 × 2-phosphoglycerate
H2O
2 × phosphoenolpyruvate
ADP
ATP
2 × Pyruvic acid
(3C)

FERMENTATION
● In fermentation, incomplete oxidation of glucose is achieved by yeast
under anaerobic conditions to produce CO2 and ethanol, by the help
of enzymes pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.
● Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid by lactate dehydrogenase in
bacteria and in animal cells (muscles during exercise, when oxygen
is inadequate for cellular respiration).
● Less than 7% of the energy in glucose is released.
● Yeast poison themselves to death when concentration of alcohol
reaches about 13%.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
● In eukaryotes, it takes place in mitochondria. Leads to complete
oxidation of organic substances, in the presence of oxygen and
releases CO2, water and a large amount of energy.
● Most common in higher organisms.
● For aerobic respiration to take place within mitochondria, the final
product of glycolysis (Pyruvic acid) is transported into mitochondria
from cytoplasm.
● Crucial events of aerobic respiration are:
Complete oxidation of pyruvic acid – site = Mitochondrial matrix.
ETS and synthesis of ATP – site = Inner mitochondrial membrane.

TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
(TCA cycle or Kreb's cycle)
(In mitochondrial matrix)
● Acetyl CoA produced by oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid
enters the TCA cycle more commonly known as Kreb’s cycle.
(Scientist Hans Kreb)
● During conversion of succinyl CoA to succinic acid, substrate level
phosphorylation takes place to produce GTP which in a coupled
reaction simultaneously produces ATP.
Pyruvate + 4NAD+ + FAD+ + 2H2O + ADP + Pi
Mitochondrial
3CO2 + 4NADH + 4H+ + FADH2 + ATP
Matrix
● So, per molecule of glucose, 8 NADH+H+, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP are
synthesised from pyruvic acid.
Pyruvate
(3C)
C A
CoA NAD +
H+
NADH+H
CO 2
Acetyl coenzyme A
(2C)
(2C
2C
2 C
C)
Oxaloacetic acid
a d
aci
( )
(4C
(4
(4C) Citric acid
NADH+H
NADH+H
H +
(6C)
C) CO 2
+ N AD+
NAD
NAD
NADH+H
NAD H+
H+H
c acid
α-ketoglutaric acid
d
Malic acid 5
(5C)
(4C) CITRIC ACID CYCLE
C 2
CO
NAD+
FADH2
NAD
N H+
NADH+H
ADH+H
FAD+ Succinic acid GD
GDP
(4C)
GTP
GTP
P

AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
● Respiratory pathway is involved in both anabolism and catabolism.
Interrelationship among
Metabolic pathways
Fats Carbohydrates Proteins
Fatty acids Simple sugars Amino acids

and glycerol e.g., Glucose
Glucose 6-phosphate
Fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate
Dihydroxy Acetone Glyceraldehyde
Phosphate 3-phosphate
Pyruvic acid
Acetyl CoA
H2O Co2
Krebs’
cycle

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS)
AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
● NADH + H+ and FADH2 are oxisised through ETS and the electrons
are passed on to O2 resulting in formation of H2O through various
complexes in the inner-mitochondrial membrane.
● NADH dehydrogenase (Complex-I) and FADH2 (Complex-II)
transfers electrons to
Ubiquinol
Ubiquinone cyt bc1 (complex III)
(reduced ubiquinone)
Complex IV cyt c
(Cytochrome c oxidase) (Mobile carrier)
● When electrons pass from one carrier to another via complex-I to

IV in ETC, they are coupled to ATP synthase (complex-V) for
production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
● 1 NADH → 3 ATP
● 1 FADH2 → 2 ATP
● Oxygen is the final acceptor of hydrogen.
● Complex-V has two major components
● F1 is peripheral membrane protein complex and contains site for
ATP synthesis.
● F0 forms the channel through which protons cross the inner
membrane.
● The passage of protons through the channel is coupled to the
catalytic site of F1 for production of ATP. For each ATP produced,
2H+ passes through F0 from the intermembrane space to matrix
down the electrochemical proton gradient.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM (ETS)
Inter-membrane Inter-Mitochondrial Matrix

space membrane
NADH + H –
4H +
(Fe-S) FMN 2e –
NAD
I
Complex I
e– (NADH dehydrogenase)
UQ
–
e
UQH2 e–
III
Complex III
4H + Cyt C1 Fe-S Cyt b (Cytochrome bc1)
Cyt c UQH2 Complex II

(Succinate dehydrogenase)
UQ
e – II Succinatc
(Fe-S) FAD Fumarate
Cyt c
e–
Cu IV 1 O + 2H +
+ 2+ 2
2H 2H
Cyta Cyta3 CuB
H2 O
Complex IV
(Cytochrome oxidase)
F0 ADP + Pi
F1 ATP
Synthase ATP
H+
+ Complex V
____
+ Electochemical
+ (ATP Synthase)
+ gradient

RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET
● There can be a net gain of 38 ATP molecules during aerobic
respiration of one molecule of glucose.
● In fermentation, there is net gain of only 2 ATP for each molecule
of glucose degraded.
● NADH is oxidised to NAD+ slowly in fermentation, however the
reaction is very vigorous in case of aerobic respiration.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT = (RQ)

● The ratio of volume of CO2 evolve of the volume of O2 consumed
is RQ.
Volume of CO2 evolved
RQ =
Volume of O2 consumed
● It depends on the type of respiratory substrate, used during
respiration.
● For, carbohydrates = 1
Fat = less than 1, (e.g., Tripalmitin = 0.7)
Protein = about 0.9
NOTE
● Glucose is the preferred substrate, though fats and protein can also
yield energy.
● Fermentation takes place in many prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes
and in germinating seeds.
● In aerobic respiration, O2 is ultimate electron acceptor and it gets
reduced to water.
● Oxidative Phosphorylation : Process of ATP formation when
electrons are transferred by electron carriers from NADH2 or FADH2
to oxygen.
qqq

Chapter 15
9
Plant Growth and

Development
INTRODUCTION
● Development of a mature plant from a zygote follows a precise and
highly ordered succession of events.
● Development is the sum of two processes: Growth and
Differentiation.
GROWTH
● Irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or
even an individual cell.
● Accompanied by metabolic processes and occur at the expense of
energy.
● Plants retain the capacity of unlimited growth throughout their life
due to presence of meristem at certain locations in their body.
● This form of growth wherein new cells are always being added to
the plant body by the activity of meristem is called open form of
growth (Indeterminate).
● Primary growth: Root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem
are responsible for it i.e., elongation along their axis.
● Secondary growth: In dicotyledonous plants and gymnosperms, the
lateral meristems like vascular cambium and cork-cambium, which
appear later in life and cause increase in girth of the organs.
● Growth is measurable: At cellular level, it is principally a
consequence of increase in amount of protoplasm.
PHASES OF GROWTH
The period of growth is generally divided into three phases Meristematic,
Elongation & Maturation.
(i) The constantly dividing cells at root apex and shoot apex represent
meristematic phase of growth.
(ii) Cells proximal to the tip represent phase of elongation.
(iii) More proximal to the phase of elongation is phase of maturation.
GROWTH RATES
Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate (Arithmetic or
Geometrical).
(a) Arithmetic growth: Following mitotic cell division, only one daughter
cell continues to divide while the other differentiates and matures.
So, a linear curve is obtained e.g., Root elongating at a constant rate.
Lt = L0 + rt
Lt = Length at time ‘t’
L0 = Length at time ‘zero’
r = Growth rate/elongation per unit time.
Linear growth
Sigmoid growth (S-shaped curve)
Stationary phase
Height of the plant
(Growth slow down)

Size/weight of the organ
se
pha
ial
ent
Increase
pon
rapidly
Ex
Lag phase (initial

slow growth)
Time
Time
(b) Geometrical growths

A sigmoid curve is a characteristic of living organism growing
in a natural environment. It is typical for all cells, tissues and
organs of a plant.
Wt = W0ert

W1 = Final size (weight, height, number etc.)
W0 = Initial size at the beginning of period.
r = growth rate; t = Time of growth.
e = Base of natural logarithms.
r = Relative growth rate and measure of ability of plant to produce
new material called efficiency index.
QUANTITATIVE COMPARISONS BETWEEN GROWTH OF

LIVING SYSTEM CAN BE MADE BY
(i) Measurement and comparison of total growth per unit time called
Absolute Growth Rate.
(ii) The growth of given system per unit time expressed on a common
basis, e g., per unit initial parameter is called Relative Growth Rate.
Absolute and Relative Growth Rates
B1
A1
CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH

● Water: For cell enlargement, i.e., extension growth by turgidity.
Water also provides medium for enzymatic activities.
● Oxygen: For aerobic respiration to get metabolic energy.
● Macro and Micro nutrients: For synthesis of protoplasm.
● Temperature: Optimum range for best growth.
● Light and Gravity: Also affect certain stages of growth.
123 Plant Growth and Development

Differentiation De-Differentiation Re-Differentiation
The cells derived Living differentiated De-differentiated
from root apical cells that have lost meristems are able to
and shoot apical the capacity to divide divide and produce
meristems can regain capacity cells that once again
and cambium of division under lose capacity to divide
differentiate and certain conditions but mature to perform
mature to perform e.g., Formation of specific functions e.g.,
specific functions, interfascicular and Secondary xylem,
this act leading to cork-cambium from secondary cortex, cork,
maturation e.g., parenchyma cells. etc.
Tracheary element.
DEVELOPMENT
● Development includes all changes that an organism goes through
during its life cycle from germination of seed to senescence.
Sequence of developmental process in a plant cell
Cell Division Death
Senescence
Meristematic Plasmatic growth Differentiation

Cell
Mature
Cell
Expansion Maturation
(Elongation)
PLASTICITY
● Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or
phases of life to form different kinds of structures.
● Heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur leaves of the juvenile
plant are different in shape from those in mature plants.
● Environmental heterophylly in buttercup is also an example of
plasticity which shows difference in shape of leaves produced in air
and water.

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS (PGRs)
Broadly divided into two groups based on their
functions in a living plant body.
Involved in Growth Involved in Growth
promoting activities inhibiting activities
(Like-cell division, cell enlargement, (Like-Response to wounds
pattern formation, tropic growth, and stresses of biotic and
flowering, fruiting and seed abiotic origin; dormancy and
formation) abscission) E.g.; Abscisic acid
(derivatives of carotenoids)
1. Auxin (indole compounds) IAA.
2. Gibberellins (GA3, terpenes)
3. Cytokinin (adenine derivatives)
The gaseous PGR, Ethylene, could fit either of the groups, but it is
largely an inhibitor of growth activities.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

Auxin
● Charles Darwin and his son Francis Darwin studied phototropism in
canary grass.
● F.W. Went isolated auxin from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.
● First isolated from human urine.
● Produced by growing apices of stems and roots.
● IAA and IBA isolated from plants.
● NAA, 2, 4-D are synthetic.

Physiological effects:
● Initiate rooting in stem cultings.
● Promote flowering in pineapples.
● Help prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote abscission
of older mature leaves and fruits.
● Apical dominance.
● Induce parthenocarpy in tomatoes.
● 2, 4-D kill dicot weeds. Used to prepare weed-free lawns.
● Controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell-division.
Gibberellins
● Bakanae (foolish seedling) disease in rice was caused by fungal
pathogen G. fujikuroi. Later, Gibberellic acid was identified.
● GA3 discovered first and remains intensively studied form.
● All GAs are acidic.
● Increase length of grapes stalk.
● Cause fruits like apples to elongate and improve shape.
● Delay senescence
● Used to speed up malting process in brewing industry, increases
length of stem and yield by 20 tonnes per hectare in sugarcane.
● Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs to hastens maturity period.
Promotes bolting in beet, cabbages and many plants with rosette
habit.
Cytokinin
● Skoog and Miller crystalised cytokinesis promoting active substance
and termed it kinetin (a modified form of adenine) from autoclaved
herring sperm DNA, Kinetin does not occur naturally in plants.
● Zeatin, the naturally occurring cytokinin, was isolated from corn-
kernels and coconut milk.
● Synthesised in regions of rapid cell-division like root apices,
developing shoot buds, young fruits etc.
● Helps produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth
and adventitious shoot formation. Overcomes apical dominance
● Promote nutrient mobilisation.
● Helps delay leaf senescence.

Ethylene
● Synthesised in large amounts by tissues undergoing sencescence and
ripening fruits.
● Horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of axis and apical hook
formation in dicot seedlings.
● Promotes senescence and abscission in leaves and flowers.
● Effective in fruit ripening by increasing rate of respiration called
climactic.
● Breaks seed and bud dormancy.
● Initiates germination in peanut seeds, sprouting of potato tubers.
● Promotes rapid internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants.
● Promotes root growth and root hair formation.
● Initiates flowering and helps in synchronising fruit-set in pineapples.
● Induces flowering in mango.
● Ethephon is source of ethylene. It hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes
and apples and accelerates abscission in flowers and fruits (thinning
of cotton, cherry, walnut).
● Promotes female flowers in cucumbers, increasing yield.
Abscisic Acid
● Regulates abscission and dormancy.
● A general plant growth inhibitor and inhibitor of plant metabolism.
● Inhibits seed germination.
● Stimulates closure of stomata.
● Plays important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
● By inducing dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation
and other factors unfavourable for growth.
● AB acts as an antagonist to GAs.
PHOTOPERIODISM
Some plants require a periodic exposure to light to induce flowering:
(a) Long-day plants: Require light period exceeding well-defined critical
period.
(b) Short-day plants: Require light less than critical period.
(c) Day-neutral plants: No such co-relation between exposure to light
duration and induction of flowering response.
The site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves.

SEED DORMANCY
● Controlled by endogenous factors, i.e., conditions within the seed
itself.
● Impermeable and hard seed coat; presence of chemical inhibitors-
ABA, phenolic acids, para-ascorbic acid cause seed dormancy.
● Man made measures like mechanical abrasions, using knives, sand
paper or vigorous shaking can break dormancy.
● In nature microbial action, passage through digestive tract of animals
can break dormancy.
● Chilling condition, use of gibberellic acid and nitrates can remove
effect of inhibitory substances.
● Light and temperature can also break dormancy.
VERNALISATION
● Vernalisation is either qualitative or quantitative exposure to low
temperature for flowering in some plants.
● It prevents reproductive development late in the growing season and
enables the plant to have sufficient time to reach maturity.
● Wheat, barley, rye have winter and spring varieties.
● Biennials like sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots to cold treatment
stimulates a subsequent photoperiodic flowering response.
NOTE
● Development in plants can be under intrinsic and extrinsic control,
intrinsic can be intra-cellular (Genetic) or inter-cellular (PGR).
● In plants, growth and even differentiation is also open, as cells and
tissues of same meristem have different structure at maturity.
● PGRs can be having complimentary or antagonistic role, which can
be individualistic or synergistic.
qqq

Chapter 16
Digestion and
Absorption
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Digestion: The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple
absorbable forms carried out by mechanical and biochemical methods.
1. Food: ○ Provide energy and organic material for growth and repair of tissues.
Major components Minor components

(biomacromolecules) (biomicromolecules)
○ Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats ○ Vitamins, Minerals
2. Water:
○ Important for metabolic processes.
○ Prevent dehydration of the body.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary canal
Human digestive system consists of
Digestive glands/Associated glands
Oral cavity Teeth ○ Thecodont, Heterodont and Diphyodont
Buccal cavity Tongue ○ Muscular organ, attached to the oor of oral cavity
by the frenulum.
○ Upper surface of the tongue has small projections
called papillae.
○ Some papillae have taste buds.
Pharynx Common passage for food and air and helps in swallowing.
Oesophagus Thin, long tube (25 cm long).
Passes through neck, thorax and diaphragm.
Stomach J-shaped bag in upper left part of abdominal cavity.
Cardiac – Oesophagus opens into
○ 4 regions
Fundic – Filled with air and gas
Body – Main central region
Pyloric – Opens into small intestine
Small Duodenum – ‘C’-shaped, shortest and widest
Intestine 3 regions Jejunum – Long coiled part, plicae circularies prominent
Ileum – Highly coiled, opens into large intestine
Large 3 regions Caecum – Blind sac, host symbiotic microbes
Intestine ○ Vermiform appendix:
Vestigial organ, nger-
like tubular projection
Colon Ascending
Transverse
Descending
Sigmoid
Rectum Internal sphincter (Involuntary)
External sphincter (Voluntary)
Human Digestive System
• Vestibule – Narrow space in the mouth that is bound by lips, cheeks and teeth.
• Epiglottis (cartilaginous ap) prevents the entry of food into the glottis
(opening of trachea/wind pipe) during swallowing.
• Sphincters are muscular structures that regulate the ow of partially
digested food in the alimentary canal.

HISTOLOGY OF GUT
Layers Typical
○ Serosa ○ Outermost layer, made up of thin mesothelium (visceral
epithelium of visceral organs) with some connective tissues.
○ Muscularis ○ Inner – Circular muscles
○ Outer – Longitudinal muscles
○ Sub-mucosa ○ Loose connective tissue with nerve, blood and lymph vessels.
○ In duodenum, Brunner’s glands present in sub-mucosa.
○ Mucosa ○ Innermost layer lining the lumen
Modifications
○ Stomach ○ Oblique muscle layer is present.
○ Irregular folds of mucosa called Rugae.
○ Small intestine ○ Finger like foldings of mucosa called villi.
○ Cells lining villi produce microscopic projections called
microvilli giving brush border appearance.
• Villi, microvilli, rugae – Increase surface area for absorption.

• Villi are supplied with blood capillaries and lacteals (Lymph vessel).
• Gastric glands, goblet cells and crypts of Lieberkuhn – Present in mucosa.
• The muscular activities of different parts of alimentary canal can be
moderated by neural mechanisms, both local and through CNS.

131 Digestion and Absorption

TEETH
Dentition:
○ Thecodont – Each tooth is embedded in socket of jaw bone.
○ Heterodont – Different types: Incisor (I), Canine (C),
Premolar (PM), Molar (M)
○ Diphyodont – 2 sets of teeth during life
• A set of temporary/milk/deciduous teeth which are replaced by a set of
permanent/adult teeth
I CPMM
Teeth in each half of upper jaw 2 1 2 3
Dental formula = Teeth in each half of lower jaw = 2 1 2 3 × 2 = 32
2 1 0 2
Dentition formula of temporary teeth =
2 1 0 2 × 2 = 20
Enamel – Hard chewing surface, helps in mastication of food.

Number of Roots:
○ Incisor = 1
○ Canine = 1
○ Premolars = 2
○ Molars = 3

DIGESTIVE GLANDS
133
Glands Location pH Secretion Contents Function
(1–1.5 L) Mucus Lubrication and adhering of
Salivary Glands Outside buccal 6.8 Saliva/ masticated food into bolus
cavity salivary + +
Electrolytes-Na , K , Act as buffering agents
1 Pair – Parotids largest Cheek juice into – –
1 Pair – Submaxillary/ Lower jaw oral cavity Cl , HCO3
Submandibular Lysozymes Antibacterial agent, prevent infections
1 Pair – Sublinguals smallest Below tongue Salivary amylase Carbohydrate splitting enzyme
or Ptyalin
Gastric glands Mucosa of 1.8 Gastric Mucus Mucus + Pepsinogen + Hydrochloric acid
stomach juice in Lubrication and protection of mucosal
stomach epithelium from excoriation by HCl
○ Mucus neck cells
Active form
○ Peptic/chief cells Pepsinogen Protein digestion
Active form
Prorennin Digestion of milk proteins
(infants)
Lipase Fat digestion
Digestion and Absorption

HCl Acidic pH, activation of gastric
○ Parietal/oxyntic cells proenzymes
Intrinsic factor Absorption of vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
Liver (Largest gland) Upper right side >7 Bile Bile salt Emulsication of fats
1.2-1.5 kg of abdomen released Bile pigments Bilirubin and biliverdin
below into Cholesterol
diaphragm duodenum Phospholipids • Bile activates lipases
Glands Location pH Secretion Contents Function
Pancreas Between >7 Pancreatic Trypsinogen Active form
Protein digestion
(Heterocrine gland) limbs of juice Chymotrypsinogen
duodenum released Procarboxypeptidase
into Carbohydrate digestion
Amylase
duodenum
Lipases Fat digestion
DNAase
Nucleases RNAase Nucleic acid digestion
Intestinal glands 7.8 Intestinal Mucus Lubricate and protect intestinal mucosa
juice/ from acid and provide alkaline medium
Succus for enzymatic activities
○ Brunner’s gland Sub mucosa entericus Brush border enzymes
(no enzyme) of duodenum
○ Disaccharidases Carbohydrate digestion
○ Dipeptidases Protein digestion
○ Crypts of Lieberkuhn Mucosa of ○ Lipases Fat digestion
small intestine ○ Nucleosidases Nucleosides digestion
between the Activates trypsinogen into trypsin
Enterokinase
bases of villi
Hand Book (Biology)

which in turn activates other
enzymes in the pancreatic juice
Control of activities of gastro intestinal tract

• Saliva secretion – Stimulated by sight, smell and/or presence of food in oral cavity.
• Gastric and intestinal – Local hormones produced by gastric and intestinal mucosa
secretion – Neural mechanisms – local and via CNS
134
DUCTS ASSOCIATED WITH LIVER AND PANCREAS
Exocrine part (acinar cells) secrete alkaline pancreatic

Pancreas juice containing enzymes.
Endocrine part (islets of langerhans) secrete hormones,
insulin and glucagon into blood vessel
Schematic flow of digestive juices

Liver Bile Hepatic ducts Common hepatic duct
(hepatic
cells)
Pancreatic duct Cystic duct
Duodenum Hepato-pancreatic duct Common bile duct
Sphincter of Oddi
• Hepatic lobules are structural and functional unit of liver.

• Each lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath
called Glisson’s capsule.
• Hepatic cells are arranged as cords in hepatic lobule.

DIGESTION OF FOOD
Mechanical process
Complex food substances Simple absorbable forms.
Biochemical process
Bolus – Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles.
Bolus passes down into oesophagus by swallowing/deglutition.
Food in stomach mixes with acidic gastric juice by churning movements and is called chyme.
Breakdown of biomacromolecules into its simplest form occurs in the duodenum region of small intestine.
Various types of movements in alimentary canal (e.g., peristalsis) are generated by muscularis layer that helps in a thorough mixing
up of the food with various secretions and thereby facilitate digestion.
Site of
Juice Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Nucleic Acids
Digestion
Salivary — — —
Saliva Buccal cavity (30%) Starch amylase Maltose
Gastric Stomach ○ Pepsinogen HCl Pepsin Lipase minor role

juice (stores food — Protein Peptones (peptides) + proteoses —
for 4-5 hrs.)
○ Milk protein Rennin
Infants
Peptones + proteoses
Bile Intestine ○ Emulsication of fats
Hand Book (Biology)

— — i.e., Fats micelles —
○ Activates lipases
Pancreatic Intestine Polysaccharides ○ Trypsinogen Enterokinase Trypsin Fats Nucleic acids

juice (Starch) ○ Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
Lipases Nucleases
○ Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic amylase
Proteins Diglycerides Nucleotides
Disaccharides Peptones Dipeptides +
Proteoses Monoglycerides
Succus Intestine Dipeptidases Lipases

Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose ○ Dipeptides Amino acids Monoglycerides Fatty Nucleotides Nucleotidases Nucleosides
entericus Lactase acids Nucleosidases
Lactose Glucose+Galactose
+ +
Glycerol Sugars + Nitrogen bases
Sucrose Sucrase Glucose+Fructose Diglycerides
136
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion (in the form
of small units) pass through intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
The digested food is absorbed into the body through the epithelial lining of the
intestinal villi of jejunum and ileum.
Enterocyte Protein
Fatty acid Fatty acid Lacteals
+ + in villi
Incorporate into
Glycerol Glycerol Triglyceride
Micelles/ Indirectly
+ + absorted
small droplet
Bile salts Triglyceride in blood
Lumen of
Chylomicron Blood stream
small intestine
Method Mechanism Examples
–
Directly absorbed
○ Passive: Simple ○ Glucose, amino acids, Cl ions
(Along diffusion
into blood
concentration gradient) Facilitated ○ Glucose, amino acids
○ No energy required transport
Osmosis ○ Water
○ Active (uphill transport): +
(Against concentration gradient) ○ Glucose, amino acids, Na ions
○ Energy is required
Summary of different substances absorbed

in different parts of alimentary canal
Mouth and lower side of tongue Certain drugs
Stomach Simple sugars, alcohol, water
Small intestine Lymph Fatty acids, glycerol
Blood Glucose, fructose, amino acids
Large intestine Water, drugs, some minerals
Maximum absorbtion occur in the small intestine
ASSIMILATION
The digested end Food
products formed
in duodenum are
absorbed and nally Digested
food Maximum
reach the tissues Alimentary absorption
which utilise them in small Blood
canal Undigested and Assimilation
for their activities. intestine
unabsorbed food
This process is Body
called assimilation. cells
Faeces

ROLE OF LARGE INTESTINE
No significant digestive activity occurs here.
Absorption of water, minerals certain drugs.
Site for
Secretion of mucus, to adhere waste and for lubrication.
Solid faeces initiate neural reex, causing urge for its removal.
Undigested, unabsorbed substances enters caecum through ileo-caecal valve
and the wastes solidied into coherent faeces which is temporarily stored in
rectum till defaecation.
Egestion of faeces to outside through anal opening is defaecation. It is a
voluntary process and is carried by a mass peristaltic movement.
PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)

Dietary deciencies of proteins and total food calories are widespread in
children of underdeveloped countries.
It may affect large sections of the population during drought, famine and
political turmoil.
Parameters Kwashiorkor Marasmus
Dietary deficiency ○ Proteins ○ Proteins and calories
Age ○ Child more than 1 year ○ Infants less than 1 year
Reason ○ Replacement of mother’s ○ Replacement of mother’s
milk by high calorie, low milk too early by other
protein diet. foods or mother has second
pregnancy when older
infant is too young.
Characteristics ○ Extensive oedema i.e., ○ Extensive emaciation of

swelling of body parts. body, Skin is dry, thin and
○ Wasting of muscles, wrinkled, thinning of limbs.
thinning of limbs.
Growth rate and body weight decline.

PEM
Growth and development of brain are impaired.


ENERGY VALUES
Gross Calorific Value Physiological Value
○ Amount of heat liberated from complete ○ Actual amount of energy
combustion of 1 gm of food in bomb released on combustion of
calorimeter (metal chamber led with O2) 1 g of food in body.
• Carbohydrates - 4.1 K cal/g 4.0 K cal/g
• Proteins - 5.65 K cal/g 4.0 K cal/g
• Fats - 9.45 K cal/g 9.0 K cal/g
• 1 kilo calories is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of

1 kg of water by 1°C.
• Energy requirements of animals and the energy content of food expressed
in terms of heat energy, [calorie (cal) or joule (J)].

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Disease/Problem Cause and Symptoms
Inflammation of ○ Most commonly due to bacterial
intestinal tract and viral infections.
○ Can be due to parasites like roundworm,
tapeworm, threadworm,
hookworm, pin worm etc.
Jaundice ○ Liver affected.
○ Skin and eyes turn yellow due to
deposit of bile pigments.
Vomiting ○ Ejection of stomach content, feeling
of nausea precedes vomiting.
○ It is a reex action controlled by vomit
centre, medulla.
Diarrhoea ○ Abnormal frequency of bowel movement
and increased liquidity of faecal discharge,
reduces food absorption.
Constipation ○ Faeces are retained within the colon
as bowel movement occurs irregularly.
Indigestion ○ Food not digested properly,
feeling of fullness.
○ Can be due to inadequate enzyme
secretion, anxiety, food poisoning,
over eating and spicy food.

Chapter 17
Breathing and
Exchange of Gases
BREATHING/RESPIRATION
Exchange
Atmospheric oxygen CO2 produced by cells
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Based on Organism Mechanism
Sponges, coelenterates atworms Simple diffusion
Habitats Earthworm, Frog Moist skin
Insects Tracheal tubes
Levels of organisation Aquatic arthropods, molluscs, sh Branchial/Gills
Amphibians, reptiles, mammals Pulmonary/lungs
Amphibians show cutaneous respiration all the time.
OUTLOOK OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ( Well developed)
Nostrils
Conducting
Epiglottis Nasal chamber

zone
(Elastic cartilage
that covers glottis
during swallowing)
Larynx (Voice box)
Bronchus Trachea
th
(Divides at 5 thoracic vertebra)
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi Pleural fluid

(reduced friction on lung surface)
Respiratory
Tertiary bronchi Cut end of ribs

zone
Outer pleural membrane

Initial bronchioles
Inner pleural membrane
Terminal bronchioles
Diaphragm
Alveoli
(Vascular bags with
thin, irregular walls)
Functions
Conducting zone Respiratory zone
Humidication of air Exchange of gases O2 and
Transport of air CO2 between blood and
Traps dust present in inhaled air atmospheric air
Bring air to body temperature
IMPORTANT POINT
Dorsally by the vertebral column
Ventrally by the sternum
Thoracic Chamber
Laterally by ribs
Lower side by dome shaped diaphragm
Any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity will be reected
in the lung (Pulmonary cavity).
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Lungs, enclosed in an anatomically air tight thoracic chamber; essential for
breathing as we cannot alter pulmonary volumes directly.
Movement of air follows the pressure gradient.
Specialised set of structures involved in breathing:
Air entering lungs Air expelled from lungs
Ribs and
Ribs and
sternum
sternum
Volume of returned to
(ventral) Volume of
thorax original
raised thorax
increase position
decreased
Ribs
cage Diaphragm
Vertebrae relaxed
Diaphragm (Dorsal)
contracted and arched
(Posterior) upwards
(a) (b)
Fig.: Mechanism of breathing showing: (a) Inspiration (b) Expiration
Normal rate of breathing 12-16 times/minute in adult human
Involve
Inspiration Expiration
Intrapulmonary pressure Low High
Pressure in the lungs w.r.t. atmosphere –ve +ve
Shape of diaphragm Flat Dome-shaped
Forceful expiration achieved Internal intercostal muscle

Abdominal muscle
141 Breathing and Exchange of Gases

EXCHANGE OF GASES
Partial pressure drives respiration
Site of exchange:
○ Alveoli (Primary)
○ Between blood and tissues
Partial pressure:
○ Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases
Respiration steps Atmosphere Partial pressure of
gases (mm Hg)
O2 CO2
1. Breathing/pulmonary ventilation Alveoli 159 0.3
2. Diffusion of O2 & CO2 across alveolar 104 40

membrane (less than 1 mm thick)
3. Transportation of gases by blood

95 40
4. Diffusion of O2 & CO2 between

blood and tissues
5. Cellular respiration 40 45
Exchange of gases is based on:

○ Concentration gradient
○ Thickness of membrane
○ Solubility of gases - CO2 is 20-25% more soluble than O2
○ Any factor that affects diffusion rate
Squamous Air
epithelium
The thinner the membrane involved in of alveolar wall
Basement
(one-celled thick)
diffusion, the faster is the diffusion of substance
Alveolar
gases. cavity Endothelium
of blood
capillary
Total thickness of the respiratory Blood
Red blood cell
capillary
membrane is less than a millimetre.
Fig.: A Diagram of a section of an
alveolus with a pulmonary capillary.
Diffusion membrane Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli

comprises of 3 layers Endothelium of capillaries
Basement substance in between

RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
Instrument - Spirometer
Significance - Clinical assessment of pulmonary functions
Residual volume cannot be measured by Spirometer.
Standard volumes Value in ml Standard

capacities
TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

1. Tidal volume/air TV - 500 IC = TV + IRV
inhaled or exhaled
per breath.
2. Inspiratory reserve IRV - 2500- VC = TV + IRV
VC + RV
volume/forceful 3000 + ERV
inhalation.
3. Expiratory reserve ERV - 1000- FRC = ERV + RV
volume/forceful 1100
exhalation.
4. Residual volume/air RV - 1100- EC = TV + ERV
left in lungs after 1200
forceful exhalation.
Minute volume: TV × respiratory rate i.e., 500 × 12 = 6000-8000 ml
TRANSPORT OF GASES
O2
Lungs Blood Tissue
CO2
Oxygen dissociation curve
Percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen
Haemoglobin
○ Comprises globin and heme.
○ Globin – Protein molecule
○ Heme – Prosthetic group
– Imparts red colour
2+
○ Fe present in the centre of
each Heme.
Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg)

Oxygen Carbon dioxide
5 ml of O2 is delivered to the tissues 4 ml of O2 is delivered to alveoli by
by 100 ml of oxygenated blood 100 ml of deoxygenated blood
3% dissolved in plasma 7% dissolved in plasma
97% as oxyhaemoglobin 20-25% as carbamino Hb
Binding of O2 with Hb is primarily Binding of CO2 with Hb is related to
related to pO2 pCO2 as well as pO2
Hb + O2 Oxyhaemoglobin Hb + CO2 Carbamino-

HbO2
haemoglobin (HbCO2)
Parameter Association Dissociation Association Dissociation
High pO2
High pCO2
+
High H
High
temperature
Location Lungs (Alveoli) Tissue Tissue Lungs (Alveoli)
• Each Hb molecule binds 4 oxygen molecules in a reversible manner.

• Oxygen dissociation curve obtained is sigmoid.
• Maximum (70%) CO2 is transported as bicarbonates facilitated by enzyme
carbonic anhydrase, which exists more in RBCs and minute quantities in
plasma Carbonic Carbonic
anhydrase anhydrase – +
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H
Bohr effect:
○ The phenomenon of an increase in CO2 concentration resulting in
an increased dissociation of oxyheamoglobin.
○ O2–Hb dissociation curve shift right (ed dissociation of Hb with O2).
Chloride shift or Hamburger phenomenon:
–
○ When HCO3 ions from RBC move into plasma, it changes the ionic balance
between RBCs and plasma.
–
○ To restore the ionic balance, Cl ions diffuse from plasma into RBC.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
Humans have signicant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory
rhythm to suit the demands of the body tissues.
Regions Pneumotaxic Chemosensitive Aortic Carotid
involved center area receptors receptors
Location Pons Medulla Aortic arch Carotid
oblongata artery
Reduces duration
Respiratory adjustments
of inspiration
Sensitive to +
pCO2, H
Ventral Dorsal respiratory group
respiratory group – control inspiration
– control inspiration Medulla oblongata
and expiration Primary respiratory rhythm center
The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignicant
DISORDERS
Diseases Affected Area Characteristics
Asthma Inammation of bronchi, Wheezing sound
bronchioles
Emphysema Alveolar wall damage in Respiratory surface
chronic cigarette smokers area decreased
Occupational Lungs Fibrosis and
respiratory lungs damage
disorder
Workers should wear protective masks while working in industries

that are involved in dust producing grinding and stone breaking.

Chapter 18
Body Fluids and

Circulation
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

Constituents: Blood + Blood vessels Functions:
+ Heart ○ Transport of nutrients, O2, glucose etc.
Blood: ○ Removal of harmful substances
○ Synthesised in Red bone marrow Medium of transport
○ Components:
(A) Plasma (matrix, 55%) Water Blood & lymph
Water: 90-92% Sponges & coelenterates Humans
Proteins: 6-8%
○ Fibrinogens – Clotting ○ Albumins – Osmotic balance ○ Globulins – Defense
+ 2+ 2+ – –
Minerals: Na , Ca , Mg , HCO3 , Cl
Nutrients: Glucose, amino acids, lipids
(B) Formed Elements (45%)
Parameter RBCs/Erythrocytes WBCs/Leucocytes Platelets/Thrombocytes
3 3 3
Number 5-5.5 million/mm 6000-8000//mm 1,500,00-3,500,00/mm
Colour Red due to iron Colourless Colourless
containing Hb
(12-16 gm/100 ml)
Nucleus Absent Present Absent
Life span 120 days Generally short Short lived
lived
Function Transport of gases Defense Coagulation of blood.
If number drops, can
lead to loss of blood
from body.
Types of WBCs
Granulocytes Agranulocytes
% of total Basophils Eosinophils Neutrophils Monocytes Lymphocytes

WBCs 0.5 - 1% 2 - 3% 60 - 65% 6 - 8% 20 - 25%
Shape of
nucleus
Function Involved in Resist infections, Involved in immune
inammatory associated with Phagocytic in action response of body
reactions allergic reactions
• RBCs are biconcave and enucleated in most mammals.
• Platelets are cell fragments of megakaryocytes.
• Graveyard of RBCs - spleen.
• Basophils secrete heparin, histamine, serotonin.
BLOOD CLOTTING/COAGULATION
In response to injury/trauma, clotting prevents loss of blood from body.
Events:
Injured tissue
Release Formation of Thrombokinase
chemicals (Cascade (enzyme complex)
Platelets
(Thrombo- process)
plastin) Prothrombin Fibrinogens
2+
Thrombins Fibrins + entangled
Ca ions play an important role in clotting. formed
Vitamin K helps in the conversion of inactive clotting elements
factors to active clotting factors. (Coagulam/reddish
Clotting factors in blood are in inactive form. brown clot)
Serum = Plasma – Clotting factors
BLOOD VESSELS
Layers in wall
Name Position Composition
Tunica externa Outermost Fibrous connective tissue & collagen bres
Tunica media Middle Smooth muscle & elastic bres
Tunica intima Innermost Squamous endothelium
Artery Vein
Tunica media Thick Thin
Lumen Narrow Wide
Circulation Heart Different part of body Different part of body Heart
Oxygenation Oxygenated Deoxygenated
Valves Absent Present
BLOOD GROUPS
ABO grouping Based on Rh grouping
+ve –ve
Parameter Natural Natural Parameter Rh Rh
Antigen Antibodies
Definition Chemicals Proteins Rh factor Yes No
that induce produced
Present On RBC No
immune in response
response to antigens
Present On RBC In plasma
Type A, B Anti-A, B
Blood group and Rh factor compatibility of donor and recipient is done before
transfusion to avoid agglutination of RBCs.
147 Body Fluids and Circulation

Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor’s Group
A A anti-B A, O
B B anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O nil anti-A, B O
Universal Donor – Blood Group ‘O’
Universal Recipient – Blood Group ‘AB’
–ve +ve
Rh person upon exposure to Rh blood will form Rh specic antibodies

Special case of Rh incompatibility
–ve +ve
Mother Rh Foetus Rh
st
1 baby normal, as during pregnancy, no mixing of blood
due to separation by placenta.
During delivery, there are chances of mixing of blood.
Rh–ve mother makes antibodies against Rh+ve antigen.
Antibodies cross placenta in subsequent pregnancy.
Severe anemia and jaundice in baby.
Erythroblastosis foetalis/Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

Administer anti Rh antibodies to the mother immediately
st nd
after 1 delivery, save baby during 2 Pregnancy.
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
Open Closed
Sinuses Present Absent
Regulation of blood flow Improper Proper
Examples Arthropods, molluscs Annelids, chordates
Vertebrates Auricle Ventricle Circulation

Fishes 1 1 Single
Amphibians, most reptiles 2 1 Incomplete
Crocodile, Aves, Mammals 2 2 Double
Fishes pump deoxygenated blood to gills for oxygenation.

LYMPH (Tissue Fluid)
No colour.
Blood – (Larger proteins + most formed elements).
Rich in lymphocytes.
Carrier for nutrients, hormones and fats.
Lymphatic vessels drain interstitial uid back to major veins.
Lacteals are lymph vessels in intestinal villi to absorb fats.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
(Oxygenated blood)
(Deoxygenated
blood)
(Deoxygenated
blood)
(Oxygenated
blood)
[Conducts action potential]
Heart
Mesodermally derived organ present in between lungs, muscular, chambered,
tilted to left.
Protected by double walled, membranous bag–Pericardium with
pericardial fluid.
2 upper, smaller–Auricles
4 chambers
2 lower, larger–Ventricles
Between auricles: Inter-atrial (thin, muscular)

Septum
Between ventricles: Inter-ventricular (thick walled)
Between auricle & ventricle: Auriculo-ventricular (thick brous)
Between right auricle & right ventricle – Tricuspid valves
Cardiac
valves Between left auricle & left ventricle – Bicuspid/Mitral valves
At base of pulmonary artery
Semilunar valves
At base of aorta

Contractile tissue Sino-auricular nodel/ Right upper
Cardiac
muscles
Nodal tissue (SA node/pacemaker) corner of
(Auto excitable) right atrium
Atrioventricular node/ Left lower
AV node corner of
SAN – Maximum – 70-75 action
right atrium
excitability potentials/min
AV bundle Inter ventricular septum
Purkinje bres Divides at apex of ventricle
Valves are muscular aps or cusps that allow unidirectional ow of
blood and prevent its backward ow.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
Pulmonary:
Double circulation Right ventricle Pulmonary
artery Lungs Pulmonary
veins Left
No mixing of Systemic: auricle
deoxygenated and
Aorta Vena cava
oxygenated blood Left ventricle Tissues Right
occurs auricle
Hepatic portal
Hepatic portal circulation – Digestive tract vein Liver
Coronary circulation – Blood ow to and from the cardiac musculature
CARDIAC CYCLE
Sequential events in Atrial systole (2)
the heart which are SAN generates action potentials
cyclically repeated. (1) Joint
diastole
Heart beat rate = 72 Ventricular systole (3)
beats/min. AV node, AV bundles, bundle of His
transmit the action potentials further
Duration of 1 heart
beat = 0.8 sec. Events of 1 cardiac cycle
Location/Structure Joint Diastole Atrial Systole Ventricular Systole
Auricle Relax, lling Contract, increase Relax
ow of blood into
ventricles by 30%
Ventricle Relax Relax Contract, throw
out 70 ml of
blood/ventricle-
Stroke volume
Tri & Bicuspid Open Open Closed, 1st heart
valves sound Lub
Semilunar valves Closed, 2nd heart Closed Closed
sound Dub
• Heart sounds (Lub & dub) can be heard by Stethoscope and have clinical
diagnostic signicance.
• Cardiac output = Stroke volume × Heart rate = 70 × 72 = 5040 ~ 5 litres
• Cardiac output of athletes is higher than a normal man.
• Stroke volume = EDV – ESV

ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG)
A graphical representation of electrical activities of heart during a
cardiac cycle.
Instrument – Electrocardiograph Graphical print – Electrocardiogram
For a standard ECG – 3 leads are connected to monitor heart activity –
Right wrist, left wrist and left ankle.
R
P Q S T
Graphical standards Represent Event associated

P wave Depolarisation of atria Contraction of atria
QRS complex Depolarisation of ventricles Contraction of ventricles
T wave Repolarisation of ventricles Relaxation of ventricles
• Number of QRS complexes in a given time period, determine the heart beat
rate of an individual.
• End of T-wave marks the end of systole.
• Any deviation in ECG indicates a possible abnormality or disease e.g., ECG
machine makes sound pip---pip---pee as patient goes into cardiac arrest.
REGULATION OF CARDIAC CYCLE

Activities of heart are regulated intrinsically i.e., autoregulated as
human heart is myogenic.
Medulla oblongata can moderate
Cardiac functions through ANS

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Parameter Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Heart beat rate Increase Decrease

Strength of ventricular contraction Increase Decrease
Cardiac output Increase Decrease
Hormones of adrenal medulla increase cardiac output


DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Disease Effects
Cardiac arrest Heart stops beating.
Heart failure Heart is not pumping blood effectively enough to
meet needs of body.
Atherosclerosis/(CAD) Deposit of Ca2+, fats, cholesterol in blood vessels
Coronary artery disease that makes arterial lumen narrower.
High blood pressure Repeated check of blood pressure of an individual
140/90, leads to heart diseases and also affects
vital organs like brain and kidneys.
Angina pectoris/ Not enough oxygen is reaching heart muscles.
acute chest pain It affects blood ow. Common in middle aged
and elderly.
Heart attack Heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an
inadequate blood supply.

Chapter 19
Excretory Products and

Their Elimination
EXCRETORY WASTE
Metabolism Excess ingestion
Results in accumulation of
Nitrogenous wastes – NH2, urea, uric acid
+ + – 3– 2–
Other contents – CO2, H2O, ions (Na , K , Cl , PO4 , SO4 )
Removed
Partially/Completely
NITROGENOUS WASTES
Nature of nitrogenous waste formed and their excretion vary among animals
depending on the habitat/availability of water.
Major Nature & Toxicity Typical
nitrogenous Examples and water
waste required
Ammonia Ammonotelic Maximum ○ Diffusion through
○ Aquatic insects gills surface or
○ Many bony shes body surface as
+
○ Aquatic amphibians ammoium (NH4 ) ions
Urea Ureotelic Lesser ○ Kidneys lter
○ Marine shes urea from blood
○ Many terrestrial
amphibians
○ Mammals
Uric acid Uricotelic Least ○ Pellet/Paste
○ Land snails (Semi-solid)
○ Insects
○ Reptiles
○ Birds
• Ammonia converts into urea in liver.

• Elimination of urea, uric acid is meant for conservation of water i.e.,
a type of terrestrial adaptation.
• Kidneys do not play a signicant role in removal of ammonia.
• Some amount of urea may be retained in the kidney matrix of some
animals to maintain desired osmolarity.

EXCRETORY STRUCTURES
Most invertebrates – Simple tubular forms.
Vertebrates – Complex tubular organs called kidneys.
Structures Examples
○ Protonephridia/ame cells ○ Platyhelminthes (Planaria)
(osmoregulation) ○ Rotifers
○ Some annelids
○ Cephalochordates (Amphioxus)
○ Nephridia ○ Annelids (Earthworms)
○ Malpighian tubules ○ Insects (Cockroaches)
○ Antennal/Green glands ○ Crustaceans (Prawn)
• Function of excretory structures:

– Eliminate nitrogenous wastes.
– Maintain ionic and acid-base balance of body uids, i.e., osmoregulation.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
1 pair, bean shaped,

reddish brown
Length 10-12 cm,
Width 5-7 cm,
Thickness 2-3 cm
Weight 120-170 g
[1 pair] Between T12 - L3
vertebra, close to
dorsal inner wall
of abdominal cavity
Have stretch receptors

Guarded by sphincters Store urine till voluntary
Meant for release of urine signals from CNS carries
out its release
MICTURITION
Process of release of urine CNS (voluntary signals)
Mechanism - Micturition reflex Send motor messages
Urimary bladder
Urinary bladder (Store urine) Smooth muscles contract
Activates Urethral sphincters relax
signals Release
Stretch receptors
Urine

KIDNEY
Columns of Bertini/ Capsule–outer tough covering
Renal columns Cortex (Outer) Malpighian corpuscle,
○ Part of cortex which PCT, DCT
extends between Medulla (Inner) Loop of Henle
medullary pyramids Hilum
○ Notch towards concave surface
○ Ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter
Renal pelvis
○ Funnel shaped space with
projections called calyces
Medullary pyramids are conical masses that project into calyces.
NEPHRON
Functional unit of kidney Nearly 1 million complex tubular structure
Each nephron has two parts—(i) Glomerulus (ii) Renal tubule
Efferent arteriole (Narrow)
Afferent arteriole (Short, wide) (Carry the blood from glomeruli)
(Carry blood to glomeruli)
Glomerulus Peritubular copillaries
Malpighian body/
Bowman’s
Renal corpuscle Proximal convoluted
capsule
tubule
Distal convoluted
tubule
Descending limb
Henle’s loop of loop Henle
(Hairpin
shaped) Ascending limb
of loop Henle
Vasa recta Collecting duct
- Branch of Peritubular
capillaries
- Parallel to loop of Henle
- U-shaped Types of Nephron
Parameters Cortical Juxitamedullary

Number More Less
Loop of Henle Too short Very long
Extension into medulla Very little Deep
Vasa recta Absent/reduced Present
155 Excretory Products and Their Elimination

Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): Sensitive region formed by cellular
modications in distal convoluted tubule and afferent arteriole at the
location of their contact.
JGA is composed of JG Cells and Macula densa.
Nephrons are dipped in interstitial uid having specic osmolarity
– Cortex - 300 mOsm/L – Medulla - upto 1200 mOsm/L (Gradient)
• Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by afferent arteriole - a ne

branch of renal artery.
• Many DCTs open into straight tube called collecting duct, many of which
converge into renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces.
• Efferent arteriole emerging from glomerulus forms peritubular capillaries

around renal tubule.

URINE FORMATION
Non-selective
Glomerular process
1. filtration
180 L ltrate/day
Tubular Tubular
2. reabsorption 3. secretion
Nearly 99% of ltrate ○ H+, K+ and ammonia
get reabsorbed secreted into trate
by renal tubules ○ Maintains ionic and
acid base balance
Active Passive
process process Urine
○ Glucose, Na +
○ Nitrogenous 1-1.5 L/day
amino acid wastes, H2O
Glomerular Filtration/Ultra filtration (Non selective process)

th
– 1/5 of cardiac output or 1100-1200 ml blood/min is ltered by kidneys
Renal Artery
Arterioles

(i) Endothelium of glomerular blood vessels
Filtration
(ii) Basement membrane membrane
(iii) Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule
Glomerular ltrate
(Plasma except proteins)
• Bowman’s capsule have podocytes arranged in intricate manner

so as to leave some spaces called slit pores/filtration slits.
• Filtration is due to pressure in the glomerular capillaries.
• Glomerular ltration rate (GFR) = Filtration/min
125 ml/min
• Kidney has an ability to regulate GFR.
FUNCTIONS OF THE TUBULES

PCT DCT
– Nutrients Conditional
Reabsorption HCO3 H2O NaCl H O HCO–
2 3
NaCl K+
300 mOsm/L
H+ K+ NH3
Secretion +
K H
+
+
H
K+
H2O H2O
NaCl
Urea
1200 mOsm/L
Parameter Descending Ascending

limb limb
Permeable Water Salt
Impermeable Salt Water
Filtrate Concentrated Diluted

Concentrating limb Diluting (Minimum reabsorption) limb
PCT:
• Lined by simple cuboidal brush border epithelium.
• Nearly all essential nutrients, 70-80% electrolytes and water are reabsorbed.
• Major site of reabsorption & for selective secretion.

COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM TO CONCENTRATE FILTRATE
Flow of ltrate in different limbs of following structures are opposite direction
(Counter current): ○ Loop of Henle ○ Vasa recta
Proximity of Henle’s loop and Vasa recta and counter current in them increase
osmolarity towards inner medullary interstitium (300 mOsm/L in cortex to
1200 mOsm/L).
Interstitium gradient is caused by NaCl and urea.
NaCl trasported by ascending limb of Henle’s loop exchanged with descending
limb of vasa recta and is returned to medullary interstitium by ascending limb
of Vasa recta.
Urea which enters in thin part of ascending limb of Henle’s loop is transported
back to interstitium by collecting tubule.
This mechanism maintain interstitial concentration gradient that helps in easy
passage of water from collecting tubule thereby concentrating ltrate (urine).
VR HL
300 mOsm/L Cortex
600 mOsm/L H2O NaCl H2O

H2O Urea Urea
900 mOsm/L Medulla
NaCl H2O
1200 mOsm/L
• Henle’s loop primarily helps to maintain osmolarity gradient in kidney interstitium.

• Mammals have ability to produce concentrated urine.
REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION/GLOMERULAR

FILTRATION RATE
Hypothalamus JGA Heart
Low blood volume/ Low GFR/ Increase blood
Body fluid volume/ Glomerular blood flow to atria of
lonic concentration flow/Glomerular heart
Activate
blood pressure
Activate Release of ANF
Osmoreceptors of (Atrial natriuretic
hypothalamus to release JG cells to factor)
ADH/Vasopressin from release renin Work
neurohypophysis
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Vasodilation
Work ACE -
Angiotensionogen
Angiotensin II converting enzyme Result
○ Constrict blood vessels
○ Increase reabsorption Work ○ Blood pressure
of water from DCT decrease
(Prevent diuresis) ○ Constrict blood vessels
○ GFR decrease
○ Activate adrenal cortex to
Result release aldosterone, that
causes reabsorption of
+
Na and water
○ Blood volume increases Result
○ Blood pressure increases
○ GFR increases ○ Blood pressure increase
Increase in blood volume ○ GFR increase
(Renin-Angiotensin mechanism)
Switch off
Osmoreceptors
Suppress
ADH/Vasopressin
ANF mechanism acts as a check on Renin-Angiotensin mechanism (RAAS)

CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF URINE

Colour - Light yellow
pH = 6
Odour - Characteristic
Human kidneys can produce urine nearly 4 times concentrated than initial
ltrate.
Urea - 25-30 gm/day
Various conditions can affect characteristics of urine.
Abnormal constituents of urine Condition Indicate

Glucose Glucosuria Diabetes mellitus
Ketone bodies Ketonuria Diabetes mellitus
Analysis of urine helps in clinical diagnosis of many metabolic

disorders as well as malfunctioning of the kidneys.
DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Disorders Symptoms or Treatment
Renal calculi Stone or insoluble mass of crystalised salts (e.g., oxalates)
Glomerulonephritis Inammation of glomeruli of kidney
Renal/kidney Malfunctioning of kidneys lead to accumulation of urea
failure in blood (Uremia), highly harmful, may lead to kidney
failure.
Treatment
(i) Haemodialysis: Process to remove urea from blood
Boon for thousands of uremic patients all over the
world.
Blood drained Mix with Heparin Pumped
from artery (Anticoagulant) through

Dialysing unit
Filtration based
on concentration Artificial kidney
Anti Mix Clear gradient Porous cellophane
coagulant with blood Nitrogenous tubes surrounded
wastes freely by dialysing uid
Pumped back to move out
body through
Vein
(ii) Kidney transplantation
Composition of Ultimate method in correction of acute renal failure
dialysing fluid is ○ Functional kidney is taken from donor
same as plasma ○ To minimize rejection, close relatives are preferred
except the as donor
nitrogenous ○ Modern clinical problems have increased success rate
wastes of such complicated techniques
ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION

Accessory Remove Basic work
structure
Lungs CO2, water ○ Remove large amount of CO2
approximately 200 mL/min
○ Remove signicant quantity of water
Liver Bilirubin, vitamins ○ Remove large amount of CO2
(Largest biliverdin, drugs approximately 200 mL/min
gland) cholesterol, ○ Remove signicant quantity of water
degraded steroid
hormones
Skin Sweat contains ○ Primary function of sweat is to
○ Sweat gland ○ NaCl facilitate cooling effect on body
○ Urea surface
○ Lactic acid
○ Sebaceous Sebum contains ○ Sebum provides a protective oily
gland ○ Sterols covering for the skin
○ Hydrocarbons
○ Waxes
Salivary glands ○ Small amount of nitrogenous wastes
are eliminated through saliva

Chapter 20
Locomotion and
Movement
LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

Locomotion ○ Voluntary movements resulting in change in place/location.
Locomotion is performed by organisms for variable reasons e.g.,
○ Habitats
○ Demand of situation like search of food, mate, breeding ground, escape
from enemies/predators
Movement ○ Signicant feature of living beings.
Move body parts but do not change in position.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT/LOCOMOTION
Type Structure Examples and functions
Amoeboid Pseudopodia involve ○ Leucocytes, macrophages,
microlaments and Amoeba
streaming of protoplasm
Ciliary Cilia ○ Removing dust particles from
trachea
○ Passage of ova through female
reproductive tract
Flagellar Flagella ○ Maintenance of water current
in canal system of sponges
○ Locomotion in Euglena
○ Swimming of spermatozoa
Muscular Muscles ○ Movement of limbs, jaws, tongue
○ Running, walking, climbing, ying
• All locomotions are movements but all movements are not locomotion.
• Paramoecium - Cilia helps in movement of food through cytopharynx
and in locomotion as well.
• Hydra - Tentacles are used for capturing of prey & also for
locomotion.
• Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal
and neural systems.
MUSCLES
Muscle tissue: Mesodermal in origin.
40-50% of body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
Properties: ○ Excitability ○ Contractility ○ Extensibility ○ Elasticity
Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in branching pattern to form a
cardiac muscle.
Basis Location Appearance Regulation Example
1. Skeletal Striated Voluntary Muscles of limbs
Classification 2. Visceral Non-striated/ Involuntary Inner walls of
of muscles smooth visceral organs
3. Cardiac Striated Involuntary Muscles of heart
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBRES & ITS TYPES

Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components
of the body.
Skeletal muscles are primarily involved in locomotion and body posture.
Sarcolemma
Muscle bre [Anatomically
(muscle cell) unit of Muscle]
Blood
capilary
Fascicle (muscle bundle)
Skeletal muscle Sarcolemma

(Plasma Types
Many membrane)
Sarcoplasm Red White
Muscle bre bundles/ (cytoplasm)
Fascicles Myoglobin
Nucleus Mitochondria
Held by Many (syncitium)
muscle SR
bres Sarcoplasmic
Fascia reticulum Respiration Mainly Mainly
(collagenous aerobic anaerobic
(store Ca2+)
connective tissue)
• Each muscle bre has many parallelly arranged

myobrils/myolaments.

163
MYOFILAMENTS AND STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
Each myobril has dark and light bands due to actin and myosin distribution that establish striated appearance.
Filament Held by Protein Monomer Polymer Typical
○ Thin/actin Z-line Actin Globular Filamentous ○ F-actin helically arranged

(bisect (contractile) ‘G’-actin ‘F’-actin
I-band) Tropomyosin — — ○ Tropomyosin run close to
Tropomyosin
(2 strands) Troponin
F-actin throughout its length
Troponin 3 ○ Troponin distributed at regular
intervals on tropomyosin
Light/I-band
○ Mask active binding sites for
F-actin (2 strands) myosin on actin laments
○ Thick M-line Myosin Meromyosin HMM - Head Project outward at

(thin brous (contractile) (MM) (Heavy) - Short arm regular distance and
membrane) angle from each other
Locomotion and Movement

Head Actin binding sites
from the surface of
LMM - Tail polymerised myosin
ATP binding sites (Light) lament and is known
Cross as cross arm.
Dark/A-band
arm
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION/
SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY
Contraction of muscle bre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments
over the thick filaments.
A motor neuron + Muscle bres = Motor unit

via Release
CNS Motor
neuron
Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (Ach)
At Neuromuscular Junction/Motor end plate, action potential is

generated in sarcolemma that causes release of Ca2+ in sarcoplasm from
SER leading to Ca2+ increase in sarcoplasm
Ca2+ binds to troponin subunit (Troponin C), change in its conrmation and
unmask active site for myosin binding on actin lament
Energised myosin (Myosin – ADP + Pi) binds to actin
Cross bridge = Actin-myosin-ADP + Pi
Result ○ Pull thin laments toward centre

Shortening/ ○ Pull Z-line
contraction ○ Length of I-band reduced
of sarcomere ○ Length of A-band retained
ADP + Pi released from myosin head
New ATP binds to myosin head
Cross bridge broken
ATP hydrolysis on myosin head
Cycle repeats
Process will continue till Ca2+ pumped

back to sarcoplasmic cisternae
Z-line return to original position

T-tubules extension from sarcolemma conduct electrochemical impulses.
Repeated activity of muscle leads to accumulation of lactic acid due to
anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them, causing fatigue.

Globular head is active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP and
active sites for actin.
Thin laments make I (Isotropic) Arranged alternately throughout
band – Actin. the length of myobrils parallel
Thick laments make A (Anisotropic) to each other and to longitudinal
band – Actin + Myosin axis of myobrils.
Sarcomere: Functional unit of contraction between 2 ‘Z’ lines (elastic bres)
= 1 A-band + 2 half I-band.
H-zone is non-overlapped part of thick lament by thin laments.
Z-line
A band I band
H-zone
Sarcomere
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Signicant role in movement shown by the body.
Framework of 206 bones & few cartilages.
Principle division ○ Appendicular skeleton ○ Axial skeleton
Axial skeleton (Bones-80)
Bones distributed along main axis
Structure Bones No. Name of bones Typical feature or
included basic function
1 Cranium 8 1-Frontal 1-Occipital -Protect brain
13 2 2-Parietal 1-Ethmoid -Articulates with
3
4 2-Temporal 1-Sphenoid superior region
12 5
6 of vertebral
11 7 column by 2
10 8 occipital
9
condyles
1. Frontal bone (Dicondylic skull)
2. Sphenoid bone
3. Ethmoid bone Facial 14 2-Nasal 1-Mandible -Form front part
4. Lacrimal bone 2-Lacrimal 2-Maxilla of skull
5. Nasal bone 2-Zygomatic 5-Others
6. Zygomatic bone
7. Maxilla Hyoid 1 1-U-shaped -Present at the
8. Mandible base of buccal
9. Hyoid bone cavity
10. Occipital condyle
11. Occipital bone
Ear 6 2-Malleus -Present in the
12. Temporal bone ossicles 2-Incus middle ear
13. Parietal bone 2-Stapes
165 Locomotion and Movement

Structure Bones No. Name of bones Typical feature or
included basic function
Vertebral Column Dorsal 26 7-Cervical -Main framework
1 Vertebrae 12-Thoracic of trunk
(serially 5-Lumbar -Protects spinal
arranged 1-Sacral-Fused cord
2 units) 1-Coccygeal-Fused -Supports head
-Point of attach-
3 1. Cervical vertebra ment of ribs and
6 2. Thoracic vertebra muscles of back
5 3. Lumbar vertebra
4 4. Coccyx
5. Sacrum
6. Intervertebral disc
Sternum Chest 1 1-Flat bone -On ventral,

bone midline of thorax
Ribs True ribs 24 14-Vertebrosternal -Attach dorsally
to vertebrae and
ventrally to
sternum with
hyaline cartilage
False ribs 6-Vertebrochondral -Not directly
attached to
sternum but to 7th
rib with hyaline
cartilage (8th to
10th pair)
Floating 4-Vertebral -Not connected
th
ribs ventrally (11
and 12th pair)
• All ribs are
bicephalic thin
at bones i.e.,
they have 2
articulating ends
on dorsal side
Rib cage =
Vertebral column
+ Sternum + Ribs
• 1st vertebra is atlas that articulates with occipital condyles.

• 7 cervical vertebrae exist in almost all mammals.
• Neural canal of vertebrae - Site from where spinal cord passes.


APPENDICULAR SKELETON (BONES - 126)
Consists of bones of limbs (30 × 4 = 120) and girdles (6)
Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle

& upper arm & lower arm
Ilium
Coxal bone
Clavicle
Half of girdle
(Collar)
bone Pubus
Ischium
Scapula
Femur
(Between (longest
2nd & 7th bone) Thigh
ribs) Humerus
Patella Knee (Ventral)
Radius Tibia
Ulna Fibula
Wrist Carpals (8) (7) Tarsals

Metacarpals (5) Metatarsals
Palm
Ankle
Digits Phalanges
(14) Fingers
• Girdles helps in the articulation of limbs with axial skeleton.

• Scapula, a dorsal triangular at bone, have elevated ridge/spine, expanded to
form acromion process that articulates with clavicle.
• Glenoid cavity in scapula articulates with humerus head to form shoulder joint.
• Acetabulum, formed by fusion of ilium, ischium and pubis, articulates with
femur to form hip joint.
• 2 halves of pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form pubic symphysis containing
fibrous cartilage.

JOINTS
They are essential for all types of movements involving bony parts of the body.
Point of contact between bones or bones and cartilages.
Force generated by muscle is used to carry out movement through joint, where
joint acts as fulcrum.
Types of joints:
167 Locomotion and Movement

Types Bones Movement Examples
joined by
Fibrous Dense brous Do not allow Flat skull bones fused
connective tissue any movement end to end via sutures
to form cranium
Cartilaginous Fibrous cartilage Limited movement Adjacent vertebrae
Synovial Fluid lled Considerable Humerus & pectoral
synovial cavity movement, helps girdle (Ball and
between 2 bones in locomotion socket joint)
and many other Knee joint (Hinge joint)
movements Atlas & axis (Gliding
joint)
Between carpals
(Gliding joint)
Carpal & metacarpal
of thumb (Saddle
joint)
DISORDERS
Disease Causes Impact
Myasthenia Autoimmunity ○ Affect neuromuscular junction
gravis ○ Fatigue, weakening and paralysis
of skeletal muscles
Muscular Genetic ○ Progressive degeneration of
dystrophy skeletal muscles
Tetany Low Ca2+ in ○ Rapid spasms in muscle
body uid (wild contractions)
Arthritis ○ Inammation of joints
Gout Accumulation of ○ Inammation of joints
uric acid crystals
Osteoporosis Age related ○ Decreased bone mass, increased
decreased levels chances of fracture
of estrogen

Chapter 21
Neural Control and

Coordination
INTRODUCTION
Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and
complement the functions of one another to maintain homeostasis in our body.
The neural system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and integrate
all the activities of the organs so that they function in a synchronised fashion.
SYSTEMS MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS

Parameters Neural System Endocrine System
Integration Through neurotransmitters Through hormones
Coordination Quicker Slower
Neural system provides an organised network of point to point
connections with target cells.
NEURAL SYSTEM
Neurons can detect, receive & transmit stimulus
○ Hydra – Network of neurons
○ Insects – Organised neural system with brain and ganglia
○ Vertebrates – Well developed neural system
HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM
CNS PNS
○ Brain & spinal cord ○ All nerves of body from brain and spinal cord
○ Nerve fibres of PNS
Afferent Efferent
Send impulses from Transmit impulses from CNS
tissues/organs to CNS to peripheral tissues/organs
Somatic neural system Autonomic nervous system

Transmit impulses from Relays impulses from CNS to involuntary
CNS to skeletal muscles organs and smooth muscles
Visceral nervous • Part of Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
system (VNS): • Complex of nerves, bres, ganglia and plexuses
• CNS Viscera
VNS
NEURON Parts
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of Dendrite
the neural system. Cell body
Composed of a cell body, dendrites and axon.
Nucleus
Types Axon No. of Location
Nissl’s granules
Dendrites Schwann
cell
Multipolar 1 2 or more Cerebral cortex
Bipolar Retina of eye Myelin
1 1 sheath Axon
Unipolar 1 0 Embryonic stage

Node of Neurotransmitters
Ranvier are stored in
• Cell body contains cell organelles. synaptic vesicles of
• Impulse from dendrite moves towards cell Synaptic knobs
Axon
body and in axon away from cell body. terminal
TYPES OF AXONS (NERVE FIBRES)

Parameters Myelinated Non-myelinated
Myelin sheath Yes No
Node of Ranvier Yes No
Location Cranial & Autonomic and somatic
spinal nerves neural system
• Schwann cells surround both myelinated and non-myelinated nerve bres.

• Schwann cells form myelin sheath only in myelinated bres.

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT ACROSS AXONAL MEMBRANE

Excitability of neurons is attributed to polarised state of neural membranes.
It has selectively permeable ionic channels responsible for differential
concentration gradient across the axonal membrane.
More permeable for K+
Axonal membranes Nearly impermeable to Na+
Impermeable to negatively charged proteins
Ionic gradients across

Types of fluids Composition resting membrane are
maintained by the active
ECF K+, Na+ ICF = Intracellular
uid transport of ions by
the sodium-potassium
ICF K+, Na+ ECF = Extracellular
uid
pump which pumps
3Na+ outwards and 2K+
into the cell

GENERATION OF IMPULSE
The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma membrane
is called the resting potential.
The electrical potential difference across the axonal membrane after
receiving threshold stimulus is called action potential (nerve impulse).
Events:
+
Na inux
+++ –––
––– Threshold stimulus +++
Change in permeability
of axolemma for Na+
Resting state Depolarisation
(This state is maintained Change in permeability
by Na+/K+ pump) of axolemma for K+
K+ efux
+++
–––
Repolarisation
CONDUCTION OF IMPULSE
Impulse generated at a site arrives at another site and same sequence is
repeated along the length of axon.
Current ows in a circuit when it moves from A to B site.
Inner
membrane
Flow of charge is from A B
Outer
membrane
171 Neural Control and Coordination

TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE
Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another across a synapse.
Events:
Neurotransmitters released in
synaptic cleft
Bind to receptors on post synaptic

neuronal membrane
Opening of ion channels in post synaptic
membrane
Generates a new potential in post synaptic
membrane
Types of synapse
Features Electrical synapse Chemical synapse
Pre & post neuron Close proximity through Separated by uid-lled
gap junctions synaptic cleft
Flow of impulse Direct Through neurotransmitters
Transmission Faster Slower
Directionality Bi-directional Unidirectional
Existence Rare Common
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

Acts as command & control system of the body
Protective ○ Skull
converings ○ Meninges
Outer Middle Inner

Name of meninx Duramater Arachnoid (Thin) Piamater
In contact with Skull Brain
Major Divisions of Brain:

Divisions Major parts
Forebrain Cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus
Midbrain Corpora quadrigemina
Hindbrain Pons, medulla, cerebellum (PCM)

BRAIN
173
Brain is central information processing organ of the body.
Forebrain
Cerebrum
○ Major part of brain
○ Cleft divides it longitudinally into right & left cerebral
hemispheres, connected by corpus callosum
Thalamus
○ Major coordinating centre for sensory & motor signaling
Hypothalamus
○ Lies at base of thalamus
Brain stem
○ Has various centres for controlling body temperature, urge
- Midbrain
for eating and drinking
- Pons
○ Several groups of neuro secretory cell which secretes hormones
- Medulla
Regions in cerebral Appearance Composition
hemisphere Hindbrain Fig. Sagittal section of human brain
○ Outer/cortex Grey Concentrated cell bodies Pons
○ Inner White Myelinated nerve bres
○ Fibrous tract that connects different regions of the brain
Cerebellum (little brain)
Neural Control and Coordination

Midbrain
○ Convoluted surface to provide more space for neurons
Corpora Quadrigemian ○ Coordinate and integrates information received from auditory
○ Located between thalamus/hypothalamus and pons system and semicircular canal
○ 4 lobes on dorsal side between forebrain and pons Medulla oblongata
○ Integrates visual, tactile and auditory inputs
○ Connects brain to spinal cord
Corebral Aqueduct ○ Has centres for controlling respiration, cardiovascular
○ Canal passes through midbrain reexes and gastric secretions
Cerebral cortex includes
Basic Functions of Brain
Sensory Motor Association areas
areas areas (Neither sensory nor motor) • Controls the voluntary movements • Controls hunger, thirst
• Balance of body • Circadian rhythms
• Functioning of vital organs (kidneys, • Human behaviour
Inter sensory Memory Communication lungs, heart) • Activities of endocrine
associations • Thermoregulation glands
Limbic system/Limbic lobe
○ Parts included: Inner part of cerebral hemisphere, hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus
○ Functions: • Involved in expression of emotional reaction (e.g., excitement, pleasure, rage, fear)
• Motivation • Regulation of sexual behaviour
Reflex action and Replex arc
Entire process of response to a peripheral nervous stimulation that
occur involuntarily and require the involvement of a part of the CNC
One afferent neuron (receptor)
Reex pathway arranged in series [sensory organ to CNS]
One efferent neuron (effector
Hand Book (Biology)

Reex arc = stimulus and Response or exciter) [CNS to effector]
SENSORY RECEPTION AND PROCESSING

Sensory organs detect all types of changes in the environment
Input Output
Sensory receptors CNS Parts/Organs
(Detect stimuli) (Process & analyses) (Response to stimuli)
174
SENSE ORGANS
Sense organ Sense Features associated
Nose (single) Smell ○ Mucus coated olfactory epithelium having three
types of cells.
○ Neurons extend directly into bean sized olfactory
bulb that are extensions of limbic system.
Tongue (single) Taste ○ Input from taste buds is conveyed to the brain and a
complex avour of food or drink is perceived
The chemical senses of gustation (taste) and olfactory (smell) are functionally
similar and inter related as they detect dissolved chemicals.
EYE
The wall of the eyeball is Middle layer (Choroid)
composed of three layers: Anterior, opaque, pigmented, visible coloured
○ External portion of the eye
Iris
○ Middle Regulates the diameter of pupil through its
○ Inner muscle fibres
Ciliary Thick anteriorly
body Holds the lens in place through ligaments
rd
Thin over posterior 2/3 part
Choroid
Contains many blood vessels and looks bluish
Outer Photoreceptor cells
Between cornea and lens Retina Types: Rods & cones
(Thin watery uid) (Inner
Vitreous chamber Middle Bipolar cells
most
Aqueous chamber (Lens & Retina) layer) Inner Ganglion cells
Transparent gel
External Layer Lens Fovea Only cones are densely packed
Pupil
(Sclera) Thinned central portion of retina

Anterior–Cornea • Transparent Point with greatest visual
Posterior–Sclera • Crystalline Blind acuity or resolution
Composition spot (No photoreceplor cells)
Dense connective tissue Optic nerve (Retinal blood vessel enter it at a point
medial to and slightly above the posterior pole of
eye ball and leave the eye)
Macula lutea – Yellowish pigmented spot lying at the posterior pole of eye
lateral to the blind spot with a central pit called fovea centralis.
Photoreceptor Vision Photopigments
cells (light sensitive proteins)
Rods Twilight/Scotopic Rhodopsin/Purplish red
vision protein/visual purple
Cones Day light/ Types of cones
Photopic vision ○ Different photopigments
and Colour in these cones
vision Red ○ Sensation of different colours
Green by various combinations
Blue ○ Equal stimulation of these gives
sensation of white light
Photopigments contain an aldehyde of vitamin A/retinal and protein, opsin.
MECHANISM OF VISION Opsin
Focuses (change in structure)
light rays
Visible light Enter Cornea Lens Photo sensitive Contain Rhodopsin
rays cells dissociates into
Change in Retinal
membrane Generate potential Generate action
permeability transmitted potential sent Impulse
difference in to Bipolar forward to Ganglion
photoreceptor cells cells cells
Optic Visual Brain analysed image formed on retina based on
nerve cortex earlier memory and experience
EAR
Anatomical Outer Ear Middle Ear Internal Ear
Divisions Pinna + Ear canal Malleus Incus Stapes Labyrinths
Temporal M I S
Components: Pinna bone Vestibular
apparatus
○ Fine hair and wax
glands are present Cochlea
in their skin
○ Pinna gathers/ Cochlea
collects the nerve
vibrations in
Eustachian tube
the air
○ Connects middle
External auditory ear cavity to the
meatus/canal pharynx
extends inwards Tympanic membrane ○ Equalises pressure
upto tympanum (eardrum) on either side of
tympanum
• Tympanic
Connective tissue covered with skin on the outside
membrane is
Mucus membrane on the inside
composed of
• Ear ossicles Arranged in a chain (M I S)
– Structural Malleus is attached to tympanum
details Stapes is attached to the oval window
– Function Increase efficiency of transmission of sound
waves to the inner ear

INTERNAL EAR
It is a fluid filled inner ear, consists of two parts:
Bony and Membranous labyrinths
Bony Labyrinth Encloses
Membranous Labyrinth
(lled with perilymph) (lled with endolymph)
Parts of Sub-parts Receptors Basic functions
Membranous
labyrinth
○ Vestibular (a) Semicircular Crista ○ Maintenance of balance

apparatus canals (3) ampullaris of the body and posture
(complex (Hair cells)
system (b) Otolith organ Macula ○ Inuenced by gravity
above the is the sensory and movements
cochlea)
Utricle Saccule part of utricle
and saccule.
○ Cochlea Sensory hair ○ Hearning
(coiled cells in organ
appearance) of Corti
• Semicircular canals (surrounded by perilymph) lie at right angle to each

other and the base of each canal is swollen called ampulla.
COCHLEA
Membrane Chambers Fluid Final region

Scala vestibuli Perilymph Oval window
Reisnners
Scala media Endolymph
Basilar Scala tympani Perilymph Round window
Organ of Corti Reissner’s

Located on Basilar membrane membrane
Contains sensory hairs present in
Scala
rows on internal side of organ of media Scala
Corti, that act as auditory receptors. vestibuli
Sensory hair cells Organ
○ Apical part – Possess stereocilia of Cortil
○ Above them there is thin elastic
Tectorial
membrane called Tectorial membrane
membrane
Basilar Scala tympani
○ Basal part – is in close contact membrane
with afferent nerve bres
Fig.: Sectional view of cochlea
forming the auditory nerve

MECHANISM OF HEARING
Ear converts sound waves into neural impulses.
The cerebellum integrates information received from the semicircular canals
of the ear and the auditory system.
Sound waves
Received by Vibrations
extends transmitted
External inwards Ear through Ear Transmits
ear drum ossicles vibrations
to
Auditory Impulse is analysed and
cortex sound is recognised Oval window
Generate
Transmit
waves in
impulse to
Auditory Perilymph
nerve Induce
Hair cells of
Afferent Generates Bend Ripples in the
impulses in cochlea against
transmitted neurons basilar membrane
further to
tectorial membrane

Chapter 22
Chemical Coordination
and Integration
INTRODUCTION
Significance: As the nerve fibres do not innervate all cells of the body and the
cellular functions need to be continuous regulated, hence the role of endocrine
system (carried out by hormones) is integrated with neural system.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES

secrete
Endocrine glands Hormones
(Ductless glands) form Invertebrates
Together regulate Endocrine system (few hormones)
physiological functions &
in the body Neural system Vertebrates
(Point to point rapid (many hormones)
HORMONES coordination)
Classical definition of hormone:
Chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood and
transported to a distinctly located target organ.
Scientific definition of hormone:
Non-nutrient chemical Act as inter cellular messenger Produced in a trace amounts
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hypothalamus
Pineal
Pituitary
Thyroid and Parathyroid
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal
Testis (in male)

Ovary (in female) Bio-PC22-1
Fig.: Location of endocrine glands

Other organs with diffused tissues and cells secrete hormones:
Gastrointestinal tract, heart, liver and kidneys
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei
which produce hormones that regulate synthesis and secretions from pituitary
gland enclosed in bony cavity, Sella tursica.
Types of Hypothalamic Hormones

Example Target Released hormone
Releasing hormone GnRH Pituitary Gonadotrophins
Inhibiting hormone Somatostatin Pituitary Absent
Hypothalamic neurons
Hypothalamus Connected through
Connected through stalk but not via
portal circulation
Portal circulation
Posterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary
Stalk
Stores and releases
hypothalamic hormons
Pars distails Pars intermedia Pars nervosa

(Merged in humans)
Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis
Adenohypophysis
Hormones of Pituitary Basic Function
Growth hormone (GH) Growth of body
Thyroid stimulating Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones
hormone (TSH) by thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic Synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones
hormone (ACTH) from adrenal cortex
Follicle stimulating Male – Regulates spermatogenesis with
hormone (FSH) androgens
Female – Stimulates growth and development
Gonadotrophins (stimulate of ovarian follicles
gonadal activity) FSH+LH
Luteinising hormone (LH) Male – Stimulates the synthesis and secretion

of androgens
Female – Induces ovulation of full mature
Graafian follicle, maintains corpus luteum

Prolactin Regulates the growth of the mammary glands
and formation of milk in them
Melanocyte stimulating Acts on the melanocytes of skin and regulates
hormone (MSH) by pars pigmentation of skin
intermedia
Neurohypophysis
Oxytocin ○ Acts on smooth muscles and stimulates their
contraction
○ Stimulates vigorous contractions of uterus at
the time of child birth
○ Milk ejection from mammary glands
Vasopressin/ADH/Anti- ○ Acts at kidney and stimulates resorption of
diuretic hormone water and electrolytes by the distal tubules
○ Reduces loss of water through urine
(Diuresis)
Disorders
Disease Age Cause Symptoms
Pituitary – Hyposecretion Stunted growth
dwarfism of GH
Gigantism – Hypersecretion Abnormal growth
of GH of the body
Acromegaly Middle Hypersecretion Severe disfigurement
age of GH especially of face
Diabetes – Hyposecretion Diminished ability of the kidney
insipidus of ADH to conserve water leading to
water loss and dehydration
Acromegaly
Serious complications of hypersecretion of GH in middle age can leads to
premature death if unchecked. The disease is hard to diagnose in early stages
and often goes undetected for many years, until changes in external features
become noticeable.
PINEAL GLAND
Location: Dorsal side of forebrain
Hormone released: Melatonin
Basic functions
○ Regulate 24 hours diurnal rhythm of our body (sleep wake cycle)
○ Influence body metabolism, temperature, pigmentation, menstrual cycle
and defense capabilities
181 Chemical Coordination and Integration

GLANDS OF THORACIC REGION
Thyroid Location/Functure Number Hormones Basic functions
Vocal cord ○ Side of trachea 1 T4 (thyroxine) or ○ Regulate basal metabolic rate (BMR)
○ Bilobed structure connected tetraiodothyronin ○ Control metabolism of carbohydrates,
through a thin ap of connective T3 (triodothyronine) proteins and fats
tissue called isthmus ○ Maintain water and electrolyte balance
○ Consists of follicles made up of ○ Regulate development and maturation
follicular cells enclosing a cavity, of CNS
in stromal tissue ○ Support process of RBC formation
Thyroid • Iodine is essential for the normal (erythropoiesis) and regulates
rate of hormone synthesis in the menstrual cycle
thyroid gland 2+
Trachea Thyrocalcitonin Regulates blood Ca levels
(TCT) (Protein
hormone)
Parathyroid ○ Back side of the thyroid gland 4 Parathyroid ○ Increase level of Ca2+ (hypercalcemic)
• Thyrocalcitonin and hormone/PTH ○ Acts on bones and stimulates the
Thyroid
parathormone play a significant (peptide hormone) process of bone resorption
Hand Book (Biology)

role in calcium homeostasis (dissolution/demineralisation)
○ Stimulates the reabsorption of Ca2+ by
the renal tubules
Parathyroid ○ Increases Ca2+ absorption from
glands digested food
Thymus ○ Lobular structure located between 1 Thymosins ○ Play a role in differentiation of
lungs behind sternum on ventral (peptide hormones) T-lymphocytes, thus provide cell
side of aorta mediated immunity
• Degenerates in old age so immune ○ Promote production of antibodies
responses become weak thereby providing humoral immunity
182
DISORDERS OF THYROID GLAND
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
• Iodine deficiency in diet during • Cancer of the thyroid gland
pregnancy and after birth • Development of nodules of the
thyroid gland
1. Goitre: Enlargement of thyroid
gland 1. Exopthalmic goitre or
2. Cretinism: Stunted growth, mental Graves’ disease:
retardation, low intelligence quotient • Enlargement of thyroid gland
abnormal skin and deaf-mutism • Protrusion of eyeballs
3. In adult women, menstrual cycle • Increase in BMR and weight loss
can become irregular
ADRENAL GLAND
One pair located on anterior part of kidney
Adrenal cortex Hormone Functions
Zona glomerulosa Main Glucocorticoid ○ Stimulates gluconeogenesis,

(Outermost layer) is cortisol lipolysis and proteolysis
○ Inhibit cellular uptake and

utilisation of amino acids,
maintains the cardiovas-
cular system and the
kidney functions
○ Produces anti-inammatory
reactions and suppresses
immune response
○ Stimulate glomerular
ltration rate
○ Stimulate RBC production
Zona fasciculata Major Mineralocorticoid ○ Stimulates reabsorption of

+
(middle layer) is aldosterone Na and H2O and excretion
of K+ and PO4– ions, thus
helps in maintenance of
electrolytes, body uid
volume, osmotic pressure
and blood pressure
Zona reticularis Androgenic steroid ○ Play a role in growth of

(inner layer) axial hair, pubic hair and
facial hair during puberty

Adrenal
Disorder Cause Characteristic
cortex
Addison’s Underproduction Alters carbohydrate
disease of hormones of metabolism causing
adrenal cortex acute weakness and
fatigue
Adrenal
medulla
Adrenal medulla
(Centrally located) Hormone Functions
Adrenaline/ ○ Increase alertness, pupilary
epinephrine dilation, piloerection,
sweating
Nor-adrenaline/nor- ○ Increase heart beat, the
epinephrine strength of heart contraction
and the rate of respiration
Catecholamines ○ Stimulate breakdown of
or Emergency/ght/ glycogen resulting in an
ight hormones increased concentration of
glucose in blood
○ Increase breakdown of
lipids and proteins
PANCREAS
Pancreas: A composite gland whose main hormones is to maintain glucose
homeostasis
Endocrine part Exocrine part
(1 to 2 million) Islets of Langerhans

(1-2% of pancreatic tissue) Major cells
-cells -cells
peptide hormones
Glucagon Insulin
Target Hepatocytes Hepatocytes, Adipocytes
Stimulates Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis Glycogenesis
Blood Hyperglycemic Hypoglycemic
glucose level
Glucose
uptake and
utilisation by cells
DISORDER
Diabetes mellitus – Caused by prolonged hyperglycemia
Characteristics – Loss of glucose in urine, Ketone bodies formation
Treatment – Insulin therapy

GONADS Primary sex organs: Form gametes and
secrete hormones
Parameter Male (Testis) Female (ovary)
in abdomen
Location Scrotal sac Ovarian follicles Corpus luteum
(outside abdomen)
Structure Leydig cells/
responsible interstitial cells
Steroid Androgens mainly Estrogen Progesterone
hormone testosterone
Function
• Development and maturation • Growth and activities • Supports
of male accessory sex organs. of female secondary pregnancy
• Stimulate spermatogenesis. sex organs • Stimulates
• Acts on CNS and inuence • Stimulate development formation of
male sexual behaviour (libido). of growing follicles alveoli (store
• Stimulate muscular growth, • Regulate sexual milk and
growth of facial and axillary behaviour secretion of
hair, aggressiveness and low • Appearance of milk)
pitch of voice. secondary sex
• Produce anabolic (synthetic) characters like
effects on protein and mammary gland
carbohydrate metabolism development, high
pitch etc.
HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

Tissue Organ Peptide Basic function
hormone
Atrial wall Heart ANF When blood pressure increases,
it dilates blood vessels to reduce
blood pressure
Juxtaglomerular Kidney Erythropoietin Stimulates erythropoiesis
cells (JG cells)
Endocrine cells in GIT Gastrin Acts on gastric glands and
different parts of stimulates secretion of HCI
gastro-intestinal and pepsinogen
tract
GIP/gastric Inhibits gastric secretions and
inhibitory motility
peptide
Cholecystokinin Acts on exocrine part of
pancreas and gall bladder to
stimulate secretion of pancreatic
enzymes and bile juice
Secretin Acts on exocrine part of
pancreas and stimulates
secretion of water and
bicarbonates
Non-endocrine Growth factors Essential for normal growth,
tissue repair and regeneration of
tissues

Intracellular receptor MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION Intercellular receptor
Hormone receptors are located in the target tissue only
Each receptor is specific to one hormone only
Most intracellular receptors are present in the nucleus
Steroid hormones and iodothyronines enter the target cell
Hormones acting through extracellular receptors do not
enter the target cell
Classification of Hormones
Fig.: Mechanism of action of a steroid hormone Based on chemical nature Fig.: Mechanism of action of a protein hormone
Steroids Cortisol, testosterone, estradiol, progesterone Amino acid derivatives Epinephrine

Iodothyronines Thyroid hormones Peptide, Polypeptide, Protein Insulin, glucagon, pituitary and
hypothalamic hormones etc.
Bind to Bind to
Intracellular/Nuclear receptors Extracelluar/Membrane bound receptors
Hand Book (Biology)

Interact with Generate 2+
Genome and regulate gene expression Hormone receptor complex Second messengers cAMP, IP3, Ca , etc.
and chromosome functions (HR complex)
• Brings biochemical changes in target tissue

Cumulative effect
Results in
physiological and developmental effects
186
Chapter 1
Reproduction in Organisms
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Parameters Asexual Sexual
Number of parents One (uniparental) One (Uniparental) - Taenia or Two
(Biparental) - Periplaneta
Gamete formation Yes Yes
Gamete fusion No Yes
Type of cell division Mitotic Meiotic and mitotic
Conditions for occurrence Mostly favourable Both favourable and unfavourable
Nature of offsprings Identical to parent Mostly non-identical offsprings
Examples Hydra, Planaria Pheretima
Simple process Contributes to evolution significantly
through genetic recombination
Advantage Rapid/faster High adaptability
Parameters Asexual Sexual
No contribution to Elaborate
evolution as genetic Complex
Disadvantages recombination/crossing Expensive
over is absent
Low adaptability Slower process
Clone: Morphologically and genetically similar individuals produced asexually.

Cell division is in itself a mode of reproduction in unicellular organisms e.g.: Amoeba,
Paramecium.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproductive structure
Zoospores Fungi and Algae
Conidia Penicillium
Buds Hydra
Gemmules Sponge
Bulbils Agave
In plants, the term vegetative Water hyacinth is called Terror of

reproduction is used for asexual Bengal
reproduction. 1. Most invasive weeds fast growing
Vegetative propagules in Angiosperm in the standing water
1. Eyes of potato 2. Introduced in India due to
2. Rhizome of ginger beautiful flowers and leaves
3. Bulbil of agave
3. Drains oxygen from the water and
4. Leaf buds of Bryophyllum leads to the death of fishes
5. Offset of Water hyacinth 4. Difficult to get rid of them due to
the propagation at phenomenal
rate
Bamboo species flower only once in their life time after 50-100 years
Strobilanthus kunthiana flowers once in 12 years, last during September
October 2006.
Parthenogenesis
Absence of gamete fusion/syngamy.
Female gamete develops into new organism without fertilisation
Examples: Rotifers, honey bees, some lizards, birds (turkey).
Sexual Reproduction
Remarkable fundamental similarity occur in process of sexual reproduction
among different organisms despite different structures for reproduction.
Reproductive processes and associated behaviours are regulated by hormones
and environmental factors.
Events Associated
Pre-fertilisation events
(a) Gametogenesis
(b) Gamete transfer
3 Reproduction in Organisms
Gametogenesis
Formation of gametes
Meiocytes: Gamete forming diploid cells/gamete mother cells.
Gametes are haploid in nature i.e. receive only one set of chromosomes at
the end of meiosis.
A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic divisions (Monerans, Fungi,
Algae, Bryophytes).
A diploid parent produces haploid gametes by meiosis (Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperm and Angiosperm)
Name of organism Chromosome number Chromosome number
in meiocyte (2n) in gamete (n)
Humans 46 23
House fly 12 6
Rat 42 21
Dog 78 39
Cat 38 19
Fruit fly 8 4
Butterfly 380 190
Types of gametes
(Basis: Morphological and physiological difference)
Heterogametes Homogametes/Isogametes
Different (Fucus) Same (Cladophora)
Heterogametes
Parameters Female Male
Size Big Small
Motility No Yes
Chromosome number Same Same
Food storage Yes No
Number Less More
Ovum
Sperm
Types of organisms
Bisexual (Hermaphrodite) Unisexual
Homothallic and monoecious used Heterothallic and dioecious used for
for plants plants
Leech Cockroach
Earthworm Papaya and date palm
Sponges
Cucurbits, Chara and Coconut
Gamete transfer: Enables bringing together of ♂ and ♀ gametes physically
leading to fertilisation.
Internal fertilisation External fertilisation
Fertilisation occurs inside ♀ Fertilisation occurs in water
reproductive tract
Mostly terrestrial organisms Mostly aquatic organisms
e.g. Reptiles, mammals and majority e.g. Bony fishes, amphibians and
of plants majority of Algae
Disadvantages
Limited number of progeny.
Offsprings are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival
to adulthood.
Great synchrony required between ♀ and ♂ during external fertilisation to
enhance chances of fertilisation.
Heterogametes are present in majority of sexually reproducing organisms.
Fertilistion
Most vital event of sexual reproduction is fusion of gametes called syngamy
resulting in formation of diploid, single celled structure
In seed pants, pollen grains are the carrier of the male gametes. A specialised
events called pollination facilitates the transfer of pollen grains to the stigma.
Successful transfer and coming together of gametes is essential for the most
critical event in sexual reproduction, the fertilisation.
ZYGOTE
Vital connecting link ensuring continuity of species between generations.
Location of development of zygote
Oviparous animals
● Outside the ♀ body
● Protected by calcareous shell
● Lesser parental care
5 Reproduction in Organisms
Viviparous animals
● Inside the ♀ body
● Absent
● Greater parental care
The chances of survival of young ones is greater in viviparous organisms.
Post Fertilisation
Embryogenesis: Process of development of embryo from the zygote through
mitotic cell divisions help increase number of cells and cell differentiation
helps in formation of specialised tissues and organs.
In flowering plants, Zygote develops in the embryo, ovule into seed, ovary
into fruit which has thick wall called pericarp that is protective in function.
After dispersal, seeds germinate to produce new plants.
● End of reproductive phase is a parameter of senescence
● Slowing of metabolism
● Ultimately leads to death
BREEDING SEASON
Time duration when mating occurs
Parameters Continuous breeders Seasonal breeders
Breeding time Throughout the year Specific breeding season
Examples Primates, Hens Elephant, Birds in wild,

(poultry birds in captivity) Horse, Cow, Goat
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES IN PLACENTAL MAMMALS

Cyclical changes during reproduction
Parameters Oestrous cycle Menstrual cycle
Characteristic of Non-primate mammals Primates

Examples Cows, deer, sheep, rats, Humans, apes, monkeys
dogs, tiger
qqq

Chapter 2
Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
INTRODUCTION
u All flowering plants show sexual reproduction.
u Several hormonal and structural changes differentiate & develop the
floral primordium, which form inflorescences, bear floral buds and then
the flowers.
PRE-FERTILISATION–STRUCTURES AND EVENTS

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain
● Androecium, consists of a whorl of stamens, representing the male
reproductive organ.
Filament
● It is a long slender stalk.
● The proximal end of the filament is attached to the thalamus or the
petal of the flower.
● The number & length of stamens are variable in flowers of different
species.
Anther
● Terminal generally bilobed structure.
● Each lobe having two theca i.e, dithecous.
● Often a longitudinal groove runs lengthwise separating the theca.
● The anther is a four-sided (tetragonal) structure consisting of four
microsporangia located at the corners two in each lobe.
● The microsporangia develop further & become pollen sacs. They
extend longitudinally all through the length of an anther and are packed
with pollen grains.
STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM
● In a T.S., a typical microsporangium appears near circular, it is generally
surrounded by four wall layers.
FOUR ANTHER WALL LAYERS
● The outer 3 wall layers perform the function of protection and help in
dehiscence of anther to release the pollen.
● Tapetum: Innermost wall layer. It nourishes the developing pollen
grains. Cells of tapetum possess dense cytoplasm & have more than
one nucleus.
● Sporogenous tissue: Compactly arranged homogenous cells; occupies
the centre of each microsporangium.
MICROSPOROGENESIS
● Microsporogenesis is a process of formation of microspores from PMC
(Pollen Mother Cell).
● As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from

each other & develop into pollen grains.
POLLEN GRAIN
● Represent the male gametophytes.
● It has prominent two layered wall-exine and intine.

Vegetative Cell 2-called stage
● Bigger, has abundant food reserve
& a large irregularly shaped
nucleus.
Exine
● Outer hard layer, made of
sporopollenin.
● Has germ pores where sporopollenin is absent
Generative Cell
● Small, floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell; spindle shaped with
dense cytoplasm and a nucleus.
Intine
● Inner wall layer, thin continuous, made of cellulose and pectin.
● Sporopollenin is one of most resistant organic material known. It
can withstand high temperature, strong acids & alkali. No enzyme
that can degrade it is known. Pollen grains are well preserved as fossil
due to it.
● Pollen grains are generally spherical; measuring 25-50 mm in diameter.
● In over 60% of angiosperm, pollen grains are shed at 2-celled stage, in the
40% species, generative cell divides mitotically to give rise to two male
gametes before pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage).
● Pollen grains of many species cause severe allergies, chronic respiratory
disorders, asthma, bronchitis etc. e.g., Parthenum (carrot grass) came
to India as a contaminant with wheat, became ubiquitous in occurrence
& causes pollen allergy.
● Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets and syrups has been
claimed to increase performance of athletes & race horses.
● Pollen Viability: Highly variable, Depends on temperature and
humidity.
In some cereals like rice and wheat, pollen grains lost viability
within 30 minutes.
In some members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae,
viability can be for month.
● It is possible to store pollen of a large number of species for years in
liquid nitrogen (–196°C) in pollen banks for crop breeding programmes.
PISTIL, MEGASPORANGIUM (OVULE) AND EMBRYO SAC

● Gynoecium represents female reproductive part. Gynoecium may
consist of single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more than one
pistil (multicarpellary). It may be free (apocarpous) eg. Michelia or
fused (syncarpous), e.g. Papaver.
9 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
● Each pistil has three parts
Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains.
Style: Elongated slender part below stigma
Ovary: Basal bulged part of pistil, has ovarian cavity (locule).
Placenta is located inside ovarian cavity. Megasporangia called
ovules arise from placenta.
● One ovule in ovary e.g., Wheat, paddy, mango.
● Many ovule in ovary e.g., Papaya, watermelon, orchids.
● Pollen germination can be studied by dusting pollen on glass slide with
10% sugar solution.
Stigma
Style
Anatropous ovule
Ovary
Thalamus
Megasporangium (Ovule)
● In embryo sac, 3 celled egg apparatus, at
micropylar end, (1 egg cell & two synergids
with filiform apparatus, which guide pollen
tube into the synergid), 3 antipodals at
chalazal end and a large central cell, with two
polar nuclei remain present.
● Embryo sac formation from single megaspore
is termed monosporic development.
Megasporogenesis
● Process of formation of megaspores from
megaspore mother cells.
● Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell (MMC)
in micropylar region of nucellus.
Meiosis
● MMC 4 megaspores.
(2n) (n)
Female Gametophyte/Embryo sac
● In majority of flowering plants, one megaspore remains functional and
3 degenerate.
● The functional megaspore develops to the female gametophyte
(embryo sac).
● The nucleus of functional megaspore undergoes free-nuclear mitotic
divisions to form two nuclei which move to opposite pole. Two more
sequential mitotic divisions result 8-nucleate stage, after that cell
walls are laid down to form the typical 7-celled-8 nucleate female
gametophyte or embryo sac.
POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen shed from anther to sigma of a pistil. Pollination can be
divided into three types
Autogamy
● Pollination is achieved within same flower, i.e., transfer of pollen from
anther to the stigma of same flower.
● It requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity.
● Cleistogamous flowers (which do not open) are invariably autogamous,
eg. Viola (common pansy), Oxalis & Commalina and provide assured
seed set even in absence of pollinators.
● These species also produce chasmogamous flowers (with exposed
anther and stigma) for cross-pollination.
Geitonogamy
● Transfer of pollen grams from anther to stigma of another flower of the
same plant.
● It is functionally cross pollination involving pollinating agents,
genetically it is similar autogamy, since the pollen grains come from
the same plant
Xenogamy
● Transfers of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant.
● This is the only type of pollination which brings genetically different
types of pollen grains on the stigma.
AGENTS OF POLLINATION
Abiotic Agents
Pollen coming in contact with stigma is a chance factor in both wind and
water pollination, flowers produce enormous amount of pollen when
compared to number of ovules available for pollination. It is to compensate
loss of pollen grains.
Wind pollination
● Requires light, non-stickly pollen so that they can be transported by
wind currents. Well exposed stamens and large often feathery stigma
to trap air borne pollen, single ovule in each ovary and numerous
flowers in an inflorescence Tassels in corn to trap pollen.
● Quite common in grasses.
● Pollination by wind is more common among abiotic pollinations.
Water pollination
● Pollination by water is quite rare, limited to 30 genera, of monocotyledons
e.g. Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Zostera (sea grass).
● In majority of aquatic plants like water hyacinth and water lily,
flowers emerge above water & are pollinated by insects or wind.
● In Vallisneria, pollination takes place on the surface of water
(epihydrophily). In sea grasses, it takes place below water
(hypohydrophily)
● In most water-pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from
wetting by a mucilaginous covering.
Biotic Agents
● Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating
agents-Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds
(sunbirds & humming birds) & bats.
● Among animals, insects particularly bees are dominant pollinating
agents.
● Some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree dwelling), rodents or even reptiles
(gecko lizard & garden lizard) are also pollinators in some species
● Insect-pollinating flowers are large, colourful, fragnant and rich in
nectar. Small flowers are clustered in inflorescence to make them
conspicuous.
● Flowers pollinated by flies & beetles secrete foul odours to attract these
animals.
● Nectar & pollen grains are usual floral rewards.
● In some species, floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs,
eg, Amorphophallus. A species of moth and Yucca-cannot complete
their life cycles without each other.
OUTBREEDING DEVICES
● Flowering plants have developed many devices to discourage self
pollination and to encourage cross pollination. For example:
Pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronised.
Anther and stigma are placed at different positions so that pollen
cannot come in contact with stigma of the same flower.
Self-incompatibility is a genetic mechanism which prevents self
pollen from fertilizing the ovules by inhibiting pollen germination
or pollen tube growth in the pistil.
Production of unisexual flowers.
● In castor & maize, (monoecious) autogamy is prevented but not
geitonogamy.
● In papaya (Dioecious), both autogamy and geitonogamy are prevented.
POLLEN-PISTIL INTERACTION
● The ability of pistil to recognise the pollen followed by its acceptance
or rejection is the result of a continuous dialogue between pollen grain
and the pistil. It is a dynamic process.
● Mediated by chemical components of the pollen interacting with those
of the pistil.
● Following compatible pollination, pollen tube grows through the
tissues of the stigma and style, the contents of pollen grain move into
pollen tube.
● The growing pollen tube carrying two non-motile male gametes,
reaches the ovary, enters the ovule through micropyle & then enters
one of the synergids through the filiform apparatus, which guides the
entry of pollen tube.
● All these events - from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tubes
enter the ovule - are together referred to as pollen - pistil interaction.
ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDISATION
● In such crossing, desired pollen are used for pollination & stigma is
protected from contamination from unwanted pollen by emasculation
and bagging.
● If female parent bears bisexual flowers, emasculation is followed by
bagging & rebagging after dusting mature pollen for fruit development.
● If female flowers are unisexual, there is no need of emasculation.
Continued self-pollination result in inbreeding depressions.
DOUBLE FERTIFISATION
● Pollen tube releases the two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the
synergid.
● One of the males gametes fuses with egg to form the diploid zygote
(Syngamy). The other male gamete moves towards the polar nuclei
of the central cell and fuses with them to produce triploid primary
endosperm nucleus (PEN) Triple Fusion.
● Syngamy & triple fusion are called double fertilisation, an event unique
to flowering plants.
● The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell
(PEC) and develop into endosperm.
APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

● Some species of Asteraceae & grasses have evolved a special
mechanism to produce seeds without fertilisation called apomixis. A
form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
● In some species, diploid egg cell formed without reduction division
develops into embryo without fertilisation.
● In Citrus and mango, nucellar cells protrude into embryo sac
& develops into embryos, so each ovule contains many embryo
(polyembryony).
POST-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURE AND EVENTS

Endosperm
● Endosperm development precedes embryo development.
● The cells of tripoid endosperm are filled with reserve food materials
and used by developing embryo.
● The most common type of endosperm, is nuclear type (PEN
undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give free nuclei) eg.,
Coconut water and surrounding white kernel is cellular endosperm.
Embryo
● Develops at micropylar end of embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
● Most zygotes divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed.
This adaptation provides assured nutrition to the developing embryo.
● Early stages of embryo development (Embryogeny) are similar in both
monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
● In dicots, the zygote forms → proembryo → globular → heart-shaped
→ mature embryo.
● A typical dicot embryo has embryonal axis & two cotyledons.
● Epicotyl terminates with plumule or stem tip.
● Hypocotyl terminates at its lower tip in radical or root tip, covered by
root cap.
● Embryos of monocot has only one cotyledon. In grass family, it is
called scutellum towards lateral side of the embryonal axis. Radicle
or root cap enclosed with undifferentiated sheath called coleorhiza.
Epicotyl has shoot apex & a few leaf primordia enclosed in foliar
structure coleoptile.

Seed
● In angiosperms, seed (fertilised ovule) is the final product of sexual
reproduction, formed inside fruits. A seed typically consists of seed
coats, cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis.
● Mature seeds may be non-abuminous or ex-albuminous, having no
residual endosperm, which is consumed completely during embryo
development (eg. Pea, groundnut). Albuminous seeds retain a part of
endosperm (eg. Wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut).
● In black pepper & beet, remnants of nucellus are also persistent, called
perisperm.
● Wall of ovary develops into pericarp. True fruits develop from ovary.
● In apple, strawberry, cashew, etc, thalamus also contributes to form
fruit called false fruit.
● Parthenocarpic fruit develop without fertilisation eg. Banana.
● Seeds form the basis of agriculture.
● Lupinus arcticus seed germinated and flowered after estimated record
10,000 years of dormancy. Phoenix dactytifera (date palm) seed
remained viable for 2000 years.
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Chapter 32
Human Reproduction
PRIMARY SEX ORGANS

Parameters Male Female
Organ Testis Ovary
Number 2 2
Shape Oval Almond
Location Outside abdominal cavity in a Lower abdomen, one on each side
pouch called scrotum
Dimensions Length 4-5 cm, Width 2-3 cm Length 2 to 4 cm
Covering Dense connective tissue Thin epithelium (outermost)
(outermost)
Functions Sperm formation, synthesise Ova formation, synthesise steroidal
steroidal testicular hormones like ovarian hormones like estrogen and
androgens progesterone
Compartments 250 testicular lobules Peripheral cortex and inner medulla
• 1-3 coiled seminiferous tubules/ zones in ovarian stroma have follicles
lobule in various developing stages
Cells lining the seminiferous tubules

1. Male germ cells/spermatogonia
2. Sertoli cells
Function
1. Sperm formation
2. Provide nutrition to the germ cells
● Scrotum helps in maintaining the temperature 2 to 2.5°C lower than
body temperature, necessary for spermatogenesis.
17 Human Reproduction
● Interstitial spaces outside seminiferous tubules contain
immunocompetent cells and Leydig cells.
● Ovary is connected to pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.

19

Human Reproduction
● Secretions of epididymis and vas deferens are essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
● Male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a coitus.
● For normal fertility:
– 60% sperms must have normal shape and size
– 40% sperms must show vigorous motility


Sequence of reproductive events oocuring in humans include:
Gametogenesis
↓
Insemination
↓
Fertilization
↓
Implantation
↓
Gestation
↓
Parturition/Birth
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE

● Every sexually reproducing organism, including human beings, begin
life as a single cell i.e., the zygote.
● The process of development of embryo from zygote is called
embryogenesis.
● During embryogenesis, zygote undergo cell divisions and cell
differentiation.
● Cleavage starts as zygote moves through isthmus to the uterus.
● Daughters formed after cleavage are called Blastomeres.

qqq
Chapter 4
Reproductive Health
INTRODUCTION
According to WHO, reproductive health means a total well being in all
aspects of reproduction i.e., physical, emotional, social and behavioural.
PROBLEMS AND STRATEGIES

India was amongst first countries in the world to initiate action plans to attain
reproductive health such as family planning programmes in 1951.
POPULATION STABILISATION
According to 2001 census, our population growth rate was around 1.7 per
cent – 17/1000/year.
Year World Population Indian Population
1900 2 billion 350 million
2000 6 billion 1 billion
Reasons for Increase in Population Size:

● Decline in death rate
● Rapid decline in maternal mortality rate (MMR)
● Decrease in infant mortality rate (IMR)
● Increase in number of people in reproducible age
● Increase in health facilities
Measures Taken by Government to Check Population Growth Rate:
● Motivate smaller families by using various contraceptive methods with
slogans “Hum do Hamare do”, advertisements and posters
● Urban couples adopting: “One child norm”.
● Statutory raising of marriageable age:
○ Female–18 years
○ Male–21 years
● Incentives given to couples with small families.
BIRTH CONTROL/CONTRACEPTION
Features of an ideal contraceptive:
● User-friendly
● Easily available
● Effective
● Reversible
● No/least side-effects
● No interference with libido or act of coitus
Two principle methods of birth control:
● Natural methods
● Artificial methods
NATURAL/TRADITIONAL METHODS
● Principle of avoiding physical meeting of the egg and sperms.
● Chances of failure are high.
29 Reproductive Health
Method Mode of Action
Periodic abstinence Couples abstain from coitus from day 10 to
17 of the menstrual cycle i.e., fertile period
Withdrawal method/ Insemination is avoided as the male partner
Coitus interrupts withdraws his penis from the vagina just
prior to ejaculation
Lactational amenorrhea Absence of menstruation upto 6 months
during period of intense lactation following
parturition
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
● Barrier methods
● Spermicidal jellies
● IUDs
● Oral pills
● Injections and implants
● Emergency contraceptives
● Surgical methods
I. Barrier methods
● Prevent ovum and sperm from physically meeting.
● Self inserted and offer privacy to user.
(a) Condoms & its Types: Made up of rubber and thin latex.
(b) Diaphragms, cervical caps, vaults

● Rubber barriers that cover the cervix during coitus
● Reusable
● Do not protect from STDs
● Used by female only
II. Spermicidal jellies, foams and creams
● Kill the sperms by acidic pH
● Used along with barrier methods to increase their efficiency
III. Intra-uterine devices (IUDs)
● Inserted by doctors or expert nurses in uterus
● IUDs are one of the most widely accepted method of contraception in
India.
IV. Oral Contraceptive Pills (OCP) or Tablets
V. Implants
● Placed under skin
● Effective periods are much longer
● Composition: Progestogens alone/
Combination of Progestogens and Estrogens
● Mode of Action
○ Inhibit ovulation and implantation.
○ Alter the quality of cervical mucus to retard entry of sperms.
VI. Emergency Contraceptives
Types
● Progestogens alone
● Combination of Progestogen + Estrogen
● IUDs
Characteristics
● Effective with 72 hrs of coitus.
● Used to prevent conception resulting from rape or unprotected
intercourse.
VII. Surgical/Sterilization Methods
● Poor reversibility but highly effective
● Mode of action – Blocks gamete transport
Types
Tubectomy Vasectomy
In females In males
Cut and tie fallopian tubes Cut and tie vas deferens
Incision in abdomen or through Small incision on the scrotum
vagina
MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)/

INDUCED ABORTION
● MTP: Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term.
● MTP was legalized in India in 1971.
● 40–50 million MTPs performed.
● 1/5th of the total number of conceived pregnancies.
When can MTP be Performed?
● Unwanted pregnancy due to rape, failure of contraception, casual
unprotected intercourse.
● If continuation of pregnancy could harm the mother or foetus or both.
● Intention behind MTP amendment act 2017, (Government of India)
○ Reducing the incidence of illegal abortion.
○ Decrease consequent maternal mortality and morbidity.
○ MTPs are safe upto 12 weeks but riskier in 2nd trimester yet both are
legal.
○ Amniocentesis and MTPs have been misused in context of female
foeticide.

AMNIOCENTESIS
● Analyse foetal cells and dissolved substances from amniotic fluids.
● Technique used to check for genetic disorders such as Down’s
syndrome, sickle-cell anemia etc.
● Statutory ban on this technique in India to prevent female foeticide.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)

● Alternately named: Venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract
infections (RTIs).
● High vulnerability/risk group: 15-24 years.
● Mode of transmission: Sexual intercourse.
Category Disease
Bacterial Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Chlamydiasis
Protozoan Trichomoniasis
Viral Genital herpes, Hepatitis-B, Genital warts, AIDS

● Bacterial and protozoan diseases are completely curable if detected
early and treated properly.
● Mode of Transmission:
○ Sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments with infected
persons.
○ Transfusion of blood.
○ F rom infected mother to foetus.
● Preventive measures to avoid STDs:
○ Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners
○ Always try to use condoms during coitus
INFERTILITY
Unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation.
Reasons:
● Physical
● Diseases
● Psychological
● Congenital
● Immunological
● Infertility as a problem could be with either the male or female partner.
● In India, female is blamed often than male for the couple being childless.
ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART)
qqq

Chapter 5
Principles of Inheritance
and Variation
INTRODUCTION
♦ Genetics deals with inheritance and variation of characters from parents
to offsprings.
♦ Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from
parent to progeny.
♦ Variation is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents and
causes of variation was hidden in sexual reproduction.
MENDEL'S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
z Gregor Mendel conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas
for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the laws of inheritance.
z Mendel selected 14-true breeding pea plant varieties as pairs which were
similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
Contrasting traits studied by Mendel in Pea
S.No. Characters Contrasting Traits
1. Stem height Tall/Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet/White
3. Flower position Axial/Terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated/Constricted
5. Pod colour Green/Yellow
6. Seed shape Round/Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow/Green
INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE
z F1 always resembled either of the parents but in F2 (produced by selfing F1),
both traits appeared
z 3/4th-Dominant trait
z 1/4th-Recessive trait
z Both traits were identical to their parental type and did not show any
blending, i.e., none were of intermediate type.
z Mendel got similar results for all traits.
z To determine the genotype of dominant trait of F2, Mendel performed
test cross.
BASED ON MONOHYBRID CROSS

z Law of dominance: Explains the expression of only one parental
character in F1 of monohybrid cross. It also explains the proportion of
3 : 1 obtained at the F2.
z Law of segregation: The factors or alleles of a pair segregate from each
other such that gametes receive only one of the two factors.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
z F1 did not resemble either of the parents and was in between the two.
Dog flower (Snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.).
RR = Red flowers
rr = White flowers
Rr Pink flowers.
z Genotypic ratio at F2-1 : 2 : 1
z Phenotypic ratio changed from 3 : 1 → 1 : 2 : 1.
EXPLANATION OF CONCEPT OF DOMINANCE

In diploid organisms, there are two copies of each gene, i.e., a pair of alleles.
One of them may be different, i.e., modified.
(i) The normal allele produces normal enzyme needed from transformation
of substrate.

(ii) If the modified allele produces normal/less efficient enzyme, which
produces same phenotype/trait, it is dominant but if it produces
non-functional or no enzyme, the phenotype will be affected and
recessive trait is seen.
FACTORS
z Genes units of inheritance.
z Contain information required to express a particular trait an organism.
British geneticist R.C Punnett developed a graphical representation call

Punnett square to calculate possibility of all possible genotype of offsprings
in a genetic cross.
CO-DOMINANCE
z F1 resembles both parents.
z ABO blood group in human being is controlled by Gene-I, having three
alleles IA, IB and i. IA and IB produce slightly different form of sugar,
while i does not produce any sugar.
z IA and IB are completely dominant over i, but when IA and IB are present
together, they express their own sugars, because of Co-Dominance hence
RBC have both sugars.
z There are 6 genotypes and 4 phenotypes in human ABO blood types.
PLEIOTROPY
A single gene can exhibit multiple phenotypic expression. It is the effect of a
gene on metabolic pathways which contribute towards different phenotypes.
Example:
(a) Phenylketonuria 1. Mental retardation
(Single gene) 2. Reproduction in hair &
skin pigmentation
(b) Starch synthesis 1. Seed shape
gene in pea (B)
2. Size of strach grain
BB = Large grains
Round
Bb = Intermediate sized grains
bb = Small grains → Wrinkled
37 Principles of Inheritance and Variation
MULTIPLE ALLELES
z More than two alleles governing the same character.
z ABO blood grouping is a very good example of multiple alleles.
z Multiple alleles can be found only in population studies.
INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES

z Mendel also worked and crossed pea plants that differed into two
characters and got a phenotypic ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 and genotype ratio
1 : 2 : 2 : 4 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1.
z Based on Dihybrid Cross.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of
characters is independent of the other pair of characters.
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

z Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri noted that the behaviour of
chromosomes was parallel to behaviour of genes and they used
chromosome movement to explain Mendel's Laws.
z Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal segregation with
Mendelian principles and called it chromosomal theory of inheritance.
z Experimental verification was done by T.H. Morgan, who worked
with fruit flies Drosophila melanogaster.
DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER WERE SUITABLE FOR

GENETIC STUIDES
z Grown on simple synthetic medium in laboratory.
z Complete their life cycle in about two weeks.
z A single mating could produce a large number of progeny flies.
z Clear differentiation of sexes.
z Many types of hereditary variations that can be seen with low power
microscopes.

LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION
z Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study genes
that were sex-linked, similar to the dihybrid crosses of Mendel in peas.
z F2 ratios deviated significantly from 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (expected when the two
genes are independent).
z When two genes in a dihybrid cross were situated on the same
chromosome, the proportion of parental gene combinations were much
higher than non-parental type.
z Morgan attributes it to physical association or linkage of two genes and
used term recombination to describe non-parental gene combinations.
z Some genes were very-tightly linked (showed very low recombinations)
z Others were loosely linked (Showed higher recombinations).
z Morgan's student Alfred Sturtevant used frequency of recombination
between genes on same chromosome as a measure of distance between
genes and mapped their position on chromosomes.
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
z Traits controlled by three or more genes are polygenic traits. It also takes
into account influence of enviornment.
z The phenotype reflects the contribution of each allele, i.e., the effect of
each allele is additive.
E.g. Human Skin Colour
z AABBCC has darkest skin colour; aabbcc has lightest
z AaBbCc has intermediate colour.
SEX-DETERMINATION
Genetic/Chromosomal Basis
z Initial clue came from insects. The X-body of Henking was X-chromosome.
— XO-Type = Male heterogamete
e.g. = Grasshopper
— XY-Type = Male heterogamete
e.g. = Insects, Man
— ZW-Type = Female heterogamete
e.g. = Birds
39 Principles of Inheritance and Variation

SEX-DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
z Genetic make-up of sperm determines sex of the child and in each
pregnancy, there is always 50% probability of a male or female child.
z In our society, females are blamed for giving birth to female children.
SEX-DETERMINATION IN HONEY BEE

z Haplo-diploid sex-determination.
z Unfertilised egg develops as male (drone) i.e. haploid.
z Queen and worker bees (females) are diploid.
MUTATION
z Alteration
in chromosomes result in abnormailities or aberrations.
Chromosomal aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells.
z Point Mutation: Mutations also arise due to change in a single base
pair of DNA, eg: Sickle-cell anemia.
z Frame shift mutation: Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA.
z Mutagens: Chemical and physical factors that induce mutations.
E.g. UV radiations can cause mutations in organisms.
GENETIC DISORDERS
PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
z Study of family history about inheritance of a particular trait provides
an alternative.

Symbols used in the Huamn Mendelian Disorders Chromosomal Disorders
41
Pedigree Analysis
Male • Mainly determined by alternation or mutation in a • Caused due to absence or excess or abnormal
single gene. arrangement of one or more chromosomes.
• It may be dominant or recessive Autosomal or Sex- • Failure of segregation of chromatids during
Female linked. cell-division cycle resulting in gain or loss of a
Examples: chromosome(s), is called Aneuploidy.
1. Colour-blindness • Failure of Cytokinesis after telophase stage of
Sex unspecified • Sex-linked recessive. cell division results in an increase in a whole set
• Due to defect in either red or green cone of eye due to of chromosomes in an organism, this is called
mutation in certain genes present on X-Chromosome. Polyploidy, often seen in plants.
Affected individuals • 8% of males and only about 0.4% of females affected. • Trisomy or Monosomy leads to very serious
2. Haemophilia consequences in the individual
• X-linked recessive (i) Down's Syndrome: Trisomy of 21; was first
Mating • A single protein that is part of cascade of proteins described by Langdon Down (1866).
involved in blood clotting is affected. Symptoms:
Mating between 3. Sickle-Cell anaemia (i) Short Statured
relatives • Autosome linked recessive (ii) Small round head.
(consanguineous • Controlled by single pair of allele HBA and HbB. (iii) Furrowed tongue
mating) 4. Phenylketonuria (Autosomal recessive) (iv) Partially open mouth.
• Inborn error in metabolism. Affected individual lack (v) Palm is broad with palm crease
enzyme which converts phenylalaine to tyrosine. (vi) Physical, psychomotor & mental development
Parents above and Results in mental retardation. is retarded.
children below 5. Thalassemia (ii) Klinefelter's Syndrome: Karyotype = 47
Principles of Inheritance and Variation

• Autosomal recessive, could be due to mutation or xxy, overall masculine development, however
deletion. Gynaecomastia is also expressed. Such
Parents with male • a-thalassemia: Controlled by two closely linked individuals are sterile.
child affected with genes HBA1 and HBA2 on Chr-16. (iii) Turner's Syndrome: Due to absence of one
diseases • b-Thalassemia: Controlled by single gene HBB of the X-chromosomes, i.e., 45 with XO Such
on Chr-11. females are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary
5 Five unaffected besides lack of other secondary sexual
offspring characters.
Pedigree analysis of
(a) Autosomal dominant trait (e.g., Muscular dystrophy)
(b) Autosomal recessive trait (e.g., Sickle-cell anaemia)
(a)
(b)
z TH. Morgan found that in Drosophila, the genes for yellow body and
white eye were very tightly linked and showed only 1.3% recombination
z White eye and miniature wing showed 37.2% recombination.
z Cystic fibrosis is autosomal recessive disorder.
z Chromosomal disorders can be easily studied by the analysis of
Karyotypes
z The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic
descendents as she was a earner of the disease.
z Thalassemia: Quantitative problem of synthesising too few globin
molecules
z Sicke cell anaemia: A qualitative problem of synthesising an incorrectly
functioning globin.
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Chapter 6
Molecular Basis of
Inheritance
DNA (GENETIC MATERIAL OF MOST OF THE ORGANISM)

DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. The length of DNA usually
defined as number of nucleotides is also characteristic of an organism.
ORGANISM DNA CONTENT
1. Bacteriophage × 174 5386 Nucleotides
2. Bacteriophage lambda 48502 base pairs
3. Escherichia coli 4.6 × 106 base pairs
4. Haploid content of human DNA 3.3 × 109 base pairs
Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
• Nucleotide (Basic unit of Polynucleotide chain)
PURINES = A (Adenine) and G (Guanine)
(i) A Nitrogenous
base PYRIMIDINES = C (Cytosine), T
(Thymine) and U (Uracil)
RIBOSE (In RNA)

(ii) 5C-Sugar
2-DEOXYRIBOSE (in DNA)
(iii) Phosphate group
• Uracil is present in RNA; Thymine (5-methyl uracil) in DNA
• N-glycosidic linkage: A nitrogenous base is linked to the OH of 1'C
pentose sugar form Nucleoside
• Phosphoester linkage: A phosphate group is linked to OH of 5'C of a
nucleoside, a nucleotide is formed.
• Phosphodiester linkage: Two nucleotides are linked to form a
Dinucleotide.
• A polymer has at one end a free phosphate moiety at -5¢- end of sugar
(5¢P) and at the other end of polymer, the sugar has a free OH of 3¢C
group (3¢OH)
DNA-DOUBLE HELIX
• DNA as an acidic substance present in nucleus was first identified by
Friedrich Miescher in 1969, named it as "Nuclein".
• Based on the X-ray diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins
and Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a
very simple but famous double helix model of DNA in 1953.
• One hallmark of the helix is base pairing between the two strands.
Observation of Erwin Chargaff for a double stranded DNA, the
Ratios between A and T and G and C are constant and equals one.
The base-pairing confers complementarity, a unique property to the
polynucleotide chain.
• So, if each strand of parental DNA acts as a template for synthesis of a
new strand, the two double stranded daughter DNA produced would be
identical to the parental DNA molecule.
Salient Features of Double-helix of DNA
• Made of two polypeptide chains, where
the backbone is constituted by sugar-
phosphate and bases project inside.
• Two chains have anti-parallel polarity, one
chain 5' → 3' and the other 3' → 5'
• A = T (2H – Bond); C ≡ G (3H – Bond).
This generates approximately uniform
distance between the two strands. Base Pairs
• The two chains are coiled in a right handed

fashion. Sugar
phosphate
• Pitch of the helix = 3.4 nm. Roughly 10 bp backbone
in each turn.
• Distance between a bp in a helix is approx. Fig. DNA double helix.
0.34 nm. (0.34 × 10–9 m)
• The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in double-helix. This in
addition to H-bonds, confers stability to the helical structure.
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY:

Proposed by FRANCIS CRICK.
• Only applicable to dsDNA.
DNA
Transcription mRNA Translation Protein
Replication
In some viruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, i.e.

from RNA to DNA. It is called reverse of central dogma.
PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX

• DNA double helix in a typical DNA H1 histone
mammalian cell is 6.6 × 109 bp
• Length is approx 2.2 m
Histone
(6.6 × 109 bp × 0.34 × 10–9 m/bp) octamer
• Dimension of a typical nucleus is 10–6 m

• In prokaryote (E.coli), the DNA
Core of histone molecules
(negatively charged) is held with
Fig. Nucleosome
some proteins (positive charges) in the
“Nucleoid”. The DNA in nucleoid is organised in large loops held by
proteins.
• In eukaryotes, it is much more complex.
Histone Octamer: Positively charged set of basic proteins, Histone
(rich in lysine and arginine) are organised to form a unit of eight
molecules, called Histone octamer.
Nucleosome: Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around
positively charged histone octamer. A typical nucleosome contains
200 bp of DNA helix.
• Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus
called chromatin, thread like stained bodies seen in nucleus.
• Nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as beads-on-string structure under
electron microscope. Packaged to form chromatin fibers that are further
coiled and condensed at metaphase stage to form chromosomes.
• Packaging of chromatin at higher level needs non-histone chromosomal
(NHC) proteins.
In a typical NUCLEUS
(regions of chromatin)
Euchromatin Heterochromatin
1. Loosely packed. 1. More densely packed
2. Stains light 2. Stains dark
3. Transcriptionally active 3. Transcriptionally inactive
45 Molecular Basis of Inheritance
RNA WORLD (GENETIC MATERIAL OF SOME VIRUSES
LIKE TMV)
• RNA was the first genetic material.
• The essential life processes like metabolism, translation, splicing
evolved around RNA.
• RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as a catalyst, so was
reactive and hence unstable. (DNA has evolved from RNA with
chemical modifications that make it more stable.)
REPLICATION
• Watson and Crick had immediately proposed a scheme for replication
of DNA while proposing the double helix structure of DNA.
• Semi conservative DNA replication: Two strands would separate
and act as a template for the synthesis of new complementary strands.
After completion of replication, each DNA molecule would have one
parental and one newly synthesised strand.
SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

Transforming Principle
• In 1928, Frederick Griffith, in a series of experiments with Streptococcus
pneumoniae, witnessed a miraculous transformation in Bacteria.
• Bacteria → Rough Colonies → non-virulent → do not kill mice
• Bacteria → Smooth shiny colonies → Virulent → Kill mice
• Bacteria → Killed S-stain → non-virulent → do not kill mice
• Heat killed + live R bacteria → Mice died [S-stain living bacteria found.]
Griffith concluded that R-strain was somehow transformed by heat-killed S-
strain. It must be due to the transfer of genetic material (transforming principle).
Biochemical Nature of Transforming Principle
• Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (1933-44) discovered.
• DNA of S bacteria caused R bacteria to become transformed.
• As proteases and RNAse did not affect transformation but DNAase
inhibit transformation. (They concluded that DNA is the hereditary
material but not all biologists were convinced).
Genetic Material is DNA
The Unequivocal proof that DNA is the genetic material came from the experiments
of Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952), on bacteriophages, using radioactive
phosphorus 32P and sulphur 35S in separation medium with E. coll.
PROPERTIES OF GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA VERSUS RNA)
(i) Able to generate its replica (Replication)
(ii) Stable chemically and structurally
(iii) Scope for slow mutation required for evolution.
(iv) Able to express in the form of Mendelian characters.
• 2'-OH group present at every nucleotide, in RNA, is reactive and
makes it easily degradable.
• RNA is also catalytic, hence reactive. Among the two nucleic acids,
DNA is a better genetic material.
• Presence of thymine at the place of uracil in RNA also confers additional
stability to DNA
• Being unstable, RNA mutate at a faster rate.
• RNA can directly code for the synthesis of proteins and can easily
express the characters. DNA, however is dependent on RNA for
synthesis of proteins.
• DNA being more stable is preferred for storage of genetic information.
• For transmission of genetic information, RNA is better.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF
• Semi-conservative DNA replication was shown first in Escherichia
coli, then in higher organisms like plants and human cells.
• Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl, performed the experiment
(1958) using normal 14N and non-radioactive 15N isotope of Nitrogen
as source of NH4Cl and centrifugation in a cesium chloride (CsCl)
density gradient. The various samples were separated independently
on CsCl gradients to measure the densities of DNA. (E. coli divides
every 20 minutes)
Generation II
Generation I
15
N-DNA 14
N-DNA 14
N-DNA
15
N-DNA 15
N-DNA
20 min 40 min 14
N-DNA
14
N-DNA
Gravitational force
15
N 15 N 14
N 15 N 14
N 14 N 14
N 15 N
Heavy Hybrid Light Hybrid
(Separation of DNA by Centrifugation)

• Taylor and colleagues (1958) used radioactive thymidine and Vicia
faba (Faba beans) to prove that DNA in chromosomes also replicate
semi-conservatively
MACHINERY AND THE ENZYMES

• Energetically replication is a very expensive process.
Deoxyribo (1) Act as substrate
Serve
nucleoside
Dual (2) Provide energy
triphosphates
Purpose for Polymerisation
Replication Fork: Replication occur within a small opening of
DNA helix.
• DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (main 5¢ 3¢
enzyme) catalyses the polymerisation Template DNA
process in 5¢ → 3¢ direction, so on one (Parental strands)
5¢
strand (template with polarity 3¢ → 5¢)
3¢
replication is continuous, while on oth-
er (template with polarity 5¢ → 3¢) it is
dis-continuous. 3¢ 5¢ 3¢ 5¢
Newly
Ori (origin of replication): A definite synthesised strands
region in E. coli DNA where replication Fig: Replicating Fork
originates.
• In eukaryotes, replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of the cell-cycle.
A failure in cell-division after DNA replication results in Polyploidy.
TRANSCRIPTION
• Process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA
into RNA.
• Principle of complementarity governs transcription (except, adenine
forms pair with uracil instead of thymine). In transcription, only a
segment of DNA and only one of the two strands is copied into
RNA.
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT :
(i) Promoter
(ii) Structural gene
(iii) Terminator
• DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyses polymerisation in only one
direction 5¢ → 3¢.
Template strand: The strand Polarity 3¢ → 5¢.
Coding strand: The other strand Polarity 5¢ → 3¢ and the sequence
same as RNA (except thymine at place of uracil).
Transcription start site
PROMOTER TERMINATOR
Structure gene
3¢ 5¢
Template strand
5¢ 3¢
Coding Strand
A transcription Unit
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT AND GENE

• Genes are located on the DNA which is functional unit of inheritance.
• Cistron is defined as a segment of DNA coding for polypeptide.
• The structural gene is monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes) or
polycistronic (mostly in bacteria or prokaryotes).
• In eukaryote, genes are split between coding sequences or Exons,
which appear in mature RNA and Introns or intervening sequence.
• Regulatory sequences are defined as regulatory genes, even though
they do not code for any RNA or protein.
TYPES OF RNA AND THE PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION

• A single DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyses transcription of
all three types of RNA (mRNA, RNA, rRNA) in bacteria.
• RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates transcription. It uses
nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) as substrate and polymerises in a
template depended fashion following the rule of complementarity and
also facilitates opening of the helix and continues elongation.
• Only a short stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. Once the
polymerase reaches the terminator region, the nascent RNA and RNA
polymerase falls off. This results in termination of transcription.
• RNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing the elongation process.
It associates transiently with initiation factor and termination factor to
initiate and terminate the transcription respectively.
• In bacteria, mRNA does not require any processing, so transcription
and translation are coupled.
• In eukaryotes, there are two additional complexities.
5′ 5′
3′ 3′
Capping
3′ mRNA
Intron
m
Gppp
5′
Exon RNA splicing Polyadenylation
m
Gppp 3′
5′
Poly A tail
m
Gppp
5′
3′
m
Gppp
5′
Messenger RNA Fig : Transcription in Eukaryotos
ENZYME FUNCTIONS
1. RNA pol-I Tanscribes 28S, 5.8S and 18S
RNA
2. RNA pol-II Tanscribes mRNA precursor i.e.
hnRNA
3. RNA pol-III Tanscribes 5S rRNA, tRNA and
SnRNAs
• The primary transcript (hnRNA) is subjected to splicing, where introns
are removed and Exons are joined in a defined order. hnRNA undergoes
additional processing called capping and tailing to form mRNA.
• In capping, an unusual nucleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate) is
added to 5' end of hnRNA.
• In tailing, adenylate residues (200-300) are added to 3'-end in a
template independent manner.
• Fully processed hnRNA is called mRNA that is transported out of the
nucleus for translation.
GENETIC CODE (GEORGE GAMOW)

• Genetic code should be triplet.
• Chemical method developed by Har Gobind Khorana.
RNA molecules with defined combinations of basés. Marshall
Nirenberg’s cell-free system for protein synthesis finally helped the
code to be deciphered.
Salient Features of Genetic Code:
• The codon is Triplet. 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons are
stop codons.
• The code is degenerate.
• The codon is read on mRNA in contiguous fashion i.e., there are no
punctuations.
• The code is nearly universal. (eg: UUU codes for phenylalanine from
bacteria to humans).
• AUG has dual function. It codes for methionine and act as initiator codon.
• UAA, UAG and UGA- Stop terminator codons.
MUTATIONS AND GENETIC CODE

• Insertion or deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame from
the point of insertion or deletion and called frame shift mutations.
tRNA-Adapter Molecule
• Francis Crick postulated the presence of an adapter molecule that
would read the code and bind to specific amino acid.
• tRNA has an anti-codon loop that has bases complementary to the
code and it also has an amino acid acceptor end to which it binds to
amino acids, tRNAs are specific for each amino acid.
• For initiation, there is another specific tRNA that is called initiator
tRNA. There are no tRNAs for stop codons.
• Secondary structure of tRNA looks like a cloverleaf, though the actual
structure is a compact molecule which looks like inverted L.
TRANSLATION
• Translation refers to the process of polymerisation of amino acids to
form a polypeptide. The order and sequence of amino acids are defined
by the sequence of bases in the mRNA.
• In the first phase, amino acids are activated in the presence of ATP and
linked to their cognate tRNA by a process called charging of tRNA,
or aminoacylation of tRNA. Protein synthesis takes place on the
ribosomes.
• Ribosomes consist of structural RNAs and about 80 different proteins.
It has two sub units. When the small sub unit encounters an mRNA, the
process of translation begins.
• Two sites in the large subunit, for subsequent amino acids to bind
and thus, be close enough to each other for the formation of a peptide
bond by the catalyst (23 S rRNA in bacteria is the enzyme- ribozyme).
(enhance the rate of peptide bond formation.)
• A translational unit in mRNA is flanked by a start condon (AUG) and
the stop codon.
• The untranslated additional sequence on mRNA are called untranslated
regions, (UTRs) present at both 5'-end (before start codon)and at 3'-end
(after stop codons). UTRs are required for efficient translation.
• The ribosome moves from codon to codon along the mRNA. Amino
acids are added one by one and translated into polypeptide sequences.
• At the end, a release factor binds to the stop codon, terminating
translation and releasing the complete polypeptide from the ribosome.
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

Gene expression results in formation of a polypeptide. It can be regulated at
several levels. In eukaryotes, the regulation could be exerted at
(i) Transcriptional level (Formation of primary transcript)
(ii) Processing level (Regulation of splicing)
(iii) Transport of mRNA from nucleus to cytoplasm.
(iv) Translational level
• In prokaryotes, control of the rate of transcriptional initiation is the
predominant site for control of gene expression
LAC OPERON
• Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod were the first to elucidate a
transcriptionally regulated system, the lac operon (lac refers to lactose),
a polycistronic structural gene regulated by a common promoter and
regulatory gene called operon.
Lac operon consists of
• One regulatroy gene
• Three structural genes (z, y and a)
• i gene (i refers inhibitor) codes for repressor
• z-for β-galactosidase (β-gal).
• y-for permease and gene a codes for transacetylase. (All three gene
products in lac operon are needed for metabolism of lactose.)
• Lactose is the substrate of β-galactosidase and it regulates switching on/
off of operon, so called inducer. Regulation of lac operon is regulation
of enzyme synthesis by its substrate.
• Regulation of lac operon by repressor is negative regulation however
lac operon is under control of positive regulation as well.
• Regulatory proteins can act both positively (activators) and negatively
(repressors). Each operon has its specific operator and specific repressor.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT - (HGP)

• Launched in 1990, a 13 year project was co-ordinated by U.S. department
of energy and National Institute of Health, Wellcome trust (UK), Japan,
France, Germany, China participated. It was completed in 2003.
• Human genome has approximately 3 × 109 bp and the cost of sequencing
in the beginning was US$3 per bp, i.e. 9 billion US dollars. HGP lead to
the rapid development of a new area in biology called bioinformatics.
• Many non-human model organisms like bacteria, Yeast, Caerorhabditis
elegans, Drosophila, plant (rice and Arabidopsis) have also been sequenced.
METHODOLOGIES
• Expressed sequence tags (ESTs): Focussed on identifying all genes
that expressed as RNA.
• Sequence annotation: Blind approach of sequencing the whole
genome containing coding and non coding sequences, needing vectors
like BAC (Bacterial artificial chromosomes) and YAC (Yeast Artificial
Chromosomes).
SALIENT FEATURES OF HUMAN GENOME

• Human genome contains 3164.7 million bp. Average gene consist of
3000 bases.
• Largest gene dystrophin of 2.4 million bases. Total genes estimated at
30,000.
• Almost 99.9% nucleotide bases exactly same in all people. Less than
2% genome codes for protein. Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968)
and Y-chromosome has the fewest (231).
• At 1.4 million locations, single base DNA differences (SNPs - single
nucleotide polymorphism, snips) occur.
• The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencer that
worked on the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger.
DNA FINGERPRINTING
• 99.9% base sequence among humans is same. 0.1% differences in
sequence of DNA make every individual unique in their phenotype.
• Involves identifying difference in repetitive DNA, a small stretch of
DNA repeated many times, called satellite DNA.
• Depending on base composition (A:Tor G:C rich), length of segment
and number of repetitive units, the satellite DNA is classified into
micro-statellites and mini satellites. They do not code for any proteins.
They form large portion of human genome and show high degree of
polymorphism and form the basis of DNA fingerprinting.
• Polymorphisms are inheritable from parent to child so DNA finger
printing solves paternity disputes.
• The technique of DNA finger printing was initially developed by Alec
Jeffreys.
Steps = Isolation of Digestion by Separation of DNA fragments by
DNA(I) restriction Electrophoresis
endonuclease (III)
(II)
Detection of hybridised Hybridisation Blotting on nitrocellulose
DNA Fragments by Using labelled or Nylon membrane
autoradiography VNTR probe (IV)
(VI) (V)
Significance
• VNTR are called mini-satellite, a small DNA sequence arranged
tandomly in many copies. The size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20
kb. So after hybridisation with VNTR probe, the autoradiogram gives
many bands of differing sizes. These bands give a characteristic pattern
for an individual DNA. It differs from individual to individual in a
population except in monozygotic twins.
• The sensitivity of the technique has been increased by use of polymerase
chain reaction (PCR).
• DNA fingerprinting has much wider application in determining
population and genetic diversities. Currently, many different probes are
used to generate DNA fingerprints.
qqq
Chapter 7
Evolution
EVOLUTION
Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth
Stellar distances are measured in light years
Big band explosion (Singular huge explosion)
Resulted in
leading to
Parameters Origin of Universe Origin of Earth
Time scale 20 billion years ago 4.5 billion years ago
Feature Comprises cluster of galaxies Occurred in solar system
(stars, clouds of gas, dust) of Milkyway galaxy
Events after expansion of universe:
Temperature declined H2 + He formed Gases condensed
Galaxies formed
Hypothesis for Origin of life on early earth:
No atmosphere existed on early earth.
Water vapours, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia released from molten
mass covered the surface.
U.V. rays NH3
H2 O H 2 + O2 + O2 CO2 + H2O + other contents
CH4
THEORIES FOR ORIGIN OF LIFE
Theory Proponents Signicance
Special Conventional religious literature All living organisms that we see today were created
creation Diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in
future also
Earth is 4000 years old
Cosmozoic/ Early Greek thinkers, Astronomers Life came from outerspace

Panspermia Units of life called spores were transferred to different planets including earth
Spontaneous Life came out from decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud etc.
–
generation Disapproved by Louis Pasteur
Air
Theory of Louis Life comes only from pre-existing life
Biogenesis Pasteur Killed
He showed that in pre-sterlised flasks, life
yeast did not come from “killed yeast”
Pre-stenlised asks
No life Life
Hand Book (Biology)

Oparin-Haldane Formation of life was precede by chemical evolution i.e., formation of
Electrodes
hypothesis or Spark
diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
discharge
Chemical CH4 Simulate lightening
First from of life could have come from pre-existing non-living organic
NH3 (energy sources)
Evolution H2O
molecules (e.g. RNA, proteins, etc.)
Vacuum H2 Gases
Simulate 800°C This hypothesis was proved by Miller's experiment, 1953, S.L. Miller
reducing
atmosphere Closed (American scientist)
flask
In similar experiments, other observed formation of sugars, nitrogen
bases, pigments and fats.
Amino acids
Boiling water
56
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
57
1. Palaeontological evidences (Evidences from fossils):
Fossils are remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks.
Age of fossils is determined by radioactive-dating method.
Fossils of different life forms in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed (epochs,
periods, eras).
2. Embryological evidences:
Proposed by Ernst Heckel.
Based upon the observations of certain features during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that are absent in adults
e.g., embryos of all vertebrates develop a row of vestigial gill slits functional only fish and not found in another adult vertebrates.
It was disproved by Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
3. Morphological and anatomical evidences
Evolution
Parameters Homologous organs Analogous organs
Common ancestory Yes No
Anatomical structures Similar but developed along different directions Not similar but resulted in selection of similar adaptive
due to adaptations to different needs. features in different groups of organisms, thus, evolving
for the same function.
Function performed Different Similar

Type of evolution Divergent Convergent

ADAPTIVE RADIATION
The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography
(habitats).
Examples
Darwin’s nches Australian marsupials

• Small black birds
• Evolved from seed eating Sugar Tasmanian
glider wolf
birds in Galapagos island Tiger cat
• Altered beaks arose, enabling Marsupial
them to become insectivorous mole Banded
Marsupial anteater
and vegetarian finches. radiation
Koala
Marsupial
Bandicoot rat
Kangaroo
Wombat
Variety of beaks of nches that Adaptive radiation of

Darwin found in Galapagos island marsupials of Australia
When more than on adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an

isolated geographical area (representing different habitats), we call their
convergent evolution.
Examples
Placental mammals Australian marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat (banded anteater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger (Sugar glider)
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
59 Evolution

– Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of
Darwinian theory of evolution.
– Habitat fragmentation and genetic drift may accentuate variations
leading to speciation.
– Weaknesses:
(i) Unable to explain the origin of variations
(ii) Could not explain speciation
(iii) Ignored work done by Mendel.
Mutation theory
th
– Given by Hugo de Vries in first decade of 20 century.
– Worked on evening primrose.
– New species originate as a result of mutations which are single step
(saltation) large, random and directionless variations arising suddenly
in a population.
• Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago has also

come to similar conclusions as Charles Darwin around the same time.
• Evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism. It is a
stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance mutations
in the organisms.
• Articial selection: By intensive breeding programme, man has created
breeds that differ from other breeds (e.g., dogs).
EXAMPLES OF EVOLUTION BY ANTHROPOGENIC ACTION

1. Antibiotic resistant microbes 4. Herbicides resistant varieties
2. Pesticides resistant varieties
3. The case of Industrial melanism: Classical example of natural selection
among variants in moth population observed in England.
Parameters Before industrialization After industrialization
(1850s) (1920s)
Figure
Tree trunks White, covered by lichens Became dark due to deposition

of soot and smoke
White moths More Less
Melanised moths Less More
Predators feed on Melanised moths White winged moths
• Lichens do not grow in polluted area (pollution indicator).
• Agent of natural selection: Predator/birds.
• Moths that were able to camouflage themselves (i.e., hide in the
background) survived but no variant is completely wiped out
61 Evolution

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
Allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation
to generation. This is called genetic equilibrium.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant.
Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1 and represented as:
p + q = 1 [p = Frequency of recessive allele (a); q = Frequency of dominant allele (A)]
p2 + q2 + 2pq = 1 [p2 = Frequency of homozygous dominant (AA); q2 = Frequency of
homozygous recessive (aa); 2pq = Frequency of heterozygotes (Aa)]
When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference
indicates the extent of evolutionary change or disturbance in genetic
equilibrium.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
1. Gene migration: When migration of a section of population to another
place or population occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as
well as in the new population.
When gene migration
occurs multiple times,
it is called gene flow.
Emigration (–) Immigration (+)
Some genes/alleles lost New genes/alleles added
2. Genetic recombination: Variations due to recombination during

gametogenesis.
3. Mutation: Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous
mutations when selected will result in observation of new phenotypes.
Over few generations, this would result in speciation.
4. Genetic drift: Change in gene frequencies in a small population by chance.
Sometimes, the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample
of population that they become a different species. The original drifted
population becomes founders and effect is called founders effect.
5. Natural selection: A process is which heritable variations enabling better
survival are enabled to reproduce and leave greater number of progeny.
Types
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection

More individuals More individuals More individuals
acquire mean acquire value other acquire peripheral
character value than the mean character value to
character value both ends at the
Number of individuals
distribution curve
with phenotype
63 Evolution
A BRIEF ACCOUTN OF EVOLUTION OF PLANTS
Different types of plants

evolved in different periods
of time Palaeozoic, Mesozoic
and Coenozoic.
Chlorophyte ancestors:
Bryophytes:
Tracheophyte ancestors:
Lycopods.
Psilophytons were common
ancestors for gymnosperms,
Ferns, Ginkgo’s, Genetales,
Sphenopsids.
Origin of monocotyledons
is more recent than that
of dioctyledons.
Giant ferns (pteridophytes)
were present (200 mya)
but they all fell to form A sketch of the evolution of plant
coal deposits slowly. forms through geological periods
A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION HISTORY OF VERTEBRATES
Turtles, Lizards, Snakes and

Tuatara arose from common
ancestor sauropsids.
Thecodont ancestors gave
way to existing crocodiles
and birds and extinct
dinosaurs.
Origin of mammals:
Extinct Synapsids
Pelycosaurs Therapsids
Mammals
Representative evolutionary history of

vertebrates through geological periods

AN EVOLUTION HISTORY DINOSAURS
Triceratops – Three horned
dinosaur with bony frill
around back of its head.
Stegosaurus – Large triangular
bony plates along the back and
spiked tail.
Tyrannosaurus rex – 20 feet in
height had dagger like teeth.
Branchio Saurus – Long
giraffe like neck, long forelimbs.
Pteranodon were possibly flying
reptiles.
Archaeopteryx is a transitional
fossil between non avian
dinosaurs and birds.
Brachiosaurus and
A family tree of dinosaurs and their living Tyrannosaurus arose
modern day counterpart organisms like separately, mostly likely,
crocodiles and birds. from a common ancestor.
65 Evolution
Human Years back Cranial Specific features
ancestors capacity
Homo erectus 1.5 mya 900 cc Fossils discovered in
Java in 1891
Probably ate meat
Neanderthal man 1,00,000– 1400 cc Lived in near East and
40,000 Central Asia
years back Used hides to protect
their body and buried
their dead
Homo sapiens 75,000– – Arose in Africa and
10,000 moved across continents
years ago and developed into
(ice age) distinct races
The skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull than adult
chimpanzee skull.
A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human

being baby chimpanzee and adult chimpanzee.
Pre historic cave art-18,000 years ago. One such cave paintings by pre-
historic humans can be seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter, Madhya Pradesh.
Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.
qqq

Chapter 8
Human Health
and Disease
HEALTH
As per ‘Good humor’ hypothesis arrived at by reflective thought and
asserted by Hippocrates along with Indian Ayurveda System.
Health is a state of body and mind where there was a balance of certain
certain ‘humors’ e.g., Persons with black bile belonged to hot personality
and had fevers.
William Harvey (discovered blood circulation experimentally) disproved
this ‘good humor’ hypothesis of health by demonstrating normal body
temperature in persons with black bile using thermometer.
Mind influences our immune system through neural and endocrine systems,
and that our immune system maintains our health i.e., state of complete
physical, mental and social and psychological well being.
Health is not simply ‘absence of disease’ or ‘physical fitness’.
Factors affecting health:
Mental state, genetic disorders, infections and life style (habits, rest and exercise)
Increase Productivity, longevity
Condition of health Bring economic prosperity
Decrease Infant and maternal mortality
DISEASE
It is state of the body when functioning of one or more organ systems is
adversely affected, characterized by various signs and symptoms.
Types of diseases
Parameters Non-infectious Infectious
Transmission from one person to another No Yes
Example Cancer AIDS
Pathogens: Disease causing organisms:
Most parasites are pathogens living in (or on) the host multiply
and interfere with normal vital activities resulting in morphological
and functional damage.
Gut pathogens can survive harsh pH & digestive enzymes.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES ON THE BASIS OF TRANSMISSION
Mode of transmission Bacterial Viral Protozoan Helminthic
Air (droplet/aerosol) or Pneumonia, diphtheria Common cold, – –
object borne (pens, knobs etc.) Smallpox
Direct contact Tetanus Smallpox – –
Contaminated food and water Typhoid, dysentery Polio Amoebiasis Ascariasis
Insect vector/vector borne Plague Chikungunya, Dengue Malaria Filariasis
Body fluids Syphilis AIDS Trichomoniasis –
Vector: Transmits disease from one organism to another e.g., female Aedes mosquito is the vector for dengue
and chikungunya while, Anopheles spreads malaria.
MEASURES FOR PREVENTING SPREAD OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Parameters Measures
Personal Hygiene
Keeping the body clean Consumption of clean drinking water, food, vegetables, fruits etc.
Public Hygiene Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoins, pools tanks
Proper disposal of waste and excreta Decontamination of drinking water
Hand Book (Biology)

Avoid close contact Contact with infected persons and belongings should be avoided.
Control vectors and Use of mosquito nets Avoid stagnation of water in and around residential areas,
their breeding places Regular cleaning of house old coolers Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh
Introducing larvicidal fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae
Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps
• Balanced diet, yoga and regular exercise, personal hygiene, awareness about diseases and vaccination are very important to maintain good health.
• Use of vaccines and immunization programmes have enabled us to completely eradicate a deadly disease like smallpox. Large number of
infectious diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus have been controlled to a large extent by the use of vaccines.
• Biotechnology is at the verge of making available newer and safer vaccines.
• Discovery of antibiotics and various drugs have enabled us to effectively treat infections.
68

69
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Disease Pathogen Organ affected Common symptoms
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Small intestine and other organs Sustained high fever (39–40°C)
by migrating through blood Stomach pain Weakness
Constipation Headache
Loss of appetite
Diagnostic test: In severe cases, intestinal perforation
Widal test and death may occur.
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae, Alveoli of lungs Problem in respiration due to fluid filled alveoli
Haemophilus inuenzae Fever, chills, cough, headache
In severe cases, lips and finger nails turn gray to bluish
Human Health
and
Typhoid Mary (Mary Mallon), a cook by profession was a typhoid carrier who spread typhoid through the food she prepared.

VIRAL DISEASES
Disease
Disease Pathogen Organ affected Symptoms
Common cold Rhino virus Nose and Nasal congestion and discharge
respiratory Sore throat
passage Hoarseness, cough
Headache, tiredness
Common cold does not infect lungs and its symptoms usually lasts for 3-7 days.

HELMINTHIC DISEASES
Disease Pathogen Organ/structure Symptoms
affected
Ascariasis Ascaris (Roundworm) Intestine Internal bleeding, fever,

muscular pain, anemia,
blockage of intestinal passage
Elephantiasis/ Wuchereria bancrofti/ Lymphatic Chronic inflammation of organs

Filariasis W. malayi (Filarial worm) vessels in which they live for many years
resulting in gross deformities
e.g., limbs, genital organs etc.
FUNGAL DISEASE
Disease Pathogen Body parts affected Symptoms
Hand Book (Biology)

Ringworm Microsporum, Skin, nails, scalp Dry, scaly lesions
Trichophyton, Intense itching
Epidermophyton
• Heat and moisture makes the fungi thrive in skin folds such as in groin and between toes.
• Acquired from soil or belongings of infected individuals such as towels, combs, clothes etc.

70
71
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Disease Pathogen Area Symptoms LIFE CYCLE OF
affected When the infected mosquito bites another Female Anopheles
human, sporozoites (infective stage for Acts as both host
Amoebiasis/ Entamoeba Large Constipation humans) are injected with the bite and vector
Amoebic histolytica Intestine Abdominal
Mature infective stages
dysentery pain (sporozoites) escape
Cramps from gut and migrate to
Stool with the mosquito salivary
glands.
excess mucous
and blood clots Sporozoites
Malaria Plasmodium RBCs Chills Parasite (sporozoites)
Salivary
Human Health
• P. vivax High fever reach the liver through
glands
• P. malariae recurring blood
and
• P. falciparum 3-4 days Fertilization and Mosquito
• P. ovale If not treated, development take Host
can prove to place in the
mosquito's gut The parasite reproduces
be fatal asexually in liver cells,
Disease
bursting the cell and
Human releasing into the blood
• House flies act as mechanical carrier for amoebiasis.
Host
• P. falciparum causes malignant malaria (most serious form).
Female mosquito
takes up Gametocytes
Parasites reproduce
gametocytes with Female asexually in red
blood meal. blood cells, bursting
the red blood cells
Male
and causing cycles
of fever and other
Rupturing of RBCs releases the toxic substance, Sexual stages–gametocytes (infective stage for symptoms. Released
haemozoin responsible for symptoms of disease female Anopheles) develop in red blood cells. parasites infect new
Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium red blood cells

Diagnostic Test: ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay)
Treatment: Anti-retroviral drugs, can only prolong life but cannot prevent death
Prevention
Different agencies like NGOs, NACO, WHO started number of programmes
to educate/make people aware of AIDS (Don’t die of ignorance) and some of
the measures preventing spreading of HIV infection.
Making blood banks safe from HIV
Use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and private hospitals
and clinics
Free distribution of condoms, advocating safe sex
Controlling drug abuse
CANCER
A dreaded non-infectious disease; major cause of death all across the globe.
Parameters Normal cells Cancerous cells/Neoplastic cells
Cell growth and Highly controlled Uncontrolled & non-regulated
differentiation and regulated
Contact inhibition Present, virtue of which Lost, so these cells keep on
contact with other cells dividing and form mass of
inhibits their growth cells called Tumor/Neoplasm
Types of Tumor
Parameters Benign Malignant tumor/cancer
Location Confined to original place Grow rapidly and spread to other parts
Damage Little damage Invade and damage other cells
starving normal cells by competing
for vital nutrients.
Metastasis No Yes, cells sloughed from such tumors
reach distant sites through blood and
start new tumor called Metastasis
(Most feared property).
Cause: Normal cell Cancerous cell

Proto/cellular
Neoplastic transformation
oncogene (c-onc) Oncogene
causative agents called carcinogens
Ionising radiations– Non-ionising radiations– Physical agents

X-rays, -rays UV rays
Chemical agents Biological agents–Oncogenic
in tobacco smoke viruses (carry viral oncogenes)
Diagnosis/Detection: Early detection allows the disease to be treated
successfully in many cases.
73 Human Health and Disease

Technique Basis Detect
Biopsy Histopathological studies Changes in tissue
Blood and bone Cell counts Leukemias
marrow test
Radiography X-rays Internal organ
cancers
Computed tomography X-rays Internal organ
(CT) cancers (3D image)
Magnetic resonance Strong magnetic fields Accurately detect
Imaging (MRI) and non-ionising radiations pathological and
physiological
changes in living
tissue
Molecular techniques Identification of genes
responsible for susceptibility
to certain cancers
Antibodies based Against cancer Certain cancers
specific antigens
Tumor cells have ability to avoid detection and destruction by immune system.
Approaches for treatment:
○ Surgery
○ Radiotherapy: Tumor cells irradiated lethally
○ Chemotherapy: Side effects like hair loss, anemia
○ Immunotherapy: -interferons (Biological response modifiers) activate
immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.
IMMUNITY
Bio12-P09-8a
The ability of the host to fight the disease causing organisms, conferred by
the immune system is called immunity.
Types
Parameters Innate Acquired
Observed Time of birth After birth
Exposure to infection Not required Required
Defense Non specific Specific
Memory record No Yes
Memory based immunity evolved in higher vertebrates


INNATE IMMUNITY
Accomplished by providing different types of barriers to the entry of the
foreign agents.
Types of Barrier Structures involved/Barrier Basic function
Physical Skin Prevent entry of microbes
Mucus coating of the Trap microbes entering
epithelium lining the our body
respiratory, gastrointestinal
and urogenital tracts
Physiological Saliva in the mouth Prevent microbial growth
Acid in stomach
Tears from eyes
Cellular Neutrophils/PMNL Phagocytose microbes

Monocytes Destroy microbes
Macrophages
Natural killer cells
(type of lymphocytes)
Cytokine Interferons Produced by virus infected
cells that protect non-infected
cells from further infection
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and
soluble molecules like antibodies. This response is carried out by two special
types of lymphocytes present in our blood i.e., B and T-lymphocytes.
Primary Thymus Bone marrow

lymphoid Matured
organs lymphocytes
Lymph migrate
nodes T-cells B-cells
Secondary
Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils,
lymphoid
appendix, MALT, Peyer's patches
organs
Help
T-cells B-cells produce
Thymus
mediated antibodies/Army of
response proteins in blood
Lymphatic Cell-mediated Humoral immune

vessels immune response/Antibody
response/CMI mediated immune
response

Origin and/or maturation of lymphocytes
Lymphocytes become antigen sensitive
Provide micro-environments for development and maturation of lymphocytes
Provide sites for interaction of lymphocytes with antigen which proliferate to
become effector cells.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
Type Primary Secondary/Anamnestic
Exposure to pathogens First time Subsequent times
Intensity Low High
Based on
memory of first encounter
Responses are carried out by B and T lymphocytes.

Each antibody has 4 peptide chains (H2L2)
2 long heavy chains
2 short light chains
Called immunoglobulins (lg)
Types – lgA, lgM, lgE, lgG
• T-lymphocytes are responsible for

graft rejection. Tissue and blood
group matching are essential before Structure of an antibody molecule
undertaking any graft/transplant and
even after this patient has to take immunosuppressants throughout life.
• If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to our body, specific antibodies
and T-cells serve to kill these pathogens.
LYMPHOID STRUCTURES/ORGANS
Structure Typical
Bone Main lymphoid organ where all blood cells are produced including
marrow lymphocytes.
Thymus Lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breast bone. Quite large
at the time of birth, keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty
is attained, it is reduced to a very small size.
Spleen Large bean shaped organ, mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes
Acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood borne micro-organisms.
Large reservoir of erythrocytes.
Lymph Small solid structures located at different points along the lymphatic system
nodes Serve to trap the microbes/antigens which happen to get into the lymph and
tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the
activation of lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response.
MALT Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue is located within the lining of major tracts
like respiratory, digestive and urinogenital tracts.
Constitutes about 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body.

VACCINATION AND IMMUNISATION
Types of immunity
Antibodies Active Passive
Produced within Ready-made/preformed
the host body antibodies are directly given
Time taken for full/ Longer Shorter
effective response
Memory cells Yes No
Natural Antibody
Examples infection production Placenta
Mother (lgG)
Foetus
Vaccination in host
Deliberate injection of Mother Colostrum
Infant
(lgA)
living/dead microbes/proteins
Immunisation
(Property of ‘Memory’ of Immune System)
Active Passive
Preparation of antigenic proteins Direct performed antibodies/antitoxin
of pathogen/inactivated/weakened is injected such as antitoxin against
pathogen introduced into body snake bites
• The antibodies produced in the host body against antigens would neutralize the
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
• The vaccines also generate memory B-cells and memory T-cells that recognize
the pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with
a massive production of antibodies.
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the large scale production of antigenic
polypeptides of pathogen in bacteria/yeast. Hence, greater availability for
immunization, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
ALLERGIES
Exaggerated response of immune system to certain antigens present in the environment.
Allergens Substances to which exaggerated immune response is produced e.g.,
pollens, mites in dust, animal dander, etc.
Antibodies lgE type
Symptoms Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing
Chemical released Histamine and serotonin from mast cells
Diagnosis Patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible
allergens and reactions studied.
Treatment Anti-histamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms
of allergy
Effects of modern-day life style

• Protected environment provided early in life has resulted in lowering of immunity
and person is more sensitive to allergens
• More and more children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma
due to more sensitivity to the environment.

DRUG ABUSE
Chemical when taken for a purpose other than medicinal use or in amounts frequency impairs one's physical, physiological or psychological functions
and constitutes drug abuse. Source-Majorly from flowering plants and some from fungi.
Drug Receptors Source Intake Examples Action and
anything specific
Opioids CNS, GIT Latex of poppy plant, Snorting, injection Morphine Effective sedative and pain killer
Papaver somniferum HO Useful in patients undergone surgery
Heroin/Smack Depressant and slows down body functions
O (Diacetylmorphine) Odourless, white, bitter crystalline compound
H
N
CH3
HO
Opium poppy Chemical structure of Morphine
Cannabinoids Principally Inflorescence, flower Inhalation, oral Charas Hashish Effects on cardiovascular system of the body
in brain tops, leaves and resin ingestion Ganja Marijuana Also being abused by some sport spersons
of cannabis plant,
Cannabis sativa
Leaves of Cannabis sativa Skeletal structure of cannabinoid molecule
Hand Book (Biology)

Stimulants CNS Coca plant Snorting Cocaine/coka Interferes with transport of neurotransmitter
Erythroxylum coca alkaloid dopamine
(Native of South Commonly called Potent stimulating action on CNS, producing
America) (coke/crack) sense of euphoria and increased energy
Excessive dosage causes hallucinations
Hallucinogens Atropa belladonna, Have been used for hundreds of years in folk-
Datura medicine, religious ceremonies and rituals all
over the globe
Other drugs Synthetic Barbiturates, Help patients cope with mental illness like
Benzodiazepines, depression insomnia
Flowering branch
of Datura Amphetamines
78
DRUGS AND SPORTSPERSON
Why to use?
Increase muscle strength
Promote aggressiveness
Enhance athletic performance
Commonly abused drugs
Narcotic analgesics
Diuretics
Anabolic steroids
Certain hormones
Common side effects
Increased aggressiveness
Mood swings
Depression
Stunted growth because of premature closure of growth centres of long bones
Severe facial and body acne
Typical side effects
Male
Breast enlargement
Decreased sperm production
Reduction in size of testicles
Acne, premature baldness, enlargement of prostate gland
Female
Masculinisation (features like males)
Abnormal menstrual cycles
Enlargement hair growth on face & body
Deepening of voice
AUTOIMMUNITY
Memory based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates can
distinguish foreign molecules as well as foreign organisms (pathogens)
form self-cells.
Results – Self destruction/body attack self cells
Reason – Genetic/unknown
Example – Rheumatoid arthritis

TABACCO/SMOKING-PAVES THE WAY TO HARD DRUGS
Smoked
Intake Chewed
Snuff
Chemical substance Nicotine, an alkaloid
Action of nicotine Stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and
non-adrenaline into blood circulation.
Effects
Respiratory system Increases carbon monoxide (CO) in blood and reduces
concentration of haembound oxygen, causes oxygen
deficiency in the body
Circulatory system Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Bronchitis
Emphysema
Common diseases
Coronary heart disease
Gastric ulcer
Oral cavity
Throat
Risk of cancers
Lungs
Urinary bladder
• Tobacco has been used by humans for more than 400 years.

ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE

Adolescence means both “a period” and “a process” during which a child
mature in terms of his/her attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in
society.
Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
It is a period between 12-18 years of age, a vulnerable phase of mental and
psychological development of an individual.
It is accompanied by several biological and behavioural changes.
Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, motivate
youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.
First use may be out of curiosity but later used to escape from stress, pressures
to excel in academics, perception that it is cool.
Television, movies, newspapers, internet, promote this perception.
Unstable or unsupportive family structures and peer pressure also promote
drug and alcohol abuse.

ADDICTION AND DEPENDENCE
Addiction
Because of perceived benefits, drugs are frequently used repeatedly that leads
to psychological attachment to certain effects like euphoria and temporary
felling of well being.
Dependence
It is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
“withdrawal syndrome” if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinues.
Addiction drive people to take drug even when its use become self-destructive.
With repeated use of drug, tolerance level of receptors increases.
Receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs leading to greater intake.
Effects of drug/alcohol abuse
Reckless behavior Vandalism Violence Depression Fatigue
Drop in academic performance
Warning signs:
Unexplained absence from school/college
Poor personal hygiene, withdrawal, isolation
Aggressive and rebellious behavior
Loss of interest in hobbies
Change in sleeping and eating habits
Fluctuations in weight and appetite
Deteriorating relationships with family and friends
High doses lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage.
Chronic use of drugs/alcohol damage nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
Use of drugs during pregnancy adversely affect foetus.
Some far-reaching implications
Abuser may turn to stealing.
Addict becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to entire family and friends.
Withdrawl syndrome
If drug is abruptly discontinued, symptoms include:
Anxiety Nausea Shakiness Sweating
In severe cases, can be life threatening, person needs a medical supervision.
Prevention and control
“Prevention is better than cure”
Avoid undue peer pressure on child related to studies, sports or other activities.
Education and counselling: Channelise energy of child into healthy pursuits
like sports, yoga, reading, music, etc.
Sort out problems by seeking help from parents and peers.
Looking for danger signs Alert parents, teachers and close friends need to look for and
identify the danger signs of substance (drug/alcohol) abuse and appropriate measures
would then be required to diagnose the malady and underlying cause.
Proper remedial steps or treatment should be taken by seeking professional and medical
help in the form of highly qualified psychologists, psychiatrists, and de-addiction and
rehabilitation programmes, This will totally relieve the individual from these evils.
Use of durgs even once can be “fore-runner to addiction” and pull

the user into a vicious circle leading to their regular use/abuse.

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Chapter 9A
Strategies for Enhancement

in Food Production
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock useful to humans.
Animal husbandary deals with the care and breeding of livestock like buffaloes,
cows, pigs, goats etc.
Animal husbandary = Poultry farming + Fisheries
Some of the products and the animals involved are:
Useful product Source
Milk Cows, buffaloes, Goats
Eggs Poultry birds, Chicken, Ducks, Turkey, Geese
Meat Cattle, Sheep, Pigs
Wool Sheep
Honey Bees
More than 70% population of livestock is in India and China but contribution
to world's farm produce is 25%
Due to the low productivity per unit
Insufcient food supply due to ever increasing population size.
Improvement in conventional practices of animal breeding by applying
newer technologies to improve the quality and productivity.
FISHERIES
Rearing, Fish
Catching, Molluscs (shell-sh)
Industry devoted
Processing Crustaceans (prawns, crabs)
& Selling Aquatic animals
Aquaculture:
Enhancement in aquatic yield including plants and animals
Pisciculture: Products from shery
Increase in total Food: lobster, prawn, sh, edible oyster
sh yield
Fresh water (FW) Marine (M)
Catla, Rohu, Common carp Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel, Pomfrets
To meet the increasing demand on sheries, different techniques
have been employed that led to Blue revolution.
MANAGEMENT OF FARM AND FARM ANIMALS
A professional approach is needed to boost our food production.
Some of the management procedures employed in animal farm system are
management:
1. Diary farm management/Dairying: Management of animals for milk and
its products for human consumption e.g., Cows, buffaloes
Aimed at
Jersey
Increasing yield
Depends on
Quality of breed
Improving quality
High yielding potential Resistance of milk
under given climatic to diseases
conditions of the area
○ Practices involved
– Effective housing Stringent cleanliness of
– Adequate water
Cattle Handlers
– Maintain disease free conditions
Regular inspection by
– Cattle diet (fooder)
veterinary doctor
Quality
Quantity balanced
Increased mechanization in dairy farming particularly milking,
storage and transport of milk, reduces chances of direct
contact of the produce with the handler
2. Poultry farm management
Eggs
○ Involves use of birds for food
Meat
• Birds: Fowl, chicken,
ducks, turkey, geese
○ Requirement: Leghorn
• Selection of disease free and suitable breeds
• Proper and safe farm conditions
• Proper feed and water
• Maintaining proper health care and hygiene
Disease Bird y
Cause H5N1 virus
Symptoms Respiratory difculty, fever, malaise
People at risk – Poultry farmers exposed to infected birds
– People who eats under cooked eggs/poultry
83 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production

BEE-KEEPING (Apiculture)
It is the maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of honey
Age old, high income yield cottage industry and is not labour intensive
Most common bee in India: Apis indica
Advantages Products obtained from honey bee
a. Increases product yield
b. Enhances crop yield Bees wax Honey
• Preparation of • Food: High nutritive
Salient points for cosmetics and value
successful bee keeping polishes • Used in Indigenous
(i) Knowledge of the nature medicine
and habits of bees Bees are effective pollinators
(ii) Selection of suitable location
for keeping the beehives Areas for practice
(iii) Catching and hiving of Pastures Fruit
swarms (group of bees) for shrubs Crop orchards
(iv) Management of beehives elds
during different seasons Sunower
Brassica
(v) Handling and collection of Apple
Pear
honey and beeswax
Keeping beehives in crop elds during owering period increases
pollination efciency and improve the yield.

ANIMAL BREEDING
Breed: A group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters
like general appearance, features, size, conguration etc.
Aims of animal breeding:
○ Increase the product yield (Quantity )
○ Improving desirable qualities in produce
High yielding variety
Disease resistant
High reproductive rate
Longer productivity span

SELECTIVE BREEDING OR HYBRIDISATION
Types of selective breeding
Inbreeding Outbreeding
○ Mating of more closely related ○ Mating between male and female
individuals within the same of same breed (no recent common
breed for 4-6 generations ancestor) or different breeds or
○ Inbreeding increases homozygosity different species
and is useful to evolve purelines
Advantage Disadvantages
○ Increases the productivity of ○ Inbreeding depression
population as superior genes due to continued close Fertility
are accumulated and harmful inbreeding
recessive genes are eliminated Productivity
1. Outcrossing
Mating of animals within the same breed but having no common ancestors
upto 4-6 generations
Advantage
A single out cross helps increase productivity of animals below average
Growth rate in beef cattle
Milk production
2. Cross breeding
○ Mating between superior male of one breed and superior female of
another breed
○ This method allows combination of superior qualities of two different
breeds on a commercial scale.
Advantage
○ Stable new breeds superior to existing breeds can be developed
○ Example: A new breed of sheep
♂/Male ♀/Female
Merino ram × Bikaneri ewe

Hisardale
Location: Punjab
3. Interspecic hybridization
○ Male and female of two different related species are mated
Advantage
○ Progeny may combine desirable features of both the parents and
may be of considerable economic value
85 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production

○ Example: ♂/Male ♀/Female
Donkey × Horse (Mare)

Mule (Sterile)
Inbreeding depression can be overcome by out crossing

i.e., method to restore fertility and yield

CONTROLLED BREEDING EXPERIMENTS
Articial Insemination Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer

(AI) (MOET)
Identify elite bull Identify superior cow

Extract semen Inject with FSH-like hormone

Either used immediately of Super ovulation (6-8 ova/cycle)
Cryopreservation (cold storage)
AI or natural insemination
Inject into reproductive tract
of superior cow Non surgical extraction of embryo

Gestation in surrogate cow
Advantages
○ Greater chances of fertilization ○ Increase herd size and

○ Economically relevant as all quality in less time
sperms can be used since semen ○ Genetic mother available for
from 1 bull can fertilise more than another round of super
1 cow, if needed ovulation
○ Helps to overcome several
problems of normal mating
Disadvantages
○ The success rate of crossing ○ Not applicable to shes

mature and is fairly low and birds
• MOET is demonstrated on mammals such as cattle, mares, sheep, rabbits
• Superior cow: High yield of milk/lactation Have been bred successfully to
• Superior bull: Lean meat with less lipid increase herd size in a short time

qqq

Chapter 9B
Strategies for Enhancement

in Food Production
INTRODUCTION
♦ Biological principles as applied to animal husbandry and plant breeding
have a major role in our efforts to increase food production.
Plant Breeding
• Green revolution was dependent to a large extent on plant breeding
techniques for development of high yielding and disease resistant
varieties in wheat, rice, maize etc.
• Purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to create desired
plant types that are better suited for cultivation, give better yields and
are disease resistant.
• Classical plant breeding involves crossing or hybridization of pure
lines, followed by artificial selection to produce plants with desirable
traits of higher yields, nutrition and resistant to diseases.
Characters that breeders want to incorporate into the crops plants
are increased crop yield, improved quality, increased tolerance to
environmental stresses like salinity, drought, extreme temperature,
resistance to pathogens and increased tolerance to insect pest.
The main steps of plant breeding:
(i) Collection of variability: Genetic variability is the root of breeding
programme
(ii) Evaluation and selection of parents: Germplasm is evaluated, selected
plants are multiplied and used for hybridisation. Purelines are created
wherever desirable and possible.
(iii) Cross hybridization among the selected parents: Very time consuming
and tedious process, it is not necessary that the hybrids do combine the
desirable characters.
(iv) Selection and testing of superior recombinants: This step is crucial
to the success of the breeding objective and requires careful scientific
evaluation of progeny. This step yields plants that are superior to both
the parents.
(v) Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivars: The entire
collection of plants/seeds having all the diverse alleles for all genes in
a given crops is called germplasm collection.
Agriculture accounts for approximately 33 percent of India's GDP.
The development of several high yielding varieties of wheat and rice
in the mid 1960s, as result of various plant breeding techniques led
to dramatic increase in food production in our country. This phase is
often referred to as the Green Revolution.
Wheat and Rice:
• During the period 1960 to 2000, wheat production increased from 11
million tonnes to 75 million tonnes. Rice production went up from 35
million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes. This was due to the development
of semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice.
• Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug, at International Centre for Wheat
and Maize improvement in Mexico, developed semi-dwarf wheat.
• In 1963, several varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan Sona, which
were high yielding and disease resistant were introduced all over the
wheat-growing belt of India.
• Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8, (developed
at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines) and
Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan). The derivatives were introduced in
1966. Later, better-yielding semi-dwarf rice varieties Jaya and Ratna
were developed in India.
Sugarcane:
• Saccharum barberi was originally grown in north India, but had poor
sugar content and yield, Tropical canes grown in south India
• Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems and higher sugar content but
did not grow well in north India. These two species were successfully
crossed to get sugar cane varieties combining the desirable qualities of
high yield, thick stems, high sugar content and ability to grow in the
sugar cane areas of north India.
Millets:
• Hybrid maize, jower and bajra have been successfully developed in
India.
Ha n d Book (Biolog y ) 88
Plant Breeding for disease resistance
• Method of breeding for disease resistance: Conventional breeding
techniques or by Mutation breeding.
Crop Variety Resistance to Disease
Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe rust, hill bunt
Brassica Pusa Swarnim White rust
(Karan rai)
Cauliflower Pusa Shubhra, Black rot and Curl blight
Pusa Snowball K-1 black rot
Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
Chili Pusa Sadabahar Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco
mosaic virus and Leaf curl
Resistance of the host plant is the ability to prevent the pathogen
form causing disease and is determined by the genetic constitution
of the host plant
• Mutation breeding: Induce mutations through use of chemicals or
radiations and selecting and using the plants that have the desirable
character.
In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery
mildew were induced by mutations.
In Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculantus), resistance to yellow mosaic
virus was transferred from a wild species and resulted in a new
variety of Abelmoschus esculentus callled Parbhani Kranti.
PLANT BREEDING FOR DEVELOPING RESISTANCE TO
INSECT PESTS
• It may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological
characteristics.
• Source of resistance genes: Cultivate varieties, germplasm collections
of the crop or wild relatives.
Crop Resistance to insect/ Reason of Type of resistance
pest resistance
Wheat Stem saw fly Solid stem Morphological
Wheat Leaf beetle Hairly leaves Morphological
Cotton Jassids Hairly leavs Morphological
Cotton Bollworms Smooth leaves and Morphological and
absence of nectar Biochemical
Maize Stem borers Low nitrogen, sugar Biochemical
and high aspartic
acid
89 Strate g ie s for En h a n c e m e n t in Food Prod u c tion

Some released crop varieties bred by hybridisation and selection for insect
pest resistance are given
Crop Variety Insect Pestst
Brassica (rapeseed mustard) Pusa Gaurav Aphids
Flat bean Pusa Sem2 Jassids, aphids and
Pusa Sem3 fruit borer
Okra (Bhindi) Pusa Sawani Shoot and Fruit borer
Pusa A-A
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality

• More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food
to meet their daily food and nutritional requirements. They suffer from
hidden hunger.
Biofortification: Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and
minerals or higher protein and healthier fats – Most practical means to
improved public health.
Objectives of improving
1. Proteins content and quality
2. Oil content and quality
3. Vitamin content
4. Micronutrient and mineral content
• In 2000, maize hybrids that had twice the amount of the amino acids,
lysine and tryptophan were developed. Wheat variety, Atlas 66 having
a high protein content (donor for improving cultivated wheat).
• IARI (India Agricultural Research Institue, New Delhi) has developed
several vegetable crops that are rich in vitamins and minerals and
proteins e.g.
Vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin.
Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato.
Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua and protein enriched
beans (Broad, lablab and french) and garden peas.
SINGLE CELL PROTEINS (SCP)
• More than 25 per cent of human population is suffering from hunger
and malnutrition.
• Source of good protein are Spirulina, Methylophilus methylotrophus,
mushrooms and some fungi.
• Microbes like Spirulina can be grown easily on waste water from potato
processing plants, such utilisation reduces environmental pollution.
Ha n d Book (Biolog y ) 90
• 250 kg cow produced 200 g of protein per day.
• 250g of micro organism like Methylophilus methylotrophus (due to high
rate of biomass production & growth) produces 25 tonnes of protein.
TISSUE CULTURE
• To provide sufficiently fast and efficient systems for crop improvement.
• Explant: Any plant part taken out and grown in a test tube under sterile
conditions in special nutrient media.
• The capacity to generate whole plant from ex-plant is called totipotency.
• Micropropagation: Propagation of a large number of plants through
tissue culture.
• They are somaclones.
• Tomato, banana, apple etc. have been produced.
• Another important application of the method is the recovery of healthy
plants from diseased plant. Even if the plants is infected with the virus,
the meristem is free of virus.
• Somatic hybridisation: Isolated protoplasts from two different
varieties of plants can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts which can be
further grown to from a new plant. These hybirds are called Somatic
hybrids.
• Protoplast hybrid of potato and tomato called pomato was created but
unfortunately, this plant did not have all the desired combination of
characteristics for its commercial utilization.
qqq
91 Strate g ie s for En h a n c e m e n t in Food Prod u c tion

Chapter 10
Microbes in Human Welfare
INTRODUCTION
♦ Microbes are diverse-protozoa, bacteria, fungi and microscopic animal
& plant viruses, viroids and also prions and present everywhere even at
thermalvents, snow layer and highly acidic environment.
♦ Grown on nutritive media to form colonies that can be seen with
naked eyes. Such cultures are useful in studies on micro-organisms.
MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

• Lactobacillus & others (LAB) grow in milk & convert it to curd. LAB
produce acids that coagulate & partially digest milk proteins at suitable
temperatures. It also improves its nutritional quality by increasing
Vit-B12.
• LAB play beneficial role in checking pathogenic microbes in our
stomach.
• The dough used for dosa, idli is fermented by bacteria.
• Microbes are used to ferment fish, soyabean & bamboo shoots to make
foods.
• The characteristic texture, flavour, taste and specificity of cheese is due
to the microbes:
Swiss cheese: Large holes are due to large amount of CO2 produced
by the bacterium, Propionibacterium sharmanii.
Roquefort cheese: Ripened by a specific fungi which gives the
specific flavour.
♦ Dough: Used for making bread, fermented using baker’s yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• Toddy is fermented sap from palms.
MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
Fermented Beverages
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is used for beverages production and called
brewer's yeast. It is also used for fermenting malted cereals & fruit
juices to produce ethanol.
• Wine & beer are produced without distillation. Whisky, brandy & rum
are produced by distillation of fermented broth.
Antibiotics (Anti = against, bio = life)

• Penicillin-First antibiotic was a chance discovery, by Alexander
Fleming, while working on staphylococci bacteria, when he observed
that they did not grow due to the growth of mould Penicillium notatum.
Its full potential was discovered by Chain & Florey. Fleming, Chain &
Florey were awarded Nobel prize 1945.
Chemicals, Enzymes & other Bioactive Molecules

• Aspergillus niger (a fungus) – Citric acid
• Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium) – Acetic acid
• Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) – Butyric acid
• Lactobacillus (a bacterium) – Lactic acid
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Ethanol
• Lipases – Used in detergent formulations.
• Streptokinase produced by bacterium Streptococcus & modified by
genetic engineering is used as a ‘clot buster’ for removing clots from
blood vessels of myocardial infarction [MI] patients.
• Cyclosporin-A, used as immunosuppressive agent in organ-transplant
patients, is produced from Trichoderma polysporum (a fungus).
• Statins produced by yeast Monascus purpureus is a blood-cholesterol
lowering agent.
93 Microbes in Human Welfare

MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT
z The municipal waste water is called sewage. A major component of
this waste water is human excreta. It contains large amounts of organic
matter & microbes.
z Treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) by heterotrophic microbes
to make it less polluting.
Primary Treatment (Physical Secondary Treatment
treatment) (Biological treatment)
Involves physical removal of Primary effluent is passed into
particles large & small from the large aeration tanks
sewage through filtration and
sedmentation
Floating debris is removed by Constantly agitated and air is
sequential filtration pumped into it
Grit (soil & small pebbles Allows vigorous growth of useful
removed by sedimentation) aerobia microbes into flocs.
(Bacteria + fungal filaments to
form mesh like structures)
Solids that settle form Microbes grow & consume the
the primary sludge & the major part of organic matter,
supernatant forms the effluent. significantly reducing the BOD.
The effluent is taken for Effluent passed into setting tank,
secondary treatment. where bacterial ‘flocs’ sediment,
called Activated sludge and then
effluent from secondary treatment
plant can be released into natural
water bodies.
A small part of the activated
sludge is pumped back into
aeration tank to serve as
inoculum. Rest is pumped into
anaerobic sludge digesters.
In anaerobic sludge digester,
aerobic bacteria digest
bacteria & fungi in the
sludge. Produce a Mixture of
CH4, H2S, CO2 (Biogas)

MICROBES IN PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS
• Mixture of gases (predominantly methane) produced by microbial
activity.
• Methanogens, like Methanobacterium, grow anaerobically on cellulosic
material to produce large amount of CH4 along with CO2 and H2.
• These bacteria are commonly found in anaerobic sludge during
sewage treatment, rumen of cattle.
• In rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown of cellulose & play
an important role in nutrition of cattle. The excreta of cattle (dung),
commonly called Gobar is rich in these bacteria.
• Dung can be used for generation of biogas, so commonly called Gobar
gas.
BIOGAS PLANT
• Consist of a concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) in which bio-wastes are
collected and a slurry of dung is fed.
• A floating cover is placed over the slurry which rises when gas is
produced due to microbial activity.
• It has outlet to transfer biogas.
• Slurry is removed and may be used as fertiliser.
• Biogas can be used for cooking and lighting.
• The technology of biogas production was developed in India mamly
due to the efforts of Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) &
Khadi & Village Industries Commission (KVIC).

MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS
• Refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases
and pests.
Biological control of pests & diseases

• Relies on natural predation.
• Chemical methods: Kill both useful and harmful life forms
indiscriminately.
Beetle with red & black markings: Ladybird & dragonflies are
useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes respectively.
Butterfly caterpillars are controlled by bacteria Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) on plants such as brassicas & fruit trees.
Bt toxin genes is introduced to produce Bt-cotton.
Fungus Trichoderma, common in the root ecosystems, effective
against several plant pathogens.
Baculoviruses attack insects and other arthropods. Majority of
Baculoviruses are in the genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus, they are
species-specific, narrow spectrum insecticidal applications.
MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS
• Organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil.
• Main sources: Bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria.
• Root nodules in leguminous plants are formed by symbiotic association
of Rhizobium to fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms.
• Free-living N2-fixers like Azospirillum and Azotobacter enrich the soil.
• Fungi-plant root symbiotic association is called mycorrhiza (Glomus
form mycorrhiza). Fungi absorb phosphorus from soil & passes to the
plant. Plants also show resistance to root-borne pathogens, tolerance to
salinity and drought and overall increase in growth and development.
• Cyanobacteria like Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc. fix atmospheric
N2 in paddy fields.
• BGA (blue green algae) also add organic matter to the soil and increase
its fertility

NOTES
• The puffed-up appearance of dough is due to CO2 gas.

• Toddy is a traditional drink of some parts of Southern India.
• Antibiotics mean against life, in the context of disease causing
organisms but in context to human life they are ‘pro life’.
• Bottled juices are clarified by use of pectinases and proteases.
• Statins act by competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for
synthesis of cholesterol.
• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) is the amount of oxygen
consumed if all the organic matter in one liter of water were oxidised
by bacteria.
• BOD test measures the rate of uptake of oxygen by microorganisms
m a sample of water. BOD is a measure of the organic matter present
in the water.
• Microbes play a major rote in treating millions of gallons of waste
water everyday across the globe. Till date, no man-made technology
has been able to rival the microbial treatment of sewage.
• The ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated Ganga Action
Plan & Yamuna Action Plan to save these major rivers of our country
from pollution.
• The biocontrol measures help us to avoid heavy use of toxic pesticides
for controlling pests.
qqq

Chapter 11
Biotechnology:
Principles and Processes
INTRODUCTION
♦ Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or
enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful
to humans.
Parameters Traditional Modern
biotechnology biotechnology
Organisms involved Microbes Genetically

modified organisms
Production Small scale Large scale
Examples Curd, bread or wine In vitro fertilisation

making leading to a
‘test-tube’ baby
EFB (European Federation of Synthesising a gene
Biotechnology) and using it
z The integration of natural science and Developing a DNA

organisms, cells, parts thereof and vaccine
molecular analogues for products and
Correcting a
services.
defective gene
z It encompasses both traditional view
and modern molecular biotechnology.
Principles of Biotechnology/Core Techniques
Involved in Modern Biotechnology
Parameters Genetic Bioprocess engineering
engineering
Definition Techniques to alter Maintenance of sterile
the chemistry of ambience in chemical
genetic material engineering processes
to introduce these to enable growth of only
into host organisms the desired microbe/
and thus change the eukaryotic cell in large
phenotype of host quantities
organism
Include Creation of rDNA Manufacture of
Gene cloning biotechnological products
Gene transfer like antibiotics, vaccines,
enzymes etc.
The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance gene in E.coli
was called cloning of antibiotic resistance gene in E.coli.
Advantages of Biotechnology over other Techniques

Methods Advantage Disadvantage
Asexual Preserves genetic No variations
reproduction information
Sexual Provides opportunities for Some of which may be
reproduction variations and formulation harmful to the organism
or unique combinations of as well as the population
genetic setup
Traditional Used in plant and animal Very often lead
hybridisation breeding. to inclusion and
multiplication of
undesirable genes along
with desirable genes.
Genetic Allows us to isolate and
engineering introduce only one or
a set of desirable genes —
without introducing
undesirable genes into
target organism.
99 Biotechnology: Principles and Processes

Three Basis Steps in Genetically Modifying Organisms (GMO)
z Identification of DNA with desirable genes
z Introduction of the identified DNA into the host
z Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to
its progeny
KEY TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

(1) Enzymes
(2) Vectors
(3) Competent host cells
Enzymes Most commonly used Nucleases

enzymes in genetic
DNA polymerase
engineering are
Ligases
Nucleases
↓
Catalyse the cleavage of nucleic acids
↓ Type
Exonucleases Endonucleases
Remove nucleotides Make cuts at specific positions within the DNA
from the ends of the i.e. at recognition/palindromic sequence
DNA ↓
In the year 1963, the two enzymes responsible
for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in
Escherichia coli were isolated
↓
Methylase Restriction endonuclease/Molecular scissors
Add methyl group to Cut the DNA of bacteriophage
bacterial DNA
Palindromic sequence reads same on the two strands (from 5′ → 3′
and 3′ → 5′ direction) when orientation of reading is kept same

ENZYMES
Restriction endonuclease
More than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated from over 230 strains
of bacteria (prokaryotic cell) each of which recognise different recognition
sequences.
Nomenclature of enzyme:
First restriction
Eco RI endonuclease-Hindi II:
Isolated and characterised
five years later, recognises
Genus Species Strain Order of sequence of 6 bp.
Escherichia coli RY13 isolation Stanley Cohen and Herbert
Boyer, 1972.
Functions:
• Inspecting the length of DNA sequence
• Binds to the specific recognition sequence
• Cuts the two strands of dsDNA at specific points in their sugar-
phosphate backbones and leaves single stranded portions at the ends.
• These overhanging stretches called sticky ends.
Ligase
• When source DNA and vector DNA are cut by the same restriction enzyme,
the resultant DNA fragments have the same kind of sticky-ends .
• Sticky ends are named so because they form hydrogen bonds with their
complementary cut counterparts.
• Stickiness facilitates the action of the enzyme DNA ligase.
CLONING VECTORS
Vectors are vehicles for delivering foreign DNA into recipient cells.
Vectors used at present are engineered in such a way that they help easy linking
of foreign DNA and selection of recombinants from non recombinants.
Features of cloning vectors:
• Origin of Replication (ori):
Sequence from where replication starts
Responsible for controlling copy number of the linked DNA
Those vectors are preferred which support high copy number
• Selectable Marker:
Helps in selection of transformants
Normally, the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as
ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin, etc., are
considered useful selectable markers for E.coli
The normal E.coli cells do not carry resistance against any of these
antibiotics
• Cloning Sites/Restriction Sites:
Single recognition site for a restriction enzyme within the vector is
a preferable feature.
Presence of more than one recognition sites within the vector will
generate several fragments which will complicate the gene cloning.
The ligation of alien DNA/gene of interest (GOI) is carried out at a
restriction site present in one of the antibiotic resistant genes.
Transformation: Procedure through which piece of foreign DNA is
introduced in a host bacterium.
• Insertional inactivation: Insertion of gene of interest within antibiotic
resistance gene/selectable marker results in inactivation.
• Hypothesis: Insertion of GOI at Bam HI site in tetR.
If transformation fails: Non transformants are obtained in antibiotic lacking
agar medium but they do not grow on antibiotic rich medium.
• If transformation is successful: Transformants obtained are of two

types:

Non Recombinants Recombinants
Insertional
EcoR I Cla I Hind III inactivation
Pvu I
Pst I BamH I
Ligate
ampR tetR tetR
E. coli cloning Foreign ampR
vector pBR322 pBR322 Sal I DNA at
ori Bam HI site
rop
Pvu II
Gene of interest cloned No Yes
Resistance to ampicillin Yes Yes
Resistance to tetracycline Yes No
All transformants are not recombinants but all recombinants are transformants.
• Non-Transformants: Hosts that do not take up the vector DNA
(Recombinant or Non-recombinant).
• Transformants: Hosts that take up the vector DNA (Recombinant or
Non-recombinant).
• Recombinants: Transformant hosts that take up the recombinant DNA
(Vector DNA with desired DNA).
• Non-Recombinants: Transformant hosts that take up the
nonrecombinant DNA (Vector DNA without desired DNA)
• rop → Codes for the proteins involved in the replication of the plasmid.
Plasmids as vectors:
• Extra chromosomal, circular, double stranded DNA.
• Replicate independent of the control of chromosomal DNA
(autonomously).
• They may have 1 or 2 copies per cell or even 15-100 copies per cell.
OTHER CLONING VECTORS

Selection of recombinants due to inactivation of antibiotic resistant gene
as in pBR322 is a cumbersome procedure because it requires simultaneous
plating of two plates having different antibiotics.
To overcome the disadvantage of pBR322, alternative selectable markers
(lac Z) acting as reporter enzyme have been developed which differentiate
recombinants from non- recombinants on the basis of their ability to produce
colour in the presence of chromogenic substrate.
• lac Z gene coding for b-galactosidase acts as selectable marker in the
plasmid.
Experiment: Insert foreign DNA at lac

Z gene + transformation in E.coli
Chromogenic
substrate
Fails Succeeds
Blue coloured colonies White coloured colonies
Non-recombinants Recombinants
Ti-plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

• Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a pathogen of several dicot plants is able
to deliver a piece of DNA known as ‘T-DNA’ to transform normal plant
cells into a tumor and direct the tumor cells to produce the chemicals
required by the pathogen.
• Disarmed tumour inducing (Ti) plasmid is used which is no more
pathogenic to the plants but is still able to use the mechanism to deliver
the genes of our interest into varieties of plants.
Bacteriophages
• High copy number than plasmid
Retroviruses
• Retroviruses in animals have the ability to transform normal cells into
cancerous cells.
Disarmed retroviruses are used to deliver desirable genes into animal cells.
Methods of Transformation
1. Micro-injection
Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal
cell.
2. Biolistic/Gene gun
Plant cells are bombarded with high velocity microparticles of gold
or tungsten coated with DNA.
3. Heat shock method
4. Disarmed pathogen vector
Competent Host for Transformation with recombinant DNA
• DNA is hydrophilic, so it can not pass through cell membranes
• In order to force cell to take up alien DNA/rDNA, it must first be made
‘competent’ by treating with ice cold calcium chloride (CaCl2).
• Entry of rDNA in host cell is due to transient pores created by heat
shock (42°C) and not due to Ca2+ ions.
• Divalent cations increases the efficiency with which DNA enters the
bacterium through pores in its cell wall.
Process of Recombinant DNA Technology
Isolation of DNA
Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonucleases
Isolation of desired DNA fragment (electrophoresis)
Amplification of gene of interest (PCR)
Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector
Transferring the alien DNA/recombinant DNA into the host
Culturing the host cells in a medium at large scale (Bioreactors)
Extraction and purification of the desired product
1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)

In majority of organisms, DNA is the genetic material.
Since DNA is enclosed within the membranes, we have to break the
cell open to release DNA along with other macromolecules
 Bacteria → Lysozyme
 Fungi → Chitinase
 Plant cell → Cellulase

In order to get DNA in pure form (free from other macromolecules),
it is treated with different enzymes like RNase, protease etc.
Pure Chilled ethanol

Centrifuge
DNA to precipitate DNA
Process
Spooling
2. Fragmentation by restriction endonucleases

3. Separation and isolation of DNA fragments
• Gel electrophoresis:
Separation of negatively charged DNA molecules under an electric
field through a medium/matrix.
Most commonly used matrix for DNA separation is
Agarose
Natural polymer, obtained Separate DNA fragments

from sea weeds through seiving effect
Separation on the basis of size
Wells filled with (Smaller the DNA fragment farther it moves)
DNA
DNA fragments
Largest bands
Smallest
–electrode/ + electrode/
3 4
cathode anode
2
1
Stained Exposed
with Ethidium to
Gel U.V rays
Appears
Bromide
Process Removal of DNA Bright orange

Elution fragment from gel bands
Purified DNA fragments are generally amplified (PCR) before constructing

rDNA by joining with cloning vector.

4. PCR-Polymerase Chain Reaction
In vitro amplification of DNA (gene of interest)
Reaction mixture Work/Function
Nucleotides Formation of DNA
Primers 2 sets of chemically synthesised
oligonucleotides, complementary
to the regions of DNA
Taq Polymerase Thermostable DNA polymerase,
isolated from bacterium, Thermus
aquaticus, remains active during high
temperature induced denaturation of
dsDNA. It extends the primers i.e.,
meant for chain elongation.
Genome DNA Template DNA for gene of interest
Sequence of events
• The amplified fragment if desired can now be used to ligate with a

vector for further cloning.

5. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector by DNA ligase
6. Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host cell
Transformed host cells are selected with the help of selectable
marker genes.
7. Culturing of recombinant host cells (Biosynthetic stage)
The cells harbouring cloned genes of interest may be grown in
Laboratory/ Bioreactors
Bioreactors: Vessels in which raw materials are biologically
converted into specific products using microbial plant, animal
human cells and provide optimal growth conditions (temperature,
pH, substrate, salts, vitamins, oxygen)
Parameters Laboratory Bioreactors

Culture Small volume Large volumes (100-1000 L)
Maintaining
Not possible No
optimal conditions
Growth rate of cell Never optimal Optimum
Production Small scale Large scale
Cylindrical or with curved base Facilitate mixing of

reactor contents
Stirrer Facilitate even mixing

and oxygen availability
throughout the bioreactor
Agitator system
Commonly used
Bioreactors Oxygen delivery system
are stirred
pH control system
Foam control system
To withdraw small volumes

Sampling ports
of culture periodically

8. Downstream processing
Separation and purification of the desired product/recombinant
protein from heterologous host (non native host).
Product has to be formulated with suitable preservatives.
Strict quality control testing is done for each product.
The downstream processing and quality control testing vary from
product to product.
9. Product is subjected for marketing as a finished product
In Open culture system/Continuous Culture System

• Used medium is drained out from one side.
• Fresh medium is added from the other to maintain the cells in their
physiologically most active log/exponential phase.
• Larger biomass → Higher yields of desired protein.
qqq

Chapter 12
Biotechnology and
Its Applications
INTRODUCTION
Biotechnology: Deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals
and biologicals using GM microbes, fungi, plants and animals.
Applications of biotechnology include:
Therapeutics Processed food
Diagnostics Bioremediation
Genetically modified Waste treatment
crops for agriculture Energy production
Three critical research areas of biotechnology:
Providing best catalyst in the form of improved microbes or pure enzymes
Creating optimal conditions through genetic engineering
Downstream processing technologies for purification
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

Food production could possibly be increased by three ways:
(i) Agrochemical based agriculture
(ii) Organic agriculture
(iii) Genetically engineered crop-based
Green revolution resulted in tripling of food production:
Reasons for success of green revolution:
Improved crop varieties
Agrochemicals (Fertilisers + Pesticides)
Better management practices
Problem:
Enhancement in food production by green revolution was still not
enough to feed growing population
Agrochemicals are often too expensive for farmers of developing world
Increase in yield with existing varieties is not possible using
conventional breeding
Organisms including plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been
altered by manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)
Applications of genetic modification:
(i) Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
(ii) Reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
(iii) Helped to reduce post harvest losses.
(iv) Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (prevents early exhaustion
of fertility of soil).
(v) Enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., golden rice, i.e., Vitamin 'A'
enriched rice.
Tailor Made Plants: Plants have been developed to supply
alternative resources to industries in the form of starches,
fuels and pharmaceuticals.
INSECT RESISTANT PLANTS

Provides resistance to insects without the need for insecticides (bio-pesticide)
Examples of biopesticides are Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato and
soyabean etc.
Bt cotton
Bacillus thuringiensis (A bacterium)
Source of the cry gene
Codes for Bt toxin

Produced during a particular
phase of their growth)
Inactive protoxins Sequence of events
(Protein crystals) cry gene from Bacillus thuringiensis
Endotoxin Br cotton (Cells express inactive protoxins)
Ingested by cotton bollworms
Alkaline pH in the midgut of insects solubilises protein crystals

Active toxin
Create pores in midgut epithelial cells
Swelling of midgut epithelial cells and thereby lysis
Death of insect
Choice of gene depends on
(i) Target pest (ii) Crop
cry/Ac and cry ll Ab Cotton bollworm
cry/Ab Corn borer
Bt toxins are insect group specific:
Lepidoptera: Tobacco budworm, armyworm, cotton bollworm
Coleoptera: Beetles
Diptera: Flies and mosquitoes
111 Biotechnology and Its Applications

PEST RESISTANT PLANTS
Method of cellular defense seen in all eukaryotes against pest infestation.
Technique:
RNA interference (RNAi)
Based on post transcriptional silencing
of mRNA
Translation of mRNA coded from pest specific
genes is silenced/prevented due to formation
of complementary dsRNA source
Viruses with Mobile genetic elements

RNA genome Transposons replicating
via an RNA intermediate
The case of nematode resistant transgenic tobacco:
Pest causing roots knot disease in tobacco plant: Meloidogyne incognita
(Nematode/helminth)
Nematode specific gene is introduced in host plant (tobacco), by using
Ti plasmid (vector) of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, in such a manner that
it produces both sense and antisense RNA in the host cells.
Sense RNA and antisense RNA being complementary form dsRNA that
initiates RNAi.
Parasite could not survive in a transgenic host expressing specific
interfering RNA
Host plant – generated dsRNA triggers protection against nematode
infestation
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

Advantages of Recombinant Therapeutics:
30 recombinant therapeutics have been approve for human use the world
over. In India, 12 of these are presently being markted.
Mass production of safe and effective drugs.
Do not induce unwanted immunological responses.
Genetically Engineered Human Insulin
Insulin extracted from slaughtered cattle
and pigs could cause allergy.
Production of humulin:
Recombiant insulin manufactured by Eli Lilly,
an American company in 1983
The main challenge for production of insulin
Maturation of
using rDNA techniques was getting insulin proinsulin to insulin
assembled into a mature form

Artificially synthesised
DNA sequence for A-chain DNA sequence for B-chain

Plasmid Plasmid

E.coli E.coli

Chain A Chain B
Produced separately
extracted and combined
by creating disulphide
bonds
Human insulin
Insulin is a peptide hormone and can be degraded by proteases in our gut
GENE THERAPY
Insertion of genes into an individual's cells to treat diseases by
(i) Replacing a defective mutant allele with a functional one
(ii) Gene targeting which involves gene amplification.
First clinical gene therapy was conducted in 1990 in a 4 year old girl to
treat adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, ADA enzyme is crucial
for immune system to function
Treatment for ADA Deficiency
(1) Enzyme replacement therapy
• Functional ADA is given by injection Not completely curative
(2) Bone marrow transplantation in children
(3) Gene therapy-Could be a permanent cure if bone marrow transplantion
is done at early embryonic stages.
Steps in gene therapy
Lymphocytes of patient ADA cDNA
Retrovirus mediated transformation

Genetically engineered lymphocytes (not immortal)
Infused in patient

MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS METHODS
Parameters Conventional Modern

Early detection Not possible Possible
Examples Serum and urine analysis RDT, PCR, ELISA
PCR (Polymerase chain Reaction):
Nucleic acid amplification
Detection of very low concentration of a bacteria or virus
Detection of HIV infection, mutations in genes in cancer patients,
genetic disorders
ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay)
Antigen-antibody interaction
Detect the presence of antigens or antibodies synthesised against
pathogens
Autoradiography
Radioactive ssDNA or ssRNA that hybridizes with complementary
DNA
Probe will not hybridise mutated gene, hence mutated gene will not
appear on the photographic film due to lack of complementarity
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
Possess manipulated DNA and express foreign gene
Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish have been produced
95% of transgenic animals are mice.
Uses of Transgenic Animals
To study how genes are regulated and how they affect the normal functions
of body, e.g., Study of insulin -like growth factors
Transgenic models exist for study of diseases like cancer, cystic fibrosis,
rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer's
Biological products
-1 antitrypsin - Treat emphysema.
Similar attempts are made for treatment of PKU (Phenylketonuria) and
cystic fibrosis.
First transgenic cow: Rosie developed in 1997 producing human protein
enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre)
The milk contained alpha-lactalbumin: More balanced product for
human babies than natural cow milk
Vaccine Safety
Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of polio vaccine to replace
the use of monkeys.
Chemical safety testing
Transgenic animals are made more sensitive to toxic substances to obtain
results in less time.

ETHICAL ISSUES
Genetic modification of organisms (GMO) can have unpredictable results
when such organisms are introduced into the ecosystem.
Genetic manipulation of living organisms by humans has to regulated for
moral and biological significance.
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee): Makes decisions
regarding the validity of introducing GMO for public services.
Developing countries are rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge
related to bioresources.
Biopiracy: Refers to the use of bio-resources by multinational companies
and other organisations without proper authorization from the countries
and people concerned without compensatory payment.
Controversies regarding patents and biopiracy:
(i) Basmatic rice:
2,00,000 varieties of rice in India, 27 documented varieties of
Basmati rice in India.
In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmatic rice
through the US patent Trademark office.
Basmati rice × Semi-dwarf variety of rice

New variety of Basmati rice
(ii) Turmeric
(iii) Neem
The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second amendment
of the Indian Patents Bill.
qqq

Chapter 13
Organisms and Populations
INTRODUCTION
♦ Ecology (at organismic and population level) studies interactions
among organisms and between organism and its physical (abiotic)
environment.
♦ Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological
organisation-organisms, populations, communities and biomes.
ORGANISMS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

• Ecology, at the organismic level, is essentially physiological ecology
(different organisms are adapted to their environments in terms of
survival and reproduction).
• The rotation of our planet around the sun and the tilt of its axis cause
annual variations in the intensity and duration of temperature, resulting
in distinct seasons. These variations together with annual variation is
precipitation (both rain and snow) account for formation of major
biomes such as desert, rain forest and tundra.
• Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation
of a wide variety of habitats, temperature, water, light and soil affect
the habitat.
• Habitat of an organism is characterised by physico-chemical (abiotic)
components and biotic components like-pathogens, parasites,
predators and competitors- of the organism with which they interact
constantly
• Our intestine is a unique habitat for hundred of species of microbes.
MAJOR ABIOTIC FACTORS

Temperature
• Ecologically most important factor
• Affects enzyme kinetics, metabolic activity & physiology
• Eurythermals tolerate wide temperature fluctuations
• Stenothermals restricted to narrow range.
• Thermal tolerance determines geographical distribution.
Water
• Life originated in water
• Productivity and distribution of plants is dependent on water
• Salinity measured in ppt is:
1. < 5 in inland water
2. 30-35 in sea
3. >100 in some hypersaline lagoons
Light
• Plants need light for photo-synthesis and photoperiod for flowering.
• Animals also need light for foraging, reproduction & migration.
• UV light is harmful.
• Red algae are found in deepest water.
Soil
• Nature and properties of soil depends on climate, weathering and
transportation.
• Composition, grain size, pH, minerals and topography determine
vegetation which dictates the type of animals supported.
117 Organisms and Populations
RESPONSE TO ABIOTIC FACTORS
Abiotic conditions of many habitats vary drastically in time and organisms
living in such habitats need to evolve strategies to survive or manage with the
stressful conditions.
ORGANISMIC RESPONSE TO ABIOTIC STRESS

Regulate
• Maintain homeostasis by physiological (or behavioural) means.
• Ensures constant body temperature and osmotic concentration.
• All birds, mammals and very few lower vertebrates and invertebrates
are capable of this.
Conform
• 99% animals & nearly all plants.
• Body temperature changes with the ambient temperature.
Suspend
• Thick walled spore in bacteria, fungi & lower plants.
• Dormancy in higher plants.
• Hibernation in bears
• Aestivation in snails and fish
• Diapause or suspended development in zooplanktons.
Success of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain constant

body temperature and thrive in antarctica or in Sahara desert 

ADAPTATIONS- TO COPE WITH EXTREME ENVIRONMENT
Genetically Fixed
• Kangaroo rat in North American deserts.
Internal fat-oxidation for water
Ability to concentrate urine
• CAM plants like Opuntia.
• Allen’s Rule: Shorter extremities of mammals in cold dimate to reduce
heat loss. (Thick blubber in seal).
Physiological
• Altitude sickness. Symptoms-Nausea, fatigue & heart palpitations.
• Gradually, the body compensates low oxygen by increasing RBC
production, decreasing the binding affinity of haemoglobin and
increasing the breathing rate.
Behavioural
• Desert lizards-bask in the sun & absorb heat when their body
temperature drops below comfort zone, but move away into shade
when ambient temperature starts increasing
• Some species hide in burrow to escape from the above-ground heat.
Biochemical/Adaptation: Organisms living in extreme environments

like hot springs, deep sea hydrothermal vents, antarctic fishes
in freezing conditions or at > 100 times normal atmospheric
pressure. 
POPULATION
Population Attributes:
• Birth rates and Death Rates: Refer to per capita births and deaths.
• Sex-ratio: e.g. 60 percent of the population are females & 40 percent
males.
• Age-pyramids: Shows percent individuals of a given age or age
group. For the shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the
population.
(a) Expanding (b) Stable
(c) Declining
Evolutionary changes through natural selection takes place at

population level. 
POPULATION GROWTH
1. Population for any species is not a static parameter.
2. Food availability, predation pressure and adverse weather are the factors
which affect population.
3. Population density, in a given habitat during a given period, fluctuates
due to changes in Four base processes.
Two-natality, immigration increase density.
Two-mortality, emigration decrease it.
Tiger census in our national parks & tiger reserves is often based on
pug marks and fecal pellets 
• If N the population density al time t, then its density at time t + 1
Nt+1 = N1 [(B + I) – (D + E)]
If births plus immigration (B + I) is more than deaths plus emigration
(D + E), population density will increase
Under normal conditions, births & deaths are most important factors
influencing population density
If a new habitat is just being colonised, immigration is more
significant to population growth than birth rates.

GROWTH-MODELS
Exponential Growth
z When resources in the habitat are unlimited.
z Then population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.
Nt = Noert
Nt = Population density at time ‘t’
N0 = Population density at time zero
e = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = Base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
(a) Exponential plot

(b) Logistic plot
K = Carrying Capacity
= Habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible
number beyond which no growth is possible
LOGISTIC GROWTH
• Nature resources are limited. dN (K − N)
= rN Sigmoid Curve
• This leads to competition. dt K
• The fittest survive and reproduce
• So, it shows, lag, acceleration, deceleration and finally asymptote
• It gives Verhulst-Pearl logistic curve.
• Logistic growth model is realistic.
• Asymptote-When population density reaches the carrying capacity.
LIFE HISTORY VARIATION
• Populations evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness, also called
Darwinian fitness (high ‘r’ value), in the habitat in which they live and
evolve towards the most effective reproductive strategy.
Reproductive Strategies in Organisms
1. Breed only once in their life time. 1. Breed many times during lifetime.
e.g., Pacific salmon fish, Bamboo e.g., Most birds & Mammals.
2. Some produce large number of small- 2. Others produce a small number of large-
sized off springs sized off springs.
e.g., Oysters, Pelagic fishes e.g., Birds & Mammals
POPULATION INTERACTIONS
Predation (+; –)
• Predators act as conduits for energy transfer across trophic levels
• Keep prey population under control due to prudent predators
• Used as biological control method for pest-control.
• Maintain species diversity by reducing competition among prey eg.
• Prey species evolved defenses:
(a) Camouflage - Insects & frogs
(b) Monarch butterfly- Chemical defense
(c) Thorns-Cactus, Acacia
• Many plants produce and store chemicals that make herbivore sick
when they are eaten, e g., Calotropis produces cardiac glycosides
Competition (–; –)
• Darwin said interspecific competition is a potent force in organic
evolution
• Totally unrelated species can compete for same resources.
• The fitness (‘r’ the intrinsic rate of increase) of one species is
significantly lower in presence of another species.
• Competitive release - The distributional range increase dramatically
when the superior species is removed.
• eg. Balanus & Chthamalus
• Gause’s competitive exclusion principle = eg. Abingdon tortoise and
Goats in galapagos island.
• Co-Existence by resource partitioning eg. 5 closely related species
of warblers.
Parasitism (+; –)
• Free lodging and meals
• Parasites are host specific, i.e., co-evolve
• Parasitic adaptations = Loss of sense organs, presence of adhesive
organs or suckers, loss of digestive system & high capacity of
reproduction.
• Human liver fluke depends on a snail and a fish to complete life cycle.
• Parasites reduce survival, growth and reproduction of host make them
weak
• Brood parasitism in birds eg. Cuckoo and crow. The eggs of parasitic
bird had evolved to resemble host’s egg in colour and size.
• Ectoparasites on surface and Endoparasites inside host
Commensalism (+; 0)
• An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch
• Barnacles growing on back of a whale.
• Cattle egret and grazing cattle.
• Sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and clown fish that lives among
them.
In Amensalism, one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected. 
Mutualism (+; +)
• Lichens, Mycorrhiza
• Plant - animal relationships for pollination.
• Plants offer rewards or fees like pollen, nectar for pollinators and fruits
for seed dispersal.
• Safeguards against cheaters.
• Shows co-evolution and one to one relationship like fig and partner
wasp.
Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs sexual deceit to get pollination

done by a species of bee by pseudo copulation. 
qqq

Chapter 14
Ecosystem
INTRODUCTION
♦ Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature.
♦ Entire biosphere is a global ecosystem (all local ecosystems).
♦ Forest, grassland and desert are terrestrial ecosystems.
♦ Pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are aquatic.
♦ Crop fields and an aquarium are man-made ecosystems.
♦ Input (productivity): Transfer of energy (food chain-web, nutrient
cycling).
♦ Output (degradation and energy loss) are the major functions of
ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical
structure.
• Stratification: Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels, like trees at top vertical strata, shrubs second and herbs
and grasses occupy bottom layers.
ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS FUNCTION AS A UNIT

(1) Productivity
(2) Decomposition
(3) Energy Flow
(4) Nutrient Cycling
Productivity
• Primary production: Amount of biomass or organic matter produced
per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis.
• Expressed in terms of weight (gm–2) or energy (K cal m–2).
• Rate of biomass production is productivity, expressed as gm–2 yr–1 or
(K cal m–2) yr–1. It can be divided into:
(i) Gross primary productivity (GPP): Rate of production of organic
matter during photosynthesis.
(ii) Net primary productivity (NPP): Available biomass for the
consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
NPP = GPP - R (respirator loss)
• Primary productivity depends on a plant species inhabiting a particular
area.
• Depends on environmental factors, availability of nutrients and
photosynthetic capacity of plants.
• Varies in different ecosystems:
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is approximately
= 170 billion tons (dry wt.) of organic matter.
Productivity of oceans (70% of surface) = 55 billion tons, rest is
on land.
• Secondary productivity: Rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
DECOMPOSITION
• Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like
CO2, water and nutrients.
• Raw material: Detritus, i.e., dead plant remains like leaves, bark,
flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter.
DECOMPOSITION
Break down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (e.g.,
Fragmentation
earthworm).
Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon
Leaching
and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler
Catabolism
inorganic substances.
Accumulation of dark, amorphous Humus which is highly resistant
Humification to microbial action. Colloidal reservoir of nutrients.
Humus undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate in soil.
Humus is further degraded by microbes to release inorganic
Mineralisation
nutrients.
125 Ecosystem
• Fragmentation + Leaching + Catabolism (operate simultaneously)
= Detritus.
Rate of Decomposition Composition of Detritus Climatic Factors
Slower Rich in lignin and chitin Low temperature and
anaerobiosis
Quicker Rich in nitrogen and water Warm and moist environment.
soluble substances like Oxygen requiring process
sugar
• Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factors that
regulate decomposition.
ENERGY FLOW
Unidirectional from sun to producers and then to consumers.
SUN PAR (< 50%) Plants
(Incident solar
radiation)
Photosynthetic bacteria 2-10% of PAR

(autotrophs)
Sustain the Food (simple
ENTIRE sugars)
WORLD
TROPHIC LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

• Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels.
• Only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the
lower trophic level (10% Law).
Tertiary Fourth trophic level (T4) Man, lion Large fishes
consumer (secondary carnivores)
HETEROTROPH
Secondary Third trophic level (T3) Birds, wolf Fishes

consumer (primary carnivores)
Primary Second trophic level (T2) Insects, birds, Zooplanktons,

consumer (herbivores) mammals molluscs
Primary First trophic level (T1) Herbaceous, Algae,

producer
(green plants) woody plants phytoplanktons
Autotrophs
and higher plants

DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN GRAZING FOOD CHAIN
z Begins with dead organic matter. z Sun is the source of energy.
z Made up of decomposers which z Autotrophs assimilate food using
are heterotrophic organisms, simple inorganic materials and
mainly fungi and bacteria. They radiant solar energy.
meet their energy and nutrient z The energy flows from autotrophs
requirements by degrading dead to heterotrophs as per the law of
organic matter or detritus known thermodynamics.
as saprotrophs. z In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing
z In a terrestrial ecosystem, larger food chain is the major conduit for
fraction of energy flows through energy flow.
the detritus food chain than
through the grazing food chain.
STANDING CROP STANDING STATE

z Each trophic level has a certain z Organisms need a constant supply
mass of living material at a of nutrients to grow, reproduce and
particular time. regulate various body functions.
z Measured as the mass or living z The amount of nutrients such as
organisms (Biomass) or the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
number in a unit area. calcium etc., present in the soil at
z Measurement of biomass in terms any given time.
of dry weight is more accurate. z It varies in different kinds of
ecosystems and also one seasonal
basis.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
• Food or energy relationship between organisms at different trophic
levels is expressed in terms of number, biomass or energy.
• Base of each pyramid.
• Producers or the first trophic level.
• Apex Tertiary or top level consumer.
• The trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such.
A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same
ecosystem at the same time.
• Three types of ecological pyramids are usually studied: (a) pyramid of
number (b) pyramid of biomass (c) pyramid of energy.
127 Ecosystem
Trophic level Number of individuals
TC (Tertiary consumer) 3
SC (Secondary consumer) 3,54,000
PC (Primary consumer) 708,000
P (Producer) 5,842,000
(a)
Trophic level Dry weight (kg m–2)
TC 1.5
SC 11
PC 37
P 809
(b)
PC 21
P 4
(c)
Fig.: (a) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores

are supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants
(b) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic
levels (c) Inverted pyramid of biomass-small standing crop of phytoplankton
supports large standing crop of zooplankton
LIMITATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

• It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels.
• It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature. It does not
accommodate a food web.
• Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even
though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
Pyramid of Number
• Upright in most ecosystems.
• A big tree ecosystem is inverted or spindle shaped.
Pyramid of Biomass
• Upright in most ecosystems.
• In sea, it is generally inverted.
Pyramid of Energy
• Always upright and can never be inverted.
• When energy flows from a particular trophic level to next trophic level,
some energy is always lost as heat.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• Composition and structure of all communities constantly change in
response to the changing environmental conditions which is orderly and
sequential, parallel with changes in the physical environment, leading
finally to a community that is in near equilibrium to the environment
and is called climax community.
• Ecological succession: Gradual and fairly predictable change in the
species composition of a given area.
• The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a
given area are called SERE(s) and individual transitional communities
are termed seral stages or seral communities.
• In the successive seral stages change in diversity of species of
organisms, increase in the number of species and organisms as well as
an increase in total biomass is seen.
• Primary succession: Starts in an area where no living organisms
ever existed, like on bare rock, newly cooled larva, newly created
pond or reservoir, so it is slow and can take several hundred to
thousand years.
129 Ecosystem
• Secondary succession: Takes place in areas that somehow lost all
the living organisms that existed there, like abandoned farm lands,
burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. Since some soil
or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
Climax reached more quickly.
• The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
• After several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community
is formed.
SUCCESSION OF PLANTS
HYDRARCH (In Wet Areas)
Phytoplankton Submerged Submerged free
(pioneer) plant stage floating stage
species
Reed-swamp
stage
Forest Marsh-meadow
(climax) MESIC Scrub stage stage
XERARCH (Xeric/dry Condtions)

Lichens Bryophytes Higher
(pioneer) plants
species
MESIC (climax) Forest
• Both hydrach and xerarch lead medium water condition (MESIC).
NUTRIENT CYCLING
• Nutrients which are never lost from the ecosystems, they are recycled
time and again indefinitely, it is called biogeochemical cycles
(bio-living organism, geo-rocks, air, water).
• Two types:
(a) Gaseous (e.g., Nitrogen, carbon cycle)
(b) Sedimentary (e.g., Sulphur, phosphorus cycle)

Carbon-Cycle
z Natural reservoir is atmosphere
z Carbon constitutes 49% of dry weight organisms and is next only to
water.
z 71% of global carbon is dissolved in oceans which regulates amount
of CO2 in atmosphere.
z Fossil fuel represent a reservoir of carbon.
z 4 × 10 13 kg of carbon is fixed annually in biosphere through
photosynthesis.
Phosphorus-Cycle
z Phoshphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic
acids and cellular energy transfer system.
z Needed to make shells, bones and teeth.
z Natural reservoir is rock.
z Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rain fall are much smaller
than carbon inputs.
z Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment
are negligible.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
z Healthy forest ecosystem purify air and water, mitigate droughts and foods,
cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain
biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and also
provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values.
z Robert Constanza tried to put price tags of average US $33 trillion a
year for these ecosystem services, which is largely taken for granted,
because they are free. This is nearly twice the value of global GNP of
US $18 trillion.
z Out of the total cost soil formation accounts for about 50%, recreation
and nutrient cycling less than 10% each and climate regulation and habitat
for wildlife 6% each.
z Products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services e.g.,
Purification of air and water by forests.
qqq
131 Ecosystem
Chapter 15
Biodiversity and
Conservation
INTRODUCTION
♦ More than 20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000
species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of orchids.
BIODIVERSITY
• Immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level
but at all levels of biological organisation ranging from macromolecules
within cells to biomes.
• The term Biodiversity was popularised by the socio-biologist Edward
Wilson.
Genetic Diversity
• A single species might show high diversity at genetic level over its
distributional range.
• E.g., Genetic variation shown by Rauwolfia vomitoria in different
Himalayan ranges in potency and concentration of reserpine.
• India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice and
1,000 varieties of mango.
Species Diversity
• Diversity at the species level
• E.g., Western ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than
Eastern ghats.
Ecological Diversity
• At the ecosystem level
• E.g., India with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves and alpine meadows has
a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian Country like Norway.
SPECIES ON EARTH AND INDIA
• According to IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal
species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million.
• A conservative and scientifically sound estimate made by Robert May
places the global species diversity at about 7 million.
Interesting Aspects of Earth's Biodiversity
(a) More than 70% of all species recorded are animals while plants
(including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms)
comprise no more than 22% of the total.
(b) Among animals, insects make more than 70% of total, i.e., out of every
10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects.
(c) Number of fungi species are more than fishes, amphibians, reptiles and
mammals combined.
• Although, India has only 2.4% of world’s land area, its share of the
global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 percent.
• India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. Nearly
45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India.
• If we accept May's global estimates, only 22 percent of the total
species have been recorded so far, then, India has more than 1,00,000
plant species and 3,00,000 animal species yet to be discovered.
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Other animal group Mammals
Crustaceans
Fishes
Molluscs
Birds
Insects
Reptiles
Amphibians
Plants
Ferns and
mosses allies
Fungi
Angiosperms
Algae Lichens
Representing global biodiversity
133 Biodiversity and Conservation

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY
A. LATITUDINAL GRADIENTS
• Species diversity decreases as we move from equator towards the poles.
• Tropics (23.5º N to 23.5ºS) harbour more species than temperate or
polar areas.
Eg., Colombia Newyork Greenland India
Near Equator 41ºN temperate 71ºN poles Tropics
1,400 bird 105 bird 56 bird 1,200 bird
species species species species
• A forest in a tropical region like Equador has upto 10 times more
vascular plants, as a forest of equal in temperate midwest of USA.
LARGELY TROPICAL AMAZON RAIN FOREST IN SOUTH
AMERICA has greatest biodiversity on Earth
• 40,000 species of plants
• 3,000 of fishes
• 1,300 of birds
• 427 of mammals.
• 427 of amphibians
• 378 of reptiles
• More than 1,25,000 invertebrates
Ecologists and Evolutionary biologists have proposed various
hypotheses to explain greater biological diversity at the tropics
(a) Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past,
tropical latitudes remained undisturbed, having long evolutionary time
for species diversification
(b) Constant, less seasonal tropical environments promote niche
specialisation and lead to greater species diversity
(c) More solar energy in tropics contributes to higher productivity and
might contribute indirectly to greater diversity
B. SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIPS (by German naturalist
Alexander Von Humboldt)
• Species richness within a region increased with increasing explored
area, but only upto a limit
• The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of
taxa (angiosperms, birds, bats, freshwater fishes) is a rectangular
hyperbola. On a logarithmic scale, it is a straight line, described by
the equation.
logS = logC + Z logA
where S = species richness, A=Area; Z = Slope of the line (regression
coefficient), C = Y intercept.
• The value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 regardless of region or taxa
• Slope of the line is much steeper in very large areas like the entire
continents, e.g., For frugivorous birds and mammals in tropical forests
the, slope is 1.15.
S = CAZ
log S = log C + Z log A

Species richness
le
sca
- log
log
Area
IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY TO THE ECOSYSTEM

• Communities with more species, tend to be more stable than those with
less species.
• A stable community must be resistant or resilient to occasional
disturbances (natural or man-made) and it must also be resistant to
invasions by alien species.
• David Tilman’s long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor
plots show that plots with more species showed less year-to-year
variation in total biomass and increased diversity contributed to higher
productivity.
• The ‘rivet popper hypothesis’ of Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich, puts
the importance of a species in proper perspective.

AIR PLANE ECOSYSTEM
Rivets Species
Rivet on the wings Key species
(i) Popping a rivet (causing a species to become extinct) may not affect
flight safety (proper functioning of ecosystem) initially, but if more
rivets are removed, the plane will become dangerously weak.
(ii) Loss of rivets on the wings (Key species, that drive major ecosystem
functions) will be serious. So, each species is important for the
ecosystem.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
• The colonisation of tropical pacific islands by humans led to extinction
of more than 2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN red list (2004)
documents extinction of 784 species (including 338 vertebrates, 359
invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 yrs.
• The last 20 years alone witnessed disappearance of 27 species.
• Amphibians appear more vulnerable to extinction.
• 15,500 species world-wide are facing threat of extinction.
• There were five episodes of mass extinction of species in the past,
before humans appeared.
• The Sixth Extinction presently in progress is 100 to 1000 times faster
than pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the faster rates.
• Loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to:
(a) Decline in plant production.
(b) Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations like drought.
(c) Increased variability in plant productivity water use and pest and
disease cycles.
Recent Extinctions
1. Dodo - Mauritius
2. Quagga - Africa
3. Thylacine - Australia
4. Steller’s sea cow - Russia
5. Three sub-species of tiger - Bali, Javan & Caspian
Species Facing Threat of Extinction in World
12% Birds
23% Mammals
32% Amphibians
31% Gymnosperms
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES:
THE EVIL QUARTET-FOUR MAJOR CAUSES

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation (Most Important Cause)
• Tropical rain forests once covered more than 14% of earth’s land, now
it is just 6%.
• Amazon rain forest (lungs of the planet), being cut for soyabeans
cultivation and grasslands for raising beef cattle.
• Mammals and birds requiring large territories and animals with
migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines.
Over-Exploitation
• When need turns to greed, there is overexploitation
• In the last 500 years steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon became extinct
due to over-exploitation.
• Marine fish populations are over harvested, endangering commercially
important species.
Alien Species invasions
• Nile perch introduced in Lake Victoria in East Africa led to the
extinction of 200 species of Cichlid fish in the lake.
• Carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eichhornia)
are invasive weeds.
• African catfish Clarias gariepinus are posing threat to indigenous cat
fishes.
Co-Extinctions (Obligatory Associations)
• When a host species becomes extinct, its parasites meets the same fate.
• Co- evolved plant-pollinator mutualism is another example
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Narrowly Utilitarian Arguments
• Humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature —
food, firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial products and
medicinal products.
• More than 25% drugs are derived from 25,000 species of plants.
• Nations endowed with rich biodiversity can reap enormous benefits
by ‘bioprospecting’ — exploring molecular, genetic and species level
diversity for products of economic importance.
Broadly Utilitarian Arguments

• Biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem services that nature
provides.
• Amazon rain forest produce approx 20% of total oxygen of Earth's
atmosphere by photosynthesis.
• Pollination by bees, bumble-bees, birds and bats.
Ethical Arguments
• Philosophically or spiritually, we have to understand that each species
has a intrinsic value.
• We have a moral duty to care for their well-being.
• We need to pass on our biological legacy in good order to future
generations.
HOW DO WE CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY?

In-situ Conservation
When we conserve and protect whole ecosystem, i.e., saving the entire forest
to save the tiger, it is called in-situ (on site) conservation.
• Organisms facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in near
future and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, then ex-
situ (offsite) conservation is desirable.
• Biodiversity Hot Spots: Regions with very high levels of species
richness and high degree of endemism (species confined to a particular
region & not found anywhere else).

• Total number are 25 (initially) +9 (added later) = 34; Three of
these—Western ghats and Sri Lanka, IndoBurma & Himalaya—
cover our country’s regions. They (all 34) cover less than 2%
of Earth’s land area and their strict protection could reduce the
ongoing mass extinctions by 30%.
• 14 biosphere reserves, 90 National Parks and 448 wild life sanctuaries
provide legal protection in India.
• Sacred groves in Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, Aravali Hills
(Rajasthan), Western Ghats, Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar regions
(Madhya Pradesh) are the last refuges of rare and threatened plants.
Ex-situ Conservation
• Zoological Parks, Botanical gardens and wild-life Safari parks.
• Many animals have become extinct in the wild but are maintained in
zoological parks.
• Cryopreservation to protect and preserve gametes of threatened
species in viable and fertile condition.
• Plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.
• Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can
be kept for long periods in seed banks.
• The historic Convention on Biological diversity (The Earth Summit)
was held in Rio de Janeiro (1992) for biodiversity conservation and
sustainable utilisation of benefits
• World Summit on sustainable development (WSSD) held in 2002
in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries pledged for significant
reduction in current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and
local levels by 2010.
qqq

Chapter 16
Environmental Issues
INTRODUCTION
♦ Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, land, water or soil.
♦ Pollutants: Agents that bring about such undesirable change
♦ The government of India passed the Environment (protection) Act,
1986 to protect and improve the quality of our environment.
AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

• Air pollutants cause injury to all living organisms as they reduce the
yield of crops and also deleteriously affect the respiratory system of
humans and animals.
• Harmful effects depends on concentration of pollutants, duration of
exposure and the organism.
• Smoke stacks of thermal power plants, smelters and other industries
release particulate and gaseous air pollutants. These pollutants must
be separated/filtered out before releasing the harmless gases into the
atmosphere.
• According to CPCB, particulate size 2.5 mm or less in diameter
(PM2.5), can be inhaled deep into the lungs causing respiratory
symptoms, irritation, lungs damage and premature death.
Control Strategies
• Electrostatic precipitator can remove 99% particulate matter present in
exhaust from a thermal power plant.
• Scrubber can remove gases like SO2.
• Catalytic converter with platinum, palladium and rhodium-as catalysts,
in automobiles, convert unburnt hydrocarbons into CO2 and H2O
and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to CO2 and nitrogen gas. Lead
inactivates the catalyst.
Noise as an Air pollutant
• Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981, was amended in
1987, to include noise as an air-pollutant.
• Noise is undesired high level of sound.
• A brief exposure of extremely high sound level 150 dB or more
generated by jet plane or rocket can damage ear drums and can cause
permanent loss of hearing ability.
• Chronic exposure of lower noise level may permanently damage
hearing abilities.
• Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart beat, altered breathing
pattern, thus considerably stressing humans.
• To control noise pollution, use of sound-absorbent materials or
by muffling noise; delimitation of harm-free zones, timings for
loudspeakers etc. need to be enforced.
CONTROLLING VEHICULAR AIR-POLLUTION-A CASE

STUDY OF DELHI
• In the 1990s, Delhi ranked 4th among the 41 most polluted cities of the
world and a PIL was filed in the Supreme Court of India and under its
directives
All buses of Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of
2002, as CNG burns efficiently, was cheaper and cannot be siphoned
off by thieves and adulterated like petrol and diesel.
Old vehicles were phased out.
Use of unleaded petrol.
Use of low-sulphur petrol/diesel.
Use of catalytic converters and stringent pollution norms etc.
• More stringent norms for fuels means steadily reducing sulphur and
aromatic content in petrol and diesel fuels.
• Euro III Norms stipulate sulphur at 350 ppm in diesel and 150 ppm
in petrol.
• Aromatic hydrocarbon at 42% road map is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm
in petrol and diesel and aromatic hydrocarbon to 35%.
141 Environmental Issues
WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
• Government of India passed the water (prevention and control of
pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.
DOMESTIC SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

• 0.1% impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use.
• Contains biodegradable organic matter, which decomposes readily by
the help of bacteria and other micro-organisms.
• Amount of bidegradable organic matter in sewage is estimated by
measuring the Biochemcial Oxygen Demand (BOD).
• Micro-organisms involved in biodegradation of organic matter in the
receiving water body consume a lot of oxygen, as a result there is a
sharp decline in Dissolved Oxygen (DO), causing mortality of fishes
and other aquatic creatures.
• Large amounts of nutrients causes algal bloom, which imparts colour
to water bodies, deteriorates water quality and cause fish mortality.
Bloom forming algae are extremely toxic to human beings and animals.
• Eichhormina crassipes (water hyacinth) world's most problematic
aquatic weed also called Terror of Bengal; was introduced in India
for their lovely flowers, have caused havoc by excessive growth and
blocking water ways.
Biomagnification Eutrophication
• Increases in the concentration of toxicant • Natural aging of lake by nutrient
at successive trophic levels, in the aquatic enrichment of its water, which may span
food chain, As the toxic substance is neither thousands of years.
metabolised nor excreted, so passed on to next • Cultural of Accelerated Eutrophication:
trophic level. Pollutants from man's activities like
e.g: Mercury or DDT. effluents from industries and homes can
Water → Zooplanktons → Small fish radically accelerate the aging process.
(0.003 ppb) (0.04 ppm) (0.5 ppm) Prime contaminants are nitrates and
↓ phosphates, which act as plant nutrients.
Fish-eating birds → Large fish They overstimulate algal growth causing
(25 ppm) (2ppm) unsightly scum and unpleasant odours,
robbing water of dissolved oxygen vital
to other aquatic life.
Other pollutants flowing into a lake may
poison for the whole populations of fish.
The lake can literally choke to death.
• Heated (thermal) Waste Waters from thermal power plants, eliminates
or reduces the number of organisms sensitive to high temperature and
may enhance the growth of plants and fish in extremely cold areas, after
causing damage to indigenous flora and fauna.
CASE STUDY-INTEGRATED WASTE WATER TREATMENT
• Town of Arcata - along Northern coast of Californa (with biologists
from Humboldt state university) utilising a mix of artificial and
natural processes, the towns people created an integrated waste water
treatment process within a natural system. The cleaning occurs at two
stages:
The conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorination.
The biologists developed six connected marshes over 60 hectares
of marsh and seeding appropriate plants, algae, fungi and bacteria,
which neutralise, absorb and assimilate the pollutants and water
flows through the marshes and gets purified naturally. The marshes
constitute a sanctuary with high biodiversity. Friends of the Arcata
Marsh (FOAM) is responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of
this wonderful project.
• 'Ecosan' toilets: Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for
handling human excreata, using Dry Composting Toilets: a practical,
hygienic, efficient and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal.
• By this method, human excreta can be recycled into natural fertiliser,
which reduces the need of Chemical fertiliser. Ecosan toilets are
working in many areas of Kerala and Sri Lanka.
Domestic sewage, most common source of pollution of water bodies,

reduces DO but increases BOD of receiving water.
Domestic sewage are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
which cause eutrophication and algal blooms. 
SOLID WASTES
• Everything that goes out in trash is solid waste.
(A) Municipal solid waste: Comprise paper, food wastes, plastics glass,
metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces volume of wastes.
Open dumps serve as breeding grounds of rats and flies.
Sanitary land fills are a substitute for open burning dumps. Wastes are
dumped in a depression or trench after compaction and covered with
dirt everyday.
Landfills get filled in metros due to large amount of garbage and danger
of seepage of chemicals which pollute underground water resources.
(B) Electronic wastes (e-wastes): Irreparable computers and other
electronic goods. E-wastes are burried or incinerated.
Over half of e-wastes generated in developed world are exported to
developing countries like China, India and Pakistan where metals like
copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered during recycling
process. Recycling is the only solution for treatment of e-wastes.
(C) Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and
other harmful chemicals and pathogenic micro-organisms, The use of
incinerators is crucial to disposal of hospital waste.
CASE STUDY OF REMEDY FOR PLASTIC WASTE

• Ahmed Khan, realised that plastic waste was a real problem
• Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic, was developed
by his company. This mixture is mixed with bitumen that is used to
lay roads.
• In collaboration with R.V. College of Engineering and Bangalore
city corporation, Ahmed Khan proved that blends of polyblend and
bitumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced the bitumen’s water
repellant properties and helped to increase road life by a factor of three
• The raw material is any plastic film waste. So, against the price of
` 0.40/kg, Khan now offers Rs 6 to ragpickers.
• Using Khan’s technique by the year 2002, more than 40 kms of road in
Bangalore has already been laid.
AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS

• Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc. are toxic to non-target organisms
that are important components of soil ecosystem.
CASE STUDY OF ORGANIC FARMING

• Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure where
waste products from one process are cycled in as nutrients for other
processes. This allows maximum utilisation of resource and increases
the efficiency of production.
• Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana, includes
bee-keeping, dairy management, water harvesting, composting and
agriculture in a chain of processes and allow an extremely economical
and sustainable venture.
• No need to use chemical fertilizers, cattle dung used as manure, crop
waste to create compost or used to generate natural gas for energy
needs of farm. Dagar created by the Haryana Kisan Welfare Club, with
membership of 5000 farmers.
RADIOACTIVE WASTES
Nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems
Accidental Leakage Safe disposal of radioactive wastes
Three mile island Radiation from nuclear waste causes mutations at
a very high rate.
Chernobyl Higher doses is lethal; lower doses creates various
disorders like cancer.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

• Greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon responsible
for heating Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Without this, average
temperature at surface of earth would be chilly - 18°C rather than the
present average of 15°C.
• Greenhouse gases absorb long wave (infrared) radiation from earth
and emit it again towards the earth. The cycle continues till the earth’s
surface has no long wave radiation to emit.
• Relative contribution of various greenhouse gases to total global
warming is CO2 (60%); CH4 (20%); CFCs (14%) and N2O (6%).
• Increase in level of greenhouse gases led to considerable heating of
earth leading to Global warming and odd climatic changes (e.g., El
Nino effect), melting of polar ice caps and Himalayan snowcaps, rise
in sea-level and submergence of coastal areas.
OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE

Type of Ozone
Good Ozone Bad Ozone
Found in upper atmosphere, the Found in lower atmosphere, the
stratosphere acts as a shield absorbing troposphere that harms plants and
UV radiation from sun animals.
DNA and proteins absorb UV rays,
so it is highly injurious to living
organisms.
• Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFCs) used as refrigerants degrade ozone
layer, by releasing Cl-atom
• Permanent and continuing effects on ozone levels.
• UV radiations, shorter to UV-B are completely absorbed by ozone
layer.
• UV-B-damages DNA, causes aging of skin, inflammation of cornea
called snow blindness (cataract) etc.
• Montreal protocol signed in 1987 (effective in 1989) controls emission
of ODS, i.e., CFCs.
• Thickness of the ozone in a column of air from the ground to the top of
the atmosphere is measured in terms of dobson units (DU)
• Ozone hole over Antarctica develops each year between late August
and early October.
DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION

AND MAINTENANCE
Soil Erosion and Desertification
• Development of top soil takes centuries.
• Over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation and poor irrigation
degrades it making arid patches of land.
• Large barren patches meet to form desert
• Desertification has become a major problem due to increased
urbanisation.
Water Logging and Soil Salinity
• Irrigation without drainage results in water logging
• Water logging draws salt on surface of soil, depositing in a thin crust or
collects at the roots, affecting growth.
• Water logging and salinity have come due to Green Revolution
Deforestation
• 40% forests have been lost in tropics compared to only 1% in temperate
region.
• National forest policy (1968) of India re-commended 33% forest for
plains and 67% for hills.
• Slash and burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation) in North-East of India
contribute to deforestation
• Enhanced CO2 concentration, loss of biodiversity, disturbed hydrologic
cycle, soil erosion and desertification are the consequences of
deforestation.

CASE STUDY-PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN CONSERVATION
OF FOREST
• A Bishnoi woman Amrita Devi, her three daughters and hundreds
other lost their lives saving trees by hugging and daring king’s men at
Jodhpur.
• The Government of India instituted Amrita Devi Bishnoi wildlife
protection award for individuals or communities from rural areas
that have shown extraordinary courage and dedication in protecting
wildlife.
• Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas (1974): Local women
showed bravery in protecting trees people all over world have acclaimed
Chipko movement.
• Government of India in 1980s introduced Joint Forest Management
(JFM). Local communities protect and manage forest, in return they
get benefit of various forest products (fruit, gum, rubber etc.).
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AIM FREE EDUCATION TO ALL (APUL)

The Living World

TAXONOMY AND SYSTEMATICS

Generic name Specific epithet

System Naturae – written by Linnaeus.

Hand Book (Biology) 2

3 The Living World

Hand Book (Biology) 4

ROBERT H. WHITTAKER (1969)

Methanogens Halophiles Thermoacidophiles

On the basis On the basis On the basis

The boundaries of protistia are not well defined

Hand Book (Biology) 8

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT KINGDOM

Green Brown Red Bryophytes Tracheophytes

Liverworts Mosses Pteridophytes Spermatophytes

Cycads Conifers Gingkoales Dicots Monocots

Hand Book (Biology) 10

(a) Selaginella (b) Equisetum

Hand Book (Biology) 12

Hand Book (Biology) 14

Life cycle of an angiosperm

Life cycle patterns

Hand Book (Biology) 16

7. Vascular bundles of the stem are Vascular bundles are scattered.

8. Vascular bundles of the stem possess A cambium is absent (vascular bundle

10. Vessels are polygonal in outline. Vessels are rounded in outline.

BASIS OF ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

Levels of Symmetry Germ layer Coelom Segmentation Notochord

Cell Radial Diploblastic Acoelomates Segmented Chordates

Simple Cellular Asymmetrical Acoelomates Porifera No

• Choanocytes/collar cells Examples:

Euspongia Spongilla Sycon

Hand Book (Biology) 20

Pleurobrachia Male Female

Parameters Annelida (Segmented worms) Arthropoda

Hand Book (Biology) 22

Basic Plan of a Chordate

Parameters Urochordata/ Cephalo- Vertebrata

Habitat Exclusively marine

Pavo Neophron Chelone Chameleon

Hand Book (Biology) 24

Hippocampus Catla Rana Salamandra

Hand Book (Biology) 26

Region of Some epidermal cells

Region of Cells of this region gradually

Region of meristematic Small, thin walled cells

SOME OTHER MODIFICATIONS OF STEM

Actinomorphic (Radial symmetry) Zygomorphic (Bilateral symmetry)

TYPES TYPES Tetramerous – Floral appendages are multiple of 4

Hand Book (Biology)

z Gynoecium occupies highest z Gynoecium situated in centre, z Margin of thalamus grows

There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower as

Hand Book (Biology) 34

FRUIT AND SEED

SEED COAT (TESTA, TEGMEN)

Seed coat & fruit-wall Endosperm

Parthenocarpic fruit : Fruit formed without fertilization.

DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

TYPES TYPES Tetramerous – Floral appendages are multiple of 4

MORPHOLOGY Exoskeleton: Head, brown chitinous plates

Mesenteron/Midgut Malpighian tubules (part

Elongated muscular tube with Poorly developed Composed of