THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES

MOVEMENT
BY
E. J. MAEEY
MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE AND OP THE ACADEMY OF MEDICIN1
PROFESSOR AT THE COLLEGE OF FRANCE
DIRECTOR OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATION

TRANSLATED BY

ERIC PRITCHARD, M.A., M.B., B.Ch. (Oxon.)

WITH TWO HFXDBED ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1895
Authorised Edition.
 TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
Instantaneous photography, especially that branch
of it known as Chronophotography, has already won
for itself a recognized position among the methods
of scientific research, and in the near future it is

probable that it even more generally appre-

will be
ciated. Marey and Muybridge must undoubtedly be
regarded as the two pioneers of the method the ;

works of the latter, written in English and published

in America, are within the reach of all who can read
the English language ; on the other hand, the works
ofMarey are for the most part inaccessible to those
who are unfamiliar with French. It is for this reason
that I applied for and obtained permission to translate
this work.
" Le lEouvement " is one of the most recent and
important publications of this eminent physicist and
physiologist, and it is, I believe, the most compre-
hensive summary hitherto published, of the results
and possibilities of instantaneous photography every ;

page has its interest not only for the specialist, but
also for the general reader and further, the book is
;

replete with suggestiveness of new lines of research.

Chronophotography is a new subject, and many of
VI TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

its technical terms are known even to English scientific

men For these I have
only in their French form.
frequently used periphrases, remembering that many
of my readers may not be experts. I must acknow-
ledge gratefully the continued assistance of my sister,

Mrs. Chalmers Mitchell, not only in making the actual

translation, but in revising it for the press.

EEIC PEITCHARD.
14, Cromwell Place, S.W.
August, 1895.
 ;

PREFACE
The graphic method, with its various developments,
has been of immense service to almost every branch
of science,and consequently many improvements have
of late been effected. Laborious statistics have been
replaced by diagrams in which the variations of a
curve express in a most striking manner the several
phases of a patiently observed phenomenon, and,
further, a recording apparatus which works automati-
cally can trace the curve of a physical or physiological
event, which by reason of its slowness, its feeble-
ness, or its rapidity, is otherwise inaccessible to
observation. Sometimes, however,which a curve
represents the phases of a phenomenon is found so
misleading that another and more serviceable method,
namely, that of chronophotography, has been invented.
The development of these new methods of analyzing
movement could never have proceeded within the
confined space of a physiological laboratory. For
instance, in comparing the locomotion of various
species of animals, it is essential that each should
be studied under natural conditions : fish in fresh
water or marine aquariums insects in the open air
;

and man, quadrupeds, and birds in wide spaces in

which their movements are unfettered.
Vlll PREFACE

The Physiological Station, endowed by the State

and the City of Paris, has afforded in this respect
unique opportunities, and there, with new appliances,
the following investigations have been for the most
part carried out.
We shall seeby a variety of instances to what ex-
tent the oldermethods are applicable for the analysis
of certain phenomena, and what progress has been
achieved by chronophotography.
Each chapter is nothing more than an outline, for
any attempt to fill in the details of any section would
monopolize the time and attention of a trained
specialist.
In a few instances such an attempt has been made, for
geometricians, hydraulic engineers, naval and military
men as well as artists havehad recourse to this
all

method, and at last naturalists have interested them-

selves in the matter. It is more especially to this
latter class that we dedicate our work, since it appeals
to their particular ambition, namely, that of discover-
ing among the phenomena of life something that has
hitherto escaped the most attentive observation.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I

TIME

Its Graphic Record ; Time-measurement by means of Photography

PAGE
Summary. — Graphic record of time— Chronography— Rudiments
of the method — Transmission of movement to the recording
needle which registers the duration — L'hronographic record
of a man's foot in walking, during the phases of rest and
—
motion The same of the four feet of a horse in its various
— —
paces Record of the fingering of a pianist Applications
of photography to the registration of time -Measurement of
the exposure allowed by a photographic shutter Measure- —
ment of the time intervals between successive exposures . 1

CHAPTER II

SPACE

Its Measurement and Representation by Photography

Summary. — Tendency to replace outline drawings, plans, and

diagrams in relief by photography —
Photography traces the
—
various positions in space occupied by a moving body
Photographic trajectory of the movements of a point in
space ;its stereoscopic trajectory —
Movements of a straight
line in space — Solid figures formed thereby cylinders,
:

hyperboloids, cones, etc. —Movements of a curve in space ;

photography of the figures which it forms spheres, ellip-
:

soids, etc. —Stereoscopic pictures of figures of three dimen-

sions —Figures formed by the movement of solid bodies;
effects of light and shade 18
 —

CONTENTS

CHAPTER III

MOVEMENT

Its Measurement, Graphic Representation, and Analysis by

means of chronophotography
PAGE
Summary. — The understanding of a movement implies a double
knowledge, namely, that of space as well as that of time
Graphic representation of a movement Chart of a train—
travelling along a l.ne —
The curve of a prolonged movement
—
should be recorded in sections How a moving body can
—
record its own movement Proportional enlargement and
—
reduction of the recorded movement Odography Photo- —
—
graphic record of movement Photography of the movement
—
of Lippmann's electrometer Determination by means of
chronophotography of the movements executed by falling ;i

—
body Construction of the curves of movement from clirono-
—
photographic images Time-curve of the distance traversed
— —
Curve of velocity Curve of acceleration . . . .33

CHAPTER IV
CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY ON FIXED PLATES

—
Summary. Object of chronophotography; principles of the
method measurement of time and space Influence of the
; —
extent of surf.ice covered by the object which is to be photo-
graphed influence of the rate of movement— Geometrical
;

chronophotography —
Stereoscopic chronophotography —
Method of multiplying the number of images without pro-
—
ducing confusion— Alternating images Separation of the •

images ou the photographic plate; separation by moving the

—
apparatus Separation by employing a revolving mirror . 54

CHAPTER V
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS

Summary. —Construction of the apparatus— Slide, object-glass,

circular diaphragms —
Erection of the dark background at
the physiological station —
Dark background for p.ioto-
—
grapning objects in water Photography of light objects in
darkne.-s or in a red light —
Colour of objects, and way of
illuminating them —
Disposition and preparation of the dark
field— —
Choi ,«• of the object-glass Focussing How to take—
the photographs 67
 —

CONTENTS XI

CHAPTEE VI
APPLICATIONS OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY TO MECHANICS
PAGE
Summary. — Bodies falling in air —
Ballistic experiments The —
resistance of the air to surfaces variously inclined Applica- —
tions of chronophotography to hydrodynamics —
Fluid veins ;

changes in shape of fluid waves intrinsic movements of

;

fluid waves —
Currents and el dies— Influence of the shape
—
of bodies placed in currents
—
Oscillations and vibrations
Rolling of ships Vibrations of metal bridges ... 84

CHAPTER VII

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY ON MOVING PLATES

Principles and History of the Method

Summary. —Janssen's astronomical revolver —
Muy bridge's ex-
—
periments luminous background Photographic cameras ar-
:

—
ranged in series Control of the instantaneous shutter by
electrical means — —
Photographic gun Internal structure of
the instrument - Method of changing the photographic plates
— Principles of chronophotography on moving plates— Em-
—
ployment of chronophotography Necessity for arresting the
progress of the film at th« moment of exposure Moment to —
—
choose for taking the photograph Form and dimensions
of the photographs —
Regulation of the number and dimen-
sions of the photographs —
Reproduction, enlaigement, and
reduction of chronuphotographs 103

CHAPTER VIII

HUMAN MOVEMENTS

From the Point of View of Kinetics

Summary. —
Some movements in man; the study of them by the
—
graphic method Speed of different paces in man relation- ;

ship between the frequency and length of stride Duration —

of the rise and fall of the foot in walking and running
Path described by any particular part of the body during
different paces mechanical means of recording it The
; —
study of movements in man by means of chronophotography
on fixed plates long-jumping high-jumping Skilled move-
; ; —
—
ments, fencing, etc. Jumping from a height The swing of —
the leg in walking 126
 —

Xll CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX
CERTAIN MOVEMENTS IN MAN

From the Point of View of Dynamics

PAGE
— —
Summary. Object of dynamics Measurement of the forces
—
which play a part in human locomotion Traction dynamo-
—
graph Dynamograph for expressing the amount of pressure
exercised by the feet on the ground — Combination of the
dynamograph with a method of recordingmovements The —
laws of ballistics as applied to the mechanism of jumping
Combined employment of dynamography and chronophoto-
—
graphy Mechanical work done in human locomotion work ;

in the vertical direction; work in the horizontal direction;

work done in maintaining the movement of the lower limbs
—
during their period of suspension Relative amount of work
done during different kinds of paces — Practical applications 146

CHAPTER X
LOCOMOTION IN MAN

From an Artistic Point of View

Summary. — Influence of Photography on Art— Different cha-

racteristics of ancient and modern works of art —
Photo-
—
graphy catches the real attitude Importance of representing
the correct outline of muscles during different actions
Photographs taken from different points of view Photo- —
graphs taken from above — Study of the most characteristic
attitudes in a movement— Importance of having a series
of photographs from which to choose the most expressive
attitude — —
Analysis of facial expression Choice of the best
method for procuring artistic results 1G9

CHAPTER XI
LOCOMOTION OF QUADRUPEDS

Summary. — Chronography shows how the feet rise and fall in

the different paces of a horsi— Transition or passage from
one pace i nother Representation of the attitudes in all
paces of a horse, as shown by chronography and hoof-marks
 ——

CONTENTS Xlll

PAGE
— Comparison between diagrams obta'ned bv these methods
and those obtained by instantaneous photography — Chrono-
photography applied to the representation of a horse in
—
motion Artistic representation of the horse among the
—
ancients Locomot on of the horse from the physiological
—
point of view Geometrical chronophotography of the move-
ments taken as a whole— Individual movements of the foot
and fetlock 186

CHAPTER XII

LOCOMOTION IN WATER

Summary. — —
Different types of loeomotmn in water Method of
photographing aquatic animals —
Jelly fish: Cornatula*
Locomotion by means of undulatory nnd lateral movements ;

—
the eel best arrangement for studying its movements
Locomotion by means of undulatory and vertical movements;
—
the skate special arrangement for studying its vertical un-
dulations from different points of view— Undulatory move-
ments of the skate as seen from the side ditto as seen
:

—
from in front The sea-horse the fresh- water tortoise
:

Slow movements of star-fish — Lncomoti< n of small marine

animals 211

CHAPTER XIII

AERIAL LOCOMOTION

The Flight of Birds

Si mmary. —Borelli's theory on the mechanism of the flight of

birds —
Chronography u>ed for determining the frequency
of the movements of the wing, and the relative dura-
tion of the rise and fall — —
Myography Method of record-
ing the phases of contraction and relaxation of the wing
—
muscles Record of the trajectory of a bird's humerus, and
the variations in inclination of the surface of the wing
Pii olographic trajectory of the tip of the wing —
Chroi.o-
photography as showing the successive attitudes of the bird
during the different phases of movement of the wings
Photographs of hirds taken from different aspects Simul-—
taneous chronophotographv 226
2
 —

XIV CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIV
AERIAL LOCOMOTION

The Flight of Insects

Summauy. — Frequency of the movements of insects' wings as

—
estimated by the sound produced in flying Mechanical re-
gistration of the movements of the wings; frequency among
different species —Synchronous movements of the wings
—
Changes in inclination of the win-j; surface Trajectory of
in insect's wing — Its interpretation — Experiments to de-
monstrate the direction of movement of the wing, and its
variations in piane — The artificial insect — Theory of the
flight of insects — Photography as applied to the study of
insect flight — Lendenfeld's experiments — Trajectory of the
wing as the insect advances — Photography on moving films
—Arrangement of the experiment — Different types of flying
insects Bees, flies, tipulce- Substantiation of the mechanical
:

theory of flight

CHAPTER XV
COMPARATIVE LOCOMOTION

—
Summary. Comparative locomotion among terrestrial mammals:
—
the man, the horse, the elephant Comparative locomotion
among different kinds of birds— Classification of different
types of locomotion- Comparative locomotion of tortoises
and lizards frogs, toads, and tadpoles snakes,
; ; eels, and
fish; insects and spiders 258

CHAPTER XVI
APPLICATIONS OF CHRONOPHOTOGUAPHY TO EXPERIMENTAL
PHYSIOLOGY

Soimary. —Numerous applications of chronophotography it ;

supplements the information derived from the graphic

method —Study of the movements of the heart by means of
—
the graphic method Photography of the successive phases
of cardiac action in a tortoise under conditions of artificial
—
circulation Variations in shape and capacity of the auricles
and ventricles during a cardiac cycle-- Mechanism of car-
diac pulsation studied by means of chronophotography
Comparative advantages of mechanical and chronophoto-
—
graphic registration Determination of the centres of move-
ments in joints 275
 —

CONTENTS XV

CHAPTER XVII
MICROSCOPIC CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY
PAG R
Summary. —Various movements observable within the field of
—
the microscope Applications of chronophotography to the
—
study of these movements Difficulties of the subject
Special arrangement of the apparatus for chronophotography
—
on rixed plates and on moving films Retraction of the stalk
in vorticella —M ivement of the blood in capillary vessels
—
Movements of the zoospores in the cells of conferva The
—
use of the solar microscope in chronophotography The easy
application of this method 291

CHAPTER XVIII
SYNTHETIC RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF AN
ANALYZED MOVEMENT

Summary. — Plateau's method; his phenakistoscope —

The zoo-
trope; its applications to the study of horses' paces and
their relations to one another— The use of instantaneous
—
photography in connecti n with the zootrope Muybridge,
—
Anschiitz Scientific app.ications of Plateau's method
Points of a good apparatus— Improvements made by diffe-
rent authors —
Attempts at constructing a chronophoto-
graphic projector 301

Index 319
 MOVEMENT
CHAPTER I

TIME

Its Graphic Record ; Time-measurement by means

of Photography

— —
Summary. Graphic record of time— Chronograph}- Rudiments of
—
the method Transmission of movement to the recording needle
—
which registers the duration Chronographic record of a man's
foot in walking, during the phases of rest and motion —
The same
of the four feet of a horse in its various jiaces —
Record of the
fingering of a pianist--Applicalions of photography to the regis-
tration of time —
Measurement of the exposure allowed by a photo-
—
graphic shutter Measurement of the time intervals between
successive exposures.

Graphic Record of Time. — Time, like other magni-

tudes, can be represented in a graphic form by straight
lines of various lengths. In this way the respective
duration of several events can be gauged by the
various lengths of parallel straight lines placed side by
side. The order of commencement of these phenomena
can be expressed by the relative positions of the begin-
nings of the straight lines. With regard to the exact
order and duration of the events, they can be indicated
bv means of a scale, subdivided into divisions which
 MOVEMENT
represent years, days, or fractions of seconds. A
diagram will elucidate this method of time-measure-

B
C —
1 i
2 I
3 | 4 j 5 I
6 1 7 J
8 1

Fig. 1 Scale of hours. Time measurement.

ment. Suppose we require to express the order and

sequence of three events, A, B, C, which occur
during a period of 11 hours. Their respective time
relations are expressed most clearly by the three lines
A, B, C, and by the scale of hours which accompanies
them. It may be seen by a glance at the diagram
that the event A commences at 2 o'clock and finishes
at 10 o'clock (its total duration is, therefore, 8
hours) ; that B, commencing
and ending at at 6
11 o'clock, has lasted 5 hours; and that C, com-
mencing at 5 o'clock and ending at a £ past 8, has
only extended over a period of 3^ hours. The
sequence of these events is accurately expressed by
the divisions on the scale, which correspond to the
beginnings of the different lines.
Language is as slow and obscure a method of ex-
pressing the duration and sequence of events as the
graphic method is lucid and easy to understand. As a
matter of fact, it is the only natural mode of expressing
such events and, further, the information which this
;

kind of record conveys is that which appeals to the

eyes, usually the most reliable form in which it can be
expressed. A celebrated English political economist,
W. Playfair, has drawn up a table of the chronological
order of the reigns of the various English sovereigns.
From it one can see at a glance the age at which each
succeeded to the throne, as well as the duration of the
 TIME 3

reign. By
the side of this chronological table, another
series of lines showsthe succession of the various
ministers, and a third shows the periods of war and
peace occurring during the respective epochs.
Such a table expresses in the most lucid manner the
sequence of events. That such a mode of graphic
record has been neglected in France cannot be too
deeply deplored* A
somewhat similar method was
utilized in France during the last century to express
the duration and sequence of certain acts. Vincent
and Goiffon * have represented by a chronological

record the phases of rest and motion of horses' feet, as

observed in their different paces. This mode of ex-
pression is surely preferable to that of language, when
it is a question of conveying to the mind the meaning
of complicated rhythms.
Chronography. — The diagrams of which we have
just been speaking are, however, only one mode of
representation, clearer, than others, but
it is true,
reliable only in so far as the data on which they
depend are trustworthy. In experiments, for instance,
which deal with time measurements, it is of immense
importance that the graphic record should be auto-
matically registered, in fact, that the phenomenon
should give on paper its own record of duration, and
of the moment This method, in the
of production.
cases in which it is almost perfect. In
applicable, is

other instances photography comes to the rescue, and

affords accurate measurements of time events which
elude the naked eye. The process which thus serves
to register the duration and sequence of events con-
stitutes a method called " chronography."
We are about to explain this method, proceeding
* Memoire artificielle des principesrelatifs a la fidele representation
des nnimaux tunt en peinture qu'en sculpture, par feu Goiffon et
M. Vincent. In-fol. 1779.
4 MOVEMENT
from the more simple to the more complicated cases.
We shall first show how the method can be applied to
register the successive phases of rest and motion, as
executed by a man's foot in walking, and then the
movements of the four feet of a horse as they occur in
its various paces, and, lastly, the automatic method of

registering the fingering of a pianist on the keys of

his instrument. This last problem must be regarded
as one of the most difficult to solve.
—
Rudiments of Chronography. Let us suppose that a
strip of paper is made to travel by clockwork at a
uniform rate, and that a pen fixed above the paper
marks, as it alternately rises and falls, the various
periods and intervals.
As the pen comes in contact with the paper it leaves
its record in the form of " dashes," of various lengths,
and at various intervals ; and by this means the
"
sequence and duration are registered. If the " dashes
are equidistant, it means that the periods of contact
follow one another at equal intervals of time. Finally,
necessary to obtain an accurate measurement of
if it is

the duration of contact, and of the intervals between,

the exact rate at which the strip of paper is being
carried must be known. A control record of the
rate may be
obtained by allowing the oscillation of a
pendulum to mark the seconds on the paper, or, if the
movement be very rapid, by allowing the vibrations of
a tuning-fork, of which the rate of vibration is known,
to trace themselves upon the paper.*
Transmission of the Movement to the Recording Needle
—
which registers the Duration, It hardly ever happens
that the phenomena, of which one wishes to record
the sequence and duration, are capable of acting
directly on the recording needle. More often such
* For the jieneral principles of chronography, its technique and
applications, see "The Graphic Method," pages 133, 142, 456.
 —

TIME 5

movements have to be observed at a distance and

transmitted to the corresponding recording needle.
For this purpose transmission by air is employed and
found preferable to transmission by electricity. The
following apparatus effects this object.
Two similar apparatuses are coupled together by
pneumatic connecting tubes, and the whole apparatus
goes by the name of " lever-drums." * Each part con-

FiG. 2. — Arrangement deigned for transmitting a movement to the needle, which

records the duration and tae pluses.

sists of a metal capsule, with a gutta-percba membrane

stretched over the top ; a lever is attached to the
membrane by means of a jointed crank. If the first
lever is pulled by the hand and lowered, the air in the
first tambour is compressed and passes into the second,
the corresponding lever is raised, and reproduces in all
its phases the traction exercised on the string. On
* Usually called "Marpy'a Tambours," in .England. Translator.
 :

6 MOVEMENT

the hand being released, the opposing force brings the

firstlever back into its original position, the air
returns from the second into the first tambour, and
the lever of the second falls in consequence. Thus
the movements produced by raising or lowering the
hand are transmitted after an inappreciable delay (i.e.
that of sound) to a lever which can record them on
a revolving cylinder which has been covered with
paper. Now, the record can be written in two ways
either according to the Morse Code, by making or
breaking the contact between the pen and the surface
of the cylinder, or else in the form of a continuous
curve, the variations of which express the different
phases of the movement.*
Chronographic Record of the Foot in Walking, as it
touches and leaves the Ground. A cylinder which —
turns at a uniform rate is covered with a sheet of
paper, while the points of two tracing needles, which
are placed side by side, touch the surface of the
cylinder, one of them
at the moment the
|
a r right foot, and the
I %*. °t ner a t the moment
\\
i. - ..^a^drel^^ V\ tlif left foot readies
m ^^^^^^^^WJ the ground. The ob-

^1 -^-^-s-^. .. :.
"?^j ^^ ment is that each
Fig. 3—
Shoe for indicating when a man's foot needle shall COme in
conies in contact with the ground; a transmit- . . .

ting tube effects a communication between the COlltact With the SUr-
air chamber and the chroiiographic tambour. - „ ,

face ot the paper as

the corresponding foot touches the ground. The trans-
mission is effected by means of pneumatic tubes.
A particular kind of shoe (Fig. 3) is fitted to the foot
of the pedestrian, and the sole is composed of a thick
* For the different applications of this sort of written record see
" The Graphic Method," p. 426.
 TIME

sheet of indiarubber, provided with a hollow chamber.

This latter cavity communicates through a long
flexible tube with the recording tambour. Each time
the foot touches the ground the air within the cavity
of the soleis compressed, and passing along the con-

necting tube raises the corresponding recording needle.

The pedestrian furnished with a pair of these shoes
(Fig. 4), carries in his
righthand the record-
ing apparatus with its
registering needles.
When he wishes the
tracing to commence
he squeezes an india-
rubber ball which he
holds in his left hand;

if, a moment later, he

releases the pressure,
the needles cease trac-
ing. Records are thus
obtained which vary
according to the pace,
the weight carried, and
the incline.
Changes in the se-
quence and duration of
the footfalls are shown Fig 4. — Pedestrian furnished with special shoe?,
and carrying a chronographic apparatus.
by the four figures in
the diagram (Fig. 5). In this the contact of the
right foot is represented by a white, and that of the
left by a diagonally shaded line. The first of
the series represents walking on level ground. The
steps of the two feet are alternate and regular.
The second tracing is obtained by walking upstairs;
in this, one foot does not leave the ground until the
other one has been down some time. This represents
8 MOVEMENT
one of the phases of reduplicated footsteps. The
third is that of a runner. The periods of contact
are short, and separated from one another by intervals

Fig. 5. — Chronographic record of the periods of contact of the feet of a man executing
various paces.

during which neither foot is in contact with the ground

—a period of suspension. The fourth tracing is one
of a man running at a greater speed, the periods of
contact are shorter and the intervals longer.
Record of the Rise and Fall of the Four Feet of a
Horse in its Various Pace?. For —
some time past specialists gifted
with immense powers of observa-
tion have set themselves the task
of determining the real character
of the various paces of a horse
from observations on the se-
quence of the heat of the feet.
The use of the word heat im-
plies an attempt to recognize
from the sound of the footfalls
Fig. 6. —
Special apparatus for the sequence of the moment of
recording the contacts of a
horse's fe< t with the ground;
contact, the question of dura-
a transmitting tube effects a
commun cation between the tion being neglected. Moreover,
air chamber and the chrono-
graphic tambjur.
the sense of hearing is above
all others capable of appreci-
ating intervals of time. The effect has been tried
 TIME 9

of providing horses' legs with

emit bells which
different notes as each foot touches the ground. All
of these experiments have left doubts as to the
exact rhythm of the various paces, doubts which
have only been cleared up by the application of
chronograph}7 The following method has been em-
.

ployed in this research indiarubber balls stuffed with

:

hair are fixed under the hoofs of the horse, and kept

Jig. 7.—Horse at a full trot. The point indicated on the chart corresponds to the
position of the horse represented in the figure.

in position by calkins which screw into the metal of

the shoe. Each of these balls is in connection with a
long indiarubber tube which is fastened to the horse's
legs by flannel binders. These tubes communicate
with the recording apparatus. The latter is provided
with a tracing needle, and held in the hand of the
rider (Fig. 7). The pressure of the feet upon the
 —
10 MOVEMENT

ground compresses the balls with which they are pro-

vided,and forces the contained air into the recording
tambours. The method tallies in all respects with
that employed in the case of man. However, on
account of the multiplication of writing needles, which
the greater number of footfalls necessitates, the four
needles are grouped in two series, one to record the
movements of the fore feet, and the other placed
beneath it to record the steps of the hind feet. In
both series, the white lines indicate the movements of
the right feet, while diagonally shaded ones represent
those of the left.

Fig. 8 shows results obtained in this way of the

three ordinary paces, namely, ambling, walking, and
trotting.* It will be noticed that each record is repre-
sented as a series of four tracings, such as would be
obtained by arranging in parallel series the tracings
of two men walking. In fact, a quadruped may be
—
compared to two bipeds to two men, for instance
walking one behind the other, one to represent the
fore, and the other the hind limbs. Such a pair
would take the same number of steps but the phases ;

of rest and motion would assume different relations

in the two cases. 'It is this which constitutes the

difference between the various kinds of paces. For

instance, when the corresponding hind and fore feet
move simultaneously, the horse is ambling (Tig. 8, first
record). If the right fore foot is in the mid phase
of rest when the left hind foot reaches the ground,
the horse is walking (second record). Lastly, if the
anterior and posterior legs move in opposite pairs,
i.e. if the anterior right reaches the ground at the

* It is more than twenty-one years ago that these experiments were

made, and we remember with gratitude the patient assistance with
which Messrs P.. llier and Gabriel Pail lard helped us to carry them
into effect.
 1

TIME 1

same time as the posterior left leg, the horse is

trotting (third record). thus seen with what

It is

simplicity the ordinary paces of a horse may be

recorded both as regard sequence and duration.* Paces
that involve a springing movement, i.e. the various
forms of galloping, can be analyzed with equal facility
in spite of their greater complexity.

Hjfg8gp?£^<'*j<r"*s"BilHMi^™ ^TBBBI^^ ^™B1 I^b^™

12 MOVEMENT
and one. In the final stage, the horse is momentarily
poised in the air before it again comes down on the
left hind foot.
The Record of the Fingering of a Pianist. The —
facility with which chronography can be applied to
the most complicated movements of irregular sequence
and duration has encouraged an attempt to record
movements so complex as to defy the observation of
the most practised, namely, the movements of the
fingers of a pianist on the keyboard of his instrument.
Under each note on the keyboard of a harmonium
is placed a tiny pair of bellows, and each of the latter

is in communication by means of a special tube with

3TEMP'
 TIME 13

At one of the scientific soirees at the Sorbonne,

during a conference on animal movement,* one of our
associates, a celebrated organist, kindly played some
pieces of music which recorded themselves before the
eyes of the audience, and of which we here give two
examples (Fig. 10, A and B). Every one who is

Fig. 10.— Record of two airs played on the keyboard of a harmonium.

accustomed to read ordinary music will easily decipher

these examples; they only differ from the ordinary
score by the way in which the duration of the note
is expressed. Instead of the conventional method of
expressing the duration of different sounds by minims,
crotchets, and quavers, and the duration of silence
by rests and crotchet-rests, the graphic method conveys
* See La Nature, 5th October, 1878.
3
14 MOVEMENT

the same impression by the length of the stroke, that

is to say, by a natural graphic expression.*

The Uses of Photography in recording Time. If the —

recording needle cannot be applied to the study of
any particular phenomenon, recourse must be had
to photography. It is by this means that a system
of optical telegraphy has been perfected, by which
flashes of light can be transmitted from one point
to another, and received as a series of dots and dashes,
such as constitute the Morse Code.
The luminous point at the transmitting station is
alternately, and at various intervals, exhibited and
obscured by the movement of a screen. This con-
stitutes the transmitting apparatus. The rays of light
emanating from this source are rendered parallel by
the interposition of a lens, and traverse the inter-
vening space to impinge upon a similar lens at the
receiving station.
At the focal point of this second lens the image
of the luminous source is visible in the form of a
brilliant spot. If the sensitive surface, upon which
this image falls, is allowed to travel at a uniform
rate, short produce spots, and
flashes of light will
sustained flashes will An arrangement
give lines.
of this kind has many scientific applications, but it
is not in this manner that photography has been

most usefully employed in time-measurements. It has

chiefly been utilized for two purposes. Firstly, to

* During late years many inventors have constructed similar

machines, and we believe that even this is not the lirrt which auto-
matically inscribed an air executed on the piano. Among instru-
ments of lecent design there is a very remarkable one, which we
owe to Messrs. Cros and Carpentier, and which is known as the
"Melograph." This instrument is not intended to register the air
as played by the artist, but it perforates a strip of paper in such a
way that when it is repassed through the machine the piece of musio
winch has b en executed by the operator is reproduced by it with
perfect fidelity.
 TIME 15

measure the exposure of a photographic shutter and ;

secondly, to measure the intervals of time which

separate consecutive exposures. Both of these methods
must be described, since it is necessary to be familiar
with them, so as to understand the analysis of move-
ment by means of photography.
Measurement of the D oration of Exposure produced by
a Photographic Shutter. —
Shutters are generally called
instantaneous, when they show in the photograph a
representation of a moving object as clearly as would
have been the case had the object been at rest. This
definition is not, however, strictly true, since shutters,
capable of giving a clear picture of passengers in the
street, may be incapable of doing so in the case of
the hoofs of a trotting horse. A
still shorter time is

required to catch the various positions of the wing of

a flying bird, and still more so in the case of insects.
It must be possible then to
measure the exposure of a
shutter, and express the time
in fractions of a second.
We shall see how
photo-
graphy allows measure-
this
ment to be made. Let a
bright needle rotate on a dial
(Fig. 11) covered with black
velvet, and graduated by white f.-.. n.-Needie spinning round the
!• mi .i
. chr. nomotr c dial, and measurin-'
n.

lines. lhe movement 01 the the duration of exposure.

needle must be absolutely
uniform. For. this purpose clockwork machinery
with a Foucault's regulator is employed. This
mechanism is hidden behind the dial, and the needle
makes one complete revolution in a second and a half,
say 90'". The circumference of the dial is divided
into eighteen equal parts, and consequently the con-
tained angle of each space corresponds to 5"\
16 MOVEMENT

While the needle is constantly rotating, we must

focus on the dial a camera provided with the shutter,
the exposure of which we wish to ascertain. The
opening of the shutter is effected by pressure on an
indiarubber ball. If the period of exposure is not
extremely short, the image of the needle will not be
clearly defined, but will occupy a more or less ex-
tensive segment of the dial. In such cases it would
be impossible to determine with any exactitude the
number of degrees occupied by the image. This is
due to the construction of the shutters, which give
incomplete illumination at the beginning and end
of the exposure.*
From the blurred nature of the image, which
obscures the exact contour of the needle, one can only
approximately estimate that the distance travelled
during a single exposure is about three or four
degrees, which corresponds to about £$ of a second.
It is almost impossible for a shutter, which gives a
single exposure, to produce one of very short duration.
For this object, the spring which moves the shutter
must be very powerful, and the weight carried ex-
tremely light. With shutters of this kind it is possible
to reduce the exposure to 2 ^ of a second.
The shutters referred to in this work are of special
construction. They consist of fenestrated diaphragms
which, by means of continuous rotation, are able to
acquire immense velocity. Their fenestrations, moving
within the lens with extreme rapidity, produce a
succession of illuminations of very short duration.
It is this which gives such good definition to the
images, which are shown in Fig. 12. Further, the

* To obtain a true idea of the outline of the needle, it should

be r-ompared with the image of big. 12. In tin's ease the exposure
has been short enough to prevent any alteration in its shape through
the movement.
 TIME 17

images succeed one another at absolutely regular

intervals, because both the movement of the needle
on the dial and that of the circular diaphragms are
equally uniform.
Measurement of the Intervals of Time which separate
Successive Exposures. — By reason of the clear definition
of the images, they can be accurately measured, not
by the time of exposure, which is too short to be
appreciated, but by the in-
tervals of time between suc-
cessive exposures. Now, this
is the important point in the
measurements which we shall
have to make of the duration
of certain phenomena.
Provided that one can ar-
range a reliable clockwork
mechanism so as to move the Fig. 12.— Successive positions of
the needle on the chronomeiric
needle round the dial at a dial, measuring the intervals of
time separating the successive
uniform rate, it does not mat- exposures.

ter what rate of movement

is imparted to the circular diaphragms, the interval
between two exposures can always be measured by
the angle contained between two consecutive images
of the needle. If, during the time, an object, visible

in the field of the lens, happens to move, there will

be found, on the sensitized plate, several of its images
in various positions and at various distances from one
another. For the purpose of measuring the intervals
of time between such successive positions of the object,
the changes in position of the needle on the chrono-
graphic dial will serve as an index.
The further applications of this kind of time
measurement will be seen when we come to discuss
Chronophotography.
 :

CHAPTER II

SPACE

Its Measurement and Representation by

Photography

Summary. —Tendency to replace outline drawings, plans, and diagrams

in relief by photography — Photography traces the various positions
in space occupied by a moving body — Photographic trajectory
of the movements of a point in space its stereoscopic trajectory
;

— Movements of a straight line in space — Solid figures formed

thereby cylinders, hyperboloids, cones, etc. — Movements of a
:

curve in space photography f the figures which it forms

;
<

spheres, ellipsoids, etc. — Stereoscopic pictures of figures of three

dimensions — Figures formed by the movement of solid bodies;
effects of light and shade.

Tendency to replace Outline Drawings, Plans, and

Diagrams in Relief by Photography —The positions of .

bodies in space, their forms and dimensions, find

their natural expression in geometrical drawings. Such
drawings, executed to a known scale, supply all the
information that is required.
During the last few years, however, there has been
a tendency to substitute photography for outline
drawings, and doubtless in the future completely it will
replace them. Indeed, it supplies with remarkable
ease pictures of undoubted accuracy. The dimensions
can be enlarged or reduced as occasion may require.,
and if thought desirable, a scale for the purpose of
measurement may be introduced, into the picture, and
 SPACE 19

the exact dimensions thus indicated. To introduce

such a scale, into the picture, a rule with very distinct
divisions must be placed by the side of the object
which is being photographed. When an artist wishes
to represent in relief an object of three dimensions,
he must obey the laws of perspective, and take into
manner in which the light falls on
consideration the
the object, at the moment of drawing. But the fitful
changes of light, during the various times of day, offer
innumerable difficulties.
Photography, however, gives an instantaneous picture
of the most diverse objects, and that, too, with the
prevailing conditions of light, and all in correct
perspective. The appearance of natural objects, as
seen by looking with one eye only, is thus repro-
duced by photography. If it is required to get
the effect of relief, such as is obtained bv looking
with both eyes, recourse must be had to stereoscopic
pictures.
Photography traces ths Various Positions in Space
occupied by a Moving Body. —
When an object changes
its position, it is often necessary to notify the posi-
tions in space which it successively occupies. In the
first we must be quite sure that our eyes have
place,
boen able to follow the various phases of movement,
and that our memory has been able to retain the
—
details— conditions rarely fulfilled before we have
recourse to drawing, as a means of representing the
trajectory described. The diagram traced will be
more or less complicated according as we express the
movement by a point, a line, a plane superficies, or a
solid —
in short, according as we represent a movement
executed in one or more directions.
When only a question of the movement of a
it is

may be met by
point, in certain cases the difficulty
making the moving point itself trace the path which
20 MOVEMENT

it takes.* It must be possible, however, to fasten this

point directly or indirectly to the needle which is to
trace the trajectory, and, further, the propelling force
must be sufficient to work the mechanism of the
recording instrument, and that, too, without modifica-
tion of the movement. But if the point is inaccessible,
if the propelling force is too feeble, or if it follows

a very complicated course, we must introduce new

conditions, and employ photography in the special
manner we are about to describe.
Principles of Photography with a Dark Background. —
When a camera faces a dark background, no impression
is made on the sensitized plate, because no light
reaches it; but if a very luminous object is placed
between the background and the lens, light will be
reflected and an image imprinted on the plate. If,

while the object-glass is uncovered, the white object

changes its position, there will be reproduced on the
plate a track which exactly corresponds to the move-
ments of the object. This, is the trajectory of the
object, or, to put it more precisely, the projection of
its on the surface of the sensitized plate.
trajectory
The image be more or less reduced in size
will
according to the distance of the object, and according
to the focal length of the objective.
Photographic Trajectory of the Movements of a Point
in Space. —
To demonstrate the advantages offered by
photography as a means of recording the trajectory of
a moving object, we will choose as an example a case
in which direct observation will afford us no informa-
tion, and in which a mechanical method of recording
will be impracticable. Suppose, for example, that
we wish to ascertain the various positions in space

* The different proceedings for mechanically recording the move-

ments of a point in one or more directions in space have been given in
" The Graphic Method."
 I

SPACE 2

occupied by a particular part of a bird's wing during

the act of flight, and that this particular part is the
tip of one of the quills, called "remiges." Now, such
a quill, by reason of its flexibility, would be incapable
of giving the necessary motive power to an apparatus
for recording the trajectory of flight ; and, further, this
point is inaccessible because birds only fly freely at
a certain distance from the observer. A black crow
may be used in the experiment, and a small piece of
white paper may be fixed to the extremity of one of its

Fig. 13. —
Trajectory of the tip of a crow's wins. A brilliant spangle attached to the
second of the remiges follows the path indicated by tie small arrows. In the lower
part of the figure a straight and horizontal arrow sho»\s the direction of flight.

longest "remiges." The bird is then allowed to fly

in front of a dark background, towards which a photo-
graphic camera is directed. Since the entire field of
the object-glass is dark, that is to say, the bird and its
background, the sensitized plate can receive no light
except that which is reflected by the small piece of
white, paper, which is The
illuminated by the sun.
image of this white spot will leave a record of its
track on the sensitized plate. In this way Fig. 13 was
obtained, the arrows indicating the direction of flight.
Stereoscopic Trajectories. — The trajectory of the
22 MOVEMENT

movement of the point of a wing cannot be expressed

comprehensively in the form of a plane diagram, since
the movement of the wing at the shoulder-joint takes
place in three directions. The photographic diagram
only gives one projection of this trajectory. It is thus
incapable of expressing the real course of flight taken.
If a movement takes place in three directions, recourse
must be had to a more complicated arrangement, and
a stereoscopic trajectory obtained. Let us take the case
of a man walking away from us, and concentrate our
attention on a particular point of his body. This point
is elevated and depressed as the man's foot rises and
falls. Further, it is affected by the side-to-side swing,
and according to the direction in which he walks.
The pedestrian must be completely dressed in black,
and a bright metal button fastened to a part of his
body. The man is then made to walk in front of a
dark background, and a stereoscopic photographic
camera with two lenses is focussed on the spot. Both
of these object-glasses, acting precisely as the single
one in the preceding experiment, produce two images
of the luminous point.
Fig. 14 was obtained in this manner it shows two ;

images of the same trajectory taken from two different

points of view. Examined with the stereoscope, these
images stand out in bold relief.*

* Since a considerable number of people are able to see figures of

this sort standing out in relief without having recourse to a stereo-
scope, we have published the above figure, find certain others will
be found further on. To obtain the full effect of relief without :i
stereoscope, we must concentrate our vision on a distant point, and
then interpose the object between our eyes and the distant point. The
page of the book will then be seen double, and consequently the tra-
jectory will upper as four separate images. If the book is then very
gently moved, and the direction of the eyes slightly alten d, the two
internal images finally become exactly superimposed. The eye is
then accommodated for distinct vision of the central image, which
stands out in relief between the two outlying images.
With a little practice one can easily dispense with the stereoscope
for examining figures of this sort,
 SPACE 23

Movements of a Straight Line in Space. Photography

of the Solid Figures formed thereby : Cylinders, Hyper-
boloids, Cones, etc. —A straight line, which is moved
in various ways on a plane surface, covers the latter
with a variety of configurations, or else, if attention
ispaid only to the various positions which it occupies
at certain moments, these positions can be expressed

Fig. 14.— Stereoscopic trajectory of a brilliant point pliced at the level of ihe lumbar
vertebra; of a man walking a\\\iy from tue photographic camera.

as geometrical figures, which can be transferred to

paper but if this straight line moves in the three
;

directions of space it describes surfaces, the projec-

tions ofwhich can only be represented by perspective
drawing. In such cases recourse must be had to
diagrams in relief, which have the advantage of giving
beginners a clearer notion of solid forms. By means
of threads stretched between metal armatures, one can
24 MOVEMENT

show how the successive positions of a straight line

can produce cylinders, cones, conoids, and hyperboloids
by revolution. There is a particularly rich collection
of such diagrams at the Academy of Arts and Crafts
— very useful as a means of popularizing the study
of solid geometry.
Now, if the geometry of to-day has become purely
a speculative science, there is no doubt that, like all
other sciences, it had an experimental origin. It is
not likely that the conception of a straight line was
evolved from man's brain as a purely abstract ex-
pression, but rather that it entered therein, on seeing
a stretched thread, for instance, or some other recti-
linear object.
In the same way the conception of a plane or a
circle found its origin from noticing a flat surface or
an object of circular form.
There are, so to speak, traces of these concrete
origins of geometrical figures in the definitions given
to solid figures or to those of three dimensions.
Such objects are said to be " engendered " by straight
lines or curves, which undergo various displacements.
Thus a regular cylindrical surface is engendered by
a straight line which moves parallel to another, straight
line, and yet remains at the same distance from it.
The straight line which moves is the " generator " of
the cylinder that which remains fixed is its axis.
;

Under such circumstances, let us suppose that the

straight line, as it moves in space, leaves a record of
itstrack at every point which it successively passes.
Now, this purely imaginary supposition may become
an accomplished fact, thanks to photography. Indeed,
supposing we take a series of instantaneous views of
an illuminated thread as it moves in front of a dark
screen, figures are produced which exactly resemble
the stereoscopic forms obtained by stretching a series
 —

srACE 25

of threads between metal armatures, This is the

method :

A vertical metal rod furnished with two transverse

arms, Avhieh are exactly opposite to one another, is

allowed to rotate in front of a dark screen. This

metal frame must be blackened with the smoke of a
candle, and thus rendered as nearly invisible as
possible. The two cross-bars must be of equal length,
and their free extremities connected by a white thread,
which is stretched vertically between them. This
thread, by means of the rotatory motion which is
imparted to the two cross-bars, moves in a circular
manner round the axis, and describes in space the
circular outline of a cylinder.
A photographic camera directed towards this thread,
and kept permanently open, would receive an image,
which would be the projection of a cylinder on a plane
surface. But this continuous trajectory would not
show its method of production with sufficient clear-
ness. In order that one may see that such a picture
results entirely from the movement of the thread,
which at every moment adds a new component-
element to the surface of the cylinder, separate images,
at successive intervals of time, must be obtained.
That is to say, the light must be admitted in an inter-
mittent manner. Fig. 15 was thus obtained.*
If the thread, instead of lying parallel to the axis
round which it rotates, is directed obliquely towards
it, the figure described willbe a hyperboloid by
revolution (Fig. 16). And, finally, if the thread is

* In this diagram the central axis appe <rs white, because, although
the amount of light reflected from such a blackened surface is ex-
tremely feeble, nevertheless, this light is always reflected on to the
plate every time the objective is uncovered.
Now, since the axis remains permanently in one place, each
separate impression, however feebl", is superimpos d on the same
part of the s^nsitizt d plate, and ends by being clearly defined.
26 MOVEMENT
placed more obliquely— in fact, if it touches the
still

axis at —
one point the figure described will be a
cone.
Photography, with a dark background, is especially
adapted for demonstrating the construction of cones
and hyperboloids and, further, it clearly shows the
;

relations which these two kinds of figures bear to

one another.
An indefinite number of images can be taken on

Fig. 15.— Cylinder engendered by the Fig. 16.— Hyperboloid by revolution:

displacement of a white thread mov- a s-ingle web engendered by the
ing round a central axis. revolut'on of a thread stt obliquely
to the axis.

the same plate. No sooner has one image been taken

than another can be superimposed the second im- ;

pression is just as good as the first. This method was

employed in the production of Fig. 17. After having
taken a photograph of a hyperboloid by revolution,
the dark slide was closed, and the thread arranged so
as to describe a cone the slide was then opened again,
;

and the image of the cone obtained. The two pictures

 SPACE 27

thus superimposed show the hyperboloid on the out-

side and its asymptotic cone inside.
Conoids. — If the white thread, instead of revolv-
ing round the axis,
as in the experiment
which we have just
been reading, has im-
parted to it at one
extremity a rotatory
motion, while the other
extremity moves in a
straight line, one ob-
tains, according to the
relationship of the two
movements, different
sorts of conoids, of Fig. 17. — Hyperboloid by revolution with its
asymptotic cone.
which Fig. 18 is. one
example.
Movements of a Curve in Space. Photography of the
Figures which it forms: Spheres, Ellipsoids, etc. Among —

—
Fig. 19. Sphere engendered by
F.g. 18.— Conoid engendered by the move- the rotation of a semi-annular
nient of a white thread. white thread.

the forms arising from the movements of a curve, the

most easy to produce is a sphere it is obtained when ;
28 MOVEMENT

a semicircular wire of white metal rotates round a

vertical axis, which is also its diameter. Fig. 19 is
the projection of such a sphere on a plane surface.
(The imperfections of the figure are due to the fact
that it is impossible to impart perfect regularity of
curvature to the wire which constitutes the semicircle.)
It is unnecessary to multiply examples of figures

Fi:. 20.— Sphere engendered bv th n rotation of a semi-annular tbrcai.

(Steri-osco, ic images )

Fig. 21. — Hyperboloid and its asymptotic cone. (Stereoscopic images.)

generated by the movement of curves, such as ellip-

soids, paraboloids by revolution, etc.
In order that these figures of three dimensions may
be rendered more intelligible, we have reproduced
them in the form of stereoscopic pictures by the
following proceeding.
Stereoscopic Pictures of Figures of Three Dimensions. —
We must provide ourselves with a stereoscopic camera
 ;

SPACE 29

with two object-glasses of equal foeal lengths. The

mountings of these objectives must be cleft by a deep
slot, perpendicular to their axes and within this slot
;

there must rotate a diaphragm perforated by two

openings, which are diametrically opposite to one
another. This diaphragm rotates at a uniform rate,
and simultaneously uncovers the two objectives; during
each complete revolution of the diaphragm the
objectives are twice uncovered. A mechanical motor
turns the circular diaphragm, and, by means of a pulley

Fig. 22.— Sphere engendered by tie rotation of a semi-annular band, white o". the
outer surface and black on the inner s:de.

and continuous band, the same motor serves to turn

the axis and the white threads. The latter, by their
movements, describe the desired figures.
Figures formed by the Movement of Solid Bodies;
Effects of Light —
and Shade. Instead of the fine thread,
which has just served our purpose for describing the
surface of a sphere in space, let us take a solid body
the appearance of the figure described will be quite
different. A
band of Bristol board is arched length-
wise, its convex surface blackened, and its concave
4
30 MOVEMENT
surface left white when such a band rotates, a figure
;

such as Fig. 22 will be produced. Except for certain

breaches of continuity, due to the intermittent character
of the illumination, the surface thus produced will
resemble that of a solid sphere, which is illuminated
from the left and from above, while the opposite side
isonly feebly lighted by reflection. This appearance
is easily explained. The strip of paper, as it travels
over successive meridians of this imaginary circle, is

placed under exactly the same conditions of illumina-

tion as would be the case if the meridians were those
of a real sphere in the same position.
Paradoxical Effect produced by Certain Conditions of
Illumination. —
Instead of the strip of paper used in the
preceding experiment, and from which light was only
reflected from the convex surface, let us take a strip
of similar board, only white on both surfaces. We shall
thus obtain a peculiar effect (Fig. 23) which can only be
understood when viewed under stereoscopic conditions.
The inner and outer surfaces of this sphere can be
seen at one and the same time. This is because the
arc of Bristol board is white within as well as without,
and consequently reflects the light, sometimes from
one surface, sometimes from the other, according to
the position of rotation. When the convex arc faces
the light, i.e. is directed upwards and towards the left,
the corresponding portion of the engendered sphere
is clearly visible. When the arc is in an exactly
opposite phase of rotation, it receives the light on its

concave aspect that is to say, the interior of the

;

sphere below and on the left is the part illuminated.

At first sight this figure appears to be transparent,
but on the one hand we know that it has been formed
by an opaque substance, and on the other that all
known transparent media reflect light in a totally
different manner.
 SPACE 31

Tn reality we are dealing with a hypothetical figure,

which finds no counterpart in Nature. Such hypo-
thetical figures are still more strange, when, instead

of dull substances being employed in their construc-

tion, a polished material is made use of which only
reflects the sun's rays from certain points of its surface.
32 MOVEMENT
Fitr. 24 was obtained by allowing a semicircular arc of
polished brass to rotate round a vertical axis. There
is for each position of rotation only one particular
spot on the polished
metal arc from which the
incidental rays of the sun
can be reflected into
the body of the camera.
Now, as this bright spot
changes its position, it
is sometimes on the con-

vex side and sometimes

on the concave side of
the metal arc. It is the
Fig. 24. —
Paradoxic*) 1 appearance of a
sphere engendered by tlie rotation of displacement of this lumi-
a brilliant metallic thread.
nous spot which traces the
complete rings on the opposite portions of the sphere.
In order more clearly to understand the causation of this
peculiar appearance, we must have recourse to stereo-
scopic figures, with an intermittent series of images.
Such figures show that in each position certain portions
of the surface of the semicircular arc are dark, that
is to say, do not transmit light in the direction of the
photographic apparatus; on the contrary, other points
are brilliantly illuminated, because in this position
they are " set," so to speak, so as to reflect the sun's
rays. These curious effects can never be caused by a
real body. The form and position of the illuminated
spots on the sphere can be varied at will by changing
the direction of incidence of the luminous rays.
The mathematical study of these diverse effects
would be, perhaps, rather complicated in any case, it ;

would afford a very limited amount of interest. It

was necessary, however, to mention them, because in
the course of our studies, we shall meet with analogous
forms, produced by the movement of certain bodies.
 —

CHAPTER III

MOVEMENT

Its Measurement, Graphic Representation, and

Analysis by means of Chronophotography

Summary. —The understanding of a movement implies a double

knowledge, namely, that of space as well as that <f time
—
Graphic representation of a movement Chart of a tiain travel-
ling a ong a line— The curve of a prolonged movement should
hi j recorded in sections — How a moving body can record its own
—
movement Proportional enlargement and reduction of the
— —
recorded movement Odography Photographic record of move-
ment— Photography of the movement of Lippmann's electrometer
— Determination by means of chronophotography of the move-
—
ments executed by a fnllin^ body Construction of the curves
—
of movement from chronophotographic images Time-curve of
— —
the distance traversed Curve of velocity Curve of acceleration.

The Understanding of a Movement implies a Double

Knowledge, namely, that of Space as well as that of
Time. —
We saw in Chapter II. that photography
could reproduce the trajectory of a body moving in
space but the idea there conveyed of the successive
;

changes in position was not sufficient to define the

movement. The power to do so presupposes a know-
ledge of the relationship existing at any moment
between the distance traversed and the time occupied.
Now, the object of Chapter I. was to demonstrate that
photography would permit the exact measurement of
time intervals. It follows that, if the two notions
of time and space can be combined in photographic
34 MOVEMENT

images, we have instituted a chronophotographic

method, which explains all the factors in a move-
ment which we want to understand. It also affords a
very simple experimental solution of certain very
complicated mechanical problems. The whole ques-
tion of mechanics is based on a knowledge of the
movement which is imparted to a mass for from
;

the movement the force which produces it can be

measured.
To determine with accuracy the character of a
movement, whether it be uniform or irregular, to
determine its velocity and degree of acceleration
extremely delicate experiments are usually necessary.
When the movement is once thoroughly under-
stood, its character must be expressed in a precise
manner. Since the time of Descartes, geometricians
have known how to express the characters of move-
ments in the form of curves with different variations.
But such curves, although they can express certain
phenomena, require, like other geometrical figures, a
more or less laborious construction. It was a great
step in advance when Poncelet and Morin showed
that a moving body could itself be made to trace its
path in the form of a curve. The first application
of this graphic method was made use of in the case
of a falling body ; was soon, however, extended to
it

other branches of Science. Meteorology, Physics,

and Physiology all participated in the discovery with
advantage to themselves.
In spite of the enormous development of this method,
it has limitations, which we can only extend by the

employment of chronophotography. Thus, when the

moving body is inaccessible, when it cannot be fastened
by mechanical means to the recording apparatus, this
new method for determining its movement must be
employed a method which demands no material link
;
 MOVEMENT 35

between the visible point and the sensitized plate on

which from moment to moment its movement is
recorded. To fully appreciate the advantages of
chronophotography, it will doubtless be best to
compare it with other methods already employed in
the solution of the same problems. Let us take the
most simple case, that of recording the displacement
in a straight line of a moving body, and let us
approach the question in accordance with the two
methods.
—
Graphic Representation of Movement. When a point
travels along a straight line, the successive positions
can be indicated by means of two straight lines at
right angles to one another. Time in minutes
These two straight lines, the c 2- y w 5'
i"

one horizontal and the other \

vertical, indicate respectively
I,
the time taken and the dis-
tance traversed. If the mov-
ing body is propelled at a
uniform rate of one hecto-
metre to the minute, this Q 6
movement can be expressed
by the oblique line which joins
the points where the divisions of time and space
intersect (Fig. 25). This is the curve of movement.
In the case of a uniform movement, this line is
always straight but it will be more or less obliquely
:

inclined according to the speed at which the body

travels. Thus, for double speed, that is to say, two
hectometres in the minute, the line will pass through
the point at which the second division of space and
the first division of time intersect. It will thus form
the diagonal of a series of rectangles, the sides of
which will be formed of two space-divisions and one
time-division. This system of representation expresses
 A

36 MOVEMENT

all degrees of speed and all kinds of movement. A

horizontal line signifies a period of rest, and the
length of the line, or, in other words, the number of

divisions which it occupies, is a measure of the

duration of this period of rest.

Irregular movement expressed by a curve, the

is

inclination of which, the tangent, indicates from

i.e.

moment to moment the rate of progression. Further,

each point of the curve indicates according to its
relation to the horizontal and vertical scales the time
occupied and the distance travelled since the com-
mencement of the movemeat.
Chart of a Train travelling along a Line. —
geometrical expression for all sorts of movement has
become now almost universal, since the engineer Ibry
made use of it to chronicle the progress of trains along
a railway. Nowadays every one
is familiar with these

charts, in which are be seen lines intersecting one

to
another in all directions. Variations both as regards
inclination and direction express the speed and the
route taken by all trains running on the track.
Fig. 26 is an example of such a chart placed by the
directorate at the service of its employes. To the
left of this chart, along the axis of the uprights, are
printed in series the names of the various stations.
These stopping-places are separated on the chart by
intervals proportional to the number of kilometres
which actually intervene as they occur on the line.
In the horizontal direction, i.e. along the axis of the
abscissae, time is registered by periods of an hour;
these are again subdivided into periods of ten minutes.
To indicate that a train should arrive at a given
hour at a particular point on the line, its position
is marked on the chart opposite the station at which

it is expected, and vertically above the division which

corresponds to the time at which it is due. As the

 MOVEMENT 37

train proceeds on its way particulars are notified, both

as regards the direction in which it is going and
the time occupied. But if the train stops, its place
on the chart only changes as far as the time-axis is
concerned, and consequently the stoppages are ex-

FAR13

Mor+t
MONTERCAU

" MIDDAY
Fig. 26.— Chart to express the movements of trains along a railway. (Ibry's method.)

pressed by horizontal lines more or less elongated.

The inclination of the line expresses the speed of
tho train. The faster the train moves the more nearly
vertical does the line become. Express, fast, through,
and stopping trains can thus be distinguished at a
38 MOVEMENT

glance. The direction indicates the

of the curve
destination of the Lines descending towards
train.
the right represent trains going away from Paris,
while those which ascend towards the right correspond
to trains going towards the capital. The intersections
of lines on the chart signify the places and the hours
at which trains cross one another en route. This
admirable mode of representation is the only one
which should be employed to express in a graphic
form the trajectory of a moving point. In such tables
the rate of progress of the trains is supposed to be
uniform, and is represented by straight lines instead
of irregular curves. The latter are employed to
express a change of speed as it occurs from moment
to moment. This is the only way in which such a
mode of graphic representation deviates from what
actually occurs. It is improbable, however, that any
serious difficulty would arise from this cause.
The Curve of a Prolonged Movement should be re-
corded in Sections. —
Charts used to express the move-
ments on a railway are crowded with detail, because
they record the progress of every train which moves
in one or other direction along a more or less extensive
section of the line. The surface of the paper is thi>s
completely utilized. But this would not be the case
if we had to record the progress of one train only

during a long run extending over many hours. On

referring back to Fig. 25 it will be noticed that the
diagonal of the square expresses a journey of six
hectometres completed in six minutes. Now, for a
journey twice as long, and taking twice the time, the
diagonal would be double the length, and the square
containing it four times as large. According to this
geometrical progression, we should have to use a sheet
of paper a metre square if we wanted to record the
progress of a moving body for twenty kilometres.
 MOVEMENT 39

And this immense surface would Time in minutes

'
'
f 2' 3' »'. S
only be broken by a single fine
line dividing it diagonally into
two parts. This inconvenience
would in itself serve to condemn
the method from a practical point
of view. It can be avoided, how-
ever, by dividing the tracing
into sections, each of which ex-
presses the movement during a
given time. Thus Fig. 27 shows
concentrated on a narrow strip
of paper the various phases of a
10*
movement which otherwise would
have required a surface six times
as large.
E
On this strip of paper the 2 13

scale representing distance is con-

tinuous, but that representing
time is broken. After each period
of five minutes the curve returns
to the first time-division, but
remains on the distance-division
at which it has actually arrived.
From this point a new section
of the curve recommences. The
sections A> B, C, etc., thus ex-
press the progress of the moving
body over a distance of 25 hecto-
metres, and during a period of
30 minutes, and the curve is
quite as intelligible as would be
a continuous one requiring a
large surface of paper.*
* The section A shows that, during Fie. 27.— Successive sections of
the first five minutes, the moving body the curve of a movement.
40 MOVEMENT

How a Moving Body can record its Own Movement. —

Poncelet and Morin solved this problem by construct-
ing the well-known machine which registers the
movement of a falling body. In this machine, the
falling body is provided with a needle, which leaves
itsrecord on paper, and moves in a vertical direction at
the same rate as the falling body. Further, the paper
rolled round a revolving cylinder advances in a hori-
zontal direction at a uniform rate. When the paper
is taken off the cylinder, the needle is found to have

traced a curve which is parabolic in form. This is the

geometrical manner of expressing a movement of
uniform acceleration. This machine is a type of the
recording apparatuses of which there are nowadays a
considerable number. It must be mentioned at the
same time that, by reason of its construction, it can
only record the curves of movement to actual scale it ;

could not, therefore, be used to represent movements

too small or too extensive to be inscribed on a sheet of
paper. It follows that, in order to bring the propor-
tions of the movement, the curve of which is to be
recorded, within convenient proportions, it must either
be enlarged or reduced.
Proportional Enlargement and Reduction of the Re-
corded Movement. —
Very feeble movements, such as
occur in living organs, and such as physiologists wish
to understand, usually have to be immensely enlarged.
This can be effected by levers with needles fixed to
lias traversed a distance of five hectometres at a uniform rate.
This rate is maintained for two minutes longer (section B), then
a stoppage occurs for one minute, after which the moving hody
again advances at an accelerated pace until the tenth minute. This
speed of two hectometres a minute is maintained up till the end
of the eleventh minute, when it again gives place to a slower move-
ment of three hectometres in four minutes. This is maintained
during section D and part of E, until the twenty-first minute, at which
a period of rest occurs. This stop of three minutes, which is continued
during section F, is followed by another period of uniform movement
during which the speed is a little more than 100 metres per minute.
 MOVEMENT 41

their extremities. It is in this way that the arterial

pulse, as it alternately raises and lowers the lever,
demonstrates in different patients the condition of the
circulation.* "When a movement is on too large a
scale to be recorded in its actual size,it must be

v-JVvJVVlWiW/

^rvKNK

Fig. 28. — Enlarged tracings of the pulse in different diseases.

reduced before transmission to the recording needle.

There are several ways of doing this, the following are
the most usual methods. The movement can be
reduced by allowing it to act on the longer arm of a
lever, while the writing needle is placed on the shorter.

* See Tlie Circulation. Paris, G. Masscm, 1881.

42 MOVEMENT

The relationship which obtains between the lengths of

the two arms determines the degree to which the
movement is reduced. A
movement can be uniformly
reduced by means of an indiarubber thread this is a ;

convenient method, and quite reliable

enough for most purposes.*
Let c b (Fig. 29) be an elastic thread

a . as nearly homogeneous as possible. Under

the influence of traction it will become
equally extended throughout its length.
Let us make fast one of its extremities, c,
by means of a nail, for instance. If we
exercise traction at the other end, b, so
as to bring it to b\ the point a near to c
will only travel the short distance aa'. If
we have fixed the tracing needle at this
point, it will record on the revolving
cylinder a curve, the amplitude of which
will be to that of the real movement as
the length of the thread ca is to the
length cb.
But when the movement has to be
immensely reduced, as happens when the
path of a body moving through several
Fic.29.-Pro P or- kilometres has to be traced on a strip of
a
tiun V a move" paper a few centimetres in length, the
ent y
S an "nda- movement has to be reduced by means
rubber thread.
of ft mechanical arrangement of wheels.
A system of small pinions and large wheels will
effect this object ; in fact, as we know, it will indefi-
nitely reduce the amplitude of any movement. We
had recourse to this method when we obtained the
* This method of reducing the curve by means of an elastic thread
was thought of by Admiral Paris and his sou. It was made use of in
their apparatus described under the name of "Wave Tracers."
— Maritime and Culunial Review, June, 1867.
 MOVEMENT 43

curve of movement presented in Fig. 27. The in-

strument employed in this experiment is applicable
for registering the progress of all kinds of machines.
an " Olograph."
It is called
The Odograph. —
Fig. 30 represents a pedestrian

Fig. 30.— Pedestrian pushing an odograph in front of him.

pushing before him a light species of wheelbarrow.

The track of the wheel upon the ground represents
the distance traversed. The wheel of the barrow, by a
system of reducing wheels, controls the movement of a
strip of paper. Further, a tracing needle worked by a
clock moves across the paper at any desired rate. A
u MOVEMENT
time-curve of the distance traversed results from
the combination of these two movements. Figs. 31
and 32 show the details of the apparatus. strip of A
paper, the length of which about one metre, passes
is
between cylindrical rollers which advance it a distance
proportional to the space traversed by the moving

Kir.. 31. —
Detaib of the odograph. The strip of paper, which has already received
a tracing of progression and re.-t, can be clearly ?een in position. One needle has
completed its journey, and a second, in iis turn, is just about to commence.
The needles, to the number of five, are arranged at a distance of six centimetres
from one another, along a steel band which passe* round the two rollers G by
mea> s of clockwork. At B can be seui the extremity of the shaft which imparts
the movement to the rollers.

body. Each revolution of the wheel, representing a

distance of three metres, will advance the wheel of the
cylindrical rollers through a distance of one cog. This
is by means of a crank which runs along one
effected
of the handles of the wheelbarrow. During this time
 MOVEMENT 45

the strip of paper will have progressed a very short dis-

tance, 0*1 millimetre for instance. have com- It will
pletely passed through the rollers at the end of a run of
30 kilometres. The needle, which writes on the paper,
is made of brass, and the paper itself is coated with a

layer of white zinc, and called "papier couche" in the

Fig. 32. —
The instrument is seen obliquely from behind. The dial of the clock is
visible. The strip of paper is in position between the rollers, and the needle is in
the act of tracing. The teeth of the comb have already imprinted hourly sub-
divisions on the paper. At B the end of the shaft acts by means of a clapper on
a ratchet-wheel, which iu its turn controls the movement of the rollers by means
of aa endless screw.

trade. On this latter the brass leaves a very fine and

clearly defined track. It never wears out like a pencil,
neither does it require ink like a pen. To obtain a
curve of the movement, the needle must have imparted
to it a uniform motion by means of clockwork, and it
5
 46 MOVEMENT

must traverse the width of the paper in one hour.

Besides this, as the strip of paper is drawn through
the rollers, it passes beneath a comb, which registers
equidistant lines along the length of the paper;
the distance between two teeth corresponds to a
duration of ten minutes. This greatly facilitates the
reading of the distance traversed in a particular time.
Thus during every hour the needle traces a section of
a curve analogous to those in Fig. 27, and which are
distinguished in order by the letters A, B, C, — F,
because the needle takes exactly one hour to cross the
width of the paper. As soon as the first curve has
been registered another one is commenced, because a
second needle in turn begins to register, and at the
third hour another needle, and so on indefinitely during
the whole of the journey.* When the strip of paper
ceases to advance, during periods of rest, the clock
nevertheless continues to move the needle, and the
latter describes a straight line at right angles to the
long axis of the paper. This way of registering move-
ment is identical with that which was designed by
Ibry. We believe that odography could, with a few
special modifications, be applied for registering the
progress of a railway train. A novel arrangement of
pneumatic tubes can transmit each revolution of the
wheels of the engine to the mechanism of the
cylindrical rollers, and thus an odograph can be
placed in each compartment, and supply continuous
information of the progress of the train. Thanks to
the kindness of M. Millet, chief engineer of the loco-
motive department on the Southern Railway (Chemin
de fer du Midi), we were able to try the effect of the
odograph on express trains running from Dax to
Bordeaux, and vice versa. Fig. 33 shows in column A
* The needles are driven by an endless steel band controlled by
the clock.
Fig. 33.—Two odographic cliaits expre^in K accord ng
. to different scales, the advance
of a fast train.
48 MOVEMENT

a section of the original chart taken on one of these

journeys between Dax and Moncenx. To measure
from moment to moment the rate of travelling, a small
divided scale can be applied to the corresponding part
of the diagram. By means of this scale we can
measure the length of any portion of the curve, which
corresponds to the distance traversed in ten minutes.
In this case can be seen that the speed was 55
it

kilometres per hour. These charts are exactly like

those employed by railway companies the method of
;

expressing periods of progression and rest is the

same throughout, the only difference is, that Ibry's
charts were theoretical, i.e. the speed of the trains
is supposed to be uniform, and is represented by

straight lines, and in ours the actual speed is experi-

mentally found, and expressed by variations more or
less pronounced. It can be seen that from Dax to
Eion, and from Rion to Moncenx, the line is not
straight but slightly curved, which means that there
is a slight variation in the speed. It is generally
immediately before, or immediately after, a stoppage
that these variations are noticeable. At the moment
that the train comes to a stop, the curve suddenly
changes its direction, which indicates that under the
influence of the brake there is a rapid transition from
a high rate of speed to a condition of rest. On the
contrary, at the moment of departure, the curve
describes a parabola, which indicates how gradual is
the acceleration, and how slowly the train gets up
speed. The movement of the paper must be con-
siderably slowed down, if we want to inscribe all the
phases of a long journey within the limits of a single
sheet of paper. Column B was obtained in this way,
and on it is registered a journey from Dax to Bordeaux,
representing a distance of GO kilometres.
In odography the movement of the paper should be
 MOVEMENT 49

regulated to suit the average speed of the conveyance

the movement of which is to be ascertained, be it
carriage, locomotive, or boat, etc.* Wide as is the
range of movements capable of being recorded by
mechanical means, nevertheless there are, as we re-
marked before, cases in which this method ceases to be
applicable. It will be seen how valuable the employ-
ment of photography becomes in cases of this kind.
Photography of the Movements of Lippmann's Electro-
meter. — In 1877, our colleague and friend Lippmann
had just invented his capillary electrometer, an in-
strument so marvellously sensitive that it was capable
of registering the slightest electrical variation that
occurred in living tissues. But for this purpose it was
necessary to make this electrometer a recording instru-
ment. This was managed by means of photography.
As the column of the electrometer is exceedingly
fine, the movements must be observed under the
microscope.
This column presents totally different appearances
under different conditions of illumination on a light ;

background it appears as a dark line on a dark back-

;

ground, when illuminated from the sides, it stands out

as a very bright line. This column is seen to elongate
and contract according to the direction and the in-
tensity of the current acting upon it. By receiving
its image on a photographic plate a very intense black
line willbe obtained. If the sensitive plate is moved
at a uniform rate at right angles to the axis of the
column, all its variations in length will be apparent
in the image.
The effect of moving the plate is that the image
of the column is no longer a simple line it is spread
;

out in the form of a band, the sinuous border of which

* For the details of the employment of odography, see La Nature,
No. 278, September 28, 1878.
50 MOVEMENT

corresponds to the variations in the length of the

column of mercury.
To illuminate the column of this instrument, we
used a series of flashes from an induction coil furnished
with a condenser. This intermittent illumination dis-
turbed the continuity of the images, and thus a series
of bright lines of unequal length was produced.
By this means tracings can be obtained to demon-
strate the electrical changes in the hearts of tortoises
or frogs, as they occur respectively during the periods
of systole and diastole.
The sinuous border representing the summit of the
column of mercury in such a tracing has a very close
resemblance to the curve obtained by mechanically
registering the actual movements of the heart during
its various phases. The heart, like all other muscular
structures, shows changes in its electrical condition,
according as it is contracted or relaxed.
Determination by Means of Chronophotography of the
Movement executed by a Falling Body. In the study—
oh movement, photography has the advantage of not
being obliged to borrow any motive power from the
object observed. The following experiment may be
made. A may be hung vertically
black-velvet curtain
so as to form a dark screen, in front of which a white
ball, lit up by the sun's rays, is allowed to fall. A
divided scale placed vertically in front of the dark
is

background, to measure the distance traversed. A

chronometric dial is used to measure the intervals
between the successive images.
When the circular diaphragm has acquired the
desired velocity, an assistant pulls the string and the
ball falls.The photographic plate receives a series of
images of this ball, showing the positions it occupies
at each successive exposure. In this way all the
necessary elements are obtained for determining " the
 MOVEMENT 51

laws of motion." In order to make it more easy

to take measurements from this photograph, the
original plate is enlarged, and the different positions
of the falling body are obtained on a convenient scale.
Let us draw a horizontal tangent to the ball in each
of its positions. The distances fallen during the various
periods since the
commencement of
the fall will then
be seen in series,
and it will be ob-
served that these
distances increase
as the square of the
time. For instance,
the distance tra-»

versed during the

second period of
fall, that is to say,
after the second
exposure, is four
times as much as
that which was tra-
versed in the first

period.
If one wishes to
Fig. 34.— Photography of the movement of a falling
construct a time- body.

curve of the dis-

tance traversed, the sheet of paper should be divided
by vertical lines at equal distances. At the inter-
sections of each of these lines with the horizontal
tangents a mark is made (a dot in the centre of a
circle). The curve E, which joins all of these marks,
is a parabola, and represents the time-curve of a body
moving at an uniformly accelerated rate.
The curve of velocity can be constructed by marking
of '
!
 MOVEMENT 53

off from each time-division a distance which represents

the space traversed by the ball in the corresponding
interval of time. The small mark the lengths
crosses
of such a series of ordinates. Taken together they
form the line V, which is the curve of velocity. Such
a line is a straight one, but obliquely inclined, and
expresses a velocity of uniform increment.
Finally, the curve of acceleration is obtained by
marking off on the ordinates, under each of the time-
divisions, the excess of velocity of each period over
and above that of the one which precedes it, that is
to say, the excess of the second over the first, and
the third over the second ; in other words, the incre-
ment of velocity, or acceleration, in a series of time
intervals. A large black dot marks the length of each
of these ordinates ; the dots united together by the
line A constitute a straight horizontal line showing
the acceleration was uniform.*
In constructing these figures, the unit of time was
represented as any interval. This method answers
very well in comparing the relative degrees of speed
and acceleration but to ascertain the exact degree,
;

these indefinite intervals must represent a second, the

recognized unit of time.
The chronometric dial provides us with the means
of doing this in the same manner as the divided scale
measured in meters and fractions of meters the space
traversed by a falling body. Thus chronophotography
provides us with the means of constructing the curves
of movement.

* On account of a mistake in the diagram (Fig. 35), the degree of

acceleration is half what it ought to be.