WATER STRESS

WATER ANDWATER
STRESS AND WATER CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION
Water stress is a condition where the demand for water exceeds the available amount during a certain
period or when poor quality of available water restricts its use. Thus, water stress occurs when
deterioration of freshwater takes place in terms of quality and quantity.

Data
1. Dependency:
water resources.
2. Rain intensity: Some 80 percent of its area experiences rains of 750 millimetres (30 in) or more
a year. However, this rain is not uniform in time or geography.
3. Consumption composition: Agriculture accounts for more than 80% of water consumption, out
of which share of groundwater is quite high (60%). 52% of area is rain-fed wherein yield is
almost 3 times lower.
4. World Resources Institute: According to the data released by the World Resources Institute,
India is ranked 13th among the 17 most water stressed countries of the world.
5. Composite Water Management Index: According to the CWMI report released by the Niti
Aayog, 21 major cities are moving towards zero groundwater levels by 2020.
 The average annual per capita water availability in 2001 was 1,820 cubic metres and the
government estimates that this may reduce to 1,341 cubic metres by 2025.

6. Status of Water Stress in India

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W W W . SU N Y AI AS. COM
  Ground Water:
groundwater by far, even as the water table has been falling by an average of 0.4 m
nationally.
R For Example: Reports from Bihar suggest that the water table there has fallen by several
feet of late. Well, over half of the districts in the state are facing or expected to be facing
severe groundwater over-exploitation.
 Surface Water: One recent report mentions that over 70% of surface irrigation water is
being simply wasted, nationally.
R For Example: Given suboptimal command area development and distribution of water in
ill-maintained (and uncovered) canals, leads to the suboptimal utilization of water
infrastructure and often results in heavy soil erosion and siltation.
 Monsoon:
drop in rainfall in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal over the past three decades, and
rising variability in the monsoons nationwide.

Water Stress across Regions in India

1. Himalayas: The main source of water for the Himalayan states are the freshwater springs fed by
numerous rivers originating in the mountains. Global warming-related melting of glaciers has
changed the water availability in these streams. Urbanization and the resultant pollution, lack of
traditional water harvesting methods in these once upon a time water-ample region is turning
them into water-stressed regions.
 For Example: The 2018 Shimla, HP water crisis
2. North Indian Plains: Population pressure, untreated sewage, overexploitation of water for
agriculture and industries is polluting the rivers of these regions, thus making drinking water
unavailable for many.
 For Example:
This happened due to Groundwater extraction which was at 35% in the 1960s and 1970s,
rose to 70% post the Green Revolution
3. South India: Erratic rainfall, pollution of rivers due to heavy development activities, inadequate
agricultural practices, over-dependence on groundwater, and lack of conservation efforts are
resulting in an acute shortage of drinking water in many regions.
 For Example: The 2019 water crisis in Chennai.
4. Northeast: Despite being a region of high rainfall, received from both orthographic and
monsoon winds, NE is facing a water crisis due to anthropogenic reasons such as mining,
pollution and lack of water conservation strategies.
5. Western India: Arid and semi-arid climate of Rajasthan and Gujarat due to scanty rainfall create
the conditions of water scarcity. In regions of Maharashtra, the reason for the water crisis was
incorrect cropping patterns.
6. The Coastal plains: Rising sea level and overexploitation of groundwater are leading to the
ingress of saline water in the aquifers leading to water stress.

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Reasons for Water Stress in India
 Rapid urbanization: High water demand by the dense population living in cities in India is
causing stress on groundwater and surface water resources.
 Climate change: Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and lead to increases in
precipitation, though there will be more stark regional variations in rainfall.
 Depletion of aquifers:
aquifers are becoming depleted. Due to both direct human consumption as well as agricultural
irrigation by groundwater.
 Pollution and water protection: Many pollutants threaten water supplies, the discharge of raw
municipal sewage, untreated industrial waste and agricultural runoff carrying pesticides,
insecticides and fertilizers into natural waters.
 Monsoon Dependence: There is a huge dependence on monsoon rains to replenish most of

monsoon is vulnerable to factors such as climate change, El-Nino, etc.

 Over-exploitation: The groundwater provides for over two-thirds of irrigation requirements. In
the last four decades, about 85% of the total addition to irrigation has come from groundwater.
This is clearly unsustainable resulting in steep depletion of the groundwater table.
 Wrong crop selection: Groundwater is used to cultivate water-intensive crops like paddy and
sugarcane (promoted by Green revolution) in rain deficit states like Punjab and Maharashtra
respectively.
 Shift to cash-crops: Water is being diverted from food crops to cash crops that consume an
enormous quantity of water.
 Inefficient cultivation practices: Inefficient cultivation practices have led to the flooding of
fertile land which in turn has caused salinization, siltation of reservoirs, etc. causing groundwater
reserves of major agricultural states to be depleted at an alarming rate.
 No reliable data: Water data is often unreliable, and is collected using outdated techniques and
methodologies.
 Lack of water treatment plants: There is gross under-investment in water treatment and reuse.
Barely 2% of our urban areas have both sewerage systems and sewage treatment plants.
 Inefficient water management and uneven distribution: In India, some regions have an
excess amount of water for their needs or requirements while some regions are facing droughts
or have less amount of water simultaneously.
 Poor water storage: During the monsoon season the desilting operations of the water bodies,
dams, etc. are not done at the time affecting the water storage capacity of India.
 Virtual water export: Virtual water export adds to the problem, the export of approximately 37
lakh tonnes of Basmati rice alone cost India 10 Trillion litres of water in 2014-15.

Impacts of the Water Stress

1. Agricultural crisis: Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on monsoon (not dependable).
Along with ineffective agricultural practices in irrigated areas leads to Water stress in agriculture
and poor cultivation which raise the issue of farmer suicides.
2. Economic growth: A NITI Aayog report predicted that water demand will be twice the present
supply by 2030 and India could lose up to 6% of its GDP during that time.

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 3. Power supply:
of thermal power plants are located in areas where water scarcity is high.
 For Example:
2030.
4. Drinking water scarcity: Not only farmers are affected by the water crisis, urban dwellers in
cities and towns across India are also facing a never seen before drinking water scarcity.
5. Increased International Conflict: Indian freshwater resources in Himalayas are crucial for
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tibet, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar etc. as well. Prolonged water stress
may lead to international conflicts.
6. Conflicts over water: In India, there are conflicts between Karnataka and TN over sharing of
Cauvery waters, between Gujarat and MP over sharing of Narmada waters, between AP and
Telangana over sharing of Krishna waters, etc.
7. Food Shortages: With a global population on pace to reach 6 billion by 2050, shrinking water
resources will make it difficult for food production to keep up with rising demand.
 For Example: The UN warns that political turmoil, social unrest, civil war and terrorism
could result from food shortages unless food production is increased by 60% by 2050.
Agriculture already accounts for about 70% of global freshwater withdrawals to keep up with
current food demand
 For Example: 74 % of the area under wheat cultivation and 63 % of the area under rice
cultivation faces extreme levels of water scarcity. Expected demand-supply gap of up to 570
Billion m3 by 2030 in the agriculture sector.

Water Conservation Approaches

1. Traditional Approach
 Bavaria: These are unique step-wells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water
storage in the cities of Rajasthan. The little rain that the region received would be diverted to
manmade tanks through canals built on the hilly outskirts of cities. The water would then
percolate into the ground, raising the water table and recharging a deep and intricate network of
aquifers.
 Panam Keni: The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad, Kerala) uses a special type of well,
called the Panam Keni, to store water. Wooden cylinders are made by soaking the stems of toddy
palms in water for a long time so that the core rots away until only the hard-outer layer remains.
These cylinders, four feet in diameter as well as depth, are then immersed in groundwater springs
located in fields and forests.
 Zings: Found in Ladakh, Zings are small tanks that collect melting glacier water. A network of
guiding channels brings water from the glacier to the tank. A trickle in the morning, the melting
waters of the glacier turn into a flowing stream by the afternoon. The water, collected by evening,
is used in the fields on the following day.
 Zabo: -
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal care. Rainwater that falls on forested hilltops is
collected by channels that deposit the run-off water in pond-like structures created on the terraced
hillsides.
 Khuls: The Khuls (channels) are designed to carry long distances the water from glaciers to
villages. On reaching a village the water falls in a central tank and the use is regulated by the

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 community. They are the lifeline of people of Spiti valley of Himachal Pradesh and in Jammu
too.
 Bamboo Drip Irrigation System: Practised in Meghalaya, its primary purpose is to irrigate
plantations. This 200-year-old system involves 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe
system every minute to irrigate the fields downhill. A brilliant drip irrigation system, it uses
bamboos of various sizes and reduces the output to 20-80 drops per minute, which is splendid for
betel leaf and black pepper crops.
R The method is so efficient that it enables the water to be dropped at the base of the plant to
ensure there is no runoff and wastage.
 Rejwani system: Rejwani system where water percolates through sand, settles on the gypsum
layer, and is brought for use by a complex capillary system called Beri.
 Johads: Johad, a crescent shaped small check dam built from earth and rock to intercept and
conserve rainwater, was thus reinvented. This helps to improve percolation and increases
groundwater recharge. Use in Alwar district of Rajasthan.
 Eri: Eri (tank) of Tamil Nadu is still widely used around the State. With over a third of irrigation
in the State being made possible due to Eri, the traditional water harvesting system plays an
important part in the agriculture. They also have other advantages such as prevention of soil
erosion, recharge of groundwater, and flood control.
 Khadin: Khadin is a water conservation system designed to store surface runoff water for the
purpose of agriculture. It entails an embankment built around a slope, which collects the
rainwater in an agricultural field. This helps moisten the soil and helps in preventing the loss of
topsoil. Additionally, spillways are provided to ensure that excess water is drained off.
 Ahar Pynes: Ahar Pynes are traditional floodwater harvesting systems indigenous to South
Bihar. Ahars are reservoirs with embankments on three sides that are built at the end of diversion
channels like pynes. Pynes are artificial rivulets led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars
for irrigation in the dry months. Paddy cultivation in this relatively low rainfall area depends
mostly on ahar pynes.
2. Modern Approaches
 Drop and Drip irrigation: In drop or drip irrigation method, pipes with holes are spread over
the surface of land so that the crop directly receives water. There is no loss due to evaporation in
this system and almost 95 per cent water is utilized.
 Watershed management: It is the process of implementing land use practices and water
management practices to protect and improve the quality of the water and other natural resources
within a watershed.
 Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater is collected in tanks and reservoirs for future use.
Unpredictable climatic conditions and depleting groundwater levels can be mitigated with
Rainwater Harvesting.
 Black Plastic and Organic Mulches: Black Plastic or synthetic mulch not only reduces the
water evaporation but also helps in controlling weeds and warms the soil, for an earlier crop.
Organic mulches post decomposition provides nutrients to the soil and conserve moisture. It can
save 25 percent in water requirements
 Drought-Tolerant Crops: It always recommended that crops are grown in line with the regions.
For instance, native crop species are native to arid areas and are naturally drought-tolerant.
Moreover, drought-resistant plants work well in a range of soil types and can thrive even in poor
soil with relatively few nutrients. Making them part of your farm will pay dividends, both now
and in the future.

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Benefits of Traditional Water Conservation Methods
 Protection of water resources
surface, is far more abundant than fresh surface water, less susceptible to contamination and
requires less treatment to make it drinkable. Thus, it makes sense to conserve groundwater
resources as much as possible.
 Augmentation of water resources: The solution is to tap all the possible water resources and
make them available for sustainable use, while improving the water use efficiency.
Augmentation of available resources, prevention of water pollution and improving the efficiency
of water use in all the sectors.
 Increasing water storage capacity: Activities such as farm ponds, percolation tanks, water
reservoirs and construction of small and medium size dams and rivers can retain more surface
water, while increasing the ground water recharge. Series of contour bounds particularly in
undulating areas will facilitate percolation of water in the soil and improve the ground water
table, while reducing soil erosion. Gully plugging, construction of series of small dams on
rivulets will help in storing water in reservoirs.
 Judicious use of water for different uses: Traditional methods promote judicious use of water.
It minimise wastage of water. E.g water from house run off is an excellent source of irrigation.
 Community involvement: One-size-fits-all approach does not work in the conservation of
water. Traditional methods are more efficient and involves communities in water conservation
thereby making water conservation efforts effective.

Measures taken by Government (For Water Conservation)

1. Schemes/Policy measures
 : Campaign for water conservation
and water security. The campaign run through citizen participation while focus on water-
stressed districts and blocks in the country.
 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchay Yojana (PMKSY):
focuses on improving water use efficiency.
 Jal Kranti Abhiyan: The government is making active efforts to revolutionize villages and
cities through block-level water conservation schemes. It aims at turning one water scarce
village in each district of the country into water surplus water village through a holistic and
integrated approach by adopting conservation and management techniques.
 National Water Mission: Launched with the objective of conservation of water, minimizing
wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution both across and within states through
integrated water resources development and management. One of the objectives of the
Mission is to increase the water use efficiency by 20%.
 Atal Bhujal Yojana: Aims to promote sustainable ground water management with
community participation in select over-exploited and water stressed areas.
 Restructured National Rural Drinking Water Programme: Improving coverage of piped
drinking water in rural areas. Increase level of service delivery. Thrust on coverage of water
quality affected habitations.
 MGNREGA for water conservation: The huge workforce employed under the MGNREGA
has enabled the government to introduce water conservation as a project under the Act. The

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 government aims to improve groundwater harvesting and build water conservation and
storage mechanisms through MGNREGA.
 National River Linking Project: This project envisages the transfer of water from the
water-excess basin to the water-deficient basin by interlinking 37 rivers of India by a network
of almost 3000 storage dams.
 National Water Policy (2012): Formulated by Department of Water Resources, RD & GR,
which advocates rainwater harvesting and conservation of water and highlights the need for
augmenting the availability of water through direct use of rainfall
 Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater: 2020 has been prepared by CGWB
in consultation with States/UTs which is a macro level plan indicating various structures for
the different terrain conditions of the country
2. Institutional Measures

ministries, namely: Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation and Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation
 NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index: With the objective of achieving
effective utilization of water, NITI Aayog has developed the Composite Water Management
Index.
R The index revolves around issues ranging from water scarcity and related morass like
deaths due to lack of access to safe water, its projected increase in demand over the years
and finding ways for its effective conservation.
 Central Ground Water Authority: Has been constituted under Section 3 (3) of the
ation and control of ground
water development and management in the Country

Way Forward
1. Individual level
 Reclaimed water: Rainwater harvesting and recycled wastewater also allow to reduce
scarcity and ease pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies.
 Awareness & Education: Education is critical to solving the water crisis. In fact, in order to
cope with future water scarcity, it is necessary to radically reform all forms of consumption
 Sustainable water management: Improving water infrastructure must be a priority.
Restoring and reviving traditional water harvesting structures such as wetlands, lakes,
Johads(earthen check dams), etc.
 Rain catchment programs: As most of the water is displaced or dried up instead of used,
rain catchment programs must be framed and put in place.
 Drip irrigation: With large agricultural output, excess water consumption for food
production depletes the overall water table. Drip irrigation reduce water wastage and also
ensure food security.
2. Government Level
 Pollution control & better sewage treatment: Without proper sanitation, the water
becomes full of diseases and unsafe to drink. That is why addressing pollution, measuring
and monitoring water quality is essential.

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  Replenish groundwater: The government has to create a participatory groundwater
management approach with a combination of water budgeting, aquifer recharging and
community involvement.
 Water governance and management plans with expert opinions: Increase interactions
from the expertise of fields such as hydrology (watershed sustainability), hydrogeology
(aquifer mapping and recharge) and agriculture sciences (water-sensitive crop choices and
soil health).
 CO2 cleaning: Water is used in many industrial applications, sometimes as a wet coolant or
cleaning agent on a grand scale. CO2 cleaning involves the use of carbon dioxide in solid
form, highly propelled dry ice particles out of a nozzle to clean a variety of different surfaces.
 Solar-powered water purifiers: Hot climates suffer from water shortage the most. Deepika
Kurup invented a way to use zinc oxide and titanium dioxide in containers that expose it to
ultraviolet radiation and cleanse the water, making it suitable to drink.
 Develop energy efficient desalination plants: To date, desalination has been an energy-
intensive solution to water scarcity.
R For Example: Typically, the Middle East has capitalized on its large energy reserves to
build desalination plants. But Saudi Arabia could be fostering a new kind of
desalination with its recent announcement to use solar-powered plants.
 Long-term planning: The city and state authorities should focus on addressing what
underlies the actual problem. There should be government regulation, to curb the amount of
groundwater a household can extract. This water should be metered and priced.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Watershed is defined as any surface area from which rainfall is collected and drains through a common
point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. In other words, watershed is a geo-
hydrological unit, comprising of all land and water within the confines of drainage divide.
Watershed management is the integration of technologies within the natural boundaries of a drainage
area for optimum development of land, water, and plant resources to meet the basic needs of the people
and animals in a sustained manner.

Objectives of Watershed Management

 Control damaging runoff for conserving soil & water.
 Utilize runoff water for useful purpose.
 Conserve watershed land for sustained production.
 Enhance water resource originating in watershed.
 Check soil erosion
 Reduce sediment yield
 Rehabilitate deteriorating lands.
 Moderate floods peaks at downstream areas.
 Increase infiltration of rainwater.
 Improve production of timbers, fodder & livestock
 Enhance ground water recharge

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