Drawing On Drawing

DRAWING ON DRAWING
IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION
Byera Hadley Travelling Scholarship 2003
FINAL SUBMISSION SEPTEMBER 2005

DAVID HOLM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Purpose......................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2..................................................................................................................................................... 7
The Grand Tour............................................................................................. 7
Le Corbusier [1887 – 1965] ................................................................................................ 10
Gunnar Asplund [1885 - 1945] ............................................................................................ 11
Alvar Aalto [1898 - 1976] .................................................................................................... 13
Louis I. Kahn [1901 - 1974]................................................................................................. 14
Alvaro Siza [1933 - ]......................................................................................................... 15
The Australian Perspective ................................................................................................. 16
Value and Imprint............................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3................................................................................................................................................... 18
Why Italy? The Crucible of Western Architecture...................................... 18
Greek and Etruscan ........................................................................................................... 18
Roman .............................................................................................................................. 18
Christian and Byzantine Architecture................................................................................... 20
Romanesque Architecture .................................................................................................. 20
Gothic Period..................................................................................................................... 21
Renaissance Architecture................................................................................................... 21
Mannerism ........................................................................................................................ 22
Baroque ............................................................................................................................ 23
Neoclassicism ................................................................................................................... 24
Fascism and Modernism .................................................................................................... 24
Precis ............................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4................................................................................................................................................... 26
Why draw? Observing and Imagining........................................................ 26
Analysing Precedent .......................................................................................................... 27
Drawing the Imagined ........................................................................................................ 30
To draw............................................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 5................................................................................................................................................... 34
Ideas and Drawing… The Connection........................................................ 34
Premise............................................................................................................................. 34
Transactionalist: Engaging the Visual World ........................................................................ 35
Ecological: Appearance of the Visual World......................................................................... 36
Projective: When Order is Made.......................................................................................... 37
The Architects Way............................................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER 6................................................................................................................................................... 39
Bibliography ............................................................................................... 39
Books ............................................................................................................................... 39
Articles .............................................................................................................................. 40
APPENDIX I................................................................................................................................................... 41
Exemplars: interviews ................................................................................ 41
Methodology...................................................................................................................... 41
Practitioners Interviewed .................................................................................................... 41
Ross Bonthorne Interview 17 March 2004......................................................44
Tony Caro Interview 3 June 2004..........................................................46
Philip Cox Interview 2 June 2004..........................................................48
Richard Francis Jones Interview 6 May 2004...........................................................50
Beverley Garlick Interview 17 May 2004.........................................................52
Colin Griffiths Interview 2 June 2004..........................................................54
Peter Ireland Interview 17 March 2004......................................................56
Chris Johnson Interview 15 April 2004.........................................................58
Desley Luscombe Interview 31 May 04.............................................................60
Ken Maher Interview 4 June 2004..........................................................62
Caroline Pidcock Interview 20 May 2004.........................................................65
Alexander Tzannes Interview 19 March 2004......................................................67
Ken Woolley Interview 3 June 2004..........................................................69
APPENDIX II.................................................................................................................................................. 72
Drawing Italy................................................................................................72
APPENDIX III................................................................................................................................................. 73
Current courses...........................................................................................73
CHAPTER 1
PURPOSE
This Byera Hadley Travelling Scholarship (BHTS) 2003 for Registered Architects has enabled
academic research and field verification to be undertaken that will lead to the establishment of a
regular study tour of secular and non-secular Italian architecture. The purpose of this
scholarship is to explore and encourage the act and skill of drawing and its value to the
architect.
The origins and value of the ‘Grand Tour’ as undertaken by many generations of architects and
artists seeking fresh inspiration by way of travel, pilgrimage and observation is defined,
reviewed and assessed. The selection of Italy as the study focus is assessed, defining its value
as a geographically compact crucible of Western Architecture representing many of the icons of
architectural development since the C6th BC.
This study analyses why, as architects, we draw; considering the analysis of precedent, the
drawing of record and the communication of the imagined. Understanding the differences and
connections between observing and imagining is fundamental to the architect’s ability to
communicate.
This research explores the connection between ideas and drawing and the expression of the
imagined into communicable forms, defining the connections between observation and
perception, ideas and drawing; key to understanding the psyche of the architect.
Design, which by another name is called drawing… is the font and body of
painting, sculpture and architecture…the root of all sciences.
[Michelangelo, 1584, Michelangelo to Matisse: Drawing the Figure, AGNSW,
1999, p. 25]
Informing the research is a series of interviews with seminal architects currently practicing in
Sydney, Australia. These architects offer a diversity of opinion and experience on the value of
drawing to an architect as well as the connection between the observed and the imagined. Full
transcripts of these interviews have been included as an appendix to this document.
Following the development of academic research, field verification occurred in Italy in October
and November 2004. The purpose of this work was to analyse the long list of sites that could
form the basis of future study tour packages. This has been distilled into a compact itinerary,
developing into a valuable study tour agenda. A full itinerary, including abstracts and visuals of
each building or built form visited, has been assembled into a booklet that forms an appendix to
this document. This booklet may also stand alone as a valuable reference source for architects
travelling through Italy.
As a benchmarking process, the author has explored other study tours that are available, which
offer similar curricular benefits. The outcomes of this are included as an appendix to this
document.
5
DRAWING ON DRAWING IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION
The establishment of a regular study tour of secular and non-secular Italian architecture would
be the primary outcome of this scholarship. The tour format would be an accredited elective
study within Architecture and Design Faculties of NSW universities. It may also constitute a
Royal Australian Institute of Architect’s [RAIA] professional development program or simply be
taken as a ‘stand alone’ exercise by other interested parties.
This tour program supports Byera Hadley’s own view of the purpose for this scholarship.
“…encouraging architectural studies for graduates and students through
travel and overseas experience, and for the advancement of architecture…”
[NSW Board of Architects Byera Hadley Travelling Scholarship website:
www.boarch.nsw.gov.au/bhts/about.cfm]
It is the belief of the author that the skill of the architect to observe and analyse, imagine and
communicate is fundamental to our success and community standing. An ability to draw, as a
channel for expression and communication, has always been an essential part of the architect’s
skill set. This aim of this scholarship is to reinforce these skill sets.
CHAPTER 2
THE GRAND TOUR
The idea of the pilgrimage dates from the ninth and tenth centuries. People would free
themselves for an unspecified time from professional and family ties and set off for the Holy
Land in order to visit one of the sites, often Jerusalem, which according to the Bible had
connection with the life of Jesus. Once there, they would confess and declare all sins.
The pilgrimages, combined with the attempts to free the Holy Sites from the rule of the
heathens, led ultimately to the crusades. John Mandeville describes his participation in a
crusade (1356-57) in a form which was the first example of a travelogue in its own right, travel
having hitherto been a theme of literature, an adventure which carried the plot in a number of
different epic poems and novels. 1
Those who found a journey to the Holy Land too difficult, or a crusade too dangerous, looked for
somewhere closer to home where they could show their willingness to repent, Rome for
example, where the Pope as God’s representative here on earth could grant absolution. The
absolution business, as a symptom of the corruption in the Church, was one of the factors which
triggered off the Reformation in the C16th, which was based on the humanistic criticism of the
worldly power of the Church.
One could claim that the impulse to break out of the daily routine, casting off the chains of
family-life and the need to earn a living, was sanctioned in a pilgrimage by the idea that in order
to do penance for sins it was not sufficient just to truly regret having committed them or simply
be repentant; some form of active repentance was required, some activity which required one’s
strength and commitment. Leaving the security of the home in this era was a virtually
incalculable risk and travel was difficult and dangerous except for those who were travelling as
personal messengers and envoys in the service of the nobility, therefore making use of the
privileges of the nobility.
The fragmentary experiences of merchants and pilgrims, which were handed down, and the
knowledge of the tracks they followed in their undertakings all facilitated the general mobility of
the first people travelling for pleasure and educational purposes in the sixteenth century. The
first travel guides and travelogues repeated more or less the structures of older instruction
pamphlets written by merchants and pilgrims.
In 1536 the jurist Johann Fichard from Frankfurt was sent to Northern Italy to serve in the army
of the German Kaiser and then travelled around the country and south to Naples. He was
interested in art, primarily in the Greek and Roman monuments. He was probably not the first
person to do this but he was the first to leave behind something approaching a coherent journal
about his travels. After spending two years in Italy he returned to Frankfurt in 1538. His
1Sir John Mandeville, Mandeville’s Travels, London, 1357(?). Malcolm Letts, Sir John Mandeville: The Man and his Book, Batchworth, London,
1949. Josephine Waters Bennett, The Rediscovery of Sir John Mandeville, Modern Language Association, New York, 1954. Donald Roy Howard,
Writers and Pilgrims: Medieval Pilgrimage Narratives and Their Posterity, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1980. Christian K. Zacher,
Curiosity and Pilgrimage: The Literature of Discovery in Fourteenth Century England, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1976.
7
writings were not published until three hundred years after his death in 1581 but copies of them
were in circulation during his lifetime. 2
The first guidebook to Italy, fifteen pages in its entirety, was published by a Frenchman,
Jacques Signot in 1518. He lists the ten passes through the Alps from France to Italy and
divides the guide into the different provinces. 3
In 1563 the timetable of mail coaches by Giovanni da l’Herba, which included details of the
places in the larger cities of Italy, was published. 4
Whilst these works had only minor influences, the basis of all further publications of this kind
was the Descritione di tutta l’Italia by a Dominican monk from Bologna, Leandro Alberti,
5
published in 1550.
Travel as a form of education or even for its own sake, the “pleasure trip”, was a result of the
secularisation of the pilgrimage, itself a consequence of the revolution of ideas in Christian
Europe sparked off by humanism, the Reformation and the Renaissance. Prior to this, the
impulse had always been latent.
Thirst for education cannot be the sole explanation for the stream of travellers who poured into
Italy from the sixteenth century onwards. It was linked to a general appetite, the irrefutable
need to do something against general satiation with life, against the boredom, the whole
syndrome of melancholy, which motivated above all the English and the French nobility and, to
a lesser extent, the German nobility to go on what were known as gentlemen’s tours.
Why Italy? Italy, it would seem, was the only European country which could provide all the
justification needed for the new fashion of travel for its own sake. Here people could update
their humanist education in its birthplace, and see the monuments of the Greeks and Romans
with their own eyes. The variety of city states, and thus forms of government, was coincident
with the colourful variety of urban configurations. Importantly also, Italy was the most
developed, refined and civilised of all the countries on the continent.
Sons of noble families, but also young men from wealthy bourgeois circles, were given a
teacher by their parents to accompany them on their gentleman’s tour and help to organise and
comment on the journey. The individual “tour”, which was a kind of guided tour, during which a
few stops would be made in France or sometimes in Germany before crossing the Alps, was an
English invention and similarly mass tourism was also invented by the English, though not until
the nineteenth century.
“The fact the young people travel in the care of a teacher or a reliable
servant is something I highly approve of, but the young person in question
must master the language… What has to be seen and carefully observed
are royal courts… secular and religious courts… churches and monasteries
and the monuments preserved in them; ramparts and fortifications… and
2 Johannes C. Fichard (1512-1581) in Paul Kruntorad, “Broadened Horizons: The Paradigm of Travel in Italy”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68:
The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
3 Jacques Signot in Paul Kruntorad, “Broadened Horizons: The Paradigm of Travel in Italy”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the
Architect, quarterly review, 1991.

4 Giovanni da l’Herba, 1563 in Paul Kruntorad, “Broadened Horizons: The Paradigm of Travel in Italy”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye
of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.

5 Leandro Albert (1479-1552(?)), Descritione di tutta l’Italia, Giaccarelli, Bologna, 1550. The Catholic Encyclopedia, The Encyclopedia Press,
1914.
8
THE GRAND TOUR
also harbours and wharfs; antiquities, ruins, libraries… treasure chambers

full of jewels and state robes, museums for works of art and finally
everything which is outstanding in a place…”
Francis Bacon6
The country which Giovanni Antonio Magini in a four-volume work published in 1620 called Un
compendio di tutta l’Europa, perché tutte le cose nell’altre provincie si ritrovano felicemente
raccolte in lei, which a century later was for Charles Thompson The Great School of Music and
Painting, was to be reached then (as now) via the major passes over the Alps.7 For the French,
Italy began after crossing Mont Cenis into Piedmont. For the Germans after the Brenner Pass,
and for the English, depending on whether they had included a detour to Heidelberg or not, via
either pass.
It was always important to visit Venice, a sight which satisfied a sense of the extraordinary
rather than the desire for education; on the way to Rome it was important to visit Loreto. A
longer stay in Rome was the done thing, even if it was connected with the risk of catching the
fevers which came in from the Pontine Marshes. A visit to Naples offered the opportunity, not
merely of getting to know the art and culture of the harbour town but also, of experiencing
luxuriant vegetation, an “earthly Paradise,” which in the case of the Phlegraean Fields with their
sulphur springs also provided a taste of hell.8 Bologna was an important junction where the
traveller had to choose between various different routes to Rome.
In the hierarchy of cities to be visited Florence, Milan and Genoa came next followed by Turin.
Or in terms of the regions of Italy: Veneto, Emilia Romagna, Tuscany, Lombardy and possibly
Liguria and Piedmont were the favourite provinces. Umbria, Apulia, Calabria and the islands of
Sardinia and Corsica were virtually ignored. On the voyage to Malta the enterprising traveller
would perhaps stop off in Sicily, but generally trips by sea were avoided, the most common
means of transport being the mail coach.
Even in those days a passport was required at many of the border crossings and in Italy a
certificate of currency that one did not have any contagious diseases. In the eighteenth century
it was best to have two certificates: one testifying good health and the other testifying illness,
because sick people who had a certificate to this effect were allowed to eat meat during Lent.
What was still an adventure in the sixteenth century, developed in the seventeenth and
particularly in the “Golden Age of Travel” in the eighteenth century into more than merely a
luxury, a cure for the “Acidic,” the numbed senses; for painters and architects it was a
professional must. English, Dutch and above all German painters had to perfect their skills in
the place where the greatest art treasures originated. One of the reasons for this was that a
large number of the nobility travelling in Italy had been such ardent collectors of works by the
ateliers of painters and sculptors in the service of the Popes and the secular rulers of the
principalities formed from the city states.
6 Sir Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), Essays of Francis Bacon or Counsels, Civil and Moral, 1601 (specifically Essay XVIII“Of Travel”)
7 Giovanni Antonio Magini, Un compendio di tutta l’Europa, perché tutte le cose nell’altre provincie si ritrovano felicemente raccolte in lei, Venice,
1620 (published posthumously by his son, Fabio Magini). Charles Thompson, The travels of the late Charles Thompson, esq: containing his
observations on France, Italy, Turke, and Europe, The holy land, Arabia, Egypt, and many other parts of the world, J. Newbery and C
Micklewright, London, 1744.
8 John Milton, Paradise Lost, Simmons, London, 1669. William Riley Parker, Milton: A Biography, 2 vols. 2nd edition revised Gordon Campbell,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996.
9
Until the nineteenth century there was no alternative to Italy for the “educazione sentimentale”,
for the education of the senses. The printing of books and copper etchings ensured that the
content of this Italian education could be disseminated and made accessible to others, however,
there was no substitute for actually experiencing Italy at first hand and the flair of the country
has in no way diminished.
From a purely documentary point of view (for instance as a record of surroundings and buildings
that are inevitably subject to change or to the ravages of time), the landscape sketches and
travel notes of an architect are worthy of attention. This is especially true when one is dealing
with ages prior to the invention of photography, when the opportunities for travel were also very
different from the present. Giovanni Battista Piranesi, today largely unknown as an architect, is
famous for his views of Rome that depict an entire lost world.9
The travel sketches of architects are also valuable for what they tell us about their character and
preferences, about the characteristics or the artistic personality of the people who made them.
This is not a question of personal background, talent, or cultural inheritance, but also a
reflection of their desire to change the world. Just as they present speculation of utopian
features to the juries of competitions or to potential clients, in order to convince them of the
validity of their projects, architects also convey their aesthetic ideals in sketches of the
monuments that they have occasion to admire during their travels.
Le Corbusier [1887 – 1965]

‘I prefer drawing to talking. Drawing is faster allowing less room for lies’.
10
Le Corbusier (1961)
Le Corbusier travelled through Italy in 1907 with Léon Perrin. During a stay in Vienna in 1907-
08, Le Corbusier was particularly disturbed by his observation that the contemporary
architecture of his own day seemed to have lost its raison d’être.
Writing from Cologne before leaving on his trip, Le Corbusier, faced with the triteness of the
Modern he had seen and experienced in Germany wrote:
“Recently, you have evoked, majestically, the great attraction of the Latin
and Classical light… In these months, my spirit is as open to the
comprehension of the Classical genius as my dreams, which have carried
me yonder obstinately. Isn’t it true that our entire epoch looks more than
ever toward those blessed lands where glistening rectilinear marbles,
vertical columns and parallel entablatures stand along the line of the sea?
Now the chance has come; my dream becomes reality. To cap a life of
study, I am planning a great trip…”
Le Corbusier letter to William Ritter (1911)11
9 Luigi Ficacci, Giovanni Battista Piranesi: Complete Etchings, Benedikt Taschen Verlag, Cologne, 2000. John Wilton-Ely, Giovanni Battista
Piranesi: The Complete Etchings, Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, San Francisco, 1994.
10 quoted in Envisioning Architecture: Drawings from the Museum of Modern Art, p68
11 Ch. E. Jeanneret, Letter to William Ritter, Neubabelsberg, 1 March 1911, AFLC.
10
THE GRAND TOUR
Le Corbusier’s travel sketchbooks for the period 1910-1911 have survived and are now well
preserved. These sketchbooks take the form of six notebooks or carnets. The carnets were
conceived as instruments to “interrogate” history and force it to disclose the secrets of practice,
craft, and forms. The fourth carnet is devoted to Pompeii, Naples, and Rome and covers the
period October 5-20, 1911. The sixth carnet documents the last days of his journey from his
arrival in Florence (October 26, 1911). Le Corbusier’s notes begin with a detail of the paintings
of Piero di Puccio in the Camposanto of Pisa and include the famous sketches of the Certosa of
Ema in Florence. They conclude with additional notes on Pisan monuments.
What distinguished Le Corbusier’s journey from those of his contemporaries at the Ecole and
from the tradition of the Grand Tour was precisely his awareness of “being able to begin again”.
Time and again, this notion stands out in the pages of his notebook. The notes, the sketches,
and the measurements were never ends in themselves, nor were they a part of the culture of
the journey. They ceased being a “diary” and became design exploration and interrogation. To
know how and why architecture is made is to design it repetitively. He viewed the camera with
a suspicion suggested by the diffidence he reserved for “those who looked without seeing”.
The peculiarities he discovered were noted as typological characteristics that conferred
uniqueness on a place: the small size of certain constructions that wise design endowed with an
effect of vast space, far vaster than they actually were; the unity and uniformity of materials; the
confirmation of a simple geometry that governed architecture universally and led him to exclaim:
“I love geometric ratios, the square, the circle, and the proportions of a
simple and distinctive harmony.”
Le Corbusier was not merely interested in Rome, Florence and Pisa as cities but as places in
history, in a history of which he felt himself a part. They were only accumulations of knowledge,
texts to be interpreted. Within them there was no room for people or for curiosities other than
forms and spaces, “and this was for me as if the veil of my temple had been torn apart”.
Gunnar Asplund [1885 - 1945]

Gunnar Asplund’s trip to the interior of Sweden in 1906 showed him to be an attentive observer
of “popular” architecture rather than of the great and famous monuments of the past. His
notebooks reveal an almost obsessive interest in any kind of metalwork connected with
architecture and the sketch series abounds in railings, gratings, doors and decorative details.
Asplund arrived in Italy at the end of December 1913. The differences between the journey
made by Asplund and the “Grand Tour” of the academic tradition are noteworthy. Asplund was
already twenty-eight and had set up his own practice. It was no prize or grant that made the
journey possible, but the earnings from his work, hence he had the freedom to choose his own
itineraries and destinations. Asplund’s “little” Grand Tour of the Mediterranean was confined
essentially to Italy.
Asplund began making sketches on Italian architecture in Rome, where he stayed for about a
month. During his first Roman sojourn, Asplund studied and drew some of the major
monuments of the city including the Baths of Constantine, St Peter’s Basilica, Castel Sant’
Angelo and Santa Maria della Pace. He also visited many museums, including the Museo delle
Terme.
11
Asplund left for Sicily, arriving in Palermo in February, then travelled on to Monreale, and on to
Agrigento. He travelled from Agrigento to Castrogiovanni, Syracuse, Catania, Taormina and
Cefalù. Asplund returned to Palermo in March to visit the Museo Nazionale before embarking
to Tunis, where he stayed for a week. He went to Pompeii, Rome and Assisi, then Perugia,
Siena, San Gimignano, finally reaching Florence in mid April. The three weeks he remained in
Florence provided him with an opportunity to study the fine examples of the Tuscan
Renaissance. He went onto Bologna then Ravenna and Venice. Towards the end of May
1914, after having seen Vicenza and Verona, he returned to Venice.
The most substantial account of Asplund’s Italian trip is just over three hundred sheets of paper
bearing drawings, sketches, annotations, figurative portraits and a wide variety of subjects. He
brought back an enormous quantity of picture postcards from his journey, more than 800 in
total, which constituted one of his major travelling expenses. The photographs and postcards
reproduce the most celebrated monuments of Italy, along with the most renowned works of art,
including both paintings and sculptures. Asplund’s interests were not exclusively architectural.
In both the collection of postcards and the drawings, the number of architectural subjects is
matched by those relating to painting or sculpture.
The relationship between the travels and projects of Gunnar Asplund has been fundamental to
an understanding of his architecture. It would be impossible to explain a great deal of his work
without taking into consideration the journey to Italy that he made in these first months of 1914.
The influence of places and monuments that he visited on the architecture that he was to
produce in the future may include;
• influence of an entrance court in a Palermo palace on a similar solution adopted in one of his
later projects for the Central Courts in Göteborg, Sweden
• origin of the ornamental motif in the grand entrance of the Sölvesborg Law Court in Sweden
in a sketch made at Pompeii
• the “Way of the Cross” from Pompeii’s street of tomb’s figures included in a competition entry
for a large southern cemetery in Stockholm
Other examples indicate general resemblances, influences and connections between Asplund’s
architecture and a model of the Mediterranean vernacular. What Asplund was looking for, in the
course of his journey through Italy, was something that was to leave a permanent mark on him
and his architecture and that went far beyond a question of “styles”.
“… Tunis, this is the most amusing I have come across in the twenty-eight
years of my existence! Not as a town of art, but for its outstanding gay and
lively character… Above our heads a sky clear and deep the like of which I
have never seen, such a tone in the colour that I am constantly imagining
the sky as a vast blue-painted dome.”12
For Asplund, the remains of Pompeii and Paestum, the ruins of Sicily, were inseparable from
the landscape that surrounded them: They were no longer fragments of a broken unity, and did
not require reconstruction or interpretation.
12As cited in Luca Ortelli, “Heading South: Asplund’s Impressions”, in Pierluigi Nicolin (ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review,
1991, pp.23-34.
12
THE GRAND TOUR
At Syracuse in February 1914 he noted that:

“The Greek theatre is imposing in effect and size. The same fine gravity as
the temples. The key to it all is the open space with the heavens above, all
seats assembled around the stage, the plain and the sea. A simplicity of
conception and great unity with the purpose and meaning binding all, to give
it architectural fullness…”13
Alvar Aalto [1898 - 1976]

The sketches of Alvar Aalto only partially correspond to this model of using travel sketches to
record aesthetic ideals. In Aalto’s sketches there is a dichotomy between two vocations, that of
painting and that of his chosen career of architecture. For Aalto his travel sketches, like all
those connected with his architectural projects, were not works of art to be conserved, and thus
he scattered them around without much thought. Drawing for Aalto was merely the means to
the end. An exploration tool to explore design.
Examining Aalto’s travel sketches, one is immediately struck by the intense concentration on
nature: its organic forms, its tendency toward a state of harmonious but complex equilibrium,
and its fundamental link with the sense of orientation and capacity for structuring innate in
human beings.
Aalto’s methods of giving form to space move away from geometrical conceptions to a non-
perspective manner as he was influenced by the revolution against central perspective that had
taken place in modern painting.
Another aspect of Aalto’s travel sketches worthy of consideration is his interest in the
spontaneous design of towns and villages, especially in mountain areas. This tendency was
noted by a number of architects travelling with Aalto. Architect Francisco de Asis Cabrero noted
that Aalto’s “attention was reserved for the constructions of our provincial towns, for their
details, fabric, and three-dimensional forms”.
“One is disconcerted by Aalto’s complete lack of interest in any type of
architecture that takes a different direction from his own. He does not care
whether it is beautiful or ugly, modern or ancient, he simply does not see it…
On the contrary he observes the details that might enrich his own plastic
themes: an abstract shape marked out by the rays of the sun or the effect of
a whitewashed wall in a barren rocky landscape.”
Architect Miguel Fisac 14
Whilst Aalto’s drawings of record are less accurate then others, they are highly personal and
commune an exploration of ideas. Aalto drew to explore his ideas and probe the reality of what
he observed.
13ibid
14As cited in Göran Schildt, “The Travels of Alvar Aalto: Notebook Sketches”, in Pierluigi Nicolin (ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly
review, 1991, pp.35-48.
13
Louis I. Kahn [1901 - 1974]

The graphic art of Louis I. Kahn is much more than a collection of architectural drawings or the
simple record of an architect’s travels and designs. It is made up of objects that are intense
works of art themselves because Kahn made them solely for themselves.
While they can never have been wholly divorced from his early career attempts to design
architecture during the thirties and forties, it is obvious that he did not see them primarily as
means towards architectural results until the latter part of that period. In fact, except toward the
very end of their sequence, they have very little to do with Kahn’s buildings. By the early fifties,
when they finally achieve special architectural relevance and power, and prefigure the new,
great architecture of Kahn’s late maturity, they cease.
Kahn’s travel sketches fall into three major groups, each marked by its own special material and
techniques. The first group is of the late 1920s and continues with force throughout the 1930s.
The sketches of this era consist of eminently pictorial material, scenes of landscape and
architecture brushed in watercolours or smudged out in the broad stokes of Kahn’s famous soft
carpenter’s pencils.
The second group of sketches appears directly after World War II and Kahn’s motifs, materials
and techniques herein have been strikingly altered. Shapes are focused on, mostly abstract
and drawn in black and white with scratchy pen lines and flat inked planes. The last major
group appears from 1950-51. The most dominant medium is now pastel and the subjects
involve the primary historic architecture of Italy, Greece and Egypt.
The whole series from 1928 to 1955 is an instructive demonstration of the process of tradition,
influence and invention at work in form. Groups one and three were both the result of trips in
place and time back to the foundations of western art in the Mediterranean area; the first in
1928-29 and the final in 1950-51. During Kahn’s first trip, the clear, light-edged planes in his
studies of San Gimignano’s towers, so central to his later work, and his Impressionist reaction to
the reflections of Venice is not unusual but what is surprising is the Art Deco character of most
of his drawn works.
It is obvious that Kahn, like many other American architects in the 1940s, felt the need to
jettison his whole artistic past and start anew; similar to the thoughts of Le Corbusier. Kahn’s
drawings dramatically show how traumatic and, at least for a time, deeply destructive that act
was for him. The most influential architects and critics of the entire world were telling him that
everything he had done before was utterly worthless and that he was now required to achieve
weightlessness and abstraction. He had to turn himself inside out and float.
A key break for Kahn came in 1950 when he was appointed a Fellow of the American Academy
in Rome and was now able to travel around the Mediterranean once more with greater ease.
These trips brought him back to an architecture of a more timeless kind. It took him from the
urban squares of Italy to the columns in the landscape of Greece and to Egypt’s pyramid
groups. Now it was not the picturesque folk architecture, as on the first trip long before, but the
big stuff, the heavies, that he focused on. Forms measured by light became Kahn’s focus for
observation and was the signature of his built work, especially in the latter part of his career.
14
THE GRAND TOUR
It Italy his pastel of Assisi suggests a return to the broad strokes of the carpenter’s pencil he
had employed during the first trip, but he generally turned toward broader planes of colour
defining strictly rectangular more urban zones. Kahn’s Rome is a pastiche after De Chirico, but
his pastels of Siena, though recalling the surrealist emptiness of De Chirico’s dream squares,
are more purely his own. The colour is aggressive and sometimes mournful; the Tuscan
sheathing of green and white marble prefiguring some of his later architectural details, is adrift
in dark piazzas. Blood-red shadow splashes Siena’s yellow Campo like a flood of pigment from
its own red bricks, while the towers stand in soft green evening light beyond.
In Venice the conventional Impressionism of the first trip becomes late Monet, as enormously
scaled strokes of colour shape a visual reality suggestive of the original model but with a
monumental structure.
For Kahn, the essential process of observation and drawing had culminated in 1951. This trip
effectively broke the hold of International Style weightlessness and sanctioned the Kahn’s
exploitation of geometric abstraction, which he had also perceived as part of the International
Style. That was the moment when the first monumental architects of the Mediterranean world
broke through to him and set him on his way.
Alvaro Siza [1933 - ]

The seminal, contemporary Portuguese architect uses drawing as a means of exploring design
and the ideal contemplation in a foreign location.
No drawings give me as much pleasure as these: travel sketches.
Travelling is trial by fire, individually or collectively. Each of us leaves behind
a bag full of stress, tedium, preoccupations and preconceptions.
Simultaneously, we lose a world of small comforts and the perverse
attraction of routine.
Travellers, intimate or strangers, are divided into two types: admirable or
insufferable.
A good friend truly suffers as the world is vast.
We may never again allow ourselves a repeat visit; he leaves nervous,
strained, with his eyes popping out of their sockets.
I myself like to sacrifice many things, to see only that which attracts me
immediately, to pass by chance: without a map and with an absurd
sensation of the discoverer.
Is there anything grander that sitting in an esplanade, in Rome, at the end of
the afternoon, experiencing anonymity and a drink of exquisite color –
monuments and monuments to see while laziness advances softly?
Suddenly the pencil … begins to fix images, faces in the foreground, faded
profiles or luminous details, the hands which drew them. Lines, at first timid,
rigid, lacking precision, later obstinately analytical, at moments vertiginously
definitive, free until drunkenness; later tired and gradually irrelevant.
15
In the space of an authentic journey, the eyes, and by means of them, the
mind, gain unexpected capacities. We perceive in a non-mediated way.
That which we learned reappears dissolved amongst the lines which we later
draw.15
Siza believed and pursued the idea that objects drawn will be stored and reworked in later
design endeavours. This theory of recording and retention forms a cornerstone in the link
between observation drawing and imagination.
The Australian Perspective

It would appear that a number of contemporary architects practising in Sydney Australia would
agree with the benefits of the grand tour. The predominance of architecture degree courses in
New South Wales and indeed Australia are double phased in their structure. Courses often start
with a Bachelor of Science in the early years [say years 1 to 3 inclusive] and are then followed
by a Bachelor of Architecture in the latter years [say 4 to 5] to achieve a full degree allowing
subsequent professional registration. This split of courses is not required to be finished or taken
consecutively and as such many students take the opportunity for at least a years break
between degrees. This break has almost become a cultural right to find oneself and indeed
establish whether the pursuit of architecture is in fact one for life commitment.
Ken Woolley the former Royal Australian Institute of Architects [RAIA] gold medallist and Byera
Hadley scholar took this break over 18 months and included travel and 7 months of working in
London. He notes that Arthur Baldwinson of the University of Sydney gave him a reference to
meet Gordon Cullen of the Architecture Review in London primarily based on his drawing skills.
This introduction led to a job so by default drawing was an entrée to overseas work and further
experiences. Ross Bonthorne the principal architect of the Lend Lease Design group sees travel
and study tours as a continued lifetime activity, always gathering and learning. Richard Francis
– Jones former president of the NSW RAIA notes that only following these trips did he form a
greater understanding of and a commitment to architecture as a professional endeavour. His
earlier visits clearly held the biggest impacts with those subsequent still fulfilling more diverse
experiences of invigoration and rejuvenation.
By way of contrast Desley Luscombe the current Dean of Architecture and Building at the
University of Technology in Sydney recalls a certain antagonism towards the grand tour [of Italy]
idea and was not initially keen to re-establish western hegemonies. She rather chose travel
through Asia as a set of cultures more geographically relevant to Australia though less explored
or understood. Philip Cox undertook a grand tour of Australia as a conscious alternative
response to the European model. He believed that the ‘cultural cringe’ had impacted an
incomplete knowledge of the Australian vernacular. The resultant output from these tours led to
the production of three books. His tour of Australia was largely without plan and in response to
a contemptuousness of the 17th Century European model. He eventually did do European
study tours and benefited greatly from them though had a conscious aim to value that Australian
tour as a primary endeavour.
15Alvaro Siza, Boston (1988) as cited in Frampton, Kenneth, “Sketching: Alvaro Siza’s Notes”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the
Architect, quarterly review, 1991, pp.86-87.
16
THE GRAND TOUR
In either philosophical case the pursuit of travel for the Australian architect was agreed as a
tangible means for to broaden horizons in terms of studying both built form and cultural
diversity.
Value and Imprint

The recorded value of the grand tour by seminal international and Australian architects and the
value of those observations on later imaginings may be readily correlated. On an international
scale the work of Le Corbusier in abstracting the ancients into a Cubist inspired language for
the modernist movement as articulated in his 1923 treatise Vers une Architecture is well
defined. On an Australian parallel the broad body of work produced by Philip Cox during the
1960 – 1990 period in Australia reflected for the first time in this country an appreciation for and
adaptation of the rudimentary utilitarian built forms of the Australian vernacular.
In both scenarios the rigour of observation and physical recording paved the way for the
eventual latter manifestations of robust intellectual theories placed into practical realities.
17
CHAPTER 3
WHY ITALY?
THE CRUCIBLE OF WESTERN ARCHITECTURE
Italy is arguably the most geographically compact crucible of western architecture available.
Etruscan, Roman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque,
Neoclassicism, Fascist, Modernist and contemporary architecture are all represented,
sometimes iconically, within Italy.
Greek and Etruscan

The Greek and Etruscan period began in the C6th BC and encompasses the earliest existent
structures in Italy. These built forms characterise the qualities of classic Greek architecture with
strong and simple outlines, rigorous adherence to the principles of proportion, a total unity of
horizontal and vertical elements and the extensive use of decoration to emphasise structure.
The architecture of this period was constructed primarily out of marble and was designed to the
three orders of Ionic, Doric and Corinthian. All comprised an upright column upon a base,
topped by a capital and an entablature of architrave, cornice and decorative frieze.
This Greek and Etruscan period encompassed a variety of building types including temples,
open air theatres, [often set against hillsides in dramatic locations] city walls, gateways and
tombs.
• temples Paestum, Campania; Agrigento, Selinunte, Segesta and
Syracusa, Sicily
• open air theatres Syracusa and Taormina, Sicily
Volterra, Tuscany
• city walls / gateways Volterra, Tuscany
Lucca, Tuscany
Perugia, Umbria
• tombs Cerveteri and Tarquiri, Lazio
Roman
The Roman period was a period of development and adaptation from the Greek and Etruscan
ages. This period of greatest development and ingenuity may be contained between the 3rd
Century BC and the 3rd Century. As with most art forms, a preference was developed for order
and function over beauty and aesthetics alone and functional building materials were
predominant. Towns were laid out in regularly planned grid formats for the first time in recorded
history, often for or to the models of military camps. Much of the built form was sanctioned on
behalf of the various Emperors as an expression of the Roman might and ability. The
architecture of the Roman period came to express the power and glory of the Roman Empire.
Whilst the Romans used the three Greek orders, with a preference for the Corinthian order, they
also added two orders of their own with the development of the Tuscan and Composite styles.
The column was relegated to secondary usage in favour of solid construction that incorporated
18
WHY ITALY?
the rounded forms of arch and dome with a focus on the rigidity of end walls. The use of vaults
was to become the Roman period’s major contribution to architecture.
In addition, the use of an early form of concrete enabled the construction of much greater spans
and hence higher structures than ever previously possible.
The most important ensembles of existing Roman architecture in the urban setting are the
original seaports and residential towns. Within these, all the various elements of urbanity were
found. The forum was the heart of the city, set as a square at the intersection of the two main
streets, the Decumanus running east west and the Cardomanus running north south. Its
various built forms comprised the focus of all main aspects of public life, both secular and non
secular. Each forum contained temples, which initially followed the Greek models with imposing
façades preceded by flights of stairs, with later designs evolving into the circular planning form.
The main public building was the basilica, used for meetings, markets and administration of the
city. Thermae (public baths) were key examples of the formal recreational aspects of life in a
Roman city. The theatres and amphitheatres of the Roman era were atmospheric, often
elliptical, edifices of solid construction where massive outer walls housed inner tiered seating
arenas.
• temples Tivoli, Lazio
Assisi, Umbria
• temples (circular) Pantheon, Rome Lazio
Temple of Vesta, Rome Lazio
• basilica Trajan and Maxentius Basilicas, Rome Lazio
• thermae Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, Rome Lazio
• theatres/amphitheatres Coliseum, Rome Lazio
l’Arena Verona, Veneto
l’Amphitheatro Pompeii, Campania
Roman residences fall into three main categories; the domus, the villa and the insulae. The
domus was a town dwelling symmetrically grouped around an atrium and peristyle courts. Villas
were patrician country residences characterised by decorative porticos and colonnades oriented
towards sun and shade aspects. Insulae were tenement type constructions that housed poorer
Romans over several floors. The insulae were vaulted throughout and arranged in multiple
levels, streets and squares.
• domus Pompeii, Campania
• villa Pompeii, Campania
• insulae Ostia Antica, Lazio
Other built forms include the cylindrical mausoleum and, as Roman law forbade burial inside the
city walls, this led to the development of a built form that celebrated the dead.
The triumphal arch was also a Roman creation to celebrate the technology of the arch and
various military victories. The Romans were famed for their engineering and hydraulic expertise
and the utilitarian aqueduct and bridge designs utilised the arch technology to full extent to
transport water into the towns.
• mausoleum Castella Sant’ Angelo, Rome Lazio
• bridges Pons Fabricus, Rome Lazio
19
Christian and Byzantine Architecture

Early Christian and Byzantine architecture was rooted in the then clandestine practice of the
Christian faith between the 5th Century and 10th Century. Due to religious persecution, initial
Christian believers were forced to practice their religion in catacombs well away from the public
gaze.
• catacombs Rome Lazio
Naples, Campania
Siracusa, Sicily
The eventual acknowledgement and legalisation of Christianity and its adoption by the Roman
Empire saw the development of an architectural style that was based on secular imperial
models. In general, churches adopted the forms of the basilica with stark exteriors pierced only
by large windows and interiors displaying the move towards regular columns. Transepts were
introduced into church planning in a conscious desire to emulate and symbolise the cross in
plan formations.
• cross plan churches Santa Sabina and Santa Maria Maggiorre, Rome, Lazio
The Byzantine’s most distinctive architectural form was the dome. Under the Romans, this form
rested on a circular base however the Byzantines, by the use of pendentive arches, were able
to erect domes on square foundations.
• domed church Basilica San Vitale Ravenna, Emilio Romagna
The Basilica San Marco Venice, Veneto developed from this model. With domical planning, a
Greek cross format and sumptuous mosaic decoration, the San Marco basilica is considered
the supreme Byzantine monument.
Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque architecture emerged as Europe rose from the Dark Ages in the 10th and 11th
Centuries. Key features of this style included a continual attachment to the basilica plan,
cupolas raised on domes, the use of marble as a façade facing, the presence of ancillary
baptisteries and campaniles, and the use of arches for both decorative and structural purposes.
The churches of the Lombardy Plain feature tall towers with projecting vaulted porches that rest
on a decorated base. A circular (rose) window serves as the principle light source into the
nave.
• vaulted church Il Duomo, Modena, Emilio Romagna
The Campo Dei Miracola Pisa in Tuscany offers the unique trio of duomo, campanile and
baptistery in one setting, highlighting the unity of consistent façade materials and the
surrounding open arcade galleries.
Idiosyncratic Romanesque styles were fostered using the mixture of mosaics and marble façade
panelling.
• marble / mosaic facades San Miniato, Florence, Tuscany
Regional influences are to be seen in the exotic inclusions of Byzantine domes and mosaics
mixing with Saracen horseshoe arches.
• regional influences Duomo Monreale and the Palazzo dei Normanni, Palermo,
Sicily
20
WHY ITALY?
Gothic Period
The Gothic period was architecturally focussed on light and verticality. The Gothic period in
general grew out of France in the 12th Century to become the dominant architectural force in
medieval Europe. The Italian Gothic ranged from the early 13th Century to the early 15th
Century and was more restrained than its northern neighbour counterparts. The key
architectural features of Italian Gothic included the pointed arch, the rib vault, flying buttresses
and large tracery windows. These became dominant architectural features throughout medieval
Europe.
The Italian Gothic has a more horizontal emphasis characterised by low rise buildings with
timber rather than stone roofs. Italian Gothic façades were often decorative, with little or no
connection to the interior structure, comprising marble, mosaics and frescoes.
• gothic facade San Francesco, Assisi, Umbria
il Duomo, Orvieto, Tuscany
The spread of plain early Gothic architecture in Italy is directly linked to the Cistercian order of
monks. These churches placed an emphasis on preaching and many were focussed on holding
large congregations thus influencing the larger interior spaces.
• large naves Santa Maria Novella, Florence Tuscany
Il Duomo, Siena, Tuscany
In the north of Italy, the Gothic style of architecture was expressed in the form of stone
structures that placed their primary emphasis upon geometric pronouncement.
• stone structures Il Duomo, Milan, Lombardy
In military architecture, a number of imposing castles were built during the 13th Century. These
castles combined Classic and Gothic elements.
• castle Castel Nuovo, Naples, Campania
Rising civic pride in the late 13th Century gave rise to a passion for town halls that were often
crowned with towers.
• town halls Palazzo Publico, Siena, Tuscany
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Tuscany
Renaissance Architecture
Renaissance architecture first emerged in Florence in the early 15th Century as a derivation of
the classics. The vocabulary of the Renaissance was to spread throughout Europe and remain
dominant for some four centuries.
The Renaissance period saw the history of architecture become the history of architects, with
full time practitioners emerging for the first time. One of the key characteristics of these
practitioners, and indeed the Renaissance itself, was the diversity of skills of the proponents.
The integration of this diversity of skills was often rooted in the plastic arts of sculpture and
painting and, with the infusion of mathematics and technical prowess, became the signature of
the robust Renaissance style. In addition to the individual designers, the role of the patron or
benefactor became parallel and paramount. The accumulation of wealth, often derived through
mercantile means, saw individuals and families, rather than the church or state, rise for the first
time as a source of community power with a ready desire for outward built form expression.
21
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 -1446) was one of the leading lights in this era, moving away from his
classic training as a sculptor to focus on building practices and the classics. Best exemplified
by Florentian works, Brunelleschi’s work fuses Roman construction techniques, such as
herringbone brickwork, with contemporary invention in the form of unique construction hoisting
machinery.
• Brunelleschi Il Duomo, Ospedale Degli Innocenti, Chiesa di San Lorenzo,
Chiesa Santo Spirito and the Capella Pazzi, Florence, Tuscany
Leon Battista Alberti (1404 –1472), a contemporary of Brunelleschi, was a writer and theorist
whose work was aesthetically manifest in triumphal arches and pediment temple fronts.
Alberti’s work analysed and articulated the theory of harmonic proportions with the adoption of
certain ratios of measurement within a body of built work.
• Alberti Sant Andrea Mantua, Lombardy
Bernardo Rosellino (1409 – 1464) was the architect of Pienza, Tuscany, which was initially
foreseen as a utopian papal town planning scheme.
The high, or later, Renaissance period was triggered by Donato Bramante (1444 – 1514), who
began his working life in Milan. Like many architects of his era he would move from his initial
base often following or finding new mentors or benefactors to allocate work and support
theoretical and built form development.
Bramante’s masterpiece is the Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio Rome Lazio, which
embodies the spirit of classic architecture blended harmoniously with the ideal Renaissance
values of mathematics and proportion.
• Bramante Santa Maria Presso San Satiro and
Santa Maria Della Grazie Milan, Lombardy;
Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio Rome Lazio
Andrea Palladio (1508 – 1580) became Italy’s most erudite and influential architect due to his
ability to meld features from all his predecessors into his own personal style. His style and work
philosophies are copied to the present day and are referred to around the world. This is
especially evident in the City of Vicenza. The Villa Rotunda, Vicenza, Veneto, saw the first use
of a centralised plan in a secular building.
Mannerism
Bramante’s position as the leading architect in Rome was taken over by Raphael (1483 – 1520),
who’s finest architectural work is the Chigi Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo in
Rome, Lazio. The key feature of this church was the idealised, centralised temple originally
conceived in his painting “The Marriage of the Virgin”.
Raphael’s pupil Giulio Romano (1499 – 1546) operated in Mantua, where he actively rejected
the Renaissance ideals of perfect harmony and balance in classical architecture thus
manifesting the beginning of the Mannerist style. This knowing departure from the rules and
constraints of the classics, and especially the Renaissance, is best exemplified in the optical
gymnastics of the Palazzo Te, Mantua, and Lombardy.
Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) took up architecture in his middle age and his approach towards
architecture was a direct contrast to Alberti. He used plans as a rough guide only, and made
22
WHY ITALY?
constant changes throughout the construction period, thus forming a role as the master builder.
Whilst none of his major buildings was finished within his lifetime, his work demonstrated an
original approach towards architecture closely linked to sculpture. He invented the giant order
where columns and pilasters rise through two or more storeys.
• Michelangelo San Lorenzo, Palazzo Farnese and Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Florence Tuscany;
Piazza del Campidoglio and (partial work within) St Pietro,
Rome Lazio
After the death of Michelangelo, the most important architect in Rome was Il Vignola (1507 –
1573), who designed the Villa Giulia, Rome Lazio as a mixture of architectural delight mingled
with highly structured landscape design.
This work was followed by Il Gesu, Rome Lazio, which was loosely based on Alberti’s design of
Il Duomo in Mantua. The Il Gesu design though, eliminated the aisles and used the nave
pilasters and lighting effects to draw the eye to the height of the altar. Vignola’s work at the end
of the high Renaissance period and into Mannerism was a precursor to the emergence of the
decorative and eclectic Baroque style.
Baroque
The Baroque is a distinctive and recognisable style, originating in Rome as a response to the
wealth and self-confidence of the Counter Reformation movement in the mid to late 16th
Century. Baroque architecture expressed the pomp, and played upon the mystery, of the
propagated religious approach.
Architects were concerned with daring special effects, rendering visual movement and spatial
ambiguity by the use of curvaceous lines and form, tricks of light and the overt decoration of
painting and sculpture. All these special effects combined to offer other-worldliness to the non-
secular Counter Reformation movement.
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680) took up architecture in mid life, having initially trained as a
sculptor. His fusion of the arts was to become one of the cornerstones of Baroque architecture
and urban planning, best seen in the forecourt of St Peter’s Rome Lazio. This design of an oval
planned double colonnade came to symbolise the all embrace of the church and incorporated
complex plays of perspective and proportion.
• Bernini Chiesa Santi Andrea, Rome, Lazio
Forecourt, St Pietro, Rome, Lazio
Francesco Borromini (1599 – 1667), who was initially Bernini’s assistant though later his bitter
and declared rival, was a most daring and inventive architect. His attitude to decoration was
very different to Bernini’s in his belief that architecture was sculpture in its own right. Borromini
treated entire wall surfaces plastically, favouring monochromacy rather than the use of colours.
Borromini showed a disregard for convention, creating stunning spatial designs based on
complex series of shapes, resolving equilateral triangles into ovals and circles within the roof
form geometrics.
• Borromini St Ivo e San Carlino Alle Quattro Fontane, Rome Lazio
23
Guarino Guarini (1624 – 1683) was a mathematician and architect, instrumental in the fusion of
Gothic and Islamic styles and influenced by the work of Borromini. His mathematical ability
fuelled the grand manner of the classics, featuring conical domes and spiralling roof forms.
• Guarini Capella Della Sacra Sidone, Turin Piedmont
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism developed in the mid C18th as a conscious response to the overt Baroque
sumptuousness. This period became a return to the most basic architectural forms of (Greek
and Etruscan) classicism.
Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720 – 1778) popularised the neoclassical approach in Rome. His
inspired grand scale engravings of the city’s ruins were widely circulated and his theoretical
writings asserted the superiority of classical Rome over Greece.
• Piranesi Santa Maria del Priorate, Rome Lazio
Giuseppe Mengoni (1829 – 1877) created Italy’s finest example of design in iron and glass, in
the Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle in Milan Lombardy. This was an original piece of urban planning
that reinforced and symbolised Milan’s position as the commercial hub of an emerging nation
state.
Fascism and Modernism

Fascist and Modernist architecture emerged from a reaction to the limitations and constraints of
the historical styles and dictums adopted by Neoclassicism.
Art Nouveau’s sinewy forms, in their rejection of the classics in favour of a plastic sculptural
design language, influenced European architecture at the beginning of the 20th Century. The
Art Nouveau movement gave rise to the Futurist movement and with it Antonio Sant’ Elia (1888
– 1916) who envisaged, albeit unrealised, the vibrant high rise metropolis of the future that
would be dominated by frenetic activity and mass transport systems. The only example of Sant’
Elia’s, and indeed the Futurist’s, work is the Monument to the Fallen in Como, Lombardy.
The period defining Fascist architecture formed under Mussolini’s reign, when he directed
massive building programs across the country. New towns were designed as prototypical
communities for the new empire. Chief architect of the Fascist movement was Guiseppe
Terragni (1904 – 1943) who founded the Gruppo 7, comprising Italy’s seven most progressive
interwar architects. This group forged the language of Fascist architecture to use new materials
in a modern way, to capitalise on space and light where rational forms and lines were cleared of
the decorations and elaborations of past styles. New towns such as Littorio, Lazio were
designed as prototypical communities for the new empire.
Most notable of these was Mussolini ordering the construction of Esposizione Universale di
Roma. This satellite city for an international exhibition to be held in 1942 on the outskirts of
Rome contains a focus of Fascist architecture of the time. The overall layout was won via a
design competition jointly by Quaroni, Muratori, Fariello and Moretti, who merged to develop
their ideas. The outbreak of war saw that the competition plans were not realised. Key sites
include;
24
WHY ITALY?
Palazzo della Civilta Italiana designed by Ernesto La Padula, Giovanni Guerimi and Mario
Romano and the spiritual focus of the site on the western end of the main axis; Palazzo dei
Ricerimenti e dei Congressi designed by Adalberto Libera between 1937-54. Regarded as one
of the seminal buildings of the Modern era on the eastern end of the main axis; Palazzo dell’Ina
e dell’Infp.s designed by Giovanni Muzio, Mario Paniconi and Guilio Pediconi between 1939-
1943; and the Piazza Imperiale designed in the masterplan as the focus of the site.
After World War II, themes of memory, the relationship with history and the search for a new
identity became the central concerns for Italian architecture. The Torre Velasca in Milan,
Lombardy, by BPR architects, is an intellectual interpretation of the disappearing medieval city
and supported the theory of continuity put forward by Bruno Zevi (1918 – 1999) and Ernesto
Rogers (1909 – 1969).
In the 1960’s and 70’s, architectural theories were overshadowed by the work of individuals.
Ignazio Gardella (1905 – 1999) rejected exhibitionism in favour of the value of materials and
forms. Carlo Scarpa (1906 – 1978) was infused with a personal poeticism of refined materials,
layers and planes defining spaces.
• Scarpa Tomb Brion, Treviso, Veneto
Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Veneto
Castel Vechhio, Verona, Veneto
Pier Luigi Nervi (1891 – 1979) was a structural engineer who popularised the use of sculptural
reinforced concrete. His work was true to, and explored the plastic and elastic nature of,
reinforced concrete and steel and, as such, has proved timeless.
• Nervi Termini Rome, Lazio
A more contemporary school of Aldo Rossi (1931–1997), Renzo Piano (1937– ) and
Massimiliano Fuskas (1944– ) have taken Italian architecture to the world with a new approach
towards human rationalism and technological exploration.
Precis
The attributes of public spaces, streets, built form and the patterns of human use, form the
cornerstone of place making. These elements of urban design and architecture coupled with
the evolution of structural, historical and spatial achievements are readily visible in the secular
and non-secular architecture of Italy.
25
CHAPTER 4
WHY DRAW? OBSERVING AND IMAGINING
Exhibitions such as “Michelangelo to Matisse: Drawing the Figure”, Art Gallery of New South
Wales 1999, showcase the extraordinary drawing skills of various generations. The Gallery
Director, Mr Edmond Capon poetically summarised the significance of drawing in the
exhibition’s foreword:
“Drawings are modest and intimate…this is no impediment to the breadth of
their embrace or range of their creative horizons. Drawings are arguably the
most revealing and spontaneous renderings of the human imagination…
their immediacy defies the limitations of time…”
[Michelangelo] 16
The value of drawing lies in the merger of the observed and the imagined. One not complete
without, and is equally dependant upon, the other.
As a child I imagined architects as people who draw. Jorn Utzon, Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo all drew to explain their concepts.
Design, which by another name is called drawing… is the font and body of
painting, sculpture and architecture…the root of all sciences.17
My primary attraction to becoming an architect was a love of drawing. As a practicing architect
and educator I draw for two reasons. Firstly, I sketch and therefore analyse precedent,
especially when I travel. To analyse and record precedent one must observe. Secondly I draw
what I imagine to portray my thoughts and visions.
My drawing skills are self taught. I started without the freehand skills encouraged in art classes,
but with the rigour of a tee square and drafting equipment, developing a passion for the precise
measured drawings of the classics. Early attempts to sketch were fraught with a sense of
inadequacy and frustration. Fortunately, I encountered the impressive drawings of mentor, and
first employer, Graeme Hay of Rodd & Hay Architects in Newcastle, New South Wales. I began
by tracing his easy style and, with practice, a confidence in proportion, smoothness and
strength of line quality, replaced uncertainty. The weight and gravity held within the line work of
Matisse and Picasso became exemplar standards to which I still aspire, copying drawings to
practice curvature and proportion. Brett Whiteley’s draftsman ship demonstrated that individual
line work can become a unique signature and Norman Lindsay’s assessment of drawing from
either the fingers, wrist, elbow or shoulder connects the physics with the powers of observation.
Drawing requires careful observation of what is, and sometimes what is not, important. One
can only draw if one is thinking about the subject at hand. This thinking leads directly to deep
understanding.
16 , 1584, Michelangelo to Matisse: Drawing the Figure, AGNSW, 1999, p. 25

17 op cit p.8
26
”everyone thinks they know what a lettuce looks like. Start to draw one and
you realize the anomaly of having lived with lettuces all your life but never
having seen one, never having seen the semi translucent leaves, never
having noticed what makes a lettuce unique”. 18
and further,
”… we do a lot of looking through lenses, telescopes, televisions… our
looking is perfected everyday but we see less and less”. 19
One can take numerous photographs of the Sydney Harbour Bridge; however drawing that
familiar structure will lead to an indelible understanding of its building materials, proportion and
context. The familiar is no longer ‘taken for granted’.
The inspiration for this particular scholarship’s program and focus owes its origin to Kevin
Gallagher, architect and former academic at Sydney’s University of Technology. During 1986,
as an elective in the Bachelor of Architecture course, Kevin ran a 7-week Study Tour through
Europe to observe first-hand seminal works of western architecture.
As a student, completing the second year of a six-year course, the timing of this program was
profound and long lasting. The first hand experience was invaluable and triggered the
development of powers of observation.
Viewing architectural photographs or drawings is useful in the study of built form. A two
dimensional representation of architectural form, for example a colonnade, may be very
informative. However, that understanding pales into insignificance compared with the first-hand
experience and observation of Bologna’s streetscape or Bernini’s forecourt to St Peter’s in
Rome.
That 1986 UTS Study Tour ignited the participants’ passion for architecture. The central reason
for this positive response was the tangible nature of observing and analysing precedent first
hand.
Analysing Precedent
The practice of observing and drawing precedent may follow a series of subliminal steps. The
following procedural format defines the staged manner that the author will draw an observed
object. Each step reinforces the sketch with further observation and a deeper sense of
understanding.
Step 1 – Set out

A quick assessment is made of the form under
study, in this case a Renaissance Palazzo set on an
urban street corner in Bologna, Italy. This quick
assessment confirms that the format for the
perspective drawing will be a two point perspective
using the human eye level of about 1.6m as the
viewpoint. Having made these basic decisions, a
18 The Zen of Seeing: Seeing / Drawing as Meditation, Frederick Frank, Wildwood 1973
19 op cit
27
series of dots are then placed in order to frame the object by setting out the near corner base
and top of building and the then left and right vanishing points as key indicators.20
Step 2 – Guidelines
The next step is to confirm the near edge as the
primary vertical form, thus providing the sketch
with an immediate solidity and form. This initial
indicator of form is supported by lines depicting
the building envelope at the top and bottom of
facade lines though also doubling as indicators
or guides towards the perspective points.
Step 3 – Form
This step confirms the actual form of the object
under assessment. Lines are often doubled in
order to achieve a sense of affirmation or indeed
flexibility or subtle corrections. No lines are ever
removed, they are only added. When some
lines are slightly incorrect, the doubling or
reverberative process can assist to correct any
slight imperfections.
Step 4 – Composition
A move from form into composition now occurs,
whereby the facade is dissected into layers of
floors. This further reinforces the makeup of the
building and strengthens the perspective rigour
for the infill of later details. Immediately the
drawing starts to take on immense detail
depicting the built form.
Step 5 – Context
This step builds on the composition of the form
and adds relevant surrounding context. This
process usually has the effect of absorbing or
including any of the set out or guidelines dots
and lines used in the early stages of the sketch.
Details of the context are inferred such as the
building character or scale of adjacent elements.
20 It is worth noting that the process of this decision making and the ability to draw in perspective is a learned task from the texts Learning to Draw
and Perspective by Gill. These books look at basic perspective, rendering and more complex perspective techniques in a rudimentary step-by-
step fashion. They would form core texts for any student in learning about perspective.
28
Step 6 – Content
This key phase in fills the primary content of
the built form. Bays of façade planning are
shown as well as the primary fenestration
features and points. This phase defines the
key features and messages of the sketch.
In this case, the keys messages are solid
built form with a colonnaded ground floor
and small windows within wall fenestration
to the piano nobile and a strong top cornice
element.
Step 7 – Depth
The sketch could survive as an idea at Step
6 though the final two steps add depth and
filigree. In this next step, the form and idea
is strengthened by the addition of depth
creation devices showing the width and
shade of the colonnade, the depth and form
of the windows and adding depth into the
context.
Step 8 – Filigree
This final step often features random
elements of dots / dashes and quick
strokes that perform a multitude of graphic
tasks. All these tasks are focussed on
adding filigree and a sense of life to the
scene. People are included and the
various dots and dashes have the effect of
grounding and knitting the sketch into the
page or ‘scaena’ rather than just floating
on a white background, as is still largely
the case up until this point.
This stepped approach towards observation forms the basis of sketch compositions for a variety
of sketches including both 2 and 1 point perspective formats.
Following are included a series of sketches that are drawn using differing time allowances. This
exercise of time allowances further focuses the observation skills of the sketcher. In the cases
employed, a series of sketches of the familiar Piazza San Marco Venezia are shown over 2-5
minutes, 60 seconds and 3 versions each of 10 seconds each.
The 2-5 minute sketch establishes the full steps as set down for Analysing Precedent. This
format would be considered a full and complete rendition of the view under consideration.
29
As the time decreases to 60 seconds the format of the sketch becomes more of a summary. It is
noted that the formality of the steps previously defined are less rigid.
The series of 10 second interpretations are summary vignettes. This summary vignette would
combine many of the steps articulated into a series of the key visual points for expression. Often
the most expressive as economy replaces accuracy and message replaces measurement.
Drawing the Imagined

The disciplined observation technique defined in Analysing Precedent is readily transferred into
the creative facets of design.
To draw the imagined certainly requires a basis of technical knowledge however a sense of
exploration coupled with a vision of the idea is also essential.
30
The seminal modernist Finnish architect Alvar Aalto refers to his drawings as follows:
I begin to draw rather like abstract art. Led by my instincts I draw, not
architectural syntheses but sometimes even childish compositions, and via
this route I arrive at an abstract basis to the main concept.21
Drawing the imagined may follow a layering process, whereby the sketch is imbued with
shorthand information essential to the idea.
Steps are as shown on the attached drawings of an imagined Italian Renaissance church. The
church has a Latin cross plan format, central nave, side aisles embellished with small structural
cloisters, centralised dome and side choirs set upon a small piazza of surrounding palazzo. My
imagined church is similar to Brunelleschi’s Chiesa di Santo Spirito, Firenze.
Step 1 – Construct
Establish the overall construct of the sketch. This is the framework around
which the sketch will evolve and develop. In this case, the Latin Cross is the
key message. The construct acts as a reference point for future movements
covering all choices of infill and the addition of further information and detail.
Step 2 – Message
This step sees the addition of supporting information that informs both the
construct and message of the sketch. In this case, supporting information
includes axial representations and the reinforcement of the Latin cross
planning principles. The overt extension of this message reinforces, and in
fact exaggerates, the message within the sketch. This particular message is
of axiality, balance and centrality.
Step 3 – Reinforce
This step sees reinforcement of the overall structure of walls and an
articulation of the varieties of plan shape within the construct. It is noted that,
in this case, the inclusion of the semi circular apse and choirs are a deviation
from the initial overall construct defined in Step 1. This deviation is not a
negative as it is worked over and retains its form though now with further,
more important, information of the form.
21 Alvar Aalto, ‘The Trout and Mountain Stream’, Sketches, MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts 1978, p.97
31
Step 4 – Embellish
The next step sees the basic form, in this case the plan, further embellished
with information about the domical roof form and the layering of structure
between the nave and the aisles. This embellishment further informs the use
of layering and format of the idea. The viewer is now allowed to focus into
various sections of the sketch, gaining layered data and articulating the idea.
Step 5 – Inform
Additional information is added. In this case, columns between the aisles
and nave are added as well as a cellular aisle structure. This information
adds another level of detail that the cognoscenti will understand and interpret
and the layman will merely accept and appreciate as relevant supportive
filigree.
Step 6 – Context
In this step, various elements are added that ground the sketch into a context
and setting. This information adds a scale and, in many cases, a setting to an
otherwise abstract exercise.
Step 7 – Texture
Final rendering of the context to reveal solidity, textures and a sense of some
reality, albeit in a plan format, are added to settle the sketch into a more
lifelike familiar visual environment.
The drawing of the imagined makes it possible to conceive an idea or form. The idea may be
created within the imagination though without the drawing it lacks a fundamental and tangible
expression. The drawing is used to understand, explore, absorb and communicate. It serves
as a chance to get an idea or information out onto a recordable medium (paper) as a means of
visual processing and externalising the idea. Drawings of the imagined are more often
scaleless, of inaccurate proportions though far more essential in content compared to those of
observed or recorded objects.
32
To draw
Whether it be analysing precent or drawing the imagined it is an architect’s skill to draw. Many
architects will note that the ability and skill to draw remains their greatest communication
attribute. The power of observation and the considered subsequent representation of that
learning concurrently form the inspiration point, store house and primary currency of the
articulate architect.
33
CHAPTER 5
IDEAS AND DRAWING… THE CONNECTION
Premise
Through the process of analysing precedent, the designer will observe by drawing. To
communicate their imagination and ideas with a sense of immediacy, the designer will also
draw. The ability to communicate the imagined is rooted in the learning process of observation
by drawing.
Many architects have referred to drawing and its connection to the idea:
‘The drawing is a lens revealing otherwise imperceptible aspects…a method
for understanding how things can change and evolve not for crystallising a
form in a definitive way but to demonstrate the possibilities of what it can
become.
Zaha Hadid, 1982 22
‘An architectural drawing is a prospective unfolding of future possibilities…a

recovery of a particular history to whose intentions it testifies and whose
limits it always challenges. In any case a drawing is more a shadow of an
object, more than a pile of lines.’
Daniel Libeskind, 197923
‘Look at my sketch, there is everything in it’. ‘My sketches are data, the
contour lines of an instantaneous vision. In accordance with their
architectural nature, their immediate appearance is that of a whole, and this
is how they must be taken’.
Eric Mendelsohn, 1935 24
Australian architects seem to support these views.

“The tradition of architects sketching and recording while travelling, or
working has long historic precedent, even for Australian architects”
Colin Griffiths, FRAIA 25
“We all gain from scribbling memories of special places and events.”
Chris Johnson26
22
op cit, p212
23
op cit, p208
24
op cit, p88
25
1960 Byera Hadley scholar in correspondence to author dated 1 March 2003
26
NSW Government Architect in correspondence to author dated 3 February 2003
34
In order to understand the process of observing and analysing precedent, it is valuable to

assess the notions of perception. Three primary areas of research into human perception are
worthy of note;
• the Transactionalist view of perception, emphasising interaction with the environment;
• the Ecological view of perception, based on the structure of the environment; and
• the Projective view, emphasising the role of pre-existent knowledge or data upon perception.
Transactionalist: Engaging the Visual World

Perceptual psychologists, in particular the Transactionalists, believe that touch and movement
play key supportive roles for vision. They believe that all perception, most particularly vision, is
learned through a process of interaction (transaction) with the environment. In their view a
drawing student learns to see the world in perspective first by making lines converge to
common vanishing points.
Vision by itself is insufficient to learn to draw. A focus on the purely visual aspects of drawing,
at the expense of aesthetic and tactile foundation, might contribute to a subsequent inability to
use drawing effectively as a design tool.
Architects and designers are faced with the challenge of designing something that does not yet
exist. Where the work of a painter might legitimately remain focused on the reception and
interpretation of sensation for the visual world, for example Impressionism, the work of the
architect and designer is more often directed at the task of constructing something that does not
yet exist.
Elements of drawing that are important may be defined;
• drawing that is natural
• drawing that is quick
• drawing that can communicate
• drawing that comes from a knowledge of the real physical world
Through closer observation and understanding of the real physical world, designers come to a
closer understanding of the elements of design. The use of the natural and man-made world as
a source for inspiration and order for design may be seen in Le Corbusier’s modular system,
which is based on the measure of the human body, and also the sketchbooks of Leonardo da
Vinci, which alternate seamlessly between drawing assessments of real objects and proposals
for visionary constructions.
Drawing ability may be seen to originate from three sources;
• in the intellect – the structure of the world (perspective) being understood
• in the hand – the hand and arm moving with coordination
• in conception – drawing imparting order to what is drawn.
Focus on the interaction with the immediate context and environment is a key issue for drawing.
Drawing is above all an active and tactile process. The hand moves, marks are made on the
35
paper. The focus is more on the act itself, making marks and interacting with what is drawn,
and less on what the viewer brings to the process or on the nature of what is drawn.
This relates to the Transactionalist view of perception, which emphasises the role of interaction
with the environment as the basis of perception. Leading proponents of this point of view were
Adelbert Ames and John Dewey.
This understanding of drawing is appropriate for the task that architects and designers
ultimately confront. Architects and designers create objects that do not yet exist and, in the
process, they make things. Appropriate to the task of making things, drawings are physical
analogues for what is being represented. Drawing is itself an act of making and pictures should
not be mere imitations of what is represented but real in themselves.
Vision provides information at a distance, allowing a useful detachment from life, at more than
arm’s length and out of harm’s way. Vision may be considered a kind of surrogate sense, one
step removed from real life.
There is ample cause to distrust the primacy of vision, if only because it is so easily deceived.
Camouflage in warfare, trompe l’oeil in painting, and cinematic special effects are all examples
of the relative ease with which the eye can be fooled.
The act of drawing is an act of making, rather than just viewing, and object. For the architect
and designer faced with the task of designing something that does not yet exist, no other
approach makes sense. If trained to draw only that which is already visible, how could they
begin to draw when nothing is yet there to draw? What first marks could they make?
Ecological: Appearance of the Visual World

This approach focuses on the nature of what is being drawn in the three-dimensional world.
Emphasis on building knowledge of the order of the visual world as it exists and understanding
of drawing as a reasoned response to that order.
This relates to the early work of perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson, the originator of the
ecological view of perception. Gibson began his work during the early stages of World War II.
He was contracted by the US government to help in the development of what amounted to a
forerunner of present-day flight simulators. Early in the war, many pilot trainees were crashing
on their first flights. To better prepare them before putting them in the air, Gibson needed to
gain a better understanding of the visual environment of flight.
Gibson proposed a new position with respect to visual perception, arguing that perception is
based primarily on the structure of the environment. With respect to vision, he concluded that
light enters our eyes in a state that is already ordered by the planes and surfaces from which it
has been reflected. For Gibson, the sensory data of the world already possesses sufficient
information that perceiving can proceed on that basis alone.
The ecological view does not discount the roles of predisposition or perceptual learning. By
way of contrast, Gestalt psychology emphasises the role of predisposing laws or beliefs that
may govern the perception of form. Transactional psychology emphasises the role of
perceptual learning or interaction with the environment as the basis for perception.
36
Because it is central to his understanding that sensation is already ordered in itself, Gibson’s
work is particularly useful for architects and designers who must assume that prospect of a
general order. Architects and designers design for the general public and, as such, they
presume and pursue the possibility of a spatial order that works for the majority of viewers.
The central tenet of the ecological point of view is that sensation is in itself already ordered, is
an absolutist argument. Its limitations not withstanding, it is valuable precisely because it is free
from relativist individual and cultural concerns. As he proposes it, Gibson’s order is universal,
applicable for everyone, everywhere.
Gibson found order in the visual textures of the material world. He came to believe that
illumination is not the key issue for vision. Perception of surface and surface texture is. Gibson
came to believe that we perceive surface through the visual textures of which materials are
made.
Gibson uses the term “textural gradient” to describe this correspondence between the pattern of
the visual field and the world outside, and he uses it to explain how we perceive common
conditions such as frontal and longitudinal surfaces, edges and corners. He explains these on
the basis of the signature textural gradient of each condition;
• frontal surfaces project uniform gradients
• longitudinal surfaces, such as floors and streets, project gradients that diminish with greater
distance from the observer
• corners and edges project gradients that shift abruptly from the gradient in one orientation or
distance to the gradient in another
Projective: When Order is Made

Consideration of what the artist brings to the process, where order originates in the conceptions
the artist might apply to the task. Drawing is understood as a process of projecting order into
the world. The environment is made to be seen in accordance with the laws of perspective,
even when perspective may not seem to apply at all.
Projective imagery is the process of attaching meaning to something while perceiving it in error.
Projective imagery was first studied in depth by Gestalt psychologists who emphasise the role
of pre-existing schemata in perception as its central mechanism. Order is considered as
originating with the viewer however the parallel should not be merely adopted as the argument
that perspective is a schema with which viewers are born is clearly without base.
The assignment of meaning originates with the viewer and is directed at what is seen. The
issue of perspective as an observable fact versus perspective as imposed construct is worthy of
assessment.
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) was the very model of a “Renaissance man”. Mathematician,
architectural theoretician, and architect, he wrote Della Pittura, which forms the first codification
of perspective, in 1435. Alberti presented a general understanding of the underlying optics of
perspective based on the view from an individual observer. To model perspective, he proposed
something he called the “visual pyramid”. Points on objects were projected through a picture
plane to the viewer, thereby generating an image, which bore a measurable relationship to the
37
object in the picture. His construction served to unify for the first time the relationship between
the objects in a scene, the picture plane and the viewer.
Alberti’s work requires that we no longer think of objects in isolation, instead we must consider
and draw objects as part of a larger spatial conception. We think of the continuous perspective
space first and then place the objects in it, rather than the reverse order.
This approach places drawing as a process of imparting order to the objects that we see. We
respond to what is already present in the object but, in final analysis, impose perspective order
onto whatever we draw.
Louis I. Kahn (1901-1974) was an architect known for his command of composition in light. He
wrote with great eloquence about the interrelatedness of light and the materiality of architecture.
He described light and material as paired opposites:
“All material in nature, the mountains and the streams and the air and we,
are made of Light which has been spent, and this crumpled mass called
material casts a shadow, and the shadow belongs to Light.”27
He related sight to the primacy of touch:
“I thought then that the first feeling must have been touch. Our whole sense
of procreation has to do with touch. From the desire to be beautifully in
touch came eyesight. To see was only to touch more accurately. These
forces within us are beautiful things that you can still feel even though they
come from the most primordial, nonformed kind of existence.
From touch there is a striving to touch, not just touch, and from this
developed what could be sight. When sight came, the first moment of sight
was the realisation of beauty. I don’t mean beautiful or very beautiful or
extremely beautiful. Just simply beauty itself, which is stronger than any of
the adjectives you might add to it. It is a total harmony you feel without
knowing, without reservation, without criticism, without choice. It is a feeling
of total harmony as if you were meeting your maker, the maker being that of
nature, because nature is the maker of all that is made. You cannot design
anything without nature helping you.”28
The Architects Way

Whilst the architect relies heavily on the ecological philosophy in delivering either an analysis of
precedent or imagination to a populist and thereby understanding audience the reliance on the
projective imagery within architecture remains primary. It may be argued that architecture and
the subsequent diverse representations of built form are rooted in the retinal reliance and spatial
conceptions first articulated by the C15th renaissance explorations. This retinal reliance and
spatial conception provides the link between the projective and ecological philosophies that
fundamentally govern the way we observe, the way we perceive and the way especially we as
architects record or draw in a manner that is transmittable and legible to our desired audiences.
27 Lobell, John, Between Silence and Light: Spirit in the Architecture of Louis I. Kahn, Shambhala Publications, Boulder, 1979, p.5.
28 ibid
38
CHAPTER 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Italy, The Lonely Planet, 2004 (6th edition).
Le Corbusier: Voyage to the Orient, Rizzoli, New York, 1988.
The Catholic Encyclopedia, The Encyclopedia Press, 1914.
The Travel Sketches of Louis I. Kahn, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1978.
Bennett, Josephine Waters, The Rediscovery of Sir John Mandeville, Modern Language
Association, New York, 1954.
Cooper, Douglas, Drawing and Perceiving: Life Drawing for Students of Architecture and
Design, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.
Edwards, Betty, The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, Jeremy P. Tarcher / Putnam,
New York, 1999.
Ficacci, Luigi, Giovanni Battista Piranesi: Complete Etchings, Benedikt Taschen Verlag,
Cologne, 2000.
Franck, Frederick, The Zen of Seeing: Drawing as Meditation, Random House, New York, 1973.
Gibson, James J., The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
1979.
Gibson, James J., The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems, Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
1966.
Gibson, James J., The Perception of the Visual World, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1950.
Hochstim, Jan – book of Kahn’s travel sketches published post 1991
Holmdahl, G., S.I. Lind, K. Ødeen (eds.), Gunnar Aspland Architect 1885 – 1940, London, 1950.
Howard, Donald Roy, Writers and Pilgrims: Medieval Pilgrimage Narratives and Their Posterity,
University of California Press, Berkeley, 1980.
Howard, Edmund, Italia: The Art of Living Italian Style, Seven Dials, London, 2003.
Laseau, Paul, Graphic Thinking for Architects & Designers, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
2001.
Laseau, Paul, Architectural Representation Handbook: Traditional and Digital Techniques for
Graphic Communication, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000.
Letts, Malcolm, Sir John Mandeville: The Man and his Book, Batchworth, London, 1949.
Littlewood, Ian, A Literary Companion to Venice, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1995.
Lobell, John, Between Silence and Light: Spirit in the Architecture of Louis I. Kahn, Shambhala
Publications, Boulder, 1979.
39
Luscombe, Desley and Anne Peden, Picturing Architecture: Graphic Presentation Techniques in
Australian Architectural Practice, Craftsman House, Sydney, 1992.s
Mandeville, Sir John, Mandeville’s Travels, London, 1357(?).
Masson, Georgina, The Companion Guide to Rome, Collins, London, 1980 (6th edition).
McQuaid, Matilda, Envisioning Architecture: Drawings from the Museum of Modern Art, The
Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2002.
Murphy, John, Guide to The Architect’s Sketchbook, State Library of NSW, Sydney, 1998.
Nicholaides, Kimon, The Natural Way to Draw, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1941.
Rasmussen, Steen Eiler, Experiencing Architecture, The MIT Press, Boston, Cambridge, 1964.
Varriano, John, A Literary Companion to Rome, St Martin’s Press, New York, 1991.
White, John, The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space, Boston Book and Art Shop, Boston, 1967.
Wilton-Ely, John, Giovanni Battista Piranesi: The Complete Etchings, Alan Wofsy Fine Arts, San
Francisco, 1994.
Zacher, Christian K., Curiosity and Pilgrimage: The Literature of Discovery in Fourteenth
Century England, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1976.
Articles
Cornell, Elias, “The Vaulted Sky” in Arkitektur, no.5, 1961.
Frampton, Kenneth, “Sketching: Alvaro Siza’s Notes”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68: The
Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
Gresleri, Giuliano, “From Diary to Project: Le Corbusier’s Carnets 1-6”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.),
Lotus 68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
Kruntorad, Paul, “Broadened Horizons: The Paradigm of Travel in Italy”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi
(ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
Ortelli, Luca, “Heading South: Asplund’s Impressions”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus 68: The
Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
Schildt, Göran, “The Travels of Alvar Aalto: Notebook Sketches”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi (ed.), Lotus
68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
Scully, Vincent, “Marvellous Fountainheads: Louis I. Kahn: Travel Drawings”, in Nicolin, Pierluigi
(ed.), Lotus 68: The Eye of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.
40
APPENDIX I
EXEMPLARS: INTERVIEWS
As a touchstone of this scholarship I have recorded a number of interviews with eminent

Sydney based Australian architects who are skilled with drawing and have an educational
insight. This process was aimed at testing the connectivity between the idea and drawing.
Methodology
The architects interviewed have the various attributes of being Sydney based, RAIA award
winners, former academics and scholars, current practitioners, authors and active members of
the NSW RAIA or NSW Board of Architects.
The series of questions focused on the areas of;
• travel; its value to the (especially young) architect
• drawing; skills, desires and observations
• teaching; desire and value of teaching others to draw
• ideas and drawings; connections and linkages
Each architect was interviewed by the author for about one hour with a transcript of the notes
attached in this appendix.
Practitioners Interviewed
Ross Bonthorne
• Principal Architect, Lend Lease Design Group
• RAIA Award winner
• Former Deputy Mayor, City of Sydney
Tony Caro
• Principal, Tony Caro Architecture
• Former academic, University of Technology, Sydney
• Former Byera Hadley scholar
Philip Cox
• Principal, Cox Richardson Architects
• Visiting internationally acclaimed academic
41
Richard Francis Jones

• Principal, FJMT Architects
• Former President, NSW RAIA
Beverly Garlick
• Principal, Beverly Garlick Architects
• Active RAIA Education committees
• Active academic
Colin Griffiths
• Principal, Colin Griffiths Architects
• Former academic, University of Technology, Sydney
• Former Byera Hadley scholar
Peter Ireland
• Principal, Allen Jack & Cottier Architects
Chris Johnson
• NSW Government Architect
• Author of numerous books and journals
• Visiting internationally acclaimed academic
Desley Luscombe
• Dean, University of Technology, Sydney, School of Design, Architecture and Building
• Author of numerous books and journals
Ken Maher
• Principal, Hassell Architects
• Visiting academic
Caroline Pidcock
• Principal, Caroline Pidcock Architects
• Former President, NSW RAIA
• Former academic
42
Alex Tzannes
• Principal, Alexander Tzannes & Associates
• Internationally acknowledged author / academic
Ken Woolley
• Principal, Ancher Mortlock & Woolley
• Author and exhibitor on the topic of drawing
43
Ross Bonthorne Interview 17 March 2004

Did you undertake early career study tours and were they valuable?
Several and sees them as a continued lifetime activity, always gathering and learning.
Have you travelled through Italy?

Yes, many times
Presuming so, what aspects would you comment upon?

Yes many times and remains a regular visitor with a high degree of intimate knowledge.
Recently visited Sicily and especially recommends Syracuse, Ragusa, and Agrigento. Also
recommends Pienza in Tuscany. Interestingly would not visit Milan again, having been a
previous multiple visitor. Noted also that whilst a first and discovery visit to Florence was
essential any subsequent visits must be measured against the difficulties now associated with
the density and tourism popularity of this city.
Why do you draw?

It is a chance to get the ideas or the information out onto paper. Sometimes uses writing as a
similar process. Sees the activity as visual processing and externalizing.
Do you draw in different modes depending upon circumstance?

Formerly painted though the limitations of time require more ready mediums. Was trained in
guache by Lloyd Rees and Roland Wakelin through university. Admired and was inspired by
there collective positivity and continuity. Is thankful that art and history of art were taught as
architectural subjects. Always impressed by the idea of an eye capturing an image. Often
draws during meetings using the skill as a means of engaging people.
How did you come to drawing?

Recalls being part of an opportunity class at selective public school and often encouraged to
draw as a form of expression. Representation in this arena was encouraged in differing
mediums. Recalls the striking graphics of a collection of postage stamps from an early age
including imagery and information of location, geography and context. Believes that images are
connected to ideas at their very roots. Notes a younger generation with computer imagery and
perhaps a loss of detailed resolution as a subsequence. Visual information is an assimilation of
the idea or the image, and not necessarily limited to drawings. Believes in anti stylism or the
“simpson – esque” style of drawings. Prefers the use of physical models or freehand drawings.
Do you need to maintain your skills?

Yes. Often frustrated when unable to draw for any time.
Do you endeavour to teach you staff, peers, to draw?

Yes. Believes drawing to be a key medium and constantly encourages its practice.
44
Do you believe that the idea is connected to the drawing?

Yes, though would expand this definition to include imagery as well as drawing methods.
Would you have achieved as much as an architect if you had not applied
yourself to drawing?
No. Drawing ability has enabled a level of communication and connection into the community at
the most senior and influential levels.
Are you aware of any study tours that exist in a similar nature to that
proposed?
Yes. The University of Technology in Sydney (UTS) had offered an architectural tour of
California that was being taken by a colleague. Also Harvard offers courses into Bilbao Spain,
Hong Kong and Singapore as regular architectural study tours, often with a specific project /
assignment attached as the outcome goal.
Do you think that such a study tour is valuable to an architect?

Yes, without any doubt. Refers to the power of imagery and memory of visiting Le Corbusier’s
Chapel du Haut at Ronchamp France.
Would you suggest any further reading, references or contacts?

Noted that the Brett Whiteley Gallery in Sydney’s Surry Hills runs art classes where students are
encouraged to a draw a certain object in a particular medium over say 60 seconds, then to draw
the same object in a different medium over a different time. Such activities are valuable in the
development and maintenance of skills. Also referred to Dimity Reed’s study courses into Italy.
Referred also to the teaching and writing of Rudolph Arnheim and Roberto Mungo articulating
the transfer of ideas into images. Noted the various perceptual variations between western,
eastern or indigenous expressions and compositions to be learnt and considered as a designer.
45
Tony Caro Interview 3 June 2004

Yes, extremely. Though first tour was not based around drawing. Initially obsessed with a
Nikon camera and photography. Tour was not necessarily architectural, more about the travel
experience. Focussed fundamentally on the classics and particularly French Gothic and Italian
Renaissance art and architecture. Recalls lying on his back taking photos of church domes!

Yes

Cites and European interest are at the core of his personality. Believes that Italy is
fundamentally relevant to architects and that the history of architecture is in turn fundamental to
an architect. No one invents in design and precedent is the key. Finds himself gravitating back
to Italy again and again. Believes that the heart of architectural culture is in Paris and the
greatest treasure of architecture and arts is in Rome. When he visits Rome again in late 2004,
he will go again to Borromini’s San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and again view the construction
and geometrical delight of the ceiling. Renewing the knowledge.
Why do you draw?

Has always been a doodler. If doing nothing will pick up a pen and draw. Recalls a debate at
university about a colleague not drawing unless you had ideas whereas he will draw constantly.
Will often draw hatching, glasses on faces, often nonsense in content though believes it is a
fortunate thing and a natural aptitude. Is very comfy with the skill of drawing. Holds the opinion
that drawing is an essential skill for an architect. Notices how little other architects draw.
Believes that an inability to draw ideas is common. Finds the drawing to be the most immediate
process available with little barriers to expression. “I love drawing”. Is about to start freehand
art classes to enable better and more drawing.

Draws what he sees. Draws his imagination. Finds it a therapeutic and meditative process.
Will draw on the drawing board to produce work and also work in different mediums. Will use
yellow trace for more resolved drawings, often seeking a more atmospheric mood. Hand drawn
diagrams will often be used to post ration a design scheme, used as part of submission work
and client interface process. Drawing comes from the ideas though sees it as a cyclical process
of thinking and drawing. Drawing leads you to solutions. A vehicle to assist in thinking. Finds a
comfort in drawing.

Does not recall being actively encouraged as a child. Though in later years recalls positive
feedback on freehand illustration drawings.
46

Draws all the time so, by default, yes. Does believe that practice is essential. The process
must be maintained in order to do it well.

No, does not have the time. If they want to learn they can!

It is a circular process. Drawing is the record though it is more than a record as it becomes part
of the creative process.
It is an important part and the main way to communicate. As a teacher working with students,
saw that a good idea not communicated is a waste. Drawing is the testing of a good idea.
Believes that ideas are linked to drawings and ideas, whilst personal, are given to others by
drawing.
proposed?
No.

Yes.

Could talk to Sydney architects Robin Dyke, Peter McGregor, Mark Gerrada, Richard Goodwin
and John Aspinall to gain some differing visions.
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Philip Cox Interview 2 June 2004

Undertook a grand tour of Australia as a conscious alternative response to the European model.
Believed that the ‘cultural cringe’ had impacted an incomplete knowledge of the Australian
vernacular. Resultant work led to the production of three books. Tour of Australia was
somewhat without plan and in response to a contemptuousness of the 17th Century European
model. Eventually did do European study tours and benefited greatly from them. Had a
conscious aim to value that Australian tour as a primary endeavour.

Yes. Noted the work of Lloyd Rees, as a University of Sydney Architecture faculty tutor, whose
sketches of Italy were captivating as a landscape place, a vernacular rather than a high style
interpretation.

Travelling through Italy confirmed the works previously studied such as Norburg Shulz. Italy is a
completely made landscape, the complete antithesis of Australia’s unmade landscape.
Why do you draw?

There is no other way for an architect to communicate. Drawing is more effective than speaking
as the words don’t convey the issues. It is quick communication.

Will use many mediums, felt pen, charcoal, watercolour, coloured pencils, oil crayons or pencils.
The message is the important point and the medium will respond to a hierarchical approach,
ranging from broad brush quick and instant messages to more considered watercolours. The
media must allow spontaneity. Noted the 1980’s graphics as having clever projection of spatial
ideas both balanced and resolved especially in the work of Michael Graves and locally that of
Daryl Jackson. Referenced this against the historical works almost in poster format of the art
nouveau movement, Scottish architect Charles Rennie Mcintosh and English artist and
illustrator Aubrey Beardsley.

Has always drawn. Art was not a primary course of study though was an intuitive pastime / skill
from an early age.

Yes, constantly.

Passionate about teaching people and sharing the idea and value of drawing though appalled
by the lack of understanding exhibited by younger architects at present. Drawing is an
48
absolutely vital and essential part of being an architect. Does not like the impersonality and lack
of speed of computers, though acknowledges their importance and potential. Too slow
compared to the immediacy of drawing. Will use montage or collage in unison with computer
technology though the hand is the origin of communication format. The brain eye hand
connectivity remains the essential ingredient of communication.

Yes. It is a direct communication and a discovery of ideas with abstraction.
No, drawing is an absolutely essential part of being an architect. People are amazed at the
ability to sit down and translate discussion, ideals and goals into visual certainty, often with
great speed and certainty. Computers are far too slow by comparison.
proposed?
No, though believes that formal training in drawing at universities is lacking. The value of
learning to draw still life or to sculpt or to carry out “5 minute exercises” trains the mind to focus
and clarify communication. Training to think quickly about ideas, alternatives and lateral
thinking is an invaluable tool. Noted the value of the quickly committed drawing defining a
naivety though clarity in idea.

Invaluable. Believes that it is sad that current training in the classics of drawing is nonexistent
as he would be less a person without it. Believes there are no such thing as a bad drawing,
they are all good.

Mentioned Maitland Graves’ text on observation, Guptill’s text on color and drawing as both
define the basics of perspective, vanishing points etc.
49
Richard Francis Jones Interview 6 May 2004

Yes, after studying undergraduate architecture at the University of Sydney. Worked part time in
the UK thereafter and then undertook postgraduate studies at Columbia University in the USA.
Trips within the USA were well researched in advance and focussed on the architecture of
Frank Lloyd Wright. The trips were clearly valuable as, after studying for three years, a
concerted effort was made to view architecture. Another value was the inevitable shake up of
the perceived world experienced through travel and viewing. Only following these trips was a
greater understanding of and a commitment to architecture as a profession made possible. The
earlier visits clearly held the biggest impacts with those subsequent still fulfilling more diverse
experiences of invigoration and rejuvenation.

Yes, though only limited in time.

Visited particular architects work within the north of Italy especially Guisseppe Terragni. Had
unusually only spent limited time in Rome always considering it to be saved for a later visit.
Noted colleague Romaldo Giurgola, who is from Rome and an aficionado of the city and
especially the Renaissance.
Why do you draw?

Partly to communicate, though primarily to understand and explore possibilities. Developed a
reaction against the “fetish-isation of 1980’s drawing”, where the drawings of Michael Graves
and Aldo Rossi were almost seen as more important than the outcome. Has an aim not to
(over) value the drawing, preferring to use it as a probing mechanic and as a means to an end.
Believes in working and studying concepts by drawing.

Yes, though primarily as an exploration in line work. Mostly three dimensional and thinking in
terms of form rather than planning or two dimensional work.

Recalls drawing as a child and younger boy and enjoying it. Studied art at school, including
drawing classes, though dropped it in favour of a science orientation. Also recalls making
models of buildings, aeroplanes and cars as a child. Believes that drawing is a natural thing for
a human being. Renewed drawing during architecture studies and observed the difference
between drawing life / objects and expressing ideas. Referred also to the value of a recently
taken writing course, noting that all people are expected to write to a certain level of
competence whereas drawing is not, though should be, held in the same regard.
50

Sees it as an ongoing activity with no conscious need for maintenance. Will often draw over
perspectives to explore ideas though drawing is primarily used to explain project issues to peers
or colleagues.

Personally not teaching oriented though does contemplate thinking about drawing compared to
other mediums, such as the computer, and other descriptive means potentially available in the
future. Noted a debate amongst authors who recommend writing by hand rather than with a
word processor. Acknowledged the value of drawing in exercising both sides of the brain and
believes in the directness of drawing as compared to the mechanics of the computer.

Yes, a very strong connection as the drawing makes it possible to conceive the idea or form.
Does not dispel the idea being created within the imagination, though without the drawing, it
lacks a fundamental expression.
Impossible to answer as drawing is such a natural and fundamental part of architecture.
Considers it would be impossible to conceive without some form of new technology as drawing
is at present too fundamental to the architect.
proposed?
Referred to Tone Wheeler’s travel tours at University of Sydney, though was not aware of study
courses focussed on drawing.

Yes. Discussed the notion of familiarity (with ones own environment) though not seeing it,
therefore underpinning the benefit of travel and observation. The focus on three dimensional
observation and assessment is fundamentally important.

Suggested making contact with Romaldo Giurgola and would assist in this process.
51
Beverley Garlick Interview 17 May 2004

Not in the grand European tradition. Having studied in Melbourne, intended to move to Sydney
for a while and then onto Europe. Still living and practicing in Sydney some 30 years later.
Found that the environment surrounding the Vietnam war in the late 1960’s / 70s in Sydney was
too exciting to leave. Within this era became involved with photography, graphic design, poster
production and involvement in (women’s) magazines. The grand tour was substituted for a
frenetic socio-political involvement. Asia became a later focus due primarily to the proliferation
of Asian students in Australian universities and a desire to understand their design background
and culture. Has latterly taken groups of students to Indonesia on study tours.

Yes, Italy was finally visited though travelling with a 4 year old son was a limiting, though
defining, travel companion.

Primarily the impact of Ravenna/Byzantine architecture and Florence/Renaissance art and
architecture coupled with the wealth of sculpture to be experienced.
Why do you draw?

Drawing is an immediate tool. You can draw with any implement as a process to put
information down. Drawing allows a freedom as you can make a mistake, scribble and
assemble ideas or bits of information. Came from a medical family background, though wanted
to be a structural engineer. Returned to matriculation high school to study humanities / arts
strands which in turn led towards undergraduate architectural training. Remembers being
intimidated at first, though aimed to draw upon entry to university. Recalls an interest to draw,
though without early skills. Admired Japanese wood cuts and the work of Fred Williams and
desired and needed to express oneself. Somewhat torn between graphic design and
architecture and was able to express the graphics through women’s magazines and posters in
the liberation era. Currently draws for work-based activities though will sometimes draw for
relaxation, drawing grass or trees or clouds enjoying the analysis of light.

Yes, handbags are always full of pencils, soft and hard. Believes that you cannot be bored
when you have a pen and paper and, in fact, can’t go anywhere without them.

It was a necessary means to communicate architecture. Recalls being jealous of those who
could draw and sees the ability to write as an analogous process to the ability to draw.
52

Draw all the time so by definition the maintenance is upheld. Will often work with paper and
collage referring back to graphic skill set. Enjoys exploring different styles of presentation as a
means of experimentation.
Do you endeavour to teach your staff, peers, to draw?

Yes, and it’s hard work and getting harder. Drawing is not a skill often found in younger
architects, it is not a natural process and can be a real impediment in the training and
expression of ideas. Finds that younger architects are not “tracing over” older drawings in order
to learn, so no trial or exploration in drawing is occurring.

Yes, realising the idea is via the drawing. It is the jump from freehand to reality and represents
the trial and testing process. Acknowledges the potential use and value of the computer though
much development is required for it to keep up with the brain speed. Whilst an advocate of
drawing, is keen to transfer the lateral thinking process to the computer at some stage of career
development.
Hard to imagine not drawing as an architect, retains a strong visual memory linked to drawing
and it could be linked to the computer in time.
proposed?
Yes. Desley Luscombe’s program at the University of New South Wales. UNSW has also run a
tour through India. Personally has run a tour through Indonesia via University of Technology,
Sydney. Key focus was to validate and explore the cultural language of Asian students who
were alien to the curriculum of western architectural history. This course was run as an
assessable part of the elective program.

Yes, as it offers an intense and undisturbed focus of reading, observing and learning for the
architect.

Notes Davina Jackson’s commentary that computers will change forever the way architects
work. Also refers to Professor Mark Burry’s embracing of the computer as a design tool, with
reference to the restorative and construction work currently being carried out at Antonio Gaudi’s
Sagrada Familia in Barcelona.
53
Colin Griffiths Interview 2 June 2004

Yes. Was the recipient of a Byera Hadley scholarship as a student and travelled through
Europe for a couple of years working along the way, always noting, sketching and observing.
Such trips reinforce the formal view of the architect taking space and forming ideas. Reinforces
the training in compositional issues, selection of viewpoints and contemplation. Has never
owned a camera as a conscious decision to always encourage drawing. Toured primarily
through Italy, France, Scandinavia and Europe generally, although not always, with an
architectural definition.

Yes.

Comments on Naples, Amalfi Coast noting intuitive recording not necessarily intellectualising.
Travelled through Ravenna noting Chiesa San Vitale. Later trips have been just as valuable, to
Italy and other destinations, based on a continuing process of observations linking to
intellectualisation of the built form constructs, recalling recent trip to New Jersey observing 19th
Century bridge constructions. Travel is about testing the subconscious and sketches with notes
reinforce the looking and analysis. Carlo Scarpa’s work is worth viewing in Italy around the
Veneto region. Noted that Scarpa drew his way to design solutions, finding his way via the
drawing, exploring scale and material constructs.
Why do you draw?

Is happy with a facility to draw. A technique that was learnt through draftsman ship connecting
mind hand message and fluency. Was taught by architect Emil Sanderston to draw, keep
drawing, exhaust the avenue, always encouraged to draw. Recalls Sanderston encouraging
him to draw on the ferry, exhaust ducts and various forms, as the ferry was his means to and
from work. Now draws small studies along the way, primarily of design issues pertaining to
shadow, plane and layers to get to a point where final manual presentation drawings may be
produced. The drawing becomes an encircling explorative process.

Interested in the design ideals of De Still and the Le Corbusier modular espousing planar
complexity, proportion and the connections between outside and inside. Drawing styles aim to
reinforce these thoughts so a variety of colour pencil, charcoals and felt pens are used. A ready
to hand approach is required with all early sketches.

Earliest memories are of drawing in kindergarten on blackboards. Recalls being singled out as
one being able to draw. Could recall no other formal or formative influences. Recalls
developing ideal compositions in high school, often romanticised cities that eventually became
54
built forms. Refers to Lloyd Rees’ school of thinking that allowed and encouraged the
idealisation of views to suit better compositional constructs. Sketches often form the essence of
visits to sites and the spark for further design ideas.

Still draw all the time. Refers to ongoing long term personal communications with daughter
based overseas via regular drawing of sketches, musings and anecdotes.

Has a high degree of frustration with current staff, given their lack of knowledge and skills in
drawing and expression. Does work with staff to get them to explore ideas via drawing and
three dimensional analysis.

The pencil can’t design. The brain is the storehouse of ideas and will generate the images via
the drawing. The drawing is a free process where logic is explored, issues of assemblage
developed in parallel with ideas. Notes the importance of early ideas, site visits that will
envision various forms, seminal issues all crystallised into early drawings. The need for a quick
rapport or shorthand is essential in getting the ideas recorded. Will analyse the plans and
photos of interesting buildings in order to under the designer’s intent and will often draw or
explore historic forms to do likewise. All part of the education process. Sees drawing as part of
your life as an architect. It is how you get to your buildings. Noted Harry Sealer’s eye for a
good idea and how he would trust a drawing to then be developed into further ideas.
No. Sees training as part of the design studies to become an architect. A fluency and
confidence as can be shown in drawing is essential to expressing ideas. Training is different to
education; the former being found, the latter being told.
proposed?
No, sees study tours as base training for an architect.

Yes, as the idea is comprehensible in the drawing.

Believes that drawing will survive and evolve with the computer. Has no concept of how to
design on a computer though assumes that it can / will happen. The drawing is the means to
get to the built form.
55
Peter Ireland Interview 17 March 2004

Yes. After graduation travelled for a long period including working in southern Europe. Not
necessarily with an architectural travel focus. Often disappointed with the architectural
pilgrimage as the reality is not always the same as the populist image. Generally not in favour
of modern architecture and finds that the presentation of reality or the image can be a falsity.

Yes.

Likens Italy as the complete antithesis of Australia. Where Australia is largely wild, Italy has no
wildness. All areas are modified as “mans perception of God’s hand”. Always impressed by the
volume of design work and the overall high quality of the built form. Enjoys the constant feeling
of discovery. Design is an important element in society seen in the way people dress, the
resolution of utilitarian details and seen as fundamental within everyday life.
Why do you draw?

To record places, incidents and little episodes of life. The resonance of events that may arouse
all senses can be captured in the summary of a drawing. Drawing makes you sit, take some
time and absorb. Through drawing you encounter add on experiences, observations and a
depth of experience. It is important to allow time.

Yes. Primarily in either watercolour pencils, pencils or felt tip pens. Has custom made a small
waterproof fishing lure box into a travelling drawing box. The box includes cut down brushes, a
small water bottle and a selection of critical water colours palettes. All housed in an old bag that
in turn houses the various pads of watercolour paper.

Drawing was prevalent in the family circle. Started to draw at a young age and can recall being
encouraged and commended. Felt that such encouragement supported further energy and time
into the task.

Yes. Recently found an old watercolour and feels that current skills would need some practice
to retain the skill levels within. Believes in and supports the need for constant “exercise” of the
practice.

Yes. Encourages people not to be too precious about any drawing. Drawing is to be
encouraged. Assesses drawings from different angles and orientations in order to balance,
56
interpret and understand. Architects often elaborate built form from set viewpoints, drawings
are a way to examine other aspects like the rear view of the Taj Mahan.

Yes, believes in the concept of hand brain connection. Believes that the computer mouse does
not connect in the same manner, perhaps one day it will but has not experienced or observed
the incidence. Is absorbed by the process of thinking, seeing and drawing, a process within
which hours can be “lost”. Sees drawing as an aim to unlock problems by virtue of each
drawing being slightly different, sometimes reductive others additive. Through this process
something will click and the problem may be further absorbed, developed and solved, often
deepening the parameters and depth of outcome.
Drawing is an important facility in architecture. Believes that fundamentally the thought process
is a drawn one.
proposed?
No, only a number of people who have carried independent study tours including self over many
years.

Yes, especially younger career architects.

Recalled an older book about drawing with the left hand or “other side” of the brain.
57
Chris Johnson Interview 15 April 2004

Yes especially during the holiday periods whilst at university studying architecture by travelling
and working in Papua New Guinea and Malaysia. Recalls being influenced by lecturers Roland
Wakelin and Lloyd Rees. Continues to travel both for pleasure and business and continues to
draw often setting interesting or unusual targets (50 drawings in a day in Paris).

Yes, on many occasions.

All round diversity of architecture and the respect with which design is held in the wider
community.
Why do you draw?

To relax, absorb and enjoy. It is a means of relating to a place whereby you feel more a part of
it by recording it. Often will not take a camera and explores the psychological connection whilst
drawing and relaxing. Believes in the essence to crisply communicate via drawing.

Yes, will either draw and leave or often will draw then revisit soon after with collage effects,
often using found or salvaged medium to enhance the image and the recollection. Recalls
using red paint purchased whilst in China to achieve some of the essence of that culture or
wetting and “striping” a felt pen sketch of high speed trains drawn in Leipzig to accentuate
movement. These various forms exercise ingenuity and are communicative on a number of
levels. Will work with a client in a different medium potentially straight onto the notepad as a
tool of conversation always aiming to explore ideas.

The prime trigger was the architecture course at the University of Sydney with Emanuel Raft as
a tutor. Recalls the use of big pens, speed in execution and the use of large brown rolls of
paper. Also studied art at school.

Not as a particular skill set. Feels it is perhaps best not to think about it, preferring to use
drawing as a means of exploration.

Not actively though is aware that people enjoy looking at drawings or watching the process
unfold. Enjoys the idea of inspiring and encouraging others to draw.
58

Yes, as drawings take on a life of their own. As such rarely photographs in preference to
drawing and observing.
Probably not as the ability to draw has contributed to three dimensional assessment, visual
expression and the excitement of ideas.
proposed?
Referred to Dimity Reed’s travel courses as well as courses run by Tone Wheeler at the
University of Sydney.

Yes, absolutely.

Recommends Beatrice Colla mina, an American academic who writes on the media and the
image connecting the visualisation and message to the idea.
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Desley Luscombe Interview 31 May 04

Yes, through Asia primarily visiting Japan, though did not draw or consciously organise the
architectural component of the journey. Probably linked with an intrigue about Buddhism.
Travelled up through Bali, Singapore, Malaysia and then onto Japan. Different confrontational
experiences within various cultures encountered.

Yes.

Recalls a certain antagonism towards the grand tour of Italy idea and was not initially keen to
re-establish western hegemonies. Did eventually find pleasure in specific texts and research
and started to find value for students and learning in concerning oneself with old architecture.
Found the antiquities as an immediacy of history forcing a requirement to engage and enlighten
an awareness. Was concerned that Australian architecture was Eurocentric following the
Greek, Roman, French Gothic, Italian Renaissance, English Neoclassic route and not aware of
nor focussed on the Asian influences at hand. Keenly aware of and interested in the socio /
commercial / political issues that shape the built form over time. As such was keener to engage
in the Asian influences currently shaping the Australian cultural idiom.
Why do you draw?

Technically adept at presentation drawings and has worked with husband (architect) doing this
work. Drawing process defines elements of axiality, systems of order, often works post building
on representational drawings of work to an architectural audience. Focussed on the
representation of the message. Drawing seen as a separate system of communication in
parallel to text and language. Believes that the 1980 /90’s closed out the era of hand drawings
and we are now well into the computer age. Referred to Mike Volleys’ article “Brunelleschi to
Cad: Cam” as a good reference. In the same way that perspective changed the way the 15th
Century artist viewed drawing and architecture the computer will change architecture. Refer
also Mark Burry’s work at the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona embracing the computer as an
integrated design aid. Believes that the computer is influencing “blobby” architecture and
reconstituting the representation techniques of contemporary architecture. Notes the
relationship between technology and representation obfuscating some things though not
everything.

Yes. With students will use the most immediate implements to express ideas. Currently
exploring jewellery and particularly deconstruction as a creative pursuit.
60

Art was studied through school with an interest in the work of abstracts / surrealists. Studying
architecture became the art component. Mentioned teachers such as Lorna Nemo, Bauhaus
influence at the University of New South Wales. A draughtsman like artist who encouraged the
mix of art and science. Encouraged an open approach and a graphic experience. Undertook
Saturday art classes and university art classes including sculpture weaving and pottery.
Interested in the study of the combined elements of light, shadow, form, dimension and
geometry.

Yes, though at present not a lot of drawing is undertaken given current work role.

Not at present though given the influences in graphic outcome expressed at University of New
South Wales former role, the curriculum at University of Technology, Sydney could well change
and evolve.

Yes, it is connected, though perhaps tenuously. Architecture is the transformation of ideas into
built objects and, as such, a passage beyond the realisation of only single person. Drawing is
the key communication language that is sufficient to share with people.
No.
proposed?
Yes. Own course to Italy via University of New South Wales. Also University of New South
Wales course to India, China and Japan. Students were often naïve though they were guided
through a sequence of architectural experiences as part of these courses.

Yes. The main outcome is a dedication to architecture. Believes that current educative role
came out of parental influences of builder / teacher and as such was comfy with a learning
environment. Believes that drawing will survive as an expression of physical fabric. Always. It
is an iterative process. It is about truth over falsity. It can encompass political engagement and
define the impact of built from over and above the process. Believes that social values
influence the craft and, in turn, the design profession.

Yes. Referred to Edward Robbins, John Tahara, Mark Wrigley, Hal Foster’s “Writing Worlds”,
“Downcast Eyes”, “History of Knowledge” and “Theories of Avant Grade”, as a mixture of
relevant authors and texts.
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Ken Maher Interview 4 June 2004

Not early career though more so mid career. Studied at University of New South Wales and
graduated gaining a government cadetship so immediate travel was not undertaken or possible.
As a young graduate gained second prize in the design of the Pompidou Centre in Paris. After
cadetship gained a partnership into a small practice though left it in mid career to travel.
Travelled overland from Kathmandu to London where architectural work was undertaken. As a
mid career trip a more mature approach and broader perspective was applied to viewing the
work of Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier whilst travelling. Has always seen architecture as
linked to the landscape, given formal training also as a landscape architect, and is always
concerned with place. Cities of Rajasthan India and Isfahan noted as places where city
experiences encompass urbanity, landscape and urbanism.

Yes.

The lessons to be learnt. A wealth of seminal individual buildings though an attraction toward
the collective such as the Sienese landscapes, the overall cities of Florence and Rome.
Studied Alberti as a student and was absorbed by the mixture of mathematics and creativity.
Enjoys the view on heritage focussed on loose fit and a confidence to keep only the best and
most relevant. Enjoys the hill towns, the layering of time where the past is overlayed and an
individual body of work can exist amongst the whole.
Why do you draw?

Absorbing and understanding in an unmeasured manner. To understand. A mode of
expression and thinking, better than a photograph and significantly different. Will sometimes
draw, sometimes photograph. Notes the value of drawing and observing, taking the time to
absorb whereas photography is an instant image. Interpreting through a process of drawing,
taking on lessons of time and history. As an architect clarifying often diagrammatic messages
exploratory, expressive, convey information and broader ideas by working and talking.

Uses a felt pen and notebook. As part of a collective collaborative practice will draw in many
formats often very mobile and with many differing people and formats. Will occasionally use a
parallel rule to draw. No computer drawing skills as a generational outcome. A mix of media is
employed in the office where the computer is adding and where key people can use both
computer and a variety of media and expression skills including drawings. Drawing is a core
skill though is stimulated by the use and possibility of computers. Believes in a need for tactility
in design, and a making of physical ideas, outcomes, experiential responses and tangible craft
like elements and that it is difficult to achieve these without the skill of drawing. Endorsing the
hand eye feeling. “My world is connected to the 15th Century Italian view on drawing and
62
expression”. More stimulated and interested by physical and visual stimuli rather than a
potential virtual world. Expresses concerns over collage [computer] providing virtual
experiences, providing imagery over real and tangible products. Prefers thinking or assembled
products over virtual visual experiences. Architecture is interpretive, tactile, tangible,
experiential and drawing is a key aspect in making of this. Computers have ability though at
present a lack of craft dimension, intellect, materiality in the traditional sense. Referred to the
work of Nicholas Legoponti where computer applications may be used for direct drawing, and
noted the growing use of analytical predictive environmental tools as a positive and valuable
trend. Notes though that drawing on a tablet offers no texture or intensity of experience to
match that of drawing.

Lived in the country and had no surrounding or tertiary influence of drawing. As a kid you drew.
Did not study art at school. Always interested in drawing. Kept drawing, though away from
school. Architecture course reinforced drawings skills at University of New South Wales and the
course had a strong arts program. Recalls being influenced by architect Bill Lucas, a strong
thinker. History of architecture study encouraged drawing as a “learnt trade”. History of
architecture experienced through drawing experience.

By default, yes. Sometimes wished he drew more, for discipline and delight, for travel and
work.

Encourage people to draw and express. In the workplace an interaction rather than mentorship
takes place. Now less in the role of encountering fresh graduates though more in tune with
more senior professional interface. Regular teaching at University of Sydney / University of
New South Wales provides an avenue to teach and drawing can be, and often is, a central part
of that.

Drawing informs the thinking. Expressing. Drawing is part of the path to an outcome. Thinking
in both abstract and concrete uses drawings to fully understand, clarify and strip back. Notes
the use of architectural diagrams for conceptual and abstract idea expression. Drawing is a part
of the idea.
No. “Like playing piano with your hands tied behind your back”. Noted the French architect
Jean Nouvel though who does not ever draw though expresses his ideas verbally.
proposed?
No.
63

Absolutely.

Expression and ability to draw adds value to a connectivity of drawings. Take clients through
the process in an analytical and expressive manner from concept to descriptive, gaining support
along the way. Drawing is a captivating and communicative understanding. Diagrammatic
ideas drawing and explaining thoughts.
64
Caroline Pidcock Interview 20 May 2004

Between 3rd and 4th years at University of Sydney travelled overseas as part of the year out
program. Travelled through Italy (Rome, Florence, Venice, Perugia, Assisi, Montepulciano) on
an arts based tour run out of Melbourne. Tour was taken by a general range of people though
other architects were present.

Yes.

The delight of wandering, walking, sitting looking, photographing coupled with talking, feeling
the rhythms and taking time to look as a method of examination.
Why do you draw?

Primarily for work, to explore and start conceptual ideas. Concept ideas emerge in
diagrammatic form. Uses drawings to talk around during presentations and values the
expression in drawings. “There are many ideas within each line.”

Primarily with a felt pen or a small pen on scraps of paper focussed always on immediacy.

When a small child recalls being intensely interested in drawing. Did not do any art at school
though did do a Julian Ashton drawing course on own volition. Always loved to do a drawing.
In choosing a career it was between chemical engineering, psychology and architecture and
architecture won out due to the art component. Found the first year very confronting because of
the lack of drawing and thus communication skills. The grand tour enabled an understanding of
what architecture was all about. Further study at University of Sydney allowed creative drawing
approach and undertook further life drawing classes at University of Sydney.

Considers herself to be fast at ideas and sketch thinking process though can get out of practice
on analytical drawings.

Doesn’t happen though encourages people to draw and indeed talk as you draw supporting
conversations around drawing.
65

Yes and has observed a new generation with a blend of drawing and computer skills and
aptitudes. Can’t rule out that the idea is imagination based though the drawing is an easy tool
of communication. Enjoys the process of photography as recollection / record.
Don’t know how I would have expressed my ideas. “Drawing is a lovely thing to do”. Noted the
analogy with writing and the process of writing and expressing creative writing ideas.
proposed?
Noted “Australians Travelling Abroad” (course attended as mentioned was run by these people).
Art Gallery of New South Wales runs art appreciation courses throughout Europe.

Yes, did not realise how fabulous buildings could be, great streets, townscapes and sense of
place only able to be experienced first hand.

The value of a creative writing course as analogous to the ability to draw and express.
66
Alexander Tzannes Interview 19 March 2004

Yes, on a number of occasions. Travelled as a young child with his family though first
independent trip focussed on architecture was in 1973 as a fourth year out student at University
of Sydney. Travelled through Denmark, the United Kingdom and France. In 1978 a further tour
was undertaken to include the USA, Italy, France, Spain and was very much focussed on
architecture. Felt compelled to travel via a sense of inadequacy or an illiteracy of knowledge.
Was struck by Louis Kahn’s work displaying a quality of light that could not be captured without
visiting the work and indeed endeavouring to record the experiences. Recalls beginning to
understand the value of drawing.

Yes

Recalls a revelation upon visiting Italy, only reinforced by repeated trips. Everything that is
done is done with design in mind. Referred to Boro mini’s design quality and the sense of
capable designers and urbanists operating in a highly refined cultural atmosphere.
Why do you draw?

“I draw because it helps me to understand, to explore, and to relax.” Postcards are sent to
friends or colleagues along travels and relaxation is found in drawing. The value of drawing has
been learnt.

Yes and considers the various modes and mediums a mess. An A6 diary is a work tool to
contain all manner of data, minutes, drawings, records of conversation. A daily tool. A written
diary is kept. A watercolour folio is kept. A black and white postcard book is kept and used to
keep in contact with people whilst travelling. Finally a large drawing folio is kept. All documents
are considered open and ready for constant use. On a travel trip a variety of all or a limited few
of these will be thoughtfully packed. Various medium of artline pens, pelican pens, pen and ink
or a “Planet” white gold nib pen are used. Notes that much of the drawing is a pursuit of tonal
qualities rather than line so Siena browns and blacks are used as watercolour tones. A pursuit
of light and shade is targeted within drawings, exploring textures, materials and form rather than
line.

Took art at school and eventually trained at university by Lloyd Rees. Did exhibit artworks at an
earlier age and was noted with a Biennale selection for artworks. Recalled that meeting the
artist Imants Tillers assured him that he was not an artist and that architecture was his
appropriate forte. Believes that his life drawing skills were ok though had to learn perspective
67
technique. Recalls that during 4th year architecture a conscious decision to keep an
architectural notebook coincided with the conclusive decision to become an architect.

The types of drawings used must be appropriate for the context. Believes that he paints badly
and has a goal to improve this. Notes the use of light pencils to set up watercolours and feels
that the messier the format the better as everything comes together. Noted ambidextrous skills
and is often found drawing left handed and writing with the right, pen in both hands often.

Yes, believes that it is good to have the motor skill and those who do draw are encouraged.

Yes, believes that the import of drawing is critical on the sense of design.
Absolutely not. Only when drawn do we understand how to make scale and composition. The
fluidity of three dimension objects linked to the design ideas has come from sketch book records
and drawings. The ability to process information in a logical manner, to elevate, to understand
sections and to define built form all gained emergence out of the drawing.
proposed?
Aware that alma mater Columbia runs undergraduate course to Paris and Rome. Noted that
during his masters at Columbia that he felt completely under skilled compared to peers
regarding their sketch book portfolios. This was not only in the drawn work but also in the
places that had been visited in order to draw and observe. This sense of inadequacy led to a
drive to travel and in turn improve the drawing skill set.

Yes, in order to understand excellence in architecture, enjoy the time and define a value
system.

Noted Walter Burley Griffin / Marion Mahoney’s description of Canberra, their ideal city in words
particularly the hierarchy and lucidity of the text as an ancillary graphic medium. Commented
also on the diaries of Mathew Flinders.
68
Ken Woolley Interview 3 June 2004

Yes, as a former Byera Hadley scholar he travelled through Europe studying “durability and
weathering”. This topic readily enabled a study of both new and old European architecture.
Pursued a battle for acceptance of Modernism and the new (then) Modern era of architecture.
Over 18 months of travel included 7 months of working. Noted that Arthur Baldwinson of
University of Sydney gave him a reference to meet Gordon Cullen of the Architecture Review
primarily based on his drawing skills. This introduction led to a job so by default drawing was an
entrée to overseas work and further experiences.

Yes.

A most important place. The history of architecture encompassed. Visited twice during the
initial trip and many times since. An old copy of Bydecker supported the trip as did Kidder
Smith’s book Italy Builds which noted many seminal modernist buildings. Sees drawing as
being linked to Europe and its influence on western culture. Architectural education has
suffered a loss of focus on European cultural traditions and the interest in history is somewhat
neglected at present.
Why do you draw?

(During interview Ken was constantly carrying and playing with a soft lead broad diameter clutch
pencil.) Background was drawing and was biased towards drawing. Believes that drawing is
closely related to writing as a creative pursuit with both thought processes focussed on
communication. Architecture is technically based creative process. Sees drawings as the
embellishing of buildings. The creative process is about the getting and expression of ideas.
Likes the analogy of music and architecture where they both involve prescription. Drawing is
not the building but enables the process and a music score is a similar prescription. The
difference is time where architecture is more permanent, music more temporal. Notations in
music conventions are similar to architectural conventions for drawings. Drawing is for
communication to a builder about what is to be built. Noted also that notebooks of composers
are now sought as the fodder leading into the great compositions. Drawings are often
unconsciously recorded and developed and again the analogy to a writer may be made where
the writer is communicable and self referential in expression.

Yes. Firstly small A5 notebooks are used with fine line pens, usually not in the office and mostly
as home. These are used for staff and colleagues to develop ideas from base drawings.
Regrets not doing more drawings and sketches in younger years. Started to record the work
and thought process about 30 years ago. Another mode is that of pencil on A4 bond paper
used mainly in the office. Even office letters are produced this way. A light weight of bond
69
paper is used so that drawings can be overlayed to develop ideas. Many of these drawings are
used on projects and then logged into job files whilst in the office. Will also use butter paper
overlays though finds this decreasing with the advent of computer screens rather than drawing
boards. Is often loath to work over a plot as you are never sure how recent or accurate it is.
This forms part of the separation from the idea or development that computers can cause.
Travel sketches are produced on notebooks, A4 art paper with a fatter Pentel pen so that areas
of black can be in filled. Noted influence of architect / cartoonist on linework and composition.

Mother was an amateur artist producing pencil, pen drawings, watercolours and was fascinated
by and encouraged to draw. Cannot remember not drawing. Father was a printer and as such
a graphic orderly type of person. Recalls art classes at East Sydney Tech and doing art classes
as a 10 year old on Saturday mornings. Lloyd Rees was a seminal tutor in architecture at
university, where he taught art history, though was an inspirational model with a good manner,
good training, and sublime technical skills very much as a stream of consciousness. The
technical stream of training supported design.

No, it is a constant process. Getting looser as time goes by and freer in form and expression.
Enjoys now taking risks in drawing. Believes that observation is about communicating your
view, a simplification process with codes of implication and presence created by drawing.

No. most peers get exposed via the working process. The office has imposed some standards
to embrace the computer skill sets and technical requirements.

The idea is communicated via the drawing. There is no other way to communicate the idea. An
oral account can be quite significant though a drawing is an implied shorthand. All lead to the
prescription of the building.
“Don’t think I’d see it that way”. Can’t separate life into drawing form. Plenty of architects are
successful by other means apart from drawing. Believes that building is about space and
structure and a drawing is a way to get there and find those solutions. Drawing is often the
indication of a good architect. Regrets the lack of true training that exists in architectural
education now. Believes that both training and education are required for an architect’s
experience.
proposed?
No.
70

I think so. During the traditional break in a two step degree such a tour is well encouraged.

Is aware of the older view of drawing and as such has established that the office is entirely
CADD from schematic design onwards noting some good and bad issues within this approach.
Notes that CADD needs a full scale model at its core and the change that must be experienced
between working on a scaled drawing versus working on a full scale computer screen and this
will change the thought processes of design and three dimensional thinking. Likens the change
to the difference between digital and analogue. Believes that the days of producing hand
drawings in an office are over and notes the issues of perception difference between manual
drawing and CADD representation.
Recalls doing architectural renderings for other architects as a young student architect.
Demonstrated his work with a couple of small sketchbooks showing fine quality small drawings
that covered broad topics, scales and issues.
71
APPENDIX II
DRAWING ITALY
The attached booklet is an assembled record of this author’s sketch book analysis of precedent
of the seminal architecture of Italy observed between the 28th September and the 25th
November 2004 as background information for the 2003 NSW Byera Hadley Registered
Architects scholarship aims.
72
APPENDIX III
CURRENT COURSES
The following is a non exhaustive outline of current courses available that are of an architectural
nature and demonstrate that the idea of a group study tour is robust and may be achieved with
ongoing tangible outcomes.
2005 USA Study Tour

”Revitalisation and Redevelopment: New Tools for Transforming Communities”
The University of Sydney Faculty of Architecture / Professor Ed Blakely
“The City Assembled: European Investigation Program”

Australian Studying Abroad / The University of Melbourne
2004 Cambodian Study Tour

The University of Sydney Faculty of Architecture / Peter Armstrong
2005 European Tour of Architecture

RMIT / Professor Dimity Reed
2003 Italian Study Tour [now ceased]

The University of New South Wales / Desley Luscombe
2003 European Study Tour

The Royal Academy Copenhagen School of Architecture
In addition to this programs such as that established by the American Foundation for students of
architecture at American Universities to live and study in Rome Italy represent an ongoing in
country means of studying diverse built forms and cultures.
73
“DRAWING ITALY”
…a guide
David Holm
CONTENTS
Why Italy? 2
Tuscany 14
Liguria 50
Piedmont 54
Veneto 70
Friuli-Venezia Guila 98
Emilia Romagno 104
Marches 112
Umbria 114
Lazio 122
Campania 156
Sicily 164
1
DRAWING ITALY SICILY
Piazza del Duomo Cefalu

Why Italy?
Italy is arguably the most geographically compact crucible of western NORMAN
architecture available. Etruscan, Roman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic, The northern Sicilian town of Cefalu was originally a fishing village occupied by
Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Fascist, Modernist and the Arabs prior to the C10th. The dramatically sloping Piazza del Duomo is
contemporary architecture are all represented, sometimes iconically, within Italy. dominated by the Arab Norman Cattedrale constructed under instruction from
Roger II in the late 12th century. The distinctive twin towers of the cattedrale are
Greek and Etruscan further given backdrop by La Rocca. This natural outcrop is the dominant
feature overviewing the town and forming a distant edge to the piazza
The Greek and Etruscan period began in the C6th BC and encompasses the enclosure. The piazza is fed by the central commercial spine of Corso Ruggero.
earliest existent structures in Italy. These built forms characterise the qualities More recently the town was used as the urban setting for the 1990’s film
of classic Greek architecture with strong and simple outlines, rigorous “Cinema Paradiso”.
adherence to the principles of proportion, a total unity of horizontal and vertical
elements and the extensive use of decoration to emphasise structure.
The architecture of this period was constructed primarily out of marble and was
designed to the three orders of Ionic, Doric and Corinthian. All comprised an
upright column upon a base, topped by a capital and an entablature of
architrave, cornice and decorative frieze.
This Greek and Etruscan period encompassed a variety of building types
including temples, open air theatres, [often set against hillsides in dramatic
locations] city walls, gateways and tombs.
• temples Paestum, Campania; Agrigento, Selinunte,
Segesta and Syracusa, Sicily
Volterra, Tuscany
Lucca, Tuscany
Perugia, Umbria
Roman
The Roman era was a period of development and adaptation from the Greek
and Etruscan ages. This period of greatest development and ingenuity may be
contained between the 3rd Century BC and the 3rd Century. As with most art
forms, a preference was developed for order and function over beauty and
2 179
DRAWING ITALY INTRODUCTION
Chiosco Ribando, Palermo aesthetics alone and functional building materials were predominant. Towns
were laid out in regularly planned grid formats for the first time in recorded
history, often for or to the models of military camps. Much of the built form was
ART NOUVEAU
sanctioned on behalf of the various Emperors as an expression of the Roman
Three sets of kiosks were designed in various styles by the noted Palermitan might and ability. The architecture of the Roman period came to express the
architect Ernesto Basile. The first in 1894 in the Piazza Teatro Massimo power and glory of the Roman Empire.
features a focus on calligraphy and metalwork. The second in 1897 in Piazza
Whilst the Romans used the three Greek orders, with a preference for the
Verdi features colonial design influences. The third, completed in 1916, in
Corinthian order, they also added two orders of their own with the development
Piazza Castelnuovo features a focus on intricate lines and composition. The
of the Tuscan and Composite styles. The column was relegated to secondary
kiosks are used for a variety of commercial uses.
usage in favour of solid construction that incorporated the rounded forms of arch
and dome with a focus on the rigidity of end walls. The use of vaults was to
become the Roman period’s major contribution to architecture.
In addition, the use of an early form of concrete enabled the construction of
much greater spans and hence higher structures than ever previously possible.
The most important ensembles of existing Roman architecture in the urban
setting are the original seaports and residential towns. Within these, all the
various elements of urbanity were found. The forum was the heart of the city,
set as a square at the intersection of the two main streets, the Decumanus
running east west and the Cardomanus running north south. Its various built
forms comprised the focus of all main aspects of public life, both secular and
non secular. Each forum contained temples, which initially followed the Greek
models with imposing façades preceded by flights of stairs, with later designs
evolving into the circular planning form.
The main public building was the basilica, used for meetings, markets and
administration of the city. Thermae (public baths) were key examples of the
formal recreational aspects of life in a Roman city. The theatres and
amphitheatres of the Roman era were atmospheric, often elliptical, edifices of
solid construction where massive outer walls housed inner tiered seating
arenas.
• temples Tivoli, Lazio
Assisi, Umbria
• temples (circular) Pantheon, Rome Lazio
Temple of Vesta, Rome Lazio
• basilica Trajan and Maxentius Basilicas, Rome Lazio
• thermae Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian, Rome Lazio
178 3
• theatres/amphitheatres Coliseum, Rome Lazio Monreale Cattedrale, Palermo

l’Arena Verona, Veneto
l’amphitheatro Pompeii Campania
Roman residences fall into three main categories; the domus, the villa and the
Located atop the ridge within the town of Monreale on the outskirts of Palermo
insulae. The domus was a town dwelling symmetrically grouped around an
this cathedral was sanctioned by William II, and represented heavenly visions
atrium and peristyle courts. Villas were patrician country residences and biblical themes. The cathedral was designed in the Norman, Arab and
characterised by decorative porticos and colonnades oriented towards sun and Byzantine styles in the late C12th.
shade aspects. Insulae were tenement type constructions that housed poorer
Romans over several floors. The insulae were vaulted throughout and arranged The cathedral is primarily noted for its interior mosaics, executed by Venetian
in multiple levels, streets and squares. mosaicists and considered some of the best from the Italian Middle Ages. The
scenes depict various Old Testament images.
• domus Pompeii, Campania
• villa Pompeii, Campania
• insulae Ostia Antica, Lazio
Other built forms include the cylindrical mausoleum and, as Roman law forbade
burial inside the city walls, this led to the development of a built form that
celebrated the dead.
The triumphal arch was also a Roman creation to celebrate the technology of
the arch and various military victories. The Romans were famed for their
engineering and hydraulic expertise and the utilitarian aqueduct and bridge
designs utilised the arch technology to full extent to transport water into the
towns.
• mausoleum Castela Sant Angelo, Rome Lazio
• bridges Pons Fabricus, Rome Lazio
Christian and Byzantine Architecture

Early Christian and Byzantine architecture was rooted in the then clandestine
practice of the Christian faith between the 5th Century and 10th Century. Due
to religious persecution, initial Christian believers were forced to practice their
religion in catacombs well away from the public gaze.
• catacombs Rome, Lazio
Naples, Campania
Siracusa, Sicily
The eventual acknowledgement and legalisation of Christianity and its adoption
by the Roman Empire saw the development of an architectural style that was
4 177
Grand Hotel Villa Igea, Palermo based on secular imperial models. In general, churches adopted the forms of
the basilica with stark exteriors pierced only by large windows and interiors
displaying the move towards regular columns. Transepts were introduced into
NEOCLASSIC
church planning in a conscious desire to emulate and symbolise the cross in
Situated on Salita Belmonte all’ Acquasanta on the northern coast outside plan formations.
Palermo and designed by the renowned Palermitan architect Ernesto Basilo
between 1899 and 1904. • cross plan churches Santa Sabina and Santa Maria Maggiorre,
Rome, Lazio
The villa and its landscaped environs are adjacent to and integrated with the
water’s edge. The villa is focused on the architectural capacity to integrate the The Byzantine’s most distinctive architectural form was the dome. Under the
Romans, this form rested on a circular base however the Byzantines, by the use
design, furnishings and lighting to create the sense of an intimate house.
of pendentive arches, were able to erect domes on square foundations.
• domed church Basilica San Vitale Ravenna, Emilio Romagna
The Basilica San Marco Venice, Veneto developed from this model. With
domical planning, a Greek cross format and sumptuous mosaic decoration, the
San Marco basilica is considered the supreme Byzantine monument.
Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque architecture emerged as Europe rose from the Dark Ages in the
10th and 11th Centuries. Key features of this style included a continual
attachment to the basilica plan, cupolas raised on domes, the use of marble as
a façade facing, the presence of ancillary baptisteries and campaniles, and the
use of arches for both decorative and structural purposes.
The churches of the Lombardy Plain feature tall towers with projecting vaulted
porches that rest on a decorated base. A circular (rose) window serves as the
principle light source into the nave.
• vaulted church Il Duomo, Modena, Emilio Romagna
The Campo Dei Miracola Pisa in Tuscany offers the unique trio of duomo,
campanile and baptistery in one setting, highlighting the unity of consistent
façade materials and the surrounding open arcade galleries.
Idiosyncratic Romanesque styles were fostered using the mixture of mosaics
and marble façade panelling.
• marble / mosaic facades San Miniato, Florence, Tuscany
Regional influences are to be seen in the exotic inclusions of Byzantine domes
and mosaics mixing with Saracen horseshoe arches.
176 5
• regional influences Duomo Monreale and the Palazzo dei Quattro Canti, Palermo
Normanni, Palermo, Sicily
BAROQUE
Gothic Period This intersection within the oldest part of the city is known locally as il Teatro.
The Gothic period was architecturally focussed on light and verticality. The The perfect circle of C17th Spanish Baroque curvilinear façades is the ancient
Gothic period in general grew out of France in the 12th Century to become the Roman centre of the city and the intersection of the Cardomanus and
dominant architectural force in medieval Europe. The Italian Gothic ranged from Decumanus. Each façade features a fountain and the intersection marks the
the early 13th Century to the early 15th Century and was more restrained than junction of the four keys areas of the city; Capo, la Kalsa, Vucciria and
its northern neighbour counterparts. The key architectural features of Italian Albergheria.
Gothic included the pointed arch, the rib vault, flying buttresses and large
tracery windows. These became dominant architectural features throughout
medieval Europe.
The Italian Gothic has a more horizontal emphasis characterised by low rise
buildings with timber rather than stone roofs. Italian Gothic façades were often
decorative, with little or no connection to the interior structure, comprising
marble, mosaics and frescoes.
• gothic facade San Francesco, Assisi, Umbria
il Duomo, Orvieto, Tuscany
The spread of plain early Gothic architecture in Italy is directly linked to the
Cistercian order of monks. These churches placed an emphasis on preaching
and many were focussed on holding large congregations thus influencing the
larger interior spaces.
• large naves Santa Maria Novella, Florence Tuscany
Il Duomo, Siena, Tuscany
In the north of Italy, the Gothic style of architecture was expressed in the form of
stone structures that placed their primary emphasis upon geometric
pronouncement.
• stone structures Il Duomo, Milan, Lombardy
In military architecture, a number of imposing castles were built during the 13th
Century. These castles combined Classic and Gothic elements.
• castle Castel Nuovo, Naples, Campania
Rising civic pride in the late 13th Century gave rise to a passion for town halls
that were often crowned with towers.
6 175
Piazza Castelnuovo / Piazza Ruggero Settimo, • town halls Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, Tuscany
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Tuscany
Palermo
NEOCLASSIC
Renaissance Architecture
This combined piazza sits at the end of the Via Maqueda / Via Ruggero Setturio, Renaissance architecture first emerged in Florence in the early 15th Century as
the original Roman Cardomanus. From here towards the north is the Via della a derivation of the classics. The vocabulary of the Renaissance was to spread
Liberta and the beginning of the modern city. Via della liberta is a wider throughout Europe and remain dominant for some four centuries.
boulevarde, with tree lined central aisles, surrounded by late C19th apartment The Renaissance period saw the history of architecture become the history of
blocks. The piazza stands as the major junction between the old central section architects, with full time practitioners emerging for the first time. One of the key
of the city and the newer more spacious northern sectors planned by the characteristics of these practitioners, and indeed the Renaissance itself, was the
Spanish in the C18th. diversity of skills of the proponents. The integration of this diversity of skills was
often rooted in the plastic arts of sculpture and painting and, with the infusion of
mathematics and technical prowess, became the signature of the robust
Renaissance style. In addition to the individual designers, the role of the patron
or benefactor became parallel and paramount. The accumulation of wealth,
often derived through mercantile means, saw individuals and families, rather
than the church or state, rise for the first time as a source of community power
with a ready desire for outward built form expression.
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 -1446) was one of the leading lights in this era,
moving away from his classic training as a sculptor to focus on building
practices and the classics. Best exemplified by Florentian works, Brunelleschi’s
work fuses Roman construction techniques, such as herringbone brickwork, with
contemporary invention in the form of unique construction hoisting machinery.
• Brunelleschi Il Duomo, Ospedale Degli Innocenti, Chiesa di
San Lorenzo, Chiesa Santo Spirito and the
Capella Pazzi, Florence, Tuscany
Leon Battista Alberti (1404 –1472), a contemporary of Brunelleschi, was a writer
and theorist whose work was aesthetically manifest in triumphal arches and
pediment temple fronts. Alberti’s work analysed and articulated the theory of
harmonic proportions with the adoption of certain ratios of measurement within a
body of built work.
• Alberti Sant Andrea Mantua Lombardy
Bernardo Rosellino (1409 – 1464) was the architect of Pienza, Tuscany, which
was initially foreseen as a utopian papal town planning scheme.
174 7
The high, or later, Renaissance period was triggered by Donato Bramante (1444 Capella Palatina, Palermo
– 1514), who began his working life in Milan. Like many architects of his era he
would move from his initial base often following or finding new mentors or
NORMAN
benefactors to allocate work and support theoretical and built form development.
Located within the Palazzo Reale and designed for Roger II in 1130. As the
Bramante’s masterpiece is the Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio Rome Lazio,
richest Norman king in Christendom, Roger II aimed to indulge his passion for
which embodies the spirit of classic architecture blended harmoniously with the
Arab arts and culture. Internal mosaics within the church depict scenes from the
ideal Renaissance values of mathematics and proportion.
Old Testament, and Palermo’s role in various conquests including the
• Bramante Santa Maria Presso San Satiro and Crusades. The chapel features a side entry onto a central nave and side aisles,
Santa Maria Della Grazie Milan, Lombardy; all focused towards a raised altar. The altar is covered by a central dome.
Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio Rome Lazio
Andrea Palladio (1508 – 1580) became Italy’s most erudite and influential
architect due to his ability to meld features from all his predecessors into his
own personal style. His style and work philosophies are copied to the present
day and are referred to around the world. This is especially evident in the City
of Vicenza. The Villa Rotunda, Vicenza, Veneto, saw the first use of a
centralised plan in a secular building.
Mannerism
Bramante’s position as the leading architect in Rome was taken over by
Raphael (1483 – 1520), who’s finest architectural work is the Chigi Chapel in the
Church of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome, Lazio. The key feature of this
church was the idealised, centralised temple originally conceived in his painting
“The Marriage of the Virgin”.
Raphael’s pupil Giulio Romano (1499 – 1546) operated in Mantua, where he
actively rejected the Renaissance ideals of perfect harmony and balance in
classical architecture thus manifesting the beginning of the Mannerist style.
This knowing departure from the rules and constraints of the classics, and
especially the Renaissance, is best exemplified in the optical gymnastics of the
Palazzo Te in Mantua, Lombardy.
Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) took up architecture in his middle age and his
approach towards architecture was a direct contrast to Alberti. He used plans
as a rough guide only, and made constant changes throughout the construction
period, thus forming a role as the master builder. Whilst none of his major
buildings was finished within his lifetime, his work demonstrated an original
8 173
approach towards architecture closely linked to sculpture. He invented the giant

Palazzo Abatellis, Palermo order where columns and pilasters rise through two or more storeys.
• Michelangelo San Lorenzo, Palazzo Farnese and Biblioteca
MODERN Laurenziana Florence Tuscany;
This palazzo was originally built in the C13th, though was substantially Piazza del Campidoglio and (partial work within)
refurbished to a design by Carlo Scarpa in 1954. Located in via Alloro in the La St Peter’s Rome Lazio
Kalsa district of Palermo, it is now used as the Galleria Regionale di Palermo. After the death of Michelangelo, the most important architect in Rome was Il
The design of the refurbishment highlights the careful restoration, preservation Vignola (1507 – 1573), who designed the Villa Giulia Rome Lazio as a mixture
and demonstration of the historic features of the palazzo. of architectural delight mingled with highly structured landscape design.
New supports and framing installation are designed by Scarpa to highlight the This work was followed by Il Gesu Rome, Lazio, which was loosely based on
abstract and elemental qualities of both the displayed object and the selected Alberti’s design of Il Duomo in Mantua. The Il Gesu design though eliminated
construction materials. the aisles and used the nave pilasters and lighting effects to draw the eye to the
height of the altar. Vignola’s work at the end of the high Renaissance period
and into Mannerism was a precursor to the emergence of the decorative and
eclectic Baroque style.
Baroque
The Baroque is a distinctive and recognisable style, originating in Rome as a
response to the wealth and self-confidence of the Counter Reformation
movement in the mid to late 16th Century. Baroque architecture expressed the
pomp, and played upon the mystery, of the propagated religious approach.
Architects were concerned with daring special effects, rendering visual
movement and spatial ambiguity by the use of curvaceous lines and form, tricks
of light and the overt decoration of painting and sculpture. All these special
effects combined to offer other-worldliness to the non-secular Counter
Reformation movement.
Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680) took up architecture in mid life, having
initially trained as a sculptor. His fusion of the arts was to become one of the
cornerstones of Baroque architecture and urban planning, best seen in the
forecourt of St Peter’s Rome Lazio. This design of an oval planned double
colonnade came to symbolise the all embrace of the church and incorporated
complex plays of perspective and proportion.
• Bernini Chiesa Santa Andrea, Rome, Lazio
Forecourt, St Peters, Rome, Lazio
172 9
Francesco Borromini (1599 – 1667), who was initially Bernini’s assistant though
later his bitter and declared rival, was a most daring and inventive architect. His Valley of the Temples, Agrigento
attitude to decoration was very different to Bernini’s in his belief that architecture
was sculpture in its own right. Borromini treated entire wall surfaces plastically, ETRUSCAN
favouring the monochromatic rather than polychromatic use of colours.
The City of Akragas was founded in 581BC. The 5 temples that occupy the
Borromini showed a disregard for convention, creating stunning spatial designs valley (actually a ridge along the original town walls) to the south of the original
based on complex series of shapes, resolving equilateral triangles into ovals acropolis are;
and circles within the roof form geometrics.
• Tempio di Ercole – (Temple of Hercules) built in the 6th Century BC, the
• Borromini St Ivo and San Carlino Alle Quattro Fontane, oldest of the structures with 9 of the original columns now re-erected
Rome, Lazio • Tempio della Concordia – (Temple of Concord) from 430BC this temple has
Guarino Guarini (1624 – 1683) was a mathematician and architect, instrumental survived due to its conversion in the 6th century AD to a Christian Church
in the fusion of Gothic and Islamic styles and influenced by the work of • Tempio di Giunone – stands as the highest temple on a ridge and the
Borromini. His mathematical ability fuelled the grand manner of the classics, patches of red visible on the stone are from the sack of Arkagas in 406BC
featuring conical domes and spiralling roof forms. • Tempio di Giove – the largest Doric temple ever known, never completed
and including 8m high telamone columns bearing the temples weight; and
• Guarini Capella Della Sacra Sidone Turin, Piedmont • Tempio dei Dioscuri – originally from the 5th century BC though
reconstructed in the 19th century.
Neoclassicism •
Neoclassicism developed in the mid C18th as a conscious response to the overt

Baroque sumptuousness. This period became a return to the most basic
architectural forms of (Greek and Etruscan) classicism.
Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720 – 1778) popularised the Neoclassical approach
in Rome. His inspired grand scale engravings of the city’s ruins were widely
circulated and his theoretical writings asserted the superiority of classical Rome
over Greece.
• Piranesi Santa Maria del Priorato Rome Lazio
Giuseppe Mengoni (1829 – 1877) created Italy’s finest example of design in iron
and glass, in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle in Milan Lombardy. This was an
original piece of urban planning that reinforced and symbolised Milan’s position
as the commercial hub of an emerging nation state.
Fascism and Modernism

Fascist and Modernist architecture emerged from a reaction to the limitations
and constraints of the historical styles and dictums adopted by Neoclassicism.
10 171
Urban plan, Noto / Avolo Art Nouveau’s sinewy forms, in their rejection of the classics in favour of a
plastic sculptural design language, influenced European architecture at the
beginning of the 20th Century. The Art Nouveau movement gave rise to the
BAROQUE
Futurist movement and with it Antonio Sant’ Elia (1888 – 1916) who envisaged,
Noto was flattened by an earthquake in 1693 and rebuilt in the Baroque style by albeit unrealised, the vibrant high rise metropolis of the future that would be
the noble families of the city. Mostly designed by Rosario Gagliardi and dominated by frenetic activity and mass transport systems. The only example of
Vincenzo Sinatra, the city is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. The city’s Sant’ Elia’s, and indeed the Futurist’s, work is the Monument to the Fallen in
main buildings are organised along the Corso Vittorio Emmanuelle and focused Como, Lombardy.
around Piazza Municipio. The consistent visual imagery of the city’s
The period defining Fascist architecture formed under Mussolini’s reign, when
architecture is made through the Baroque detailing and the use of the soft
he directed massive building programs across the country. New towns were
golden toned tufa stone.
designed as prototypical communities for the new empire. Chief architect of the
Adjacent is the town of Avolo, designed in 1693 by the Sicilian architect, Fra Fascist movement was Guiseppe Terragni (1904 – 1943) who founded the
Angelo Italia, also following the earthquake. Gruppo 7, comprising Italy’s seven most progressive interwar architects. This
Modelled as an opportunity to realise an ideal gridded city, Noto is planned on a group forged the language of Fascist architecture to use new materials in a
hexagonal grid with 5 squares organized in a cross, the largest in the centre and modern way, to capitalise on space and light where rational forms and lines
the others as terminal features of the arms. The symmetry is reinforced by the were cleared of the decorations and elaborations of past styles. New towns
paired rhythm of the six town churches located bilaterally to the the main axis. such as Littorio, Lazio were designed as prototypical communities for the new
empire.
After World War II, themes of memory, the relationship with history and the
search for a new identity became the central concerns for Italian architecture.
The Torre Velasca in Milan, Lombardy, by BPR architects, is an intellectual
interpretation of the disappearing medieval city and supported the theory of
continuity put forward by Bruno Zevi (1918 – 1999) and Ernesto Rogers (1909 –
1969).
In the 1960’s and 70’s, architectural theories were overshadowed by the work of
individuals. Ignazio Gardella (1905 – 1999) rejected exhibitionism in favour of
the value of materials and forms. Carlo Scarpa (1906 – 1978) was infused with
a personal poeticism of refined materials, layers and planes defining spaces.
• Scarpa Tomb Brion, Treviso, Veneto
Olivetti Showroom, Venice, Veneto
Castelvecchio, Verona, Veneto
Pier Luigi Nervi (1891 – 1979) was a structural engineer who popularised the
use of sculptural reinforced concrete. His work was true to, and explored the
plastic and elastic nature of, reinforced concrete and, as such, has proved
timeless.
170 11
• Nervi Termini Rome, Lazio Piazza del Duomo, Syracuse

A more contemporary school of Aldo Rossi (1931–1997), Renzo Piano (1937–)
and Massimiliano Fuksas (1944–) have taken Italian architecture to the world VARIOUS
with a new approach towards human rationalism and technological exploration.
This piazza is the primary focus of secular and non-secular activities in the city.
The organic, slightly ovoid, rectilinear plan shape of the piazza is further
Precis enhanced by its sloping surface towards the south. This slope accentuates the
primacy of the Palazzo Communale and the Cathedral. The piazza is fed by
The attributes of public spaces, streets, built form and the patterns of human
numerous narrow streets from the surrounding area of Ortigia.
use, form the cornerstone of place making. These elements of urban design
and architecture coupled with the evolution of structural, historical and spatial
achievements are readily visible in the secular and non-secular architecture of
Italy.
12 169
DRAWING ITALY
Anfiteatro Romano, Syracuse

ROMAN
This amphitheatre was constructed by the Romans in the C2nd and integrated
into the natural topography of the site. It was used for gladiatorial combat and
horse racing. The elliptical shape is accessed at ground level at the four
cardinals and the seating is fully accessed at the upper level by a covered
walkway.
168
Tuscany
Tuscany is best known for its exemplary architecture, the finest collections of seminal
artworks, distinctive countryside and some of Italy’s finest fresh food and produce. It was Teatro Greco (theatre), Syracuse
from Tuscany in the 15th and 16th centuries that the Renaissance movement originated and
spread its influence. The works of Tuscans, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Brunelleschi ETRUSCAN
and others are relevant to artists and architects throughout history and to this day. Similarly, This 5th century theatre could house 16,000 people and was carved into the
Dante, Petrach and Boccaccio set the form for the unified Italian language in their writings. natural rock of the limestone hill. It was, and still is, used for popular assemblies
Tuscany’s primary drawcards are the historic, artistic, architectural and urban splendours of and staging plays.
Florence, Siena, Pisa, Lucca and Arezzo, and the landscapes featuring seminal hill towns of Nicias said to the Athenian soldiers on the beach at Syracuse;
Montepulciano, San Gimignano, Voltera and Pienza.
“you are yourselves the town, wherever you choose to settle…
it is the men that make the city, not the walls and ships without
them”
[Spiro Kostof : “The City Shaped” p 36]
14 167
DRAWING ITALY TUSCANY
Hilltown urban, Montepulciano

ROMANESQUE / RENAISSANCE
Teatro Greco (theatre), Taormina The highest of Tuscan hills town at 600m above sea level. Montepulciano is set atop a
narrow ridge of volcanic rock overlooking the Valdichiana countryside.
ROMAN
Most of the main architectural elements are located around the central Piazza Grande, which
Spectacularly constructed against the natural contours of Taormina’s Monte functions as the main focus of the town’s secular and non-secular life.
Tauro in the third century BC this is the second largest theatre in Sicily (after
Syracuse). it is subsequently one of the most dramatically sited in the world with • Palazzo Cantucci – used as a cantina
the semicircular seating plan focused around the western stage and complex • Duomo – from the c16th with a plain unfinished façade and interior sculptures by
set construction. Michelozzo
• Palazzo Communale – C13th gothic mansion to which Michelozzo added a C15th tower
still functions as the town hall
• Palazzo Tarugi – an innovative building attributed to Giacomo da Vignola with a public
loggia cut through one corner; and the
• Colonna del Marzocoa – erected within the Piazza Saronarola in 1511 to confirm the
city’s allegiance to Florence
Others include Sangallo’s main gate of the city (the Porta al Prato) and the Chiesa di san
Biagio from 1518 (again to Sangallo’s design featuring two western campaniles).
166 15
Hilltown urban, Pienza

RENIASSANCE Piazza IX Aprile, Taormina
This Renaissance hill town was decreed by Pope Pius II in 1459 as a utopian new town. The
current population of 2,500 belies its originally perceived importance as a model town under MEDIEVAL
the influence of Florentine architect Bernado Rossellino between the short period between Located along Corso Umberto I, the Piazza IX Aprile is a three sided piazza set
1459 to 1462. within the hillside topography of Taormina. Taormina is set on a terrace of
Key sites are all grouped around Piazza Pio II, Rossellino’s centrepiece, which deliberately Monte Tauro and the open edge of the piazza has views to the sea and Mt Etna.
juxtaposes civic and religious buildings, namely il Duomo and the Palazzo Pubblico to The town was set out in the medieval era as the capital of Byzantine Sicily. The
balance the influences of church and state. Other sites of note are: piazza is focused on the Rococo Chiesa San Guiseppe and the austere Chiesa
• Piazza di Spagna, set behind the Palazzo Pubblico San Agostino.
• Porta al Prato to the east and Porta al Ciglio to the west; and
• Corso Rossellino, the main thoroughfare with its ever changing organic and spatial
environments
The city is unchanged since the C16th and represents one of the first examples of
Renaissance town planning since the Roman era.
Zeffirelli filmed much of the movie ‘Romeo and Juliet’ here in the 1960’s.
16 165
Il Campo, Siena
RENAISSANCE
Sicily The spiritual and physical heart of the city of Siena probably laid out on the site of the Roman
Set between mainland Italy and Tunisia within the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily is forum, by the Council of Nine (men of the middle or merchant class) in the C14th and
home to a turbulent history of maritime geography and changing politics. With famously home to the twice annual ritual of the “Palio” horse race.
influences from all quarters, Sicily is a cultural fusion of centuries of varied The square is divided into 9 sectors to reflect each council. The site was chosen as it was
occupation. the intersection of the terzi or thirds of the city, still visible within the primary street patterns
Architecture of Hellenic Greece mixed with Arab craftsmanship, Norman adjacent of Bianchi di Sopra, Bianchi di Sotto and via di Citta.
austerity and Spanish Baroque, is found throughout Sicily. The council fathers noted in 1392;
Travellers over centuries like Goethe and Byron have found that “It redounds to the beauty of the city of Siena and to the satisfaction of
“to see Italy without seeing Sicily is not to have seen Italy at all!” almost all people of the same city that any edifices that are to be made anew
anywhere along the public thoroughfares proceed in line with the existent
buildings and one building shall not stand out beyond another, but they shall
be disposed and arranged equally so as to be of greatest beauty for the
city”.
At the top of the piazza is the Fonte Gaia design by Jacopo Della Quercia in the C15th and
fed by a 500 year old aquaduct.
164 17
DRAWING ITALY
Palazzo Pubblico, Siena

GOTHIC
Also known as the Palazzo Communale, it is one of the purest examples of Italian gothic
architecture. Its spatial dominance is in contrast to its siting at the lowest point of Il Campo.
The building was completed in the mid C13th and crowned by the Torre del Mangia bell
tower.
The three part window arrangement was considered by the council as the benchmark to be
matched for fenestrations around Il Campo’s facades, particularly the lower level Sienese
Gothic arcade.
18
Il Duomo, Siena
GOTHIC
One of Italy’s seminal Gothic churches constructions was commenced in 1196 and largely
completed by 1215. The façade was completed to a design by Giovanni Pisano in 1284. The
Tempio de Cerere, Paestum façade features white, green and red polychromatic marble. Amongst the façade decoration
are numerous projecting gargoyles depicting various animals and mythical figures. Internally
ETRUSCAN the inlaid marble floor is adorned with 56 panels depicting biblical and historical events.
Paestum was founded by Greeks in the 6th century BC and originally known as Adjacent is the Libraria Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), commissioned by Pope Pius III in 1503 to
Poseidonia. The elements of the Roman town are evident, organised around house the books of the Papal order. The walls of the library are covered in vivid frescoes by
the two main streets, the Cardomanus and Decumanus, the Roman Forum and Bernadino Pinturicchio depicting the life of Piccolomini.
amphitheatre and theatre. Three temples remain, designed in the Doric and
Ionic style or orders;
• the Temple of Neptune – from 450BC and the largest of the three temples
with internal walls largely intact
• the Basilica of Hera – built in 550BC is the most complete and oldest
surviving temple and was dedicated to the goddess Hera; and
• the Temple of Ceres – built in the C6th BC
The city was also originally ringed by a Roman wall.
162 19
DRAWING ITALY CAMPANIA
Hilltown urban, San Gimignano

ROMANESQUE
This town is distinguished by its 13 remaining medieval towers. Originally numbering 76,
Various, Pompeii
each symbolizing the power and wealth of the various farm based families.
ROMAN
From the C11th prosperity came with the town’s position on the Lombardy to Rome
pilgrimage route and from the complimentary trade in wine and saffron. Pliny the younger wrote of Pompeii after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79ad
noting
The key built forms are set out along one of the great ridge road / public square combinations
in the world (via San Giovanni and via San Matteo connecting the southern gate Porta San “a town surrounded by a wall with towers and 8 gates”
Giovanni to the northern gate Porta San Matteo and the main public spaces along the way); At the time of the eruption, 20,000 people lived in Pompeii. The town was
• Piazza Della Cisterna – named after the 1273 fountain encapsulated in its centre rediscovered in 1600 however excavations began only in 1748, continuing until
• Piazza Del Duomo, adjoining the Piazza Della Cisterna, upon which stands the Duomo the present, defining more than anywhere else Roman life at the time of Christ.
or Collegiata (one of the most frescoed churches in Tuscany with painting cycles set off Key sites include;
by the Pisan / Romanesque arcades of black and white striped interior marble) • Casa dei Vettii – a courtyard garden in the colonnaded peristyle of the
• Palazzo Publica – with a C13th courtyard and a loggia noted for historic public house, focused around a central pool
proclamations; and • Casi di Farni
• La’ Rocca – built in 1393 to reinforce and preserve Florentine control over the town. • Forum – the ancient marketplace, and
The town in its entirety is dedicated as a World Heritage site • Amphitheatre – constructed out of local stonework and set within the natural
landscape able to hold 5,000 people.
20 161
Hilltown Urban, Volterra

ETRUSCAN
Via San Biagio dei Librai / Roman Decumanus, This original Etruscan settlement was known as Velathri and was an important trading centre
with the Tuscan farming regions. Long periods of conflict with Florence commenced during
Naples the Romanesque and Renaissance periods and ended with the Medici domain triumphing in
the late 1400s.
VARIOUS
Situated on a rocky outcrop, the medieval ramparts dominate the countryside. Four main
The current Via San Biagio dei Librai follows the ancient route of the Roman gates orient the city within the walls, all focused on the central Piazza dei Priori. The piazza
Decumanus. Running east west, the street was set out in the C6th. Of note is is surrounded by the Palazzo dei Priori, Palazzo Pretorio, and the adjacent, irregularly
that both the set out and the width of the street have been maintained over the shaped Piazza San Giovanni featuring the C12th cathedral and the C13th baptistery.
ensuing centuries. What exists now is one of the primary streets of the city
The Teatro Romano and adjacent Roman sites are located on the edge of the town. Much of
including palazzo, churches and a continual marketplace along its busy
the theatre is still intact, enabling a full conception of the space.
thoroughfare.
160 21
Il Duomo / Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence

RENAISSANCE
The original design by Arnolfo di Cambio, was commenced in 1294 and consecrated in 1436.
Galleria Umberto I, Naples
The project was halted for a time due to the Black Death in 1348.
NEOCLASSIC
The Dome was designed by Brunelleschi in 1450, as the winner of a design competition, and
achieved through a unique timber supporting structure with herringboned patterned brickwork Built in 1890, this elegant arcade was modelled on Milan’s Galleria Emanuelle.
laid in cantilevered rings, relying on the use of a climbing lateral support system. It has operated continuously as a public thoroughfare connecting main vistas
The interior is decorated with frescoes by Vasari. The dome’s interior is 155m long and 90m and providing internalised retail spaces.
high and is based around 4 large bays with aisles half the width of the nave bay, all leading It is emblematic of its era in the innovative use of steel and glass as a product of
towards the octagonal base beneath Brunelleschi’s dome. and representing the ingenuity of the industrial revolution.
Each of the four street connections is resolved individually. A portico as a large
shopfront addresses the primary Via Toledo. A curved plan loggia raised on
steps addressing the Via San Carlo opposite the opera house. A scissor stair
configuration addressing substantial level changes to the east entry and an at
grade portal to the small scaled via to the north.
The interior flooring features decorative mosaics depicting maritime themes
towards the centre of the galleria, moving towards simpler geometric patterns in
each of the four arcades.
22 159
Baptistry, Florence
RENAISSANCE
Basilica di Santa Chiara, Naples At its origins, one of the oldest buildings in Florence, dating from the C6th and dedicated to
St John the Baptist.
RENAISSANCE
The octagonal plan form is decorated with green and white marble facades and is famed for
Built in 1328 in the Provencal Gothic style, the church and adjacent convent its three sets of bronze doors, designed by Lorenzo Ghiberti and Pisano. The bas reliefs
incorporate an original Roman wall. The site is located on the Roman depict scenes from the Old Testament. The mosaic interiors date from the C13th.
Decumanus, the current Via San Biagio dei Librai, and immediately adjacent the
Piazza del Gesu Nuovo.
The church takes a basilica form though is unique in that the aisles straddle the
interior and exterior of the nave form. These aisles are at times connected or
separated as chapels, providing focus and structural stability to the higher
basilica form. The church was heavily bombed during World War II and has
since undergone roof reconstruction.
Adjacent the church are cloisters associated with the convent, noted for their
decorative mosaics.
158 23
Campanile, Florence
RENAISSANCE
Located adjacent the Duomo and designed by Giotto in 1334, though completed after his
Castel dell’Ovo, Naples
death by Andrea Pisano and Francesco Talenti.
ROMANESQUE
The lower façade is studded with bas relief’s sculptures by Pisano depicting the Creation of
Man and the Arts and Industries. This fortress was built in the C12th by the Normans to defend the maritime
coastline of Naples. The name is based on the whimsical notion that it was built
The campanile creates a spatial counterpoint both to Il Duomo and within the space of the over an egg placed here by Virgil in Roman times, believing that if the egg
Piazza del Duomo. breaks Naples will fall. The castle is noteworthy as it stands as a seaside
fortification against potential intrusion. As is typical, the form is built out of the
organic seabed base, using local stones, thus forming a homogenous earthen
structure.
24 157
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Campania The palazzo was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1299 as the central seat of Signoria, the
highest level of Florentine government in existence at the time. I eventually became the
The primary region of Italy’s south, Campania is a mix of dramatic coast and palace of Cosimo Medici in the C16th.
remote mountain wilderness. All of this is focussed around the “Mezzogiorno”
metropolis of Naples in the shadows of Mount Vesuvius. Medici commissioned Vasari to later reorganize the interior into a series of uniquely
conceived rooms. The central internal courtyard is designed by Michelozzo.
Etruscan relics are to be found at Paestum though Roman life is encapsulated
at Pompeii and Herculaneum following Vesuvius’ eruption in AD79. It is crowned by the Torre d’Arnolfo, a primary vertical landmark of the city of Renaissance
architecture.
156 25
DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Palazzo Medici, Florence

RENAISSANCE
The palazzo was designed by Michelozzi, one of Brunelleschi’s students, between 1444 and
Various, Ostia Antica
1446 for the Medici family as their principle residence.
ROMAN
This three storey palazzo design embodies the principles of symmetry and mathematical
arrangement. The only subsequent exterior modification is the infilling of the open arches Ostia Antica is one of the finest ancient Roman sites, marking the original
with windows designed by Michelangelo in the early C16th. coastline and port of Rome. Situated on the mouth of the Tiber River, it was
founded in the C4th BC and was a strategic centre of defence and trade.
The central courtyard is similarly derived using mathematical proportion systems and the
language of the classics. Many sites are visible including;
The cornice atop the rusticated façade was designed to a classical entablature and related • the main street, Decumanus Maximus – running between the Porta Marina
mathematically to the height of the entire palace. and the Porta Roma
• the baths of Neptune – featuring original mosaics of Neptune and Aphrodite
• the Roman theatre – built by Agrippa housing 3,000 people; and
• the Piazzale delle Corporazioni – the remains of shops and trading offices
where each distinguished themselves with mosaics depicting their wares
It was populated by merchants, sailors and slaves, and serves as a contrast to
the ruins of Pompeii, populated by wealthy Romans.
26 155
Palazzo Pitti, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Villa Lante [gardens], Bagnaia Begun by Brunelleschi in 1458 for the Pitti family, it was later completed by Amannati and
purchased by the Medici family, who added many and various C16th extensions. The
RENAISSANCE palazzo is strategically connected by the Corridoio Vasariano (by Vasari) across the Ponte
The C16th Villa Lante completely dominates the small town of Bagnaia near Vecchio and the River Arno, through the Ufffizi to the Palazzo Vecchio.
Viterbo. The gardens were designed by Vignola for Cardinal Gambara in 1566
and are considered to be his masterpiece and one of the supreme creations of
late Renaissance / Mannerist garden art. The arrangement of the section
through the site is the key spatial organising factor so that the whole garden
could be viewed from the lower entry point. The creation of two slopes between
the three main flat terraces meant that the viewer’s gaze was directed to the top
at all times. The journey to the top though is an exploration of Mannerist
devices and the harmonic use of water and landscape that then evolves onto
the boschetto / wild garden. The “villa” itself is two villas, built 20 years apart,
though both conform to the landscape masterplan. The gardens feature five
zones, depicting the progress of a river from its source to the sea. The water
elements are earthen, emerging in the wilderness and transforming down the
slope by the rationality of man’s influence.
154 27
DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Capelle Medicee, Florence

RENAISSANCE / MANNERIST
Designed by Michelangelo in 1520, within the compound of the Basilica San Lorenzo, and
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Roma
located off Piazza Madonna degli Aldobrandini. The chapel is the principal burial place of the
Medici rulers. VARIOUS
The conception of the building is that of an extension of sculpture. The façades of the interior One of Rome’s four patriarchal basilicas and is one of the seven churches of
are all mathematically composed around geometrics of the square and circle. The complete pilgrimage within Rome. It was built on the Esquiline Hill in the 5th century. The
composition is focused on highlighting the various sculptures and the sculptural quality of the main façade is an C18th addition (by Ferdinando Fuga 1741-43), the interior
space. baroque and the bell tower Romanesque. Despite this mixture, the basilican
form of a spacious interior, a nave and two aisles remains intact, somewhat
uniquely as testament to its type and a place of worship. The designs of the
nave columns are based in Vitruvian classical mathematical principles as are
the nave proportions.
28 153
Palazzo Strozzi, Florence

RENAISSANCE
St Ivo allo Sapienza, Roma One of the largest palazzo designed in the late C15th by Benedetto da Maiano. A rounded
rusticated façade ‘pietra forte’ and a cornice was added in the early C16th by Il Cronaca.
BAROQUE The interior features a grand courtyard based on classic proportions.
Designed by Borromini in 1642, this church represents one of the high points in
the high Baroque style and indeed Borromini’s oeuvre. The church is given
prelude by a cloistered forecourt centring the attention on the spiralling dome
above the church. The interior is stark in comparison to other Baroque
churches due to its monochrome simplicity and lack of decoration. The plan
form is a complex resolution of equilateral triangles and semicircles, all
combining into the spiralling ceiling dome above.
152 29
DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Ponte Vecchio, Florence

ROMANESQUE
There has been a bridge lined with shops in this location since Roman times. This present
Centro Termini, Roma
structure was built in 1345, originally housing butchers, tanneries and fishmongers.
MODERN
The enclosed passage above is the Corridoio Vasariano, built in 1565 to allow the Medici’s to
walk from the Palazzo Pitti to the Palazzo Vecchio, across the River Arno through the Uffizi, Rome’s central rail terminus was designed by Pier Luigi Nervi in 1965. Typical
and in isolation from the general populous below. of Nervi’s style, the expressed organic use of sculptural reinforced concrete is
prevalent. The undulating linear form of the roof and ceiling reinforces the flow
of traffic for the passengers. All minor spaces and many subsequent additions
are organised as free standing design objects under the primary roof space.
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Uffizi / Corridoio Vasariano, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Piazza di Santa Maria in Trastevere, Roma Designed by Vasari between 1560 and 1574 for Cosimo I, and located between Piazza dei
Signoria, Palazzo Vecchio and the River Arno.
VARIOUS
The loggia along the Piazza della Uffizi is used to dramatic spatial effect including the
This piazza is the heart and core of the Trastevere area of Rome. It is clerestory lighting of the space integrated into the façade design as a window focus.
dominated with the church Santa Maria in Trastevere, which is believed to be
the oldest place of worship in Rome dedicated to the Virgin Mary with a history
dating back to and depicted by the C4th and C12th mosaics.
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Palazzo Davanzati, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Located within Piazza Davanzati on via Porta Rossa, this palazzo was designed in the late
Pope Paul VI Audience Hall, Roma
C14th from a classical language. The large ground floor of the palazzo housed shops and
warehouses with the upper floors used as living quarters. MODERN
The façade comprises 5 storeys, each diminishing in height as they ascend, with the upper Located along the Piazzale Petriano within the Vatican City and designed by
storey being an open loggia format. This reduction in ascending height has the effect of an Pier Luigi Nervi between 1964 and 1971. The hall has a capacity of 15,000
exaggerated perspective, increasing the palazzo’s apparent height. The interior is focussed people and is a unique blend of acoustics, participator vision and structural
around a central courtyard. efficiency. The trapezoidal plan unites with the innovative use of an exposed
reinforced concrete structure to create a contemporary design within the largely
historical Vatican City context.
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Chiesa di Santo Spirito, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Villa Farnese, Roma Located on Piazza Santo Spirito and designed by Brunelleschi in 1434 (one of his last
projects) and finished in 1482. It was later described by Bernini as the most beautiful church
RENAISSANCE in the world.
One of the most important palazzo built in Rome, it was designed by Antonio da The plan features a Latin cross configuration with a unique curved outer wall diaphragm
Sangallo the Younger in 1534. The work was commissioned by Cardinal system, providing 38 semicircular side altars surrounding the central nave and aisle.
Farnese, later Pope Paul III, and is located on the Piazza Farnese adjacent the
Tiber. The ceiling of the nave features a painted trompe l’œil coffered effect.
The design and construction was carried out until Sangallo’s death in 1546, after
which it was completed by Michelangelo. Indeed Michelangelo won the design
competition for the cornice, excised from the main project, and is responsible for
much of the third level of the interior courtyard.
Given Sangallo’s Florentine base, the exterior façade gains texture by unstriated
quoins and the tabernacle style of windows set in plain walls of masonry.
The building has for many years functioned as the French Embassy in Rome.
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DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Basilica di San Lorenzo, Florence

RENAISSANCE
The basilica was constructed from 1419 to 1446 to Bruneleschi’s design as the parish church
Esposizione Universale di Roma, Roma
of the Medici family. It is claimed to be the oldest church in Florence and was the city
cathedral for three centuries. FASCIST
Located on the Piazza San Lorenzo, the design is based on a mathematically derived, large Mussolini ordered the construction of this satellite city for an international
Latin cross and planned around a square nave crossing supported by a smaller square choir exhibition to be held in 1942. The site contains a focus of Fascist architecture of
and smaller square chapels. The two bronze pulpits are designed by Donatello. the time. The overall layout was won via a design competition jointly by Quaroni,
Muratori, Fariello and Moretti, who merged to develop their ideas. The outbreak
of war saw that the competition plans were not realised. Key sites include;
• Palazzo della Civilta Italiana designed by Ernesto La Padula, Giovanni
Guerini and Mario Romano, the spiritual focus of the site on the western
end of the main axis
• Palazzo dei Ricevimenti e dei Congressi designed by Adalberto Libera
between 1937-54. Regarded as one of the seminal buildings of the Modern
era on the eastern end of the main axis.
• Palazzo dell’Ina e dell’Infp.s designed by Giovanni Muzio, Mario Paniconi
and Guilio Pediconi between 1939-1943; and the
• Piazza Imperiale designed in the masterplan as the focus of the site.
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Capella dei Pazzi, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Chiesa di San allo Quattro Fontane, Roma Designed by Brunelleschi in the 1430’s, the building is based around a domed central square
with one side opened to a small choir.
BAROQUE
The interior space is geometrically balanced by the external vestibule, with its harmonious
This was the first church designed by Borromini in Rome in 1641. The plan lines and restrained terracotta decoration. It is considered to be one of the finest creations of
form and subsequent resolution into ceilings and roof form represent the Renaissance architecture.
accomplishment of complexities tackled and achieved by Baroque architecture
and indeed Borromini. The elliptical form is reduced in its skyward thrust by a
series of distorted cross forms, distorted hexagons and lozenge shapes to form
the three dimensional ceiling form.
The adjacent cloister was designed at the same time and features numerous
devices exploring the spatial form and creating “movamento” with the space
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Palazzo Rucellai, Florence

RENIASSANCE
Designed by Alberti in 1450, this is the first palazzo to apply the classical orders to the design
Chiesa di S. Andrea, Roma
of a façade composition. As such the building has an antique air and a degree of textures
and layers within the façade. BAROQUE
The façade design is based on (alternating) mathematical rhythms and features a base of Considered to be one of Bernini’s career masterpieces the church is focused on
Tuscan pilasters. The piano nobile is a rich Corinthian style completed by the lighter an elliptical plan compressed upon entry with a series of surrounding chapels.
Corinthian top floor. The façade composition is unfinished as can be made out on the The plan is intended to move the occupant around the spatial experience at all
incomplete right end of the building. times, thus blurring the conception of Christ as the central focus. The street
façade is given theatrical width by the use of the entry forecourt design.
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Chiesa di San Miniato al Monte, Florence

ROMANESQUE
Chiesa San Eligio degli Orefici, Roma Regarded as one of the finest examples of Tuscan Romanesque architecture in Italy this
church is located on a steep hill in the Oltarno district, off Piazzale Michelangelo, the church
RENAISSANCE was commenced in 1090.
Located on the Lungotevere dei Tebaldi alongside the Tiber, the design is The final façade was added years later and is based on an antique derivative. The columns,
attributed to Raphael and Bramante together in 1509. It was built for the Guild arches and pediments are, in this case, further accentuated by the contrast of façade colours
of Goldsmiths and is based on the Greek cross planning format. The compact and materials.
site has driven a compressed planning and façade solution that demonstrates
Bramante’s experimentalism and design skills.
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Palazzo Pazzi, Florence

RENAISSANCE
This palazzo was completed between 1462 and 1470 and is attributed to Brunelleschi or
Font Trevi, Roma
indeed his school of influence.
BAROQUE
The palazzo features a rugged earthen base though with an upper two floors more
associated with the then trend towards smoothness and planar features. The building also This high baroque construct dominates the adjacent piazza and was designed
features an interior courtyard. by Nicola Salvi in 1732.
With water supplied out of an original aquaduct, the name originates from the tri
vie, the three roads that converge at the fountain. The fountain design
represents the, at times, wild and docile moods of the sea.
Fellini’s 1960s movie “La Dolce Vita” featured the fountain as a focus as did
Marcello Mastriani’s “Three Coins in the Fountain”.
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Boboli Gardens, Florence

RENAISSANCE / MANNERIST
Palazzetto dello Sport, Roma The design was determined in response to and in an endeavour to maximise the effect of the
natural lie of the land. The design was carried out by Triboli in the early 1500s and finished
MODERNIST thereafter by Ammannati. It features sculptures by Baccio and is focused around a central
Located on the Piazza Appollodoro and designed by Pier Luigi Nervi for the amphitheatre.
1960 Rome Summer Olympics. The domed structure is an icon of the Axial design is employed along the long alley focused on the fountain of Neptune and the
Modernist design era and features the innovative use of exposed reinforced steeply undulating lateral avenue towards the wild garden. The various areas of the garden
concrete. The plan format comprises 36 radial sectors that unite in an organic complex are of complex geometries and forms, often conceived unto themselves, and
form as the spherical roof structure. paradoxically designed in the Mannerist style.
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DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Piazza della Signoria, Florence

ROMANESQUE / RENAISSANCE
This public space represents the hub of the city’s secular life and has done so for many
Il Gesu, Roma
centuries. It is the original site of the ancient Roman forum.
MANNERIST
The piazza is dominated by the Palazzo Vechhio and features Ammannati’s Fountain of
Neptune sculpture as well as a copy of Michelangelo’s David. The Loggia dei Signoria faces The great Jesuit church is set upon the Piazza del Gesu. It was consecrated in
the piazza and was built in the C14th as a platform for public address. It has since become a 1584 and is the work of Tristiani and Giovanni de Rosis. The church was a
sculpture hall housing, amongst others, Giambologna’s Rape of the Sabine Women. prototype for the large congregational churches that were built around Rome as
a result of the Counter Reformation. The single broad nave and short transept
was ideally suited for large congregational preaching.
The fresco trompe l’oeil in the ceiling is carved to the ultimate extreme
spreading over architectural features to complete an illusionary three
dimensional spatial effect.
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Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Florence

ROMANESQUE / GOTHIC
Colosseum, Roma The basilica was commenced in 1246 as a base for the Dominican order, located off the
Piazza Santa Maria Novella. The nave was begun in 1279 and the main doorway designed
ROMAN by Alberti around 1470. The façade is influenced by Alberti’s pursuit of mathematical
Started by Vespasian in 72AD, in the grounds of Nero’s private Domus Area, harmony using the repetitive square form to ground the composition.
and originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre. The structure could hold The design represents a compromise between the high French gothic period and the classic
50,000 spectators, often viewing gladiatorial games featuring live animals. The Italian Renaissance heritage.
outer façade is composed of three levels of arches articulated by Ionic columns.
Originally the façade was travertine covered and the 80 entrance portals The distance between the nave columns diminishes with proximity to the altar, a device
allowed spectators to be seated or exit within minutes. making the nave appear longer than is the reality.
Lord Byron wrote; The Gothic interior features Masaccio’s fresco of the Trinity, completed in 1428 and one of
the first artworks to utilise perspective.
“Arches on arches! As it were that Rome, collecting the chief
trophies of her line, would build up all her triumphs in one
dome, her colosseum stands…”
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Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence

RENAISSANCE
This Franciscan church is located on Piazza di Santa Croce and was begun in 1294 to a
Spanish Steps, Roma
design by Arnolfo di Cambio, though the façade and campanile are C19th in execution. The
interior features three naves of a grand scale with austere finishing. RENAISSANCE
The interior contains the tombs of Michelangelo, Machiavelli and Galileo. Named after the nearby Spanish embassy, the staircase was built in 1725 and
leads from the Piazza di Spagna up to the French church Trinita dei Monti. At
the base of the steps is the sculpture Barcaccia by Pietro Bernini. The site
serves as one of Rome’s most popular outdoor rooms, a renowned and legible
meeting and dwelling place.
42 139
Spedale Degli Innocenti, Florence

RENAISSANCE
Piazza dei Cavalieri di Malta, Rome Located of the Piazza della SS Annunziata and built between 1419 and 1424 to
Bruneleschi’s design of the external façade and loggia.
NEOCLASSICAL
The design is rooted in a Tuscan Romanesque style with classical references of round
Located in the Aventino district, it was designed by the engraver Piranesi in the arches, vaults consisting of small domes mounted on the external columns, and wall corbels.
late C18th. The piazza features obelisks and trophies of arms replicating
antiquity and is formed within a landscape setting. The western façade features
the famous view through the keyhole to the door leading towards the dome of St
Peters framed by trees. Within the compound to the west is the church Santa
Maria del Priorati, also designed by Piranesi.
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Piazza Anfiteatro, Lucca

ROMANESQUE
Built on the foundations of the Roman Amphitheatre, some of whose arches and columns
Terme Caracalla, Rome
may still be discerned. The resultant oval shaped piazza is somewhat unique when coupled
with the uneven heights of the surrounding perimeter buildings. The continuity of the space ROMAN
is further enhanced by the varietal yellow / white ochres of the façade colouring. Begun by Septimus Severus in 206 and inaugurated by his son, Caracalla, in
207, the baths were supplied by natural aquaducts. Able to accommodate
1,600 bathers at a time, the often luxurious design reflected the materials and
wealth of the era. The bath played an enormous part of daily Roman life and
the process of bathing was often a complex and formal process given
expression by the architecture.
The two main forms with the baths are the thermae, a bathing area, and the
palaestra or exercise zones.
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City Walls, Lucca

RENAISSANCE
Campo dei Fiori, Roma Lucca’s town walls date from the Renaissance period and were originally conceived as the
complete design device to ward off neighbouring threats to the city. Due to Lucca’s position
VARIOUS over history as a peaceful town, including over 500 years as an independent republic, the
A vibrant square focussed on the daily fruit and vegetable markets and a key walls have remained untested and, in turn, intact.
historic and social focus within the centre of Rome. Curiously the piazza was a
place of public execution during the Inquisition.
At present it is one of the clearest examples of mixed use functions and the 24
hour life of an Italian public space.
During the course of each day the morning markets give way to a variety of daily
eating establishments that in turn evolve into evening entertainment venues. All
surrounded by a variety of working and living environments.
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San Michele in Foro, Lucca

ROMANESQUE
San Michele is one of the most ornate and complete Pisan Romanesque church facades in
Dives in Misericordia, Roma
Italy. Originally constructed between the C11th and C14th, the decoration features pagan
figures and is crowned by St Michele. CONTEMPORARY
Aspects of Pisan Romanesque include blind arcading, extensive sculptural decoration and Located in suburban Rome and designed by American architect Richard Meier
the stepped arcade on the gable front as well as the use of polychromatic local stonework. to coincide with Jubilee 2000. In the architect’s words, “the circle is used to
The interior is typically Romanesque based on square plan formats and semicircular arches. represent perfection, the dome of the heavens. The square represents the
earth, the floor elements and the rational intellect”.
Both the plan and section are driven by a combination of circular, spherical and
rectilinear elements. The spherical solid shells shield the sun out of the church.
The uniform white exterior façade panel colouring contrasts with the rich light
coloured timbers of the interior.
46 135
Cattedrale San Martino, Lucca

ROMANESQUE
Mausolea di Santa Costanza, Roma The town’s Cattedrale is located on the Piazza San Martino and was begun in 1070 with its
campanile serving as a defensive tower.
BYZANTINE
The asymmetrical façade was composed in the Pisan Romanesque style during the C13th,
This church was originally the tomb of Princess Constantia, dating from the featuring decorative columns, loggias and the atrium all designed by the architect Guidetto
C4th, and was later transformed into a baptistery. Consecrated in 1254 and da Como, with façade carvings by Nicola Pisano.
dedicated to Santa Costanza, the interior features mosaics among the earliest
of their kind to survive. The interior is gothic from the C15th and features the venerated Volto Santo or Face of
Christ, the focus of an annual Christian pilgrimage.
The circular plan form with outer colonnade is reminiscent of other Byzantine
churches and as such is somewhat unique within Rome. The circle is divided
into twelve approximately equal sectors to resolve the domed structure above.
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DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Campo di Miracola, Pisa

ROMANESQUE
The Campo is a lawn filled square featuring the Cathedral, Baptistry and Torre Pendente, all
Il Tempietto, Roma
of which were financed by the Pisan looting of the Arabs in Sicily.
RENAISSANCE
The Cathedral was begun in 1064 and was a model for Romanesque churches throughout
Italy. Its external cladding of green and cream marble was characteristic of what was to Set within the courtyard of St Pietro in Montorlo high above the Trastevere area
become Pisan Romanesque architecture. and designed by Bramante in 1502. The small temple was originally intended to
encompass the entire remodelling of the courtyard. It is seen as one of the
The Baptistry was started in 1153 by Diostisalvi and features a lower level of Pisan purest mathematical constructs of its era. The temple is located on the precise
Romanesque influence, though the upper levels and dome were completed in the Gothic spot of the martyrdom of St Peter, “inter duas metas”, and was built for
style. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The circular plan form, the martyrium rather
The Torre Pendente, or Leaning Tower, was designed by Bonanno Pisano and was starting than the basilica type, recognised the C16th pursuit of commemorative
to tilt even during construction. Recent engineering attempts to arrest the continued lean monuments to compliment the congregational basilicas. The plan consists of
appear to be successful. two concentric cylinders, the low and wide peristyle and the tall and narrow
cella. The width of the peristyle is equal to the height of the cella excluding the
dome. The dome is hemispherical internally and externally and is therefore
proportioned to the height of the cella. The building embodies Bramante’s view
that good contemporary architecture grew out of good ancient architecture in the
same way that Christianity had grown out of the ancient world.
48 133
Romanesque Town, Arezzo

ROMANESQUE
Santa Maria della Pace, Roma Set within the former Etruscan and Roman city, Arezzo became a prosperous independent
republic in the middle ages. Piazza Grande represents the main public space of the city and
RENAISSANCE is fronted by:
The church is set within the Piazza della Santa Maria della Pace, just adjacent • Pieve di Santa Maria – the C12th Romanesque church has an arcaded façade, more
the Piazza Navona. Set onto the piazza, the façade takes the form of a theatre associated with that of western Tuscan influence, and unusually presents its front to the
set to encompass the complete northern end of the piazza. small laneway rather than the adjacent Piazza Grande.
The plan of the church features an octagonal nave and rectilinear aisle. The • Palazzo della Fraternita dei Laici – designed in 1375 in Gothic / Renaissance style,
square plan cloister was designed by Bramante in 1504 and is noted for its two featuring a bas relief of Madonna and Child by Bernando Rosselino. The bell tower was
storeyed façade composition of arches and pilasters. added in 1550 by the Arezzo native Giorgio Vasari
The upper storey configuration breaks the rules of solid on solid and void on • Palazzo Tribunale – based again on Vasari’s design; and
void by placing the pilaster on the centre, or upper part, of the lower arches. • Palazzo della Lodge – designed by Vasari in 1573.
Bramante achieved compositional balance in this cloister by the use of In addition, other buildings of note are:
proportion, scale and perspective. • Chiesa Di San Domenico fronting the Piazza Di San Domenico,
• Chiesa Di San Francesca; and
• Chiesa Badia Delle Santa Flora e Lucilla by Vasari.
Further, Roberto Benigni filmed the popular movie ‘Life is Beautiful’ here in the late 1990’s.
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DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
Basilica di San Pietro, Roma

Liguria
Liguria is part of the northwest corner of Italy, dominated by the coast and set RENAISSANCE
against a mountainous backdrop. The coast is dotted with medieval towns, Pope Nicholas V chose architects, including Leon Battista Alberti, to design the
though is geographically dominated by the historic and majestic seaport of basilica in the mid C15th. Pope Julius II employed Donato Bramante to design
Genoa. This port once formed a key trade route to the rest of the world. The the new basilica, based on a Greek cross plan with a central dome and four
coast also functions as a major tourist attraction, especially the Cinque Terre smaller surrounding domes.
and Portofino, forming the eastern sector of the Italian Riviera.
Other contributors to designs within the basilica include Raphael, Antonio da
Sangallo, Michelangelo and Giacomo della Porta. Michelangelo took over the
design of the dome in 1547. After Michelangelo’s death, Maderno expanded
Bramante’s Greek cross into a Latin cross format. The forecourt Piazza San
Pietro was designed by Bernini in the late C17th as a place for the world’s
Christians to gather upon pilgrimage. The forecourt is surrounded by two
semicircular colonnades set apart to form an elliptical space. Each colonnade is
four columns deep, creating a simple loggia surrounding the forecourt.
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DRAWING ITALY LIGURIA
Villa Medici, Roma Seaside urban, Cinque Terre

RENAISSANCE VARIOUS
The villa was built on the Pincian Hill and integrated within a garden setting on These five seaside towns, Monterosso al Mare, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola
the probable site of the Roman Incullus gardens. It was designed by Annibale and Riomaggiore, forming what is known as the Cinque Terra are collectively
Lippi in 1544 for Cardinal Ricci, with an austere street façade unchanged since listed as a World Heritage site. Largely inaccessible by road, they are
that date. connected by rail and a precipitous cliff-side walk. The villages date back to the
C11th, originally seaports though currently diversified into wine, fruit and, in
recent times, world recognised tourism.
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Cattedrale di San Lorenzo, Genoa Auditorium Parco della Musica, Roma

GOTHIC CONTEMPORARY
The Cathedral was consecrated in 1118 with the addition of bell towers and Located amongst the 1960 Rome Summer Olympics precinct, this project was
cupola in the C16th. The highly decorated façade is the most striking feature of designed by Renzo Piano and completed in 2003. Its design had to be
the church, comprising black and white striped marble in the Gothic style with amended numerous times to incorporate Roman ruins unearthed during the
twisting columns. excavation. The design features three main performance spaces profiled
against the sky and set upon a platform of support facilities and circulation
routes. The planning disposition of the three performance spaces creates an
outdoor fourth performance amphitheatre.
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DRAWING ITALY
Villa Giulia, Roma

MANNERIST
Originally designed as a late Renaissance / Mannerist pleasure house, featuring
an integrated garden in the style of a classic Roman suburban villa. Built for
Pope Julius III, shortly after his election in 1550, the villa was the design work of
a range of individuals. Michelangelo supervised the plans, whilst Vignola and
Vasari all designed various segments. Ammanati is responsible for the strong
connections to the villa planning and geometrics. The garden layout is noted for
its Mannerist deviations away from the fundamentally axial and balanced layout
and pathways.
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Piedmont Piazza Navona, Roma

Much of Italy’s C20th industrial boom had its roots in the Piedmont and the area
has long been associated with labour movements, intellectual activity and ROMAN
political action. Originally laid out on Domitian’s stadium used for chariot racing. The piazza is
The region is nestled amongst the French and Swiss Alps, thus often forging a lined with Baroque palazzi and is focused along three pivotal fountains.
differing sense of identity amongst the Piedmontese as opposed to mainland The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Fountain of the Four Rivers) is the most famous
Italy. These influences affect not only the topography but also cuisine and the of the fountains. It was designed by Bernini to depict the Nile, Ganges, Danube
language. and Plate Rivers.
Within the piazza is the Chiesa Santi Agnese in Agone, which features a façade
designed by Borromini, Bernini’s bitter rival. It is held that the statues of
Bernini’s fountain are shielding their eyes in disgust from Borromini’s church.
This can be countered by the allegory of the Nile looking away as it is unsure of
its source.
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DRAWING ITALY PIEDMONT
Il Campidoglio, Roma Piazzas and Arcades, Turin

RENAISSANCE
Turin is noted for its expansive piazzas and connecting, elegant porticoed
Pope Paul III commissioned Michelangelo to design the Capitol Hill in 1546. boulevards. Most noteworthy are:
Whilst the Capitol had always been the centre of government and often referred
to as Caput Mundi, the centre of the world, the execution took some 100 years • Piazza Carlo Felice – a combined square and garden opposite the Stazione
from the time of commissioning, being finished after Michelangelo’s death. The Porta Nuova built by Mazzucchetti in 1865,
central square is lined by three buildings; the Palazzo Senatorio, the Palazzo • Piazza San Carlo – the square is surrounded by porticoes and is focused on
Nuovo and the Palazzo Consenatorio. It is shaped in a trapezoid focused on the the twin Baroque churches of Chiesa di San Carlo and Chiesa di Santa
statue of Marcus Aurelius and accentuates the Palazzo Consenatorio. The Cristina. It is connected further north by via Roma to Piazza Castello
square is oriented to face the modern city rather than the ancient forum and the • Piazza Castello – the heart of the historic centre of Turin. The piazza was
piazza is approached from the Cordonata, a stepped ramp. All the palazzi laid out of C14th in a Baroque style to serve the House of Savoy. It is
feature the Giant Order of pilasters or columns running through two whole enclosed with Baroque façades including the C14th Palazzo Madonna and
storeys, serving to tie the elevation together. This also allows the lower storey to Chiesa di San Lorenzo. It is connected eastwards along via Po to Piazza
carry entablatures rather than arches. The relationship of the smaller columns of Vittorio Veneto
the upper level tabernacle windows, the giant pilasters and lower level columns • Piazza Vittorio Veneto – the focus of university life and adjacent the River
is complex and emblematic of the Mannerist love of complexity and formal Po where the colonnades are based on a recurring double grid pattern
contradictions.
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DRAWING ITALY LAZIO
The Pantheon, Roma

Chiesa di San Lorenzo, Turin
ROMAN
BAROQUE
Perhaps the best preserved building of ancient Rome the original temple was
Located on Piazza Castello, this church was designed by Guarino Guarini in the built by Marcus Agrippa in 27BC.
C16th in the late Baroque style. The exterior façade is simple in form and
material, though heavily contrasted against the richly complex and decorated The dramatic and imposing interior features the largest masonry vault ever built,
interior. The form of the church is set within a square and circle composition, all based on a circular section and plan format, the hemisphere dome, is
with a Greek cross format utilising a set of complex, overlaying circular forms to considered one of the most important achievements of ancient Roman
resolve the overhead dome. architecture. The dome itself is made of solid concrete and exerts no side thrust
at all on the supporting columns.
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DRAWING ITALY PIEDMONT
Piazza di San Ignazio Fiat Factory, Lingotto

ROCOCO MODERN / CONTEMPORARY
Located in the rione or quarter of Rome known as the Campo di Marzio or Field This complex was originally designed in the early C20th as the primary factory
of Mars the area became densely populated by the middle ages and was often and support offices for the Fabbrica Italiana di Antomobili Torino (FIAT) car
referred to as ”the oldest part of Rome”. The Piazza di San Ignazio stands as company. Most notably, the design includes a test race track integrated into the
one of the finest Rococo creations of urban Italy. Whilst dominated by the roof of the building. Later extensions and refurbishments have been carried out
Baroque façade of Chiesa di San Ignazio constructed between 1626 and 1685 by the world renowned Pritzker Award winning Italian architect, Renzo Piano.
the piazza is given its sculptural character by the surrounding group of
apartment and office buildings. These buildings were designed in 1727 by
Raguzzini and feature a similar language of highly detailed Rococo façades.
The piazza is based in plan on a series of interlocking ellipses that reverberate
from the spatial construct of the apartments through to the ornate façade
detailing of cornices, entry portals and pediments.
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Palazzo Della Cencelleria, Roma

Lombardy
Lombardy has a complex history, influenced over centuries by its geographic RENAISSANCE
confluence between France, Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Designed and built between 1486 and 1496, this three storey Palazzo has a
It features a diversity of landscapes, from the northern Alps to the rich alluvial façade based on mathematical principles and proportion similar to those
plains of the River Po. The region is known for its range and quality of cuisine practised by Alberti. The primary façade fronts the Piazza della Cencelleria
and is focussed on the industrial and economic powerhouse of Milan. between the Campo di Fiori and Corso Vittorio Emanuelle II.
The design was influenced by Bramante, and the courtyard is attributed to him.
The palace was begun for Cardinal Riario and taken over as the Papal
Chancery. The façade consists of a high podium base with two storeys above,
both comprising pilastered facings. The base is punctuated with small unstriated
windows, thus forming a contrast to the lighter upper levels. The façade
composition is based on a repetitive “ABABAB” rhythm and is geometrically
aligned with the Golden Section principles. The façade used subtle layering and
little decoration to express depth and modulation. The internal courtyard is
equally mathematically derived featuring vertical gradation from columns at the
base levels to pilasters on the upper level.
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DRAWING ITALY LOMBARDY
Pirelli Tower, Milan

Lazio
The Lazio region was formally decreed in 1934 and has largely served as an MODERN
extension of Rome since Roman times. Through the ages, the wealthy Designed by Studio BBPR in the late 1950s, this office tower is based on a
established villas in the Lazio countryside and small towns developed as contemporary abstraction of a medieval tower. The structure features
fiefdoms for the Olsini, Barberini and Farnese families. expressed columns located to the exterior of the curtain wall. Windows within
The region is now clearly dominated by Rome, the eternal city with its historic the façade are located in a random format to further reinforce the medieval
showcase operating as a living museum set within an evolving, vibrant city. abstract of fenestration.
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DRAWING ITALY
Il Duomo, Milan
GOTHIC
The Cathedral was commissioned in 1386 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti and
stands as a highlight of the Italian late Gothic style and a symbol of Gothic
architecture in Milan and Italy.
The structural system of lateral flying buttresses supports a central spine 108m
above the Piazza del Duomo. The plan is based on the Latin cross with the
nave split into rectangular lateral bays. Each side features two aisles, both
composed on a square plan format.
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Hill town urban, Orvieto Santa Maria Presso San Satiro, Milan
ROMANESQUE / GOTHIC RENAISSANCE
Dominating the town is the Cathedral on Piazza del Duomo. Commenced in Bramante’s earliest known building designed in the 1480’s is noted for two
1290 by Pope Urban IV, and originally conceived in the Romanesque style, the features.
design evolved into a Gothic form, primarily endowed within the façade. The first is the east end, which is constructed as a perspective illusion showing
Other sites in Orvieto include; Bramante’s deep influences as a painter under the guidance of Piero Della
• C12th Torre del Moro Francesca. The design positions architectural space as a series of planes and
• The C12th Romanesque Chiesa di Sant’ Andrea, located in the heart of voids, like those found within a painting, rather than a series of three
Orvieto on Piazza della Republica, once the Roman forum dimensional solids as found in sculpture.
• Palazzo del Popolo located on Piazza del Popolo designed in the C12th in a The second is Bramante’s adaptation of the Greek cross plan in the baptistery,
mixed Romanesque Gothic style thus blending early Christian with Florentine Renaissance architectural logic,
• La Rocca designed in the C14th as a fortress at the eastern edge of the seen as a precursor to many Italian churches of the C16th and C17th including
town. St Peters in Rome.
The town is typical in that it is focused around both a secular and non-secular
public place and adjoining supportive buildings.
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DRAWING ITALY UMBRIA
Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle II, Milan Hill town, Spoleto

NEOCLASSIC ROMAN / VARIOUS
Whilst almost destroyed by World War II bombing, the Galleria survives as il Spoleto is a seminal Umbrian hill town dominated by the Rocca Albornoziana.
Salotto di Milano (Milan’s drawing room). The original town is laid out on Roman town planning principles of the Cardo
Set on the edge of the Piazza del Duomo, it was designed by Guiseppe and Decumanus. Other Roman sites include;
Mengoni as one of the first European buildings using iron and glass as structural • Teatro Romano – this Roman C1st theatre is still in use
elements. • Arco di Druso e Germanico, the Roman ruins marking the entrance to the
The four floor mosaics around the central octagon represent Europe, Africa, ancient forum
Asia and the Americas. • Ponte delle Torri erected in the C14th on the foundations of the Roman
aquaduct. Also notable is the;
• C14th Cathedral set upon the sloping Piazza del Duomo
• The Piazza del Mercato, still the scene of daily markets
• the C12th Chiesa di Sant’ Eufermia is noted for the matronei galleries set
above the main church to segregate the female congregation, and
• the secular centre of town, the Piazza della Liberta.
62 119
Hill town, Gubbio Old Town, Pavia

VARIOUS ROMAN / ROMANESQUE
Set on the precipitous slopes of Monte Ingino, the centuries old palazzi of Originally the Roman town of Ticinum, Pavia once boasted 100 medieval
Gubbio portray a consistent earthen grey hue. watchtowers, of which three remain on the Piazza di Leonardo da Vinci.
Whilst famous for its C2BC Eugubian Tablets, constituting ancient Umbrian The two main streets Corso Cavour and Corso Strada Nuovo represent the
script, the town was a Roman ally and a key stop along the via Flaminia. The Roman Cardomanus and Decumanus respectively.
town declined with Saracen invasions, eventually to be incorporated into the Currently focussed around the campus of the University of Pavia, other
Papal states. landmarks in the town include the;
Key architectural sites include; • Cathedral, Italy’s third largest, which was started in 1488 with design
• Palazzo dei Consoli located on Piazza Grande and built in the C14th, contributions by both Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante,
designed by Gattapone • Basilicata di San Michele, built in the Romanesque C11th period
• the C13th cathedral on via Ducale featuring a stained glass window by • Porte Coperto designed by Giovanni de Ferrera and Jacopo de Cozzo in
Bernardino Pinturichino 1351 to cross the Ticino River
• Palazzo dei Bargello designed in the C13th.
118 63
Hill Town, Assisi

Hill town, Bergamo
VARIOUS
MEDIEVAL
Located on Monte Subiaso, Assisi is mostly famous as the birthplace of St
Bergamo’s walled hill town, or citta alpa, was a former outpost of the Venetian Francis. The hill town itself is a well preserved example of the fortified town. Its
empire. The town is focussed around Piazza Vecchia and features the C17th largely intact town walls connect to the towering Rocca Maggiore presiding over
Palazzo Nuovo, the C12th Palazzo della Rangione and the Toure del the town. A number of primary roads run laterally across the hillside connecting
Canpanone. the Basilica San Francesca on one side to the Cathedral and the Basilica di
Adjacent is the Piazza del Duomo, the focus of spiritual life, featuring the Santa Chiara on the other.
Romanesque Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the Renaissance Cappella
Colleoni, the octagonal Bapistry and the small Baroque Cattedrale.
The town is connected east to west by Via Gombito and Via Colleoni
respectively.
64 117
Basilica di San Francesco, Assisi Cappella Colleoni, Bergamo

RENAISSANCE RENAISSANCE
Set within the medieval hill town, the Basilica is in fact two churches dedicated Designed by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, a collaborator of Bramante’s, in the
to St Francis. The churches and the site comprise one of the greatest 1470s. The building features a high octagonal drum with dome and lantern.
monuments to C13th and C14th Italian art. This form sits atop a façade that is typical of more decorative treatment to that
The lower church, the “inferior”, is Romanesque and of a lower scaled, more usually seen throughout northern Italy. The overall composition is a mixed style
subdued design. The upper, or “superior”, church was consecrated in 1253 and of classical principles used by Tuscan architects blended into the decorative,
consists of a single nave with low wide proportions and no side aisles. Assisting sculptural northern style.
the structural thrust are external lateral buttresses. The interior of the upper and
lower churches are notably decorated with frescoes by Giotto, Pietro Cavallini,
Simone Martini and Pietro Lorenzetti.
116 65
Basilica di Sant’ Andrea, Mantua Hill town, Perugia

RENAISSANCE VARIOUS
Designed by Alberti in 1472 and set upon the Piazza della Erbe. One of the best preserved Italian hill towns, its tributary roads strike out along
The plan is a Latin cross format with no aisles but rather a series of alternating the topographic ridges towards other towns giving a tentacled format that
chapels and exedra, thus introducing a lateral series of axis in addition to the naturally aid in the original defensive intention. Originally established by the
main nave longitudinal axis. Etruscans in the C3rd BC with the original name of Perusia, the town is primarily
aligned along the Corso Vanucci. This in turn leads to Piazza IV Novembre
The nave features a barrel vaulted ceiling with painted coffers, all based on within which is the central Fontana Maggiore, by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano,
Roman prototypes. an exemplar of fountain design as public urban monument.
The absence of aisles and the inclusion of chapels and exedra in the structural In 1342, the town commune prohibited the destruction of any towers citing them
side walls are important as it pre-empts further work in wide span churches with for their Grandissima Belleza (very great beauty).
lateral structural supports by following architects.
The piazza is flanked by the C14th cathedral and, notably, the C13th Palazzo
The façade is organised around a square geometry set into equal sub squares. dei Priori featuring the vaulted Sala dei Notari on the piano nobile.
The work above the pediment is not that of Alberti.
66 115
Palazzo del Te, Mantua

Umbria
Umbria is representative of thousands of years of culture and history. MANNERIST
Dominated by the mountains of the Apennine, the region was inhabited by Designed and built by Giulio Romano, it was designed in the C16th for Frederick
Etruscans and Romans and then various Popes, who conquered town councils II Gonagra as a summer palace and retreat away from the Palazzo Ducal in
across the region that grew out of the Middle Ages. Similar to Tuscany, it is Mantua. Its façade composition is assembled for the benefit of the cognoscenti.
world famous for its unique landscapes and cuisines. Many, if not all, of the rules of classic proportion and rhythm are broken or
attuned using the tools of bay sizes and arrangements, windows, pediments and
cornices.
Its central focus is the Camera dei Gigantic large scaled room where the focus
on the Mannerist style includes the emphasis on ornament as well as variety
and irregularity. The artworks within this room knowingly intend to blur the
delineation between ceilings and walls, creating other worldly effects. The work
is considered one of the highlights of the High Mannerist design style.
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DRAWING ITALY THE MARCHES
Chiesa San Sebastian, Mantua Hilltown urban, Urbino

RENAISSANCE
RENAISSANCE
Designed by Alberti in 1460 and located along the ceremonial route between the
Palazzo del Te and the Palazzo Ducal. It is based on a Greek cross plan format During the C15th regarded as one of the most prestigious courts in Europe and
and would stand to represent most of Alberti’s theoretical treatise on birthplace to Bramante and Raphael. Scholars have shown how, during the
architecture. The current church has been executed without Alberti’s intended C15th, the skyline was reoriented from the original town and cathedral image
full width flight of entrance steps. Alberti regarded the centrally organised Greek (east view) to that of a south view, depicting the ducal palace and its towered
cross planning format as close to perfect and thus reflecting the perfection of frontispiece. This shift is a clear representation of the changing social construct
God of Church. using architecture as a powerful means of civic expression. Key sites include
the;
• Palazzo Ducale – completed in 1482 dominates the height and topography
of Urbino. It features a three storey loggia, the Facciata dei Torricini, in the
form of a triumphal arch flanked by circular towers all designed by Luciano
Laurana and sanctioned under the ruler Federico da Montefeltro.
• Piazza Duca Federico – the original non secular focus of the city including
the Basilica Metropolitana; and the
• Piazza della Republica – the focus of the people.
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Urban grid, Sabbioneta

Marches
Marches is a primarily mountainous region between the Apennines and MANNERIST
eastwards towards the Adriatic Sea. The topography gives rise to many hill Sabbioneta was laid out in the 1550’s by Domenico Giunti under the patronage
towns, originally fortified strongholds, now becoming iconic tourist destinations. of Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna, as a utopian town made to man’s measure –
“misura duomo”. The town featured surrounding fortification walls, a rocca, two
gates to the east and west and is laid out within an eccentric mannerist street
grid.
Within the star shaped exterior walls, the urban grids appear to separate several
functional spheres within the town, the private ducal realm, the public ducal
realm, the area of habitation and production and the centre of the town where all
three meet and coexist.
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DRAWING ITALY
Veneto
The Veneto is a region largely focussed on the unique city of Venice, though it is
also known for the history of Verona, the architecture of Palladio in Vicenza, the
Dolomites to the north and for its rice and corn based polenta cuisine.
70
DRAWING ITALY VENETO
Basilica di San Vitale, Ravenna Piazza delle Erbe, Verona

BYZANTINE ROMANESQUE
The octagonal basilica was built in the C6th by the Byzantine ruler Justinian. Originally the site of a Roman forum and connected by primary road to the
The sombre exterior masonry façade hides an interior filled with carved capitals Roman Arena. The piazza is lined with some of Verona’s key buildings
and dazzling geometric floor mosaics. The double octagonal plan is rooted in including the C14th Palazzo Mafei, the adjoining Toure del Gardello, the Casa
mathematical construct and is divided using circular geometry to resolve the Mazzanti, with its frescoed façade, and the Arco della Costa.
spherical dome. Its eastern inspired arrangements of solids and voids, dark and
light, was unique for an Italian building of its era and took its inspiration from Old
Testament scenes.
110 71
DRAWING ITALY EMILIA ROMAGNA
Roman Arena, Verona Gavina Showroom, Bologna

ROMAN MODERN
Constructed out of Veronese pink marble, the arena was built in the 1st century This furniture showroom was designed by Carlo Scarpa in 1962 in Via Altabella
A.D. Most of the outer wall has been destroyed though the amphitheatre is one within the central historic district of Bologna. The single storey façade sets out
of the largest surviving from Roman times and can hold 20,000 people. an abstract synthesis with the existing multistorey palazzo façades. The use of
exposed concrete sets out a street based materiality heightening the focused
composition of circular showroom windows.
72 109
DRAWING ITALY DRAWING ITALY
Le Due Torre, Bologna

Why Italy?
ROMANESQUE Italy is arguably the most geographically compact crucible of western
The two slender towers are within the Piazza di Porta Ravegnana. At 97m and architecture available. Etruscan, Roman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Gothic,
48m, the Toure degli Asinelli and Toure Garisenda were respectively Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Fascist, Modernist and
representative of their families’ fortunes. contemporary architecture are all represented, sometimes iconically, within Italy.
This expression of wealth and power of mercantile medieval families was quite
common throughout Emilia Romagna and Tuscany. Greek and Etruscan
The Greek and Etruscan period began in the C6th BC and encompasses the
earliest existent structures in Italy. These built forms characterise the qualities
of classic Greek architecture with strong and simple outlines, rigorous
adherence to the principles of proportion, a total unity of horizontal and vertical
elements and the extensive use of decoration to emphasise structure.
The architecture of this period was constructed primarily out of marble and was
designed to the three orders of Ionic, Doric and Corinthian. All comprised an
upright column upon a base, topped by a capital and an entablature of
architrave, cornice and decorative frieze.
This Greek and Etruscan period encompassed a variety of building types
including temples, open air theatres, [often set against hillsides in dramatic
locations] city walls, gateways and tombs.
• temples Paestum, Campania; Agrigento, Selinunte,
Segesta and Syracusa, Sicily
Volterra, Tuscany
Lucca, Tuscany
Perugia, Umbria
Roman
The Roman era was a period of development and adaptation from the Greek
and Etruscan ages. This period of greatest development and ingenuity may be
contained between the 3rd Century BC and the 3rd Century. As with most art
forms, a preference was developed for order and function over beauty and
108 2
Castelvecchio, Verona Piazza Maggiore e Nettuno, Bologna

MODERN RENAISSANCE / GOTHIC
Located on the banks of the Adige River is the C14th fortress of Cangrande, This square hosts the city’s seminal secular and non secular built forms;
Castelvecchio. Whilst damaged by World War II bombing the building complex • Basilica di San Petronio – designed in the Gothic late C14th by Antonio di
was refurbished in the 1970s by Carlo Scarpa into its current use as a museum. Vencenzo and one of the largest basilica in the world. On the floor, near the
The refurbishment is renowned for its adaptive reuse of, and sympathy towards, central doorway, is a 1655 meridian line indicating the time when the sun
the original building whilst developing its own Modern aesthetic and tactile beams through a small hole in the ceiling. The central doorway was
resonance. designed by Jacopo della Queicia in 1425 featuring Madonna and Child.
• C13th Palazzo Re Enzo – featuring an inner courtyard and main staircase
• Fontana della Nettuno – created in 1566 by the Flemish sculptor
Giambologna, featuring the four cherubs of the winds. The four sirens
symbolise the four known continents of the time;
• Palazzo Communale – comprising two buildings C13th and C15th, with a
frescoed ceremonial hall and central staircase attributed to Bramante; and
• Palazzo del Podesta featuring the Renaissance façade and colonnade
facing the piazza.
74 107
Cemeterio di San Cataldo, Modena Villa Capra Rotunda, Vicenza

POST MODERN RENAISSANCE
Designed by Aldo Rossi between 1971 and 1983 this complex is located in Via The centrally planned structure, with the square outer walls symbolizing the
San Cataldo on the outskirts of Modena. physical world and the circular interior representing the idea of divine perfection
This sombre assemblage of geometric buildings, mainly crypts, is Rossi’s and mathematical harmony, was designed by Palladio between 1566-1570.
analogous expression of the crossing into a collective “case dei morti” or house It is unique amongst Palladio’s villas in that it is not designed as the main
of death. It stands as a monumental design, a destination and focus for the building of a farm but as a pavilion for entertaining and enjoyment of the
community. landscape.
Palladio conceived the building in a formal sense encompassing symmetry and
balance within the three dimensional composition.
106 75
Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza Il Duomo, Modena

RENAISSANCE ROMANESQUE
Located on Piazza Matteoti and designed by Palladio in the 1550s. This project This World Heritage listed church was built in the C12th and is one of Italy’s
reflects upon the classical design elements of Doric and Ionic columns and finest Romanesque buildings. It was designed by Lanfranco and is situated
mathematical proportioning systems. The Palazzo was intended to be part of a upon Piazza Grande. The planning composition features a dominant nave with
forum, an unrealised series of loggia that would encircle Piazza Matteoti. As supporting side aisles.
such, and coupled with the narrow depth of the site, the focus of space and Its most striking feature is its west façade, just off the Piazza Grande, whose
proportion is very much towards the ground floor loggia rather than the portal is supported by two majestic lions and fringed with decorative relief. The
palazzo’s interior room proportions. entrance façade is further decorated with sculptural and bas relief depicting
scenes from Genesis by Wiligemo.
76 105
Palazzo Valmarana, Vicenza

Emilia Romagno
Emilia Romagno’s riches are focused within the late Romanesque and RENAISSANCE
Renaissance periods, and especially that of the powerful mercantile families of Located on Corso Antonio Fogazzaro and designed by Palladio in 1566, the
the Farnese, Este and Bentivoglio. building is considered one of his more eccentric creations. The work features a
The region is focused on Bologna, the ‘red’ medieval university town famous for curious mannerist departure of a window within the end bay composed as a
its colonnades and cuisine. Additionally Ravenna, with its Byzantine pediment with a statue rather than with rectangular windows as elsewhere in the
connections and history best shown in the rich non secular mosaics, and piano nobile. The façade also used the Giant Order of column structure,
Modena with its World Heritage listed Romanesque Duomo are highlights of the borrowing from Michelangelo’s lead in the Roman Capitol. The interior
region. courtyard features a single sided loggia.
The Po Valley, running through the region, ensures that fresh produce is a key
ingredient to daily life.
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DRAWING ITALY FRIULI-VENEZIA GIULI
Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza Urban Plan, Palmanova

Located on the Corso Andrea Palladio, and considered one of the finest Palmanova was built by the Venetians in 1593 as a fortress in the form of a nine
creations of Renaissance architecture, the building was designed by Palladio in pointed star. The town is centred on the large scaled hexagonal, gravel paved
1584 and built by Scamozzi. The design is based on the Roman principles of Piazza Grande. From here six roads radiate to the town’s perimeter walls. The
building three dimensional versions of streets and architectural backdrops three primary walls lead to access portals. At each portal is a complex system
internally and permanently into the scaena. to guard the town featuring outer walls, ramparts, moats and strategic defensive
The art of perspective takes over and unifies the street sides with theatrical and positions beyond the portal itself.
architectural devices. Building façades, statuary, the upward sloping of the
backstage floor, the overt narrowing of the streets and the ability to add multiple
theme lighting techniques, all accentuate the sense of perspective and “exterior
reality” of the space.
78 103
Roman Town, Aquileia Basilica Palladiana, Vicenza

ROMAN RENAISSANCE
Once the fourth city of the Roman Empire, Aquileia was founded in 181BC as a Located on Piazza dei Signori, the design was commenced by Palladio in 1549
trading link at the head of the Adriatic Sea. and works around the earlier Basilica structure.
The remains of the Roman settlement include houses, markets and the forum Palladio’s design of an encircling double storeyed loggia provided structural
on Via Giulia Augusta. A complete port and dock system, with storehouses stability to both the existing Basilica and a public colonnade addressing Piazza
adjacent, is to be found along the former primary river that fed into the Adriatic. dei Signori.
Within the current basilica, rare and intact floor mosaics have been found from The loggia façade design is based on the classics with a Doric base and Ionic
both the C1st and C4th previous constructions. upper storey. Within each bay are the arches and supporting columns that
serve to lighten the overall effect of the façade and ensuing building mass.
102 79
Palazzo Porto Breganze, Vicenza Canal Grande / Piazza San Antonio Nuovo, Trieste
RENAISSANCE NEOCLASSIC
Located within central Vicenza on Piazza Castello and designed by Palladio in Canal Grande and the adjacent Piazza San Antonio Nuovo were designed by
1571. It was built by Scamozzi and is also known as the Casa del Diarolo. This Austrian urban planners in the C18th at the behest of Empress Maria Theresa.
is a later palace within Palladio’s career and again features the Giant Order The long canal runs east to west focused on the Neoclassical Chiesa di Sant’
popularised by Michelangelo. The façade also carries a number of richly Antonio Taumaturgo and empties into the Gulf of Trieste. Along its boat filled
decorated Mannerist design features. waterway and facing Piazza San Antonio Nuovo is the Serbian Orthodox Chiesa
di Santa Spiridione.
80 101
Piazza dell Unita d’Italia, Trieste Palazzo Isoppo da Porto, Vicenza

NEOCLASSIC RENAISSANCE
This piazza was designed by Austrian town planners in the C18th at the behest Located on Contra Porti and designed by Palladio in 1552. This is one of his
of Empress Maria Theresa. The elegantly scaled piazza is flanked by the earliest works in Vicenza. The plan is focused on a reconstruction of an ancient
Governor’s residence and features numerous ceremonial fountains and house. Symmetrically disposed blocks on either side of a central courtyard,
sculptures. framed with Giant Order columns, form a classic atrium.
This piazza and city proper is overlooked by the C15th castle and environs, The sequence of rooms is organised around symmetrical balance. Visitors
including the Cattedrale di San Giusto, completed in 1400 blending northern move from the 30’x30’ central hall to the 30’x20’ room, leading to a 20’x20’ room
Adriatic and Byzantine styles. The castle site dates back to Roman times as a and mathematically reduced so on. The façade features a number of mannerist
fortification post. sculptural design elements.
100 81
Palazzo Barbaran da Porto, Vicenza Piazza della Liberta, Udine

RENAISSANCE RENAISSANCE / GOTHIC
This richly decorated building, with its double row of columns, Doric on the base Set within the refined city of Udine, the piazza houses the city’s finest built
and Ionic above, is World Heritage listed. Located on Corso Andrea Palladio, it forms.
was designed by Palladio in the 1540s. The building features a columned The Palazzo del Comune (a homage to the Palazzo Ducal in Venice), also
entrance loggia and a central court surrounded by a loggia and a grand known as the Loggio del Lionello, was designed by local goldsmith Nicolo
staircase. The building now operates as the Palladian Museum and library. Lionello in 1448. It features alternating pink and white horizontal stone banding
and fenestration details in the Gothic style.
Opposite is the Renaissance Loggia di San Giovanni designed by Bernadino da
Morcote. The piazza is fed by the Via Mercatovecchio (the old market street).
Other elements within the piazza are the fountain designed by Giovanni Carrara
in 1542, the columns with the Venetian Lion and the Statue of Justice (1614),
the statues of Hercules and Cacus and the Statue of Peace (1819).
82 99
Loggia dei Capitanio, Vicenza

Friuli-Venezia Guila
This low lying region is edged by the Alps and Austria to the north, the Veneto to RENAISSANCE
the west, Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea to the south. As such, it has a diverse Located on the Piazza dei Signori and designed by Palladio in the 1550s. It was
history and set of influences. Largely unexplored by tourists, compared to the the last project he worked on at the time of his death and, as such, it has been
remainder of Italy, it is dominated by the cities of Udine and Trieste. retained in its partially unfinished state. The façade features three bays framed
by a Giant Order of columns, reduced in scale by the smaller interior arches.
Again, the design uses themes from the classics in its overall composition.
98 83
Tomb Brion, Treviso

Il Santo, Padua
MODERN
ROMANESQUE / GOTHIC
This seminal work was designed during the 1970’s by the Italian modernist
architect Carlo Scarpa to house the Brion family tomb. The basilica di Sant’ Antonio was completed in the C14th and features a mixture
of architectural forms befitting an eastern influence.
The garden setting features the principal family tombs, separate extended family
tombs, a small chapel and tranquil areas of observation and contemplation. The chapel’s decorative relief sculptures are a sequence of 9 panels created in
the C16th, depicting scenes in the life of St Anthony by Donatello.
The design is rich in allegory and meaning, featuring the innovative use of
exposed reinforced concrete, ceramic tiles and water elements. Scarpa’s use of
concrete explores its planar attributes and inherent qualities of depth in an
abstraction of medieval architectural forms and detailing.
Carlo Scarpa’s tomb is also located within a secluded part of the garden with a
tombstone designed by his son, the architect Tobia Scarpa.
84 97
Piazza San Marco, Venice Basilica di San Marco, Venice

RENAISSANCE BYZANTINE
Described by Napoleon as “Europe’s finest drawing room”. The square is Whilst a blend of eras and styles are encompassed, the Byzantine is the
surrounded by St Mark’s Basilica, the Palazzo Ducale, Campanile, the Libreria, dominant architecture of the Basilica. Most importantly, the Basilica is built on
the Procutorie Vecchio and the Procutorie Nouvo and adjoins the Piazetta della the plan of a Greek cross, with five domes, and was consecrated in 1094. Its
San Marco. Libreria, Procutorie Nouvo and Procutorie Vecchio surround the position is the central focus of St Mark’s Square, a symbol of Byzantia, Venice
square by colonnades. The campanile was built in the C10th, though has been and Italy.
faithfully rebuilt after of 1902 collapse. The arches above the doorways feature detailed mosaics accumulated by the
The Libreria was designed by Jacopo Sansorino in 1537 and meets the entire various Doges during their travels. The Basilica’s adjacent campanile dates
western edge of the Piazetta San Marco. Palladio referred to it as “the richest back to the C10th. The Basilica’s Byzantine style and Greek cross planning
and most ornate building that has been put up, perhaps since the time of the place it alongside Istanbul’s Hagia Sophia as one of the seminal non-secular
ancients”. works of this era.
The Procutorie Nouve was also designed by Sansorino, though completed by
Scamozzi, and faces the southern side of the Piazza. The Procutorie Vecchio
designed by Mauro Cadussi occupies the entire northern side of the piazza.
96 85
Chiesa Santa Maria de’ Miracoli, Venice Seaside village, Burano, Venice
RENAISSANCE VARIOUS
Santa Maria de’ Miracoli was designed by Mauro Caducci for the Lombardi Though famous for its lace industry, the village was originally a fishing port. The
family in the latter part of the C15th. It is located in the San Marco region of built form attractions are streets lined with bright, pastel coloured houses. The
Venice, north of St Mark’s Square. It is noteworthy due to its influences taken variety of colours on the small scaled buildings, combined with the maritime
from Basilica di San Marco, a common trend in the Veneto for some time after elements, all set within the Venetian lagoon, makes Burano a unique built form
its completion. experience.
86 95
Ca’ d’Oro, Venice Palazzo Ducale, Venice

GOTHIC GOTHIC
Located on the Grand Canal and seen as one of the exemplars of Venetian Designed in the 1420s and 1430s, the Doges Palace is one of the key
Gothic, along with the Palazzo Ducale. Designed between 1427 and 1436, the exemplars of Venetian Gothic architecture. The two primary façades face the
design features a double arcade of windows and openings atop a low level Grand Canal and the Piazzetta di San Marco, comprising decorative white
colonnade. This colonnade is partially within the Grand Canal. It is typical of Istrian stone and pink Veronese marble.
Venetian palazzi in that it has a large opening at water level with stairs rising The interior features the Scala dei Giganti, or Giant Stairs, designed by Antonio
from the entrance to the piano nobile. The main room, or Grand Salone, is on Rizzo. Further interior features include designs by Palladio and frescoes by
the first floor, centrally located and lit by the bank of central windows or balcony Tintoretto.
openings.
94 87
Chiesa di San Michele in Isola, Venice Ponte di Rialto, Venice

Located on the Isola di San Michele and designed by Mauro Codussi, between This area surrounding this bridge was one of the earliest settled in Venice and
1469 and 1479. The building features a restrained façade design compared to the current crossing was considered one of the highest, and therefore safest,
some of Codussi’s other concurrent Venetian projects of the era. This is land areas on the canal to establish a permanent trading area.
reflective of its sombre location as the primary place of worship within a The area has been a market for 1,000 years and the bridge was designed by
cemetery, thus being a mortuary rather than parish church. Antonio da Ponte and completed in 1592. Ponte won a design competition to
The façade composition borrows from Alberti and the classics in its complete the commission.
mathematically derived elevation and material simplicity. It also alludes to sea The bridge features the unique central corridor with stepped shops along either
based allegory within the detailing, again reflective of its location. side of the walkbridge.
88 93
Chiesa S. Salvatore, Venice

Chiesa del il Redentore, Venice
RENAISSANCE
RENAISSANCE
Located to the north of Piazza San Marco and designed by Mauro Codussi
Located on the island of Guidecca and designed by Palladio in 1577. This is between 1507 and 1534, the layout features a unique form of Latin cross
noted as a late work in Palladio’s career and, as such, reflects a maturity in his planning. This derivative comes from the planning of St Mark’s and is based on
ideals. a long nave made up into three interlocked centralised plans, each with a large
Similar to Chiesa di San Giorgio Maggiore, this church is intended to be seen dome surrounded by four smaller domes. The Latin cross form is obtained by
from across the canal and was approached in a processional manner. Also the addition of further transepts and apses.
similar to the San Giorgio is the resolution of the basilican façade into two forms
expressing the interior planning. Again similar to San Giorgio, the interior
features an open screen between the nave and the choir though in this case
more geometrically complex. The monochromatic interior allows a variety of
light effects upon the forms.
92 89
Chiesa di Santa Maria della Salute, Venice Chiesa di San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice
Located on Dorsoduro, and dominating the entrance to the Grand Canal Located on the Isola di San Giorgio Maggiore, this Palladian design was built
opposite the San Marco area. The church was built in the late C16th and between 1565 and 1580. The austere interior is a contrast to the bold external
designed by Baldassare Longhena to an octagonal plan. façade and its presence on the Venetian skyline.
The façade design is aimed at resolving the desire for a classical image within a
basilican building form. In this resolution, Palladio chose to interlock two
separate temple fronts onto the façade. The nave is treated as a high narrow
temple within four large columns on bases supporting a pediment. Behind these
columns, and subservient to the primary forms, runs a lower wider temple form
the full width of the basilica.
The overall composition, when viewed from a distance across the canal, builds
logically towards the central dome. One of the key aspects of the interior is the
introduction of an open screen through which the monastic choir may be seen
from the nave. This particular aspect produces unique acoustic effects. The
church is one of the key notes of Palladio’s career and the Renaissance period.
90 91

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DRAWING ON DRAWING

Byera Hadley Travelling Scholarship 2003

FINAL SUBMISSION SEPTEMBER 2005

THE GRAND TOUR

Architect, quarterly review, 1991.

of the Architect, quarterly review, 1991.

also harbours and wharfs; antiquities, ruins, libraries… treasure chambers

Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996.

Le Corbusier [1887 – 1965]

Gunnar Asplund [1885 - 1945]

At Syracuse in February 1914 he noted that:

Alvar Aalto [1898 - 1976]

Louis I. Kahn [1901 - 1974]

Alvaro Siza [1933 - ]

The Australian Perspective

Value and Imprint

Greek and Etruscan

Christian and Byzantine Architecture

Fascism and Modernism

WHY DRAW? OBSERVING AND IMAGINING

16 , 1584, Michelangelo to Matisse: Drawing the Figure, AGNSW, 1999, p. 25

Step 1 – Set out

Drawing the Imagined

IDEAS AND DRAWING… THE CONNECTION

‘An architectural drawing is a prospective unfolding of future possibilities…a

Australian architects seem to support these views.

In order to understand the process of observing and analysing precedent, it is valuable to

Transactionalist: Engaging the Visual World

Ecological: Appearance of the Visual World

Projective: When Order is Made

The Architects Way

As a touchstone of this scholarship I have recorded a number of interviews with eminent

Richard Francis Jones

Ross Bonthorne Interview 17 March 2004

Have you travelled through Italy?

Presuming so, what aspects would you comment upon?

Why do you draw?

Do you draw in different modes depending upon circumstance?

How did you come to drawing?

Do you need to maintain your skills?

Do you endeavour to teach you staff, peers, to draw?

Do you believe that the idea is connected to the drawing?

Do you think that such a study tour is valuable to an architect?

Would you suggest any further reading, references or contacts?

Tony Caro Interview 3 June 2004

Have you travelled through Italy?

Presuming so, what aspects would you comment upon?

Why do you draw?

Do you draw in different modes depending upon circumstance?

How did you come to drawing?

Do you need to maintain your skills?

Do you endeavour to teach you staff, peers, to draw?

Do you believe that the idea is connected to the drawing?

Do you think that such a study tour is valuable to an architect?

Would you suggest any further reading, references or contacts?

Philip Cox Interview 2 June 2004

Have you travelled through Italy?

Presuming so, what aspects would you comment upon?