EARTH This handout will serve

SCIENCE MINDANAO MISSION ACADEMY as your copy.

11
of Seventh-day Adventists, Inc.
The School that Offers Something Better DO NOT RETURN THIS
Manticao, Misamis Oriental module TO YOUR
1st Quarter TEACHER
(MODULE 1) • • LEARNING MODULE FOR EARTH SCIENCE • •

Teacher’s Name: Kizzia Lorraine C. Tabaosares Facebook Account: Kizzia Lorraine Ang Cagaanan -Tabaosares
https://www.facebook.com/Kizzialorraine
Degree: BSEd – Physics Gmail Account: kizzialorraine@gmail.com
Subjects handled: General Physics 1 and 2, Earth Science, Contact number: 09050617092
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (DRRR)

Grading System:
Components Percentage
Written Work 70%
Performance Tasks 30%

STUDENT’S NAME:

HOW ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN?

ICONS DESCRIPTION
When you see this icon, it signals that you are to do a task classified as performance task. This is now a
transfer of the knowledge that you learn from the lessons. This task merits the highest percentage in the
grading system.
This icon gives you an overview of the lesson that you will be learning. It is an introduction of the lesson
and a recall of your prior knowledge regarding the topic.

This icon tells you that you are answering the first stage of the lesson which is called the “Exploratory
Phase” You are given open – ended questions or tasks that would lead you to GUESS the topic.

This icon gives you important lessons, core values integrated in the lessons. These are important
concepts and strategies that will help you in life.

You will find this icon before some chunks of text in the following pages. It tells you to carefully study the
concepts, principles, or processes discussed in the text. It also tells you that there is a question to
answer or an idea to think about it.

✎
This icon gives you important instructions to note and follow. Read every detail of instructions so you
can follow them precisely.

You will find this icon at the end of every topic. It signals a self-test to determine how well you have
achieved the objectives set in the unit. Study the lesson well and you will perform quite well in the self-
test. This will be submitted to your teacher after you answer the self-test. Write legibly and always follow
instructions properly.

This icon directs you to the specific activity which you need to answer and specific lesson for you to

☞ refer to as you answer the activity.

This icon signals process questions that you need to answer as this is also one indicator that you have
learned the lesson very well.

Content Standard: The learner demonstrates understanding of:

1. The formation of the universe and the solar system
2. The subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up the Earth
3. The three main categories of rocks
4. The origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
5. The various sources of energy (fossil fuels, geothermal, hydroelectric)
6. The amount of usable water resources on Earth
7. The distribution of arable land on Earth
8. Waste generation and management

CULMINATING PERFORMANCE STANDARD: The learners shall be able to make a plan that the community may use to
conserve and protects its resources for future generations.

Performance Task: INFOGRAPHIC PLAN TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT NATURAL RESOURCES

 GOAL Make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protects its resources for future
generations
ROLE Biologist, Environmentalist
AUDIENCE Filipino Netizens
SITUATION Posting an info-graph on the plan how to conserve and protect natural resources for future
generation
PRODUCT Infographic plan

STANDARD You will be evaluated based on the content, time and effort attractiveness, and organization

Rubrics for the Informational Blog

Standard Exemplary Proficient Acceptable Beginner Points

(4) (3) (2) (1)
Content The specialist was The specialist The specialist could The specialist could not
able to deliver the mostly delivered demonstrate few demonstrate the subject
topic by the topic by about the subject matter.
demonstrating the demonstrating the matter.
subject matter. subject matter.
Time and Effort The blog is The blog is neat The blog is fairly The blog appears messy
Attractiveness exceptionally well and attractive. attractive. More time and “thrown together” in
designed, neat, and Time and effort and effort needed to a hurry. Little time and
attractive. A great has been put into be put into the effort has been put into
deal of time and making it visually project to make it the project.
effort have been put interesting. visually interesting.
into making it visually
interesting.
Organization Specialist presents Specialist presents The netizens had The netizens could not
information in a information in a difficulty following the understand the
logical, interesting logical sequence presentation presentation because
sequence which the which the because the there is no logical
netizens can follow. audience can information did not sequence of information
follow. follow a sequence. presented.
Total Points

LESSON COVERGAE

Module Lesson Title Learning Competency

1 Lesson 1 - Origin 1. Describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life
and Structure of the 2. Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and
Earth energy flow
Lesson 2 - Earth 1. Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties.
Materials and 2. Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Processes 3. Identify the minerals important to society
4. Describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use.
5. Describe how fossil fuels are formed.
6. Explain how heat from the inside the Earth (geothermal) and from flowing water
(hydroelectric) is tapped as a source of energy for human use
7. Identify various water resources on Earth

Introduction

In this module, you will know more about our Universe and the Solar System, how rocks formed and the processes.
Hopefully, through your understanding of the theories, principles and concepts plus the tasks/activities you will be required
to do in this lesson you’ll surely be able to appreciate more the things which lies beyond what we see on earth.

Please answer the Explore Activity this will serve as your GRADE BOOSTER!!!
Explore ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ STOP ☞ ( Go to Explore Activity 1, page no. 13 ) ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

Lesson 1| ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

TIME TO READ AND LEARN

s

What Makes Earth Special Compared to Other Planets

By: Clara Moskowitz July 08, 2008

Earth is one special planet. It has liquid water, plate tectonics, and an atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of
the sun's rays. But many scientists agree our planet's most special feature might just be us. "It’s the only planet we know of that
has life," said Alan Boss, a planet formation theorist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Washington, D.C. Though other
bodies in our solar system, such as Saturn's moon Titan, seem like they could have once been hospitable to some form of life,
and scientists still have hope of eventually digging up microbes beneath the surface of Mars, Earth is still the only world known
to support life.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 2

 "So far, we haven't found it anywhere else," said Alex Wolszczan of Pennsylvania State University, who co-discovered
the first planets beyond our solar system. He agreed that life was Earth's single most impressive characteristic. None of this is a
revelation, but understanding what's special about Earth is crucial for finding other planets out there and predicting what
they might be like.
The fact that Earth hosts not just life, but intelligent life, makes it doubly unique. And the planet's intelligent life
(humanity) has even developed rockets that enable travel beyond the planet, said Gregory Laughlin, astrophysicist and
planet hunter at the University of California, Santa Cruz. "During the last half century, the planet Earth has fashioned together
tiny pieces of the metal in its crust, and has flung these delicately constructed objects to all of the other planets in the solar
system," Laughlin said, adding that these achievements should be counted as an exemplary trait of our planet. "From our
anthropocentric viewpoint, we naturally separate ourselves from the planet that we live on, but if one adopts the point of
view of an external observer, it is the 'planet' (taken as a whole) that has done these remarkable things," he told SPACE.com.

Water World
To enable life, this most special of attributes, planet Earth has a number of ideal features. It is unique among planets
in our solar system for having water in its liquid form at the surface, in an amount conducive to life evolving.
"The most impressive attribute of the Earth is the existence and amount of liquid water on its surface," said Geoffrey Marcy, an
astronomer at the University of California, Berkeley who has helped discover dozens of extrasolar planets. No one knows why
Earth has the exact amount of water it does, which is relatively small considering that water molecules outnumber silicate
molecules in the galaxy, he said.
"The Earth is remarkable for its precisely-tuned amount of water, not too much to cover the mountains, and not so
little that it's a dry desert, as are Mars and Venus, our 'sister' planets," he said.

Goldilocks planet
Earth's water is also special in that it has remained liquid for so long. How has Earth been able to hold on to its oceans
while those on other planets freeze or fry? "Many details as to why Earth is the only planet with liquid water in our solar system
need to be worked out," said Diana Valencia, a graduate student in Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University.
"Certainly the distance to the sun has made it possible. A planet much farther in would receive too much energy from the
sun, and a planet too far out would quickly freeze."
Our planet's Goldilocks-like "just right" location in the solar system has helped, as has its system of plate tectonics, the
slip-sliding movements of Earth's crust that are thought to have created the planet's towering mountain ranges and
plummeting ocean depths. "The fact that Earth has plate tectonics allows for the carbon-silicate cycle to operate over
geological timescales," Valencia said. "With the carbon-silicate cycle, the levels of carbon in the atmosphere get regulated
to keep the surface temperature around that of liquid water."
Plate tectonics and water are inextricably linked. Not only does plate tectonics enable liquid water to exist by way
of regulating the temperature, but many scientists have argued water enables plate tectonics to happen.
"Without water the planet would be geologically dead," said Caltech's Mike Brown, discoverer of the newly
reclassified "plutoid" object named Eris, which lies beyond Pluto in our solar system. "Water is what lubricates plate tectonics,
which is what leads to the extreme difference between continents and seafloors, the large amount of earthquakes and
volcanoes, fresh mountain-building. Venus has no water, no plate tectonics, no deep sea floor, no steep mountains, no
continents, probably few earthquakes or volcanoes. A much less geologically interesting place!"
Another "just-right" aspect of Earth is its size: If it was much smaller, it wouldn't be able to hold on to our precious
atmosphere, but much larger and it might be a gas giant too hot for life.
The presence of our big brother planet, Jupiter, farther out in the solar system blocking Earth from much of the
incoming debris, has also helped Earth become a safe haven for life. Jupiter acts like a giant broom, sweeping the solar
system of debris of rocks as small as cars and as huge as moons that could snuff out life in one fatal blow. This protective effect
was particularly helpful in the solar system's early years, when Earth still got pummeled but, scientists say, not nearly as bad as
would have been the case without Jupiter.
.
Not-so-special Earth
As our planet-hunting technology improves, many planet hunters expect to find Earth's twin. The search has led
scientists to debate whether Earth is really as special as we think it is.
"In the past 10 years, everything has been pointing in the direction of, 'Hey, the solar system, which we thought was unique,
is not unique at all,'" said Alan Boss. Boss and many other scientists think it's likely that some form of life exists on some of
those countless other planets out there. "Certainly there will be other planets that support life," he said. "I think life is actually
quite common. I think we're going to find there are literally billions of them in the galaxy."

EARTH UNIQUENESS
The Earth is home to a rich biodiversity that ranges from the simplest single-celled or unicellular organisms like the
bacteria to the most complex as those of human beings. What made these organisms survive? In order for life forms to exist
and evolve for better survival ability, many Goldilocks factors need to be provided. Can you think of one essential factor?
Water! Yes! The Earth is rich in water which exists in many forms-- be it liquid water where fish thrive, solid water found in ice
of the polar regions, or water vapor in air! Not only that. Here are the other 5 Goldilocks factors that we will discuss to help us
learn about how our existence on Earth has been possible and comfortable because of all the resources it offered.
1. Closeness to the sun. The Earth’s distance from the sun is 151.2 million kilometers. This distance enabled the Earth
to get the much-needed heat and light, without which, this planet will become an ice-coated rock. The
sun generates the weather patterns, warms the waters, stirs the atmosphere, and gives radiant energy for the
plants to manufacture their own food so that oxygen and food that organisms need will be sufficient.

2. Earth’s atmosphere. Compared to other planets, the Earth is the only planet in the solar system with an
atmosphere that can support life. Its atmosphere contains not only oxygen (21%) that we breathe but also other
gases such as nitrogen (78%), argon (0.93%), and carbon dioxide (0.04%) with some traces of neon, helium,
methane, krypton, hydrogen, and water vapor. The stability of Earth’s atmosphere generally brings a calm
weather. It may rain or shine or snow but the weather will not change quickly. Earth’s atmosphere also has ozone
layer which protects all life forms from the harmful radiation from the sun. This layer helps to warm the planet by
day and cools it at night.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 3

 3. Earth’s consistent temperature. While the average temperature of Venus is 4620C and Mars’ is -600C, Earth’s
average temperature is 150C. This temperature allows liquid water to exist and gives a stable environment for
organisms to live, grow, and even multiply. Although some organisms may thrive in extreme temperatures, this
limiting factor poses a great threat to the existence of most organisms. Hence, it is an advantage being in this
planet with a consistent temperature that supports life.

4. Earth’s moon. How does this help us survive? Without the moon, Earth’s rotation would be way faster which would
make our 1 day in just 4 hours. Because of the moon’s presence, the Earth is rotating at a comfortable 24 hour-
period which also stabilized the rotation on its axis. In addition, the gravitational pull of the moon created tides
and unique marine ecosystem called intertidal zone where marine animals survive the waves and land
conditions.

5. Diversity of Life. Biodiversity creates food chains that sustain the survival and evolution of organisms. Biodiversity
and evolution are but products of the interaction of organisms with their environment. Organisms adapt to their
available resources to survive. This is a significant biological event as catastrophes may happen and only a few
specie of organisms could continue their generation. The adaptability of these biodiversity made each of the
species successful in maintaining the web of life on earth.
Any new discovery?

Astronomers were able to spot one Goldilocks planet which is 20 light years away from the earth! It was discovered
by astronomers Stephane Udry and Michel Mayor in September 2007. This Earth-like planet is called Gliese 581c which is
found orbiting in a habitable zone, where temperature could sustain life and liquid water on its surface. While it may be in a
habitable zone, recent research suggest that Gliese 581c may have a Venus-like environment. Hence, it is but too early to
conclude that it is a habitable planet. More research needs to be done to prove that this newly discovered planet could
really support life.

EARTH FOUR SUBSYSTEMS

Hello! I am Hydrosphere! I have the gaseous, liquid, and solid states of water on earth. I occupy
71% of the earth’s surface. 97% of me is salty while 3% is fresh which can be found in rivers and lakes. The
cryosphere with its glaciers, ice caps, icebergs, and all frozen part of the earth belong to me.
So, why am I important? Water is part of every living cell and it is 75% of your body! It drives
chemical reactions in your cells to
keep you alive. I serve as home to aquatic life as I have dissolved gases to support their existence. I regulate
the temperatures on earth so that it is acceptable for life to exist. I supply your need of water for drinking,
planting, washing, and cleaning. Never forget that I give you the convenience you need as I generate electricity through
hydropower!

It is my pleasure to meet you! I am Atmosphere! The oxygen you breathe, the air where birds and
planes fly, the space where clouds and ice crystals abound belong to me! I am a mixture of nitrogen (about
78%), oxygen (about 21%), and other gases (about 1%) such as carbon dioxide (0.039%), argon (0.93%) and
trace gases (krypton, neon, helium, and xenon).

Should you be thankful of my presence? Think about these. I provide air for respiration. I absorb the
harmful ultraviolet radiation. The layers that I have shield the earth from falling meteorites to give you
protection. See? I think you should! Wait! I am happy to tell you that Hydrosphere and I give rise to the earth’s
weather conditions!

Hello! I am Lithosphere/Geosphere! All the hard rocks, semi-solid rocks, soil, molten rocks, and
the liquid rocks in the inner core of the earth are mine! My surface is uniquely uneven as I got wide
plains, mountain ranges, deep valleys within the mountain ranges, plateaus, and hills.
So, why am I here? I provide the solid surface necessary for
terrestrial organisms. Buildings and homes are built on my solid grounds. I am rich in mineral deposits for
all your needs. I have a reservoir of nutrients that are essential for life. I also hold deposits of fresh water
and energy resources. Together with my buddies (hydrosphere and atmosphere) we make life forms
possible. With the essential materials and nutrients we provide to the plants, we feed every life form on
earth including you!

Imagine the earth without life! Oh! It would be like the other planets– lifeless! But thanks to me!
Our planet got plants, animals, bacteria, and all other living creatures! I am the Biosphere!
I got amazing organisms which interact in many ways.
They help each other but sometimes they also compete against each other. Plants make their
own food while generally, animals feed on organisms for nourishment. We help transfer matter and
let energy flow in the ecosystem. With favorable conditions that my best friends (atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and geosphere) provide, I thrive, reproduce, and maintain variety of species on earth.

Now, think about these. How do the four spheres keep ecosystems going? How do they
transfer matter or cycle nutrients? How do they let the energy flow? Let’s read this.

In summary, the process of photosynthesis in plants (biosphere) was made possible through
the materials provided by the atmosphere (carbon dioxide) and hydrosphere (water). In addition, geosphere provided the
soil where nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other elements sustain the growth of plants. Indeed, the

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 4

role of each of the spheres is very important in the sustenance of life as they efficiently facilitate the transfer of matter in
nutrient cycles and flow of energy in the ecosystem.

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ STOP ☞ ( Go to Activity 2 on your activity sheet ) ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

Lesson 2| EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

TIME TO READ AND LEARN
s
Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid, with a specific chemical composition and a definite crystalline
structure. This crystalline structure is often exhibited by the crystal shape itself.

(Figure A.) The Percentage by mass of the elements

that make up Earth’s crust. (Figure B.) The
percentage by mass of the elements that make up
all of Earth.

Identification of Minerals:

Geologists rely on several simple tests to identify minerals. These tests are based on a mineral’s physical and
chemical properties.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 5

 Physical Properties of Minerals
Physical properties include crystal form, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, streak, color, texture, density, specific gravity,
and special properties. It is usually best to use a combination of tests instead of just one to identify minerals.

1. Crystal Form - Some minerals form such distinct crystal shapes that they are immediately recognizable. Halite—common
table salt—always forms perfect cubes. Quartz crystals, with their double-pointed ends and six-sided crystals, are also readily
recognized. However, as you learned earlier in this section, perfect crystals are not always formed, so identification based
only on crystal form is rare.

2. Luster - is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is reflected on its surface. This
describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.
Again, the way that a mineral reflects light from its surface is called luster. There are two types of luster — metallic
luster and nonmetallic luster. Silver, gold, copper, and galena have shiny surfaces that reflect light, like the chrome trim on
cars. Thus, they are said to have a metallic luster. Not all metallic minerals are metals. If their surfaces have shiny appearances
like metals, they are considered to have a metallic luster. Sphalerite, for example, is a mineral with a metallic luster that is not
a metal.
Minerals with nonmetallic lusters, such as calcite, gypsum, sulfur, and quartz, do not shine like metals. Nonmetallic
lusters might be described as dull, pearly, waxy, silky, or earthy. Differences in luster, shown in Figure 4.6, are caused by
differences in the chemical compositions of minerals. Describing the luster of nonmetallic minerals is a subjective process. For
example, a mineral that appears waxy to one person might not appear waxy to another. Using luster to identify a mineral
should usually be used in combination with other physical characteristics.

3. Hardness - One of the most useful and reliable tests for identifying minerals is hardness. Hardness is a measure of how easily
a mineral can be scratched. German geologist Friedrich Mohs developed a scale by which an unknown mineral’s hardness
can be compared to the known hardness of ten minerals. The minerals in the Mohs scale of mineral hardness were selected
because they are easily recognized and, with the exception of diamond, readily found in nature.

Mohs Scale of Hardness

4. Cleavage and Fracture - Atomic arrangement also determines how a mineral will break. Minerals break along planes where
atomic bonding is weak. A mineral that splits relatively easily and evenly along one or more flat planes is said to have
cleavage. To identify a mineral according to its cleavage, geologists count the number of cleaved planes and study the
angle or angles between them. For example, mica has perfect cleavage in one direction. It breaks in sheets because of
weak atomic bonds.

5. Steak - A mineral rubbed across an unglazed porcelain plate will sometimes leave a colored powdered streak on the
surface of the plate. Streak is the color of a mineral when it is broken up and powdered. The streak of a nonmetallic mineral
is usually white. Streak is most useful in identifying metallic minerals. Sometimes, a metallic mineral’s streak does not match its
external color. For example, the mineral hematite occurs in two different forms, resulting in two distinctly different
appearances. Hematite that forms from weathering and exposure to air and water is a rusty red color and has an earthy feel.
Hematite that forms from crystallization of magma is silver and metallic in appearance. However, both forms make a reddish
brown streak when tested. The streak test can be used only on minerals that are softer than a porcelain plate. This is another
reason why streak cannot be used to identify all minerals.

6. Color - One of the most noticeable characteristics of a mineral is its color. Color is sometimes caused by the presence of
trace elements or compounds within a mineral. For example, quartz occurs in a variety of colors. These different colors are
the result of different trace elements in the quartz samples. Red jasper, purple amethyst, and orange citrine contain different
amounts and forms of iron. Rose quartz contains manganese or titanium. However, the appearance of milky quartz is caused
by the numerous bubbles of gas and liquid trapped within the crystal. In general, color is one of the least reliable clues of a
mineral’s identity.

7. Texture - Texture describes how a mineral feels to the touch. This, like luster, is subjective. Therefore, texture is often used in
combination with other tests to identify a mineral. The texture of a mineral might be described as smooth, rough, ragged,
greasy, or soapy. For example, fluorite, has a smooth texture, while the texture of talc, is greasy.

8. Density and Specific Gravity - Sometimes, two minerals of the same size have different weights. Differences in weight are
the result of differences in density, which is defined as mass per unit of volume.
If you had a sample of gold and a sample of pyrite of the same size, the gold would have greater weight because it
is more dense. Density reflects the atomic mass and structure of a mineral. Because density is not dependent on the size or
shape of a mineral, it is a useful identification tool. Often, however, differences in density are too small to be distinguished by
lifting different minerals. Thus, for accurate mineral identification, density must be measured. The most common measure of

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 6

density used by geologists is specific gravity, which is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4°C. For example, the specific gravity of pyrite is 5.2. The specific gravity of pure gold is 19.3.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

The following are the chemical properties or composition. These are also used to separate the rock – forming minerals.
Chemical Description Example/s
Property

Elements Occurs in nature in an uncombined state. sulfur, graphite, and gold

Sulfides Combinations of various metallic elements with sulfur. Pyrite (iron sulfide,
FeS2)
Oxides Metal element in combination with oxygen. The iron mineral hematite is an
example.
Halides Naturally occurring chlorides, fluorides, bromides, and halite (rock salt) and fluorite.
iodides.

Silicates Largest group of minerals. Contain various elements in Quartz and feldspar.
combination with silicon and oxygen.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.
COMMON
CHEMICAL
ROCKFORMING PHYSICAL PROPERTY USES
PROPERTY
MINERALS
Quartz • Mohs hardness of 7 electronics, gems
• clear and transparent (pure)

Feldspar • Mohs hardness of 6 glassmaking, ceramics,

• glassy luster
• rectangular crystals that break along flat
faces
• usually white, have shades of red and green Silicate (contains
silicon, and oxygen
Pyroxene • Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6 (harder with some In general, source of
(Augite is the most than glass) aluminum, lithium, used in heat-
common of this group) • glassy luster with streaks of white, light green, magnesium, iron resistant ceramics,
or light brown and calcium) medication, and
batteries.

• Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6 road and railroad bed

• glassy luster and an opaque characteristic construction
• very long and very thin

Amphibole
(Hornblende is
the most common
amphibole)
• Mohs hardness ranging from 6 to 7.5 Magnesium- refractories, gems
• glassy looking and transparent iron silicate (peridot)
• granular shape

Olivine
• Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5 Hydrous potassium pigment extender
• Clear, black aluminum in paints and
silicate electrical insulators
• shiny and glittery
Mica • easily identified by its perfect cleavage
(clear muscovite and
black biotite)

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ STOP ☞ ( Go to Activity 3 on your activity sheet ) ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 7

 TIME TO READ AND LEARN
s
The Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a concept used to explain how the three basic rock types are related and how Earth processes,
over geologic time, change a rock from one type into another. Plate tectonic activity, along with weathering and erosional
processes, are responsible for the continued recycling of rocks.
The rock cycle, illustrated in Figure below, depicts how the three major rock types – igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
- convert from one to another. Arrows connecting the rock types represent the processes that accomplish these changes.

Rocks change as a result of natural processes that are taking place all the time. Most changes happen very
slowly. Rocks deep within the Earth are right now becoming other types of rocks. Rocks at the surface are lying in place before
they are next exposed to a process that will change them. Even at the surface, we may not notice the changes. The rock
cycle has no beginning or end.
The Three Rock Types
Rocks are classified into three major groups according to how they form. These three types are described in more detail in
other concepts in this chapter, but here is a summary.
• Igneous rocks form from the cooling and
hardening of molten magma in many different
environments. The chemical composition of the
magma and the rate at which it cools determine
what rock forms. Igneous rocks can cool slowly
beneath the surface or rapidly at the surface.
These rocks are identified by their composition
and texture. More than 700 different types of
igneous rocks are known. Some igneous rocks are
granite, basalt, and Obsidian. These igneous rock
examples contain small and large crystals.
• Sedimentary rocks form by the compaction and
cementing together of sediments, broken pieces
of rock-like gravel, sand, silt, or clay. Those
sediments can be formed from
the weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks.
Sedimentary rocks also include
chemical precipitates, the solid materials left
behind after a liquid evaporates. Some
Sedimentary rocks are chalk, mudstone, and
Slistone. These sedimentary rock example contain
in layers and fossils.
• Metamorphic rocks form when the minerals in an
existing rock are changed by heat or pressure below the surface. Some of metamorphic rocks are slate, marble,
anthacite, and gneis.

The Processes of the Rock Cycle

Several processes can turn one type of rock into another type of rock. The key processes of the rock cycle
are crystallization, erosion and sedimentation, and metamorphism.

Crystallization
Magma cools either underground or on the surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As the magma cools, different
crystals form at different temperatures, undergoing crystallization. For example, the mineral olivine crystallizes out of magma
at much higher temperatures than quartz. The rate of cooling determines how much time the crystals will have to form. Slow
cooling produces larger crystals.

Erosion and Sedimentation

Weathering wears rocks at the Earth’s surface down into smaller pieces. The small fragments are called sediments.
Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these sediments from one place to another by erosion. During sedimentation, the
sediments are laid down or deposited. In order to form a sedimentary rock, the accumulated sediment must become
compacted and cemented together.

Metamorphism
When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the Earth but does not melt, the rock becomes
metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral composition and the texture of the rock. For that reason,
a metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition and/or texture.
• The three main rock types are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
• The three processes that change one rock to another are crystallization, metamorphism, and erosion and
sedimentation.
• Any rock can transform into any other r
• Rock by passing through one or more of these processes. This creates the rock cycle.

Rocks are classified into three basic types based on how they are formed

Igneous - A rock formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma (molten rock) at or below the Earth's surface.
Sedimentary - A rock formed as a result of the weathering process, either by compaction and cementation of rock
mineral fragments, or the precipitation of dissolved minerals.
Metamorphic - These rocks form as existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and/or pressure, usually over long
periods of time.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 8

The rocks in display are meant to be viewed in a clockwise direction. As you walk, keep in mind that existing rocks may
change through natural processes over geologic time, or event melt to form new rocks.

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TIME TO READ AND LEARN

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MINERAL RESOURCES

LET’S DEFINE SOME SIGNIFICANT TERMS FIRST!

❖ Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest
❖ Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction
under the most favorable conditions
❖ Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine.
❖ Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally used to
describe nonmetallic deposits
❖ Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted.
✓ Most rocks of the Earth's crust contain metals and other elements but at very low concentrations. For example, the
average concentration of Gold in rocks of the Earth's crust is about 0.005 ppm (parts per million) which is roughly 5
grams of gold for every 1000 tons of rock. Although valuable, extracting Gold at this concentration is not economic
(the cost of mining will be too high for the expected profit). Fortunately, there are naturally occurring processes
(geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a particular area.
✓ Differentiate the types of mineral resources. Discuss with students and give examples.

Types of mineral resources: metallic and nonmetallic

✓ Metallic mineral deposits: gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron
✓ Non-metallic resources: talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel
✓ Discuss the occurrence of a mineral resource. Relate it to the rock cycle and plate tectonics
❖ The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the accumulation and concentration
of valuable elements/ minerals.
❖ Plate tectonics: the Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more plates of different sizes that move relative
to one another (lithosphere). These plates are moving slowly on top of a hot and more mobile material
called the asthenosphere. The diagram below shows the different mineral deposits that usually occur in
different tectonic environments.
✓ Enumerate the different mineral resources and discuss their origins. Give examples for each.

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

✓ valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such as crystal
fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling.
✓ magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after accumulating
elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the magma.
Examples:
❖ Crystal settling: as magma cools down, heavier minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at the lower
portion of the magma chamber
❖ From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4), magnetite (Fe3O4) and platinum (Pt) can be concentrated
through crystal settling
❖ Fractional crystallization: the residual melt contains high percentage of water and volatile Lithium, Gold,
Boron, rare elements and some other heavy metals Fractional crystallization of granitic magmas can
concentrate rare earth elements (such as cesium and uranium) and heavy metals. This can also form
pegmatites (large crystals of quartz, feldspars and muscovite) which may contain semi-precious gems such
as beryl, topaz, and tourmaline

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 9

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
✓ concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces
in rocks
✓ hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma crystallization and
may contain large amount of dissolved metals. These can also originate from the ground water circulating at depth
that is being heated up by a cooling and solidifying igneous body or along depths with known geothermal gradient.
✓ Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations) from rocks. As the metal enriched hot
waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may start to precipitate
Examples:
✓ Vein type deposits - A fairly well defined zone of mineralization, usually inclined and discordant and typically narrow.
Most vein deposits occur in fault or fissure openings or in shear zones within the country rock. Sometimes referred to
as (metalliferous) lode deposits, many of the most productive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury
occur as hydrothermal vein deposits
✓ Disseminated deposits - Deposits in which the ore minerals are distributed as minute masses (very low concentration)
through large volumes of rocks. This occurrence is common for porphyry copper deposits
✓ Massive sulfide deposit (at oceanic spreading centers) - Precipitation of metals as sulfide minerals such as sphalerite
(ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) occurs when hot fluids that circulated above magma chambers at oceanic ridges
that may contain sulfur, copper and zinc come in contact with cold groundwater or seawater as it migrates towards
the sea floor.
✓ Strata bound ore deposits (in lake or oceanic sediment) – This deposit is formed when the dissolved minerals in a
hydrothermal fluid precipitate in the pore spaces of unconsolidated sediments on the bottom of a lake or ocean.
Such minerals may contain economic concentrations of lead, zinc and copper, usually in sulfide form like galena
(PbS), sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

✓ Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater
Examples:
✓ Evaporite Deposits: This type of deposit typically occurs in a closed marine environment where evaporation is greater
than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the
residual water and would eventually precipitate. Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax (used in soap) and
sylvite (KCl, from which K is extracted for fertilizers) are examples of minerals deposited through this process.
✓ Iron Formation: These deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron bearing
minerals such as hematite and magnetite. Iron formations appear to be of evaporite type deposits and are mostly
formed in basins within continental crust during the Proterozoic (2 billion years or older).
4. Placer Ore Deposits
✓ Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during sedimentary
processes.
✓ Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
✓ Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy minerals are
mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are carried further
downstream.
✓ Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.
✓ Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and tin;
✓ The source rock for a placer deposit may become an important ore body if located.
5. Residual Ore Deposits
✓ A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering processes.
✓ During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
✓ Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include parent rock composition, climate (tropical and sub-
tropical: must be favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow accumulation)
✓ Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites.
✓ Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich source rocks undergo intense chemical
weathering brought by prolonged rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon, sodium
and calcium through leaching.
✓ Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic
rocks such as dunite and peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich ultramafic rocks
dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel, magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.
✓ Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit becomes enriched due to weathering.

TIME TO READ AND LEARN

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Mineral Exploration
✓ The steps enumerated below are used or considered based on how they are needed during exploration. These steps
are written within the context of a general exploration project where some activities may vary depending on the
type of commodity being explored.
❖ Project Design: This is the initial stage in formulating a project. This involves review of all available data (geologic
reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social,
environmental, political and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals.
❖ Field Exploration: This stage involves physical activities in the selected project area. This can be subdivided into
three phases:
o Regional Reconnaissance: The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones
covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface
investigation and interpretation.
o Detailed Exploration: This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the objective of
finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 10

 o Prospect Evaluation: The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive resource,
geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3) environmental and societal cost
assessment.
❖ Pre-production Feasibility Study: The feasibility study determines and validates the accuracy of all data and
information collected from the different stages. The purpose is for independent assessors to satisfy interested
investors to raise funds and bring the project into production.

Mining Methods
✓ Identify and explain some of the vital considerations needed to know on the different methods to mine a mineral
deposit.
✓ For example, upon knowing the geometry of the ore body, there are appropriate safety ways to mine the minerals
and proper assessment of maximizing profit. The most important method are Surface and underground mining

Types of mines: (A) Underground, (B) Surface (Open pit), (C) Strip, (D) Placer (being mined by a floating dredge)
(Source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011, p 564)
✓ Surface Mining
❖ Utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
❖ Different types include open pit mining, quarrying, placer mining and strip mining. Picture: 600m deep open
pit diamond mine (Source: CK12 Earth
Science)
❖ Open-pit mining - This is the most common type of surface mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the
ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting with explosives and drilling. It is used to mine gravel and sand
and even rock.

❖ Strip mining – This mining type involves the removal of a thin strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a
desired deposit, dumping the removed overburden behind the deposit, extracting the desired deposit,
creating a second, parallel strip in the same manner, and depositing the waste materials from that second
(new) strip onto the first strip. This mining method is used for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar mining.

❖ Dredging – This is the process of mining materials from the bottom of a body of water, including rivers, lakes,
and oceans.

✓ Underground Mining
❖ Utilized to extract ore minerals from the orebody is that is deep under the Earth’s surface A 3-D view of an
underground mine showing the ore body at subsurface (source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by
Carlson, 2011 p565)

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 11

 ❖ Sampling – is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this material.
❖ Analysis – is important to evaluate the valuable component in an ore. This includes chemical, mineral and
particle size analysis.
❖ Comminution – is the process where the valuable components of the ore are separated through crushing and
grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a
powder form.

The Milling Process

✓ Explain to the students that the materials extracted or “mined" are rocks composed of both ore and waste material
(part of the rock which contain very little or no element or mineral of economic value). The extracted rocks will
undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation and recovery.
✓ Recovering the minerals from the ore and waste materials can involve one or more processes where in the separation
is usually done in a mill.
✓ Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are
pulverized

Examples of Milling or Recovery Methods or Processes

❖ Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser minerals sink
thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate chalcopyrite from quartz
before the refining processes of extracting copper.
❖ Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste
materials using a powerful magnet.
❖ Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and metals
based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise
to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste.
❖ Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on a
“leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the leach solution percolates
down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The solution is processed further to extract the
gold. The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond, while the metals are
sent for further processing.

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TIME TO READ AND LEARN

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FOSSIL FUELS
Have you ever wonder were a “Fossil Fuel” gets its name? Fossil fuels are compound mixtures made of fossilized plant
and animal remnants from millions of years ago. The creation of fossil fuels—either oil, natural gas, or coal—from these fossils
is determined by the type of fossil, the amount of heat, and the amount of pressure.

I. The Beginning
Fuels are sources of energy and fossil fuels are no different. The energy in fossil fuels comes from the sun, which drives
photosynthesis to change carbon dioxide and water into the molecular building blocks of ancient plants and animals. Both
plants and animals build their bodies using predominantly carbon and hydrogen atoms and it is the stored energy in the
fossilized hydrocarbon-type compounds that serve as fuel when burned.
II. Decomposition
As the fossil material begins to get buried deeper and deeper underground it is subjected to increased heat and
pressure. As the heat rises, the fossil molecules begin to break apart. The initial breakdown creates partially changed materials,
like peat from plants and kerogen from plankton. These transitional materials can be used as fuel sources too, however, they
have less stored energy than fully formed coal, natural gas, or oil.
III. Fossil Fuels Form
After millions of years underground, the compounds that make up plankton and plants turn into fossil fuels. Plankton
decomposes into natural gas and oil, while plants become coal. Today, humans extract these resources through coal mining
and the drilling of oil and gas wells on land and offshore. They are sought after because they contain stored energy, and
when burned, fossil fuels power machinery and provide transportation, as well as the electricity essential to modern-day life.
They also contain essential ingredients used within the chemical industry.
IV. The Chemical Breakdown
Crude oil is a mixture of thousands of different molecules made up of compounds containing mostly hydrogen and
carbon. Every crude oil deposit has a unique composition and proportion of these hydrocarbons. Based upon this chemical
composition, crude oil can have a range of densities from thick and viscous to light and fluid. It is designated as either sweet
or sour depending upon residual amounts of sulfur and can range from a transparent golden yellow to a deep black.
In order to be used within industry and for transportation the crude oil must be separated into its individual
hydrocarbon-based fuels and lubricants. With so many molecule types, there isn’t an industry that doesn’t use oil products in
some form or another. Oil is used as lubricants, fuel, in plastics, cosmetics, and even medicine. In general, oil’s composition is
classified into four different types of molecules.
V. Oil in the Environment

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 12

 After all this transformation, oil is naturally found in the environment. It typically is deep below the surface of the earth,
but can also be found bubbling up or even in the form of tar balls on the beach.
VI. What can we learn from Oil Spills?
An oil spill can introduce massive amounts of oil into the environment. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was the largest
marine oil spill in U.S. history, dumping over 3.17 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The fire and explosion of the drilling
rig cost 11 people their lives.
Researchers took to the sea to learn as much as they could about the impacts the oil had on the surrounding marine
environment, as well as the nearby Gulf communities. Since the spill in 2010, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative has funded
hundreds of scientists and learned a great deal about what happened to the spilled oil and what impact the spill had on
natural environments along the northern Gulf of Mexico coastline. Explore some of the findings below.

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LESSON 3| ENERGY SOURCES: GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC

TIME TO READ AND LEARN

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Energy
✓ Is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy resource is something that can produce heat,
power life, move objects, or produce electricity. Matter that stores energy is called a fuel.
✓ Human energy consumption has grown steadily throughout human history. Early humans had modest energy
requirements, mostly food and fuel for fires to cook and keep warm. In today's society, humans consume as much as
110 times as much energy per person as early humans. Most of the energy we use today come from fossil fuels
(stored solar energy).
✓ But fossils fuels have a disadvantage in that they are non-renewable on a human time scale, and caused other
potentially harmful effects on the environment. In any event, the exploitation of all energy sources (with the possible
exception of direct solar energy used for heating), ultimately rely on materials on planet Earth.
✓ Every day we face new problems arising from the environmental state of our world. Widespread pollution is a huge
problem to our environment and there is an urgent need to start using renewable sources that eliminate the burning
of fossil fuels. Geothermal and hydroelectric are renewable sources of energies and produce “clean” fuel sources.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
✓ Geothermal Energy is heat stored deep inside the earth or occasionally in hot springs. This heat is continuously
produced by the decay of radioactive isotopes such as uranium, thorium, and potassium. These underground
reservoirs of steam and hot water can be tapped to generate electricity or to heat and cool buildings directly.
✓ Geothermal Energy has been used for thousands of years in some countries for cooking and heating. It is simply power
derived from the Earth’s internal heat.This thermal energy is contained in the rock and fluids beneath Earth’s crust. It
can be found from shallow ground to several miles below the surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot
molten rock called magma.

How Is It Used?
✓ These underground reservoirs of steam and hot water can be tapped to generate electricity or to heat and cool
buildings directly. A geothermal heat pump system can take advantage of the constant temperature of the upper
ten feet (three meters) of the Earth’s surface to heat a home in the winter, while extracting heat from the building
and transferring it back to the relatively cooler ground in the summer. Geothermal water from deeper in the Earth
can be used directly for heating homes and offices, or for growing plants in greenhouses. Some U.S. cities pipe
geothermal hot water under roads and sidewalks to melt snow.

Production of Geothermal Energy

✓ To produce geothermal-generated electricity, wells, sometimes a mile (1.6 kilometers) deep or more, are drilled
into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that drive turbines linked to electricity generators. The
first geothermally generated electricity was produced in Larderello, Italy, in 1904.
✓ There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash, and binary.
❖ Dry steam, the oldest geothermal technology, takes steam out of fractures in the ground and uses
it to directly drive a turbine.
❖ Flash plants pull deep, high-pressure hot water into cooler, low-pressure water. The steam that
results from this process is used to drive the turbine. I
❖ n binary plants, the hot water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than
water. This causes the secondary fluid to turn to vapor, which then drives a turbine. Most
geothermal power plants in the future will be binary plants.
✓ Geothermal energy is generated in over 20 countries. The United States is the world’s largest producer, and the
largest geothermal development in the world is The Geysers north of San Francisco in California. In Iceland, many
of the buildings and even swimming pools are heated with geothermal hot water. Iceland has at least 25 active
volcanoes and many hot springs and geysers.

Advantages and Disadvantages

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 13

 ✓ There are many advantages of geothermal energy. It can be extracted without burning a fossil fuel such as coal,
gas, or oil. Geothermal fields produce only about one-sixth of the carbon dioxide that a relatively clean natural-
gas-fueled power plant produces. Binary plants release essentially no emissions. Unlike solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy is always available, 365 days a year.
✓ It’s also relatively inexpensive; savings from direct use can be as much as 80 percent over fossil fuels. But it has
some environmental problems. The main concern is the release of hydrogen sulfide, a gas that smells like rotten
egg at low concentrations. Another concern is the disposal of some geothermal fluids, which may contain low
levels of toxic materials. Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, eventually
specific locations may cool down

HYDROELECTRIC
✓ Hydroelectricity is a form of energy generated by the motion of water (kinetic energy) and is converted into
electricity. Hydroelectric energy is made from the constant motion of the water cycle and it is the result of solar heat
and the gravitational forces from the earth. The water cycle starts with the evaporation of water and then it falls back
down as rain, hail, or snow. This constant fall of water is what produces the hydroelectricity.
✓ Hydropower is fueled by water and driven by the sun, therefore; it is a sustainable fuel source. Other benefits formed
from hydropower efforts is flood control, irrigation, and water supply.
Hydro-electric energy, also called hydroelectric power or hydroelectricity, is a form of energy that harnesses the
power of water in motion—such as water flowing over a waterfall—to generate electricity. People have used this
force for millennia. Over two thousand years ago, people in Greece used flowing water to turn the wheel of their mill
to ground wheat into flour.

How Does Hydroelectric Energy Work?

✓ Most hydroelectric power plants have a reservoir of water, a gate or valve to control how much water flows out of
the reservoir, and an outlet or place where the water ends up after flowing downward. Water gains potential energy
just before it spills over the top of a dam or flows down a hill. The potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as
water flows downhill. The water can be used to turn the blades of a turbine to generate electricity, which is distributed
to the power plant’s customers.

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Lesson 4| WATER RESOURCES ON EARTH

TIME TO READ AND LEARN
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SALTWATER – 97%
the majority of water on Earth is salty! Chloride and sodium are the most abundant ions found in salt water. Other
ions or elements, particularly in the oceans, include magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium, and much more.
These ions form salts, giving oceans, seas, and some lakes their salty or saline characteristic. Organisms that in
these habitats have adaptations that allow them to live in the water and salt that constantly surrounds them.
Humans cannot use saltwater directly – which you probably know if you’ve ever swallowed ocean water and
felt sick afterward. Before humans can use saltwater for drinking or farmland irrigation, it must be treated to remove the salts,
through a process called desalinization. Desalinization is costly and requires a lot of energy, but for places that are extremely
dry this process can provide people with much-needed freshwater.

ICE – 2.06%
Most of the freshwater on the Earth is frozen! So much of our water is frozen, that if all of it melted at once, the sea
would rise about 6 meters (20 feet)! Ice is made of freshwater, even ice floating in oceans and seas. This is
because saltwater freezes at much lower temperatures than freshwater and very cold saltwater is so dense it
sinks away from the surface where freezing takes place. Ice is found at the north and south poles as ice caps, as
glaciers on high mountains and at high latitudes, and in regions with permanent snow and permafrost (frozen
soils). Approximately 90% the Earth’s ice is in Antarctica. Ice seems motionless but many ice features move and flow, just very
slowly. Ice caps and glaciers form in layers, as snow and frozen water is deposited over long periods of time. As each layer
forms, gasses, dust, and other molecules get trapped, forming a record of the climate conditions that year. Climate scientists
can drill deep into ice caps and glaciers to analyze how the Earth’s climate has changed over millions of years.

GROUNDWATER – 0.9%
Nearly anywhere you can stand on the Earth’s surface, there is water in the ground underneath your feet. Water
from rain trickles downward through the soil until it reaches material that is already saturated with water.
Depending on depth of this area and the how fast the water has filtered through the soil, groundwater can be
days to thousands of years old. Places where groundwater collects in water wells are called aquifers. Aquifers can
be quite large – the Great Artesian Basin in Australia is one of the deepest and largest in the world, covering 1.7 million square
kilometers (660,000 square miles) or 23% of the Australian Continent. In the United States, the Ogallala Aquifer covers 450,000
square kilometers (174,000 square miles) of the Great Plains, occurring in parts of Wyoming, South Dakota, Nebraska,
Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas! Humans rely heavily on groundwater for drinking, farming, and other
uses but over-use, pollution, and sea level rise threaten this precious resource.

LAKES – 0.008%
Lakes are just one type of surface-water – water that is easily accessible and visible on the surface of the
Earth. Lakes form where water runoff from rain and snow accumulates. In some places, lakes form in
areas where groundwater seeps up to the surface. Lakes come in a variety of shapes and sizes, and can
contain salty or fresh water. The Earth’s oldest and largest lake, Lake Baikal in Siberia, has a depth of
over 1,500 m or 1 mile! Freshwater lakes are highly valued by people, as places of recreation and water
supply. If your city or town has a reservoir, this is a natural or man-made lake used for its water – the source of water coming
out of your faucets.

EARTH SCIENCE • KLC TABAOSARES • GRADE 11 • STEM |PAGE 14

WETLANDS – 0.001%
Wetlands occur in areas where water covers the soil for varying periods of time. This phenomenon can occur
along coastlines where tides move water back and forth over the land, and in areas that are prone to flooding
such as low lying areas around lakes and rivers. You might also know them as deltas, estuaries, marshes, swamps,
and bayous. Wetlands contain a large diversity of organisms as they are areas where both land-dwelling and
aquatic organisms live. This diversity of organisms, from microbes to mammals, interact with the environment and
each other to create some of the most active aquatic habitats on Earth. Wetlands also fill important roles such as nursery
habitats for fish, resting places for migrating birds, and buffer zones from storm damage. Unfortunately, many wetlands are
also located in areas that are considered prime real estate for humans which has resulted in more than 50% loss of this
important habitat.

RIVERS – 0.0002%
Rivers form where water flows downhill, due to gravity, making a journey from the tops of mountains to the sea.
Many different plant and animal species can be found along rivers. Although, rivers make up a small proportion of
Earth’s water resources they have and continue to be an important resource for humans, serving as transit systems
for exploration and transport of goods, power generation, recreation, and a source of freshwater

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IFL

1 Chronicles 29:2 “Now with all my ability I have provided for the house of my God the gold for the
things of gold, and the silver for the things of silver, and the bronze for the things of bronze, the iron for
the things of iron, and wood for the things of wood, onyx stones and inlaid stones, stones of antimony
and stones of various colors, and all kinds of precious stones and alabaster in abundance.”

We are God’s Treasure! And God I Preparing our heavenly home filled with Gems, and beautiful
Crystals. Portions of God's glorious heavenly city, the New Jerusalem, will be constructed from crystal.
It's in the Bible, Revelation 21:11, & 18-20 kjv. "It shone with the glory of God, and its brilliance was like
that of a very precious jewel, like a jasper, clear as crystal. The wall was made of jasper, and the city of
pure gold, as pure as glass.

REFERENCES AND WEBSITE LINKS USED IN THIS LESSON

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A Brief History of Space Exploration | The. (2022, July 14). Aerospace Corporation. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from
https://aerospace.org/article/brief-history-space-exploration
Canoy, W. Z. (2022, July 18). Rock Forming Minerals. Facebook. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from
https://web.facebook.com/legacy/notes/1970440293192617/
CK-12 Foundation. (2019, November 20). Finding and Mining Ores. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from https://www.ck12.org/earth-
science/finding-and-mining-ores/lesson/Finding-and-Mining-Ores-HS-ES
curious. (2017, November 23). The Goldilocks planet: why Earth is our oasis. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from
https://www.science.org.au/curious/space-time/goldilocks-planet
Home. (n.d.). College of Science and Engineering. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from https://cse.umn.edu/esci
Howell, E. (2017, March 24). Gliese 581c: Super-Earth Exoplanet. Space.Com. Retrieved July 19, 2022, from
https://www.space.com/36196-gliese-581c.html
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