Managing Olympic Sport Organisations: Jean Camy Leigh Robinson

Managing
Olympic Sport
Organisations
Executive Masters
in Sports Organisation
Management
Jean Camy
Leigh Robinson
Editors
Dick Palmer
Special Advisor
Edited under the leadership of the

International Olympic Committee, Olympic Solidarity
Human Kinetics
ISBN-10: 0-7360-6221-1
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-6221-3
Copyright © 2007 by Olympic Solidarity
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Contents
Foreword vii
Contributors ix
Contributing Organisations x
Reviewers xi
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1 Organising an Olympic Sport Organisation . . . . . . . 1

Leigh Robinson • Andreu Camps Povill • Ian Henry • Luc Vandeputte • Mark Clark
Section 1.1 Operating Environment of Olympic Sport Organisations . . . . . . . 2

Illustration 1.1 Operating Environment: Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee 7
Section 1.2 Nature of Olympic Sport Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Illustration 1.2 Structural Change in an NOC:
The Case of the British Olympic Association 18
Section 1.3 Governance of Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Illustration 1.3 Governance of the Estonian Olympic Committee 35
Section 1.4 Information Management and Information Technology . . . . . . . 37

Illustration 1.4 Information Management in the
Oceania National Olympic Committees Continental Association 43
Section 1.5 Management of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Illustration 1.5 Changing the Governance of South African Sport 52
c Case Study 1 The Nature of the Olympic Council of Malaysia 55
Chapter 2 Managing Strategically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Emmanuel Bayle • Joan Duncan • Jean-Loup Chappelet • Nicos Kartakoullis
Section 2.1 Preparing for the Strategic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Illustration 2.1 Preparing for Strategic Planning:
New Zealand Olympic Committee Inc. 68
Section 2.2 Diagnosis of the OSO Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Illustration 2.2 Environmental Diagnosis for the Cyprus National Olympic Committee 75
Section 2.3 Vision, Values, Mission and Strategic Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Illustration 2.3 Vision, Values, Mission and Strategic Objectives of the
Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee: Strategic Plan, 2006-09 83
Section 2.4 Action Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Illustration 2.4 Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth
Games Association National Strategic Framework 88
iii
iv CONTENTS
Section 2.5 Control and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Illustration 2.5 Evaluation Criteria: Fédération Française de Canoë-Kayak 95
c Case Study 2 Developing the Strategic Plan of the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee 98
Chapter 3 Managing Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Jean Camy • Leigh Robinson • Packianathan Chelladurai • Marie Leroux
Section 3.1 Organising Human Resources Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Illustration 3.1 Office Rules and Regulations of the Barbados Olympic Association Inc. 114
Section 3.2 Developing a Human Resources Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Illustration 3.2 HRM Strategy of the Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français 124
Section 3.3 Recruiting and Motivating Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Illustration 3.3 Motivations of Volunteers
in the Qatar National Olympic Committee 134
Section 3.4 Developing Human Resources Through Training . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Illustration 3.4 Training Policy for Sport Administrators
of the National Olympic Committee of Albania 144
Section 3.5 Developing Skills for Managing Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . 146

Illustration 3.5 Managing Conflict in National Federations 154
c Case Study 3 Human Resources Assessment and Design
for the Gambia National Olympic Committee 157
Chapter 4 Managing Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Ghassan Haddad
Section 4.1 Good Financial Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Illustration 4.1 Principles of Financial Management:
Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee 168
Section 4.2 Financial Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Illustration 4.2 Financial Planning in British Swimming 176
Section 4.3 Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Illustration 4.3 Budgeting in the Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano 184
Section 4.4 Accounting for Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Illustration 4.4 United States Olympic Training Center Waiver and Release of Liability 196
Section 4.5 Evaluation and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Illustration 4.5 Evaluation of the Coaching Development Programme
of the Palestinian Rowing Federation 207
c Case Study 4 Generally Accepted Accounting Principles: Swiss Olympic Association 210
CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Managing Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Alain Ferrand • Andreu Camps Povill • Damjan Pintar
Section 5.1 What Can We Market? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Illustration 5.1 Managing the Exchange Between an NOC
and Its Main Sponsors: Comité Olímpico Argentino 229
Section 5.2 Managing the Quality of the Offering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Illustration 5.2 Assessment of Perceived Quality Offered by the
Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee 238
Section 5.3 Developing a Marketing Communication Strategy . . . . . . . . . . 240

Illustration 5.3 Managing Public Relations: Kuwait Olympic Committee 247
Section 5.4 Managing Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Illustration 5.4 Sponsorship Plan of the Philippine Amateur Swimming Association 257
Section 5.5 Developing and Managing a Marketing Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Illustration 5.5 Sport Marketing Plan: Lesotho National Olympic Committee 268
c Case Study 5 Marketing of the Olympic Committee of Slovenia,
Association of Sports Federations 272
Chapter 6 Organising a Major Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Laurent Boyer • Denis Musso • Gérard Barreau
Laurence Boyer Collas • Amar Addadi
Section 6.1 Deciding Whether to Organise a Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Illustration 6.1 Deciding Whether to Bid: Fédération Française de Badminton 285
Section 6.2 Legal and Functional Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Illustration 6.2 Organisational Structure of the 2003 South Pacific Games 294
Section 6.3 Organising the Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Illustration 6.3 The 9th World Athletics Championships: Paris 2003 305
Section 6.4 Managing Human Resources for a Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Illustration 6.4 Management of Volunteers at the
Winter Universiade Innsbruck/Seefeld 2005 319
Section 6.5 Organising Amenities, Sites and Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Illustration 6.5 Facilities, Sites and Spaces for the
Rio de Janeiro 2007 Pan American Games 330
c Case Study 6 Organising the Mediterranean Games: Almería 2005 333
References 345
Index 347
About the Contributors 357
Foreword
O lympic Solidarity is the primary pillar supporting the work of the National Olympic
Committees (NOCs) and safeguarding their autonomy. In recent years, the decen-
tralisation process has consolidated Olympic Solidarity’s decisive role, benefiting the
NOCs and their athletes.
The main task of Olympic Solidarity, based on the decisions taken by the Olympic
Solidarity Commission, is to orientate, lead, monitor and assess the application of the
World Programmes through which the support and assistance given to the NOCs are
channelled on a four-year basis. Key areas such as athletes, coaches, NOC management
and promotion of the Olympic values receive the funding by Olympic Solidarity based
on the plan approved for the quadrennium.
Since the outset, Olympic Solidarity has devoted considerable attention to developing
the human resources of the NOCs and their National Federations, knowing that this
is vital for ensuring the most efficient use of the financial resources allocated to each
programme. As a result, the concrete measures include courses for sport administrators,
scholarships for NOC participants to attend the MEMOS programme (in English, French
and Spanish), regional forums and the development of human resources in the area of
sport management and administration.
Twenty years have passed since the first Sport Administrators Course was organised.
During that time, with the coordinated efforts of the Olympic Solidarity office in Laus-
anne, the Continental Associations and the NOCs, significant results have been obtained,
establishing a solid basis for taking up the new challenges that Olympic Solidarity needs
to meet in the area of human resources training and development. In this connection,
Managing Olympic Sport Organisations has been created and made available to the NOCs.
This text and its application in future Advanced Sport Management Courses should
enable us to close the gap between the operational concerns that are the focus of the Sport
Administrators Course and the strategic concerns in the higher-level MEMOS programme
courses. The text recognises the importance of the human capital. Over the years, this
capital has been built up within Olympic organisations and favours the concept of creat-
ing an Olympic learning community in which its main stakeholders—athletes, coaches,
managers and administrators—interact on the basis of the objectives and interests of the
Olympic Movement.
It is only right that I acknowledge the huge collective effort of producing a publication
of such high quality and technical rigour. The team of MEMOS staff and former stu-
dents, the NOCs, the Olympic Solidarity staff in Lausanne and those of Human Kinetics
have made possible this important contribution to achieving one of Olympic Solidarity’s
main objectives. I extend my sincere thanks and congratulations to all for their valuable
work.
vii
viii foreword
I encourage those who delve into Managing Olympic Sport Organisations to study each
of the topics presented, promote healthy and open discussions and apply conclusions to
daily work with a view to strengthening the role of the Olympic Movement, especially
the National Olympic Committees.
Mario Vázquez Raña
Chairman, Olympic Solidarity Commission
Contributors
W e are indebted to the contributors to this book, who put their practice in the
Olympic Movement into words so that others could learn from their experiences.
The contributors originate from the MEMOS association, a testament to the learning
community that MEMOS has helped to produce.
Amar Addadi, MA Joan Duncan

MEMOS Graduate MEMOS Lecturer
International Committee for the Mediterra- JDI Consulting
nean Games Alain Ferrand, PhD
Gérard Barreau, MA MEMOS Tutor
MEMOS Tutor University of Lyon, France
National Institute of Sport and Physical Educa- Ghassan Haddad, MAT
tion (INSEP), France MEMOS Graduate
Emmanuel Bayle, PhD Palestinian Rowing Federation
MEMOS Tutor Ian Henry, PhD
University of Burgundy, France MEMOS Tutor
Laurence Boyer Collas, MA Loughborough University, United Kingdom
MEMOS Tutor Nicos Kartakoullis, PhD
National Institute of Sport and Physical Educa- International Course Director for Sport
tion (INSEP), France Administration Courses
Laurent Boyer, MA Centre for Leisure, Tourism and Sports
MEMOS Tutor Research and Development, Cyprus
National Institute of Sport and Physical Educa- Marie Leroux, MSc
tion (INSEP), France MEMOS Graduate
Andreu Camps Povill, PhD French National Olympic and Sports Com-
MEMOS Graduate and MEMOS Tutor mittee
National Institute of Physical Education of Denis Musso, MA
Catalonia (INEFC), Spain MEMOS Tutor
Jean Camy, PhD National Institute of Sport and Physical Educa-
MEMOS Founder tion (INSEP), France
University of Lyon, France Dick Palmer, CBE, MEd, FRSA
Jean-Loup Chappelet, PhD MEMOS Tutor
MEMOS Director British Olympic Association
Swiss Graduate School of Public Administra- Damjan Pintar, MA
tion (IDHEAP), Lausanne, Switzerland MEMOS Graduate
Packianathan Chelladurai, PhD Olympic Committee of Slovenia, Association
MEMOS Tutor of Sports Federations
The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA Leigh Robinson, PhD
Mark Clark, MBE, MA MEMOS Tutor
MEMOS Graduate Loughborough University, United Kingdom
Clark Consulting Luc Vandeputte, MSc PE, ExMA
MEMOS Tutor
Free University of Brussels, Belgium
ix
Contributing Organisations
W e are grateful to these Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) who willingly shared
their stories, many in the form of illustrations and case studies, so that managers
of OSOs worldwide could learn from them. This is one example of how OSOs can develop
and contribute to a learning community.
Barbados Olympic Association Inc. Lesotho National Olympic Committee

www.olympic.org.bb National Olympic Committee of Albania
British Olympic Association www.nocalbania.org.al
www.olympics.org.uk Nederlands Olympisch
British Swimming Comité*Nederlandse Sport Federatie
www.britishswimming.org www.sport.nl
Comité d’organisation des 9èmes Champi- New Zealand Olympic Committee Inc.
onnats du Monde d’Athlétisme Paris 2003 www.olympic.org.nz
(Organising Committee of the 9th World Oceania National Olympic Committees
Athletics Championships Paris 2003) www.oceaniasport.com/onoc/
Comité National Olympique et Sportif Fran- Olympic Committee of Slovenia,
çais (French National Olympic and Sports Association of Sports Federations
Committee) www.olympic.si
www.comite-olympique.asso.fr Olympic Council of Malaysia
Comité Olímpico Argentino (Argentine www.olympic.org.my
Olympic Committee) Palestinian Rowing Federation
www.coarg.org.ar www.palestinerowing.org
Comitê Olímpico Brasileiro Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee
www.cob.org.br, www.rio2007.org.br www.oceaniasport.com/png/
Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano (Ecuador Philippine Amateur Swimming
Olympic Committee) Association
www.ecuadorcoe.org.ec Qatar National Olympic Committee
Cyprus National Olympic Committee www.qatarolympics.org
www.olympic.org.cy Romanian Olympic and Sports
Estonian Olympic Committee Committee
www.eok.ee www.cosr.ro
Fédération Française de Badminton South African Sports Confederation and
(French Badminton Federation) Olympic Committee
www.ffba.org www.sascoc.co.za
Fédération Française de Canoë-Kayak Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth
(French Federation of Canoeing and Kaya- Games Association
king) Swiss Olympic Association
www.ffcanoe.asso.fr www.swissolympic.ch
Gambia National Olympic Committee Swiss Swimming Federation
www.gnoc.gm www.fsn.ch
Innsbruck Seefeld Organising Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee
Committee 2005 www.ttoc.org
International Committee for the United States Olympic Committee
Mediterranean Games www.usolympicteam.com
www.cijm.net Zimbabwe Olympic Committee
Kuwait Olympic Committee www.zoc.co.zw
www.kuwaitolympic.com
If you find that a Web address is no longer current, go to www.olympic.org to find the
current address.

Reviewers
W e wish to thank the following individuals for reviewing this manuscript. Their
insights were invaluable and have made the book better.
Jean Camy Nicos Kartakoullis

Managing Olympic Sport Organisations Centre for Leisure, Tourism and Sports
Editor Research and Development, Cyprus
Nuno Delicado Brian Minikin
Sport Management Consultant Oceania National Olympic Committees
Haider Farman Robert Mutsauki
Olympic Council of Asia Zimbabwe Olympic Committee
Catherine Forde Dick Palmer
Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee Managing Olympic Sport Organisations
Guillermo Gonzalez Special Advisor
Comité Olímpico Colombiano (Colombian Leigh Robinson
Olympic Committee) Managing Olympic Sport Organisations
Ghermay Hadgu Editor
Eritrean National Olympic Committee
We also thank Nuria Puig and Jean Camy for reviewing the Spanish and French transla-
tions, respectively.
xi
Introduction
T he aim of this book is to present, in a simple and practical way, the current knowledge
of management that has been developed by and for Olympic Sport Organisations
(OSOs) worldwide. The term “Olympic Sport Organisations” can be considered to incor-
porate those organisations working within Olympic sport (the 35 sports of the Summer
and Winter Games and the 29 sports that are not incorporated in the Games programme
but are recognised by the IOC). It refers to Olympic Committees at the national, conti-
nental and global levels and to National Federations and International Federations (NFs
and IFs). In addition, the term incorporates organisations with complementary aims and
activities.
We do not expect to cover the whole range of managerial competencies that are pres-
ent in OSOs or to present these in great detail. What we attempt to do with this book is
to highlight and formalise the core dimensions of the managerial culture that will help
OSOs to be managed effectively and to further develop.
Two points about this book should be noted. First, the material outlines the principles
of good management as perceived by the authors, who are experienced researchers and
managers in the areas that they write about. However, these principles should not be seen
as the only way of managing an organisation, nor should OSOs attempt to only operate
along these lines. Many of you will have experiences that are different from those in the
book but are effective for your OSO. Only you can make a decision about what is practi-
cal and relevant for the operations of your OSO. Second, this book is just the starting
point of the education and development process. It is part of a programme of learning
that will bring together those who work within OSOs in order to share experiences and
to learn from each other. The intention is to create a learning community for the benefit
of Olympic sport as a whole.
To achieve such an ambitious task, a collaborative process was undertaken to gather

material and feedback from more than 100 sport organisations and around 150 people.
Three main categories of contributors were involved in covering the needed activities:
• An editorial committee. This committee was made up of both OSO field managers and
academics involved in MEMOS (Executive Masters in Sports Organisation Manage-
ment), a programme for which NOCs receive support from Olympic Solidarity (OS)
within its NOC Management Programmes. This committee operated under the lead-
ership of an editorial board, which was responsible for the project development. The
group’s task was to identify the key areas of management knowledge and practice
that constitute the common culture of OSO management and then to present this
in written form in this book. Their work was supported by Olympic Solidarity and
the IOC to ensure permanent feedback to contributing OSOs.
• A large number of contributors from OSOs. These contributors provided the material
that constitutes the original content of the book. OSOs from around the world, big
and small, senior managers and volunteers, have collected and provided the illustra-
tive information used in the book. Nothing would have been possible without their
huge effort.
xiii
xiv introduction
• A set of reviewing bodies. These bodies, which either had general management knowl-
edge or knowledge of specific areas, have validated the material to make sure that
it represents the key dimensions of the management of OSOs.
The result of this process is now in your hands. The structure adopted in this book was
chosen in order to meet the objectives set out previously. It is composed of six chapters
covering the following key competencies expected of OSO managers:
• Organising an OSO by understanding its environment, internal structure and opera-

tion
• Managing an OSO strategically by preparing, carrying out and evaluating a strategic
plan
• Managing human resources in an OSO through the development of rules and regu-
lations and recruiting, motivating and training human resources
• Managing finances in an OSO using appropriate and transparent procedures
• Managing marketing in an OSO in line with the global strategy of the organisation,
stakeholders’ requirements and sponsorship opportunities
• Organising major sport events when appropriate for the organisation’s strategy and
when compatible with available human resources and facilities
Each chapter, which covers an area of competence in the field of management, is divided
into five sections. Each section covers one topic that contributes to the competence cov-
ered by the chapter and then ends with an illustration of an OSO that shows how the key
principles are applied in the field. Each chapter ends with a presentation of a case study
that gives a comprehensive overview of how OSOs deal with the issues covered by the
chapter. In total, 30 illustrations and 6 case studies from the five Olympic continents are
presented, along with numerous other examples that are included in the text.
The general orientation of the book is that management is composed of techniques

that serve the mission and values of an organisation by being applied through a time-
limited strategy. We have tried to make it clear that any single managerial activity must
be related to the mission and values of the organisation in order to give the activity its
fundamental meaning. We hope this book will be a cornerstone in the development of
a learning community of OSOs worldwide. We expect it to be of value as a reference to
OSOs and to express the richness and diversity of the management of Olympic Sport
Organisations.
Chapter 1
Organising an Olympic
Sport Organisation
Photo courtesy of Jan Kossen

Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
• Understand how the environmental context affects your organisation.
• Evaluate the way your organisation is structured and the roles that people
have within it.
• Evaluate the governance of your organisation, in particular the role of the
Board.
• Use information technology to assist with the operation of your organisa-
tion.
• Manage organisational change in an effective manner.

MANAGING OLYMPIC SPORT ORGANISATIONS
T he effective management of Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) requires the

OSO to be organised in such a way that it is in a position to operate effectively.
The purpose of this chapter is to identify the key operational principles on which
an OSO should be built.
This chapter is broken into five sections. The first section considers the external
context within which an OSO operates, whilst the second section discusses the
factors that make up an OSO. The third section then considers the governance of
OSOs and issues that affect governance. The fourth section addresses information
management and the methods of information technology that are available for com-
munication both inside and outside of the organisation. Finally, the chapter discusses
the management of change, which is a key feature of the OSO environment. These
issues are then illustrated by a case study of the Olympic Council of Malaysia.
Section 1.1
Operating Environment
of Olympic Sport Organisations
To understand how OSOs can be managed effectively, it is necessary to understand
the operating environment that affects the OSO. Gaining such awareness is the
purpose of this section, which will begin by briefly outlining the modern Olympic
Movement. This is followed by a discussion of other factors in the operating environ-
ment that need to be taken into account when managing an OSO. The section will
conclude with an illustration of the operating context of the Trinidad and Tobago
Olympic Committee.
© IOC / JUILLIART Richard
The Olympic rings as presented at the opening ceremony of the XX Olympic Winter Games,
Torino 2006.
ORGANISING AN OLYMPIC SPORT ORGANISATION
Olympic Movement
The modern Olympic Movement dates from the founding of the International Olym-
pic Committee (IOC) on 23 June 1894. Based on the writings of Pierre de Coubertin,
Olympism is an ideology, a pattern of ideas about the purposes of collective life,
about social goals, distribution of resources and relationships between society and
the individual. Olympism contends that sport promotes optimal human development.
This ideology is clearly communicated in the Olympic Charter, which underpins the
Olympic Movement. The most well-known symbol of the Olympic Movement is the
Olympic rings, which symbolise the union of the five Olympic continents and the
meeting of athletes from all over the world. The colours of the rings, which include
blue, yellow, black, green and red, were chosen as at least one of the colours is found
in the flag of every nation in the world.
In addition to the IOC, the Olympic family includes, among others, the Interna-
tional Federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), National Federations
(NFs) and clubs and individual members such as athletes, officials and coaches.
Figure 1.1 shows the relationships of these various institutions. The IOC may also
recognise other organisations involved in sport that subscribe to the Olympic ideals,
such as the International Olympic Academy (IOA). For more information on the
roles and operating structures of these organisations, visit the IOC website, www.
olympic.org.
Your Organisation’s Operating Environment

Although all OSOs are part of the Olympic family, each organisation operates in a
unique environment. A number of factors within the operating environment offer
opportunities and pose challenges for OSOs. Therefore, in order to be most effective
in delivering services to stakeholders, you need to be aware that the following areas
of the operating context may influence your management.
Organising Committees
of the Olympic Games
National sports
associations and clubs
OCOG
EXECUTIVE Media
BOARD
PRESIDENT
Commissions and
working groups
OS IOC
International
Olympic
MEMBERS IF Sports
Solidarity
Federations
ADMINISTRATION
Olympic Museum TOP partners,

NOC Lausanne local sponsors
National Olympic and suppliers
Athletes, judges/referees, Committees
coaches and other
sports technicians
E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 1.1, 275210 DeniseL R4-alw
Figure 1.1 The Olympic Movement.

Reprinted from www.olympic.org.
Political Factors
Political factors include legislation and policies, such as those issued by the IOC or
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), as well as political values expressed by govern-
ment. The introduction of quotas for women in management is a political factor, as
is a commitment to Sport for All.
Government policy significantly affects the operation of OSOs. The attitude of

politicians towards sport, the prominence of sport in policy and as a policy tool, and
the relationships amongst the organisations responsible for sport in your country will
all have a big impact on your organisation. For example, if government policy values
sport as a means of increasing health or decreasing crime, it is likely to be easier
to access funds for services. If the relationship between the NOC, NFs and govern-
ment departments is poor, you may find it more difficult to promote sport within the
country. Perhaps most crucially, the value that government policies place on physical
education for children will dictate whether the country values sport or not.
Other political factors are also important. The stability of governments and key
politicians will affect the ability to plan and fund activities. Tax policies may also
have an effect since taxes may provide an organisation with more, or less, income.
For example, in Ecuador, a tax on fixed and mobile phone calls has been used to
fund elite sport. Finally, government’s attitudes and legislation in relation to the
advertising of alcohol, tobacco and fast food may require some OSOs to seek new
sponsors.
Sociocultural Factors
Sociocultural factors are a result of the way that a society is structured and behaves.
Social factors include demographic features such as an aging population, changing
lifestyles, a trend towards watching sport rather than taking part and a trend towards
team sport rather than individual sport.
Factors such as the gender and age makeup of the population, family structure,
income distribution, levels of education and social mobility will affect who is
attracted to your organisation. More importantly, however, cultural factors such as
attitudes towards sport participation, including parental attitudes towards children’s
participation and attitudes towards work and leisure, will affect the role that OSOs
play in society.
Economic Factors
Economic factors are features such as the strength of the economy, unemployment
levels, how much people are prepared to pay for services and whether people can
afford to be volunteers. Because there is no requirement for people to use OSOs,
such organisations must compete for income that is left over after people have met
their basic needs for shelter, food and clothing. Factors such as the inflation rate,
unemployment rate, level of disposable income and cost of living all determine how
much money people have to spend on OSO services. Indeed, in a number of countries
the economic factors are such that it is not possible for organisations to charge for
their services, which affects the type and extent of services offered.
A significant economic factor is the level of competition an organisation faces,

and OSOs operate in a highly competitive industry. As mentioned, OSOs compete
for the money left over after basic needs are met, but so do many other organisa-
tions. Although competition can be for money, for most OSOs it is likely to be for
people. If football is the most popular sport in a country, it is often difficult for other
sports to attract large numbers of participants. If religious or cultural events are an
essential part of society, people will spend more of their leisure time taking part in
these events rather than sport.
Perhaps most importantly, the value that government places on sport will have
a significant economic impact because many OSOs are directly funded by govern-
ment. The value that government places on sport dictates whether the economic
context is good, poor or even changing, and you will need to know this value in
order to take account of opportunities and to deal with threats. In addition, you
need to know how the government funds that value. For example, funding could
go directly to every OSO, or it could be given only to large OSOs, such as the NOC,
to be distributed to member organisations. This information will influence the
process for accessing funding, the people you will be accountable to and how your
organisation will be evaluated.
Legal Factors
There are no sports without rules. Sports are regulated by rules and standards of
conduct established within the organisation to ensure the survival of the sport’s
basic principles and the permanence of the sport organisations. These rules fulfil
the following functions:
• Establish standards of play (technical rules) for the specific sport or athletic
discipline.
• Establish standards for competition.
• Establish standards of conduct that participants in the sport must follow.
• Establish the way that the relationships (membership or participation) of the
bodies and people comprising the athletics movement operate.
In addition, all OSOs have some form of statutes or constitution that guides and
regulates the way that the organisation can operate, which often requires formal
approval by external stakeholders, such as relevant local authorities. These form the
legal framework, which is the basis for all other considerations facing the OSO.
No OSO operates in a vacuum separate from the rest of society, and in its interac-
tion with its stakeholders, it will be affected by the legal rules of that wider environ-
ment. As result, you should have some awareness of the following areas of law.
• Delict or tort: This is the failure to perform a duty of care to the required stan-
dard. A particular type of delictual or tort action relates to negligence, perhaps
the most likely cause of legal liability for a sport organisation. What is consid-
ered to be negligence may differ amongst countries, and therefore you need to
understand how your country’s legal system defines negligence.
• Employment law: Each country is likely to have laws that affect the employment
and treatment of staff. For example, the Bosman ruling requires free movement
of workers amongst countries of the European Union (EU) and thus affects
many European OSOs.
• Drugs and doping: Laws regarding the use of banned substances must be under-
stood.
• Intellectual property: These laws ensure protection of the OSO brand, which
will be discussed in chapter 5.
• Health and safety: These laws are important for risk management, which will
be discussed later in this chapter.
• Defamation, slander and libel: These laws involve protection of a person’s reputa-
tion.
There may be a perception within some countries that such legal concerns are
more applicable to a jurisdiction with a sophisticated and litigious legal environment.
However, it is still important that you fully understand the legal framework within
which your OSO operates, and in particular it is important for the Board and its
members to be aware of the potential liability they face.
Impact of the Operating Context

From the previous discussion it is clear that you need to know your OSO’s operating
context well. Each country, each region and each town or village is likely to have
different factors that influence the management of the organisation. In addition, it
is unlikely that the factors in the operating environment will remain constant. For
this reason, you may need to change the way you manage and the direction of your
organisation. You should frequently ask yourself the following questions to ensure
that your OSO is being managed as effectively as possible.
• What importance does the government place on sport? How is this evident in
policy?
• Are senior politicians committed to sport?
• What is the relationship between your organisation and government organisa-
tions?
• Do politicians value the work of your organisation?
• How do the objectives of your organisation contribute to government objectives
for sport? How does your OSO respond to changing government objectives, or
changing governments?
• How important is your organisation to sport in your country?
• How does the way that sport is structured in your country affect the delivery
of sport? What would improve this?
• Is the policy regarding physical education in schools supportive of participa-
tion?
• Do people value sport in your country?
• In particular, do parents value the participation of children in sport?
• How is sport funded in your country?

• What do you have to do to get funds?
• Can you increase your funds or have them taken away?
• What do you have to do to prove that your organisation is effective?
• What activities draw people away from your organisation? Can you do anything
about this?
• What sports are your major competitors? What can you do about these?
• Can you charge for your services?
• What are the legal responsibilities of the organisation?
• What are the legal responsibilities of the Board?
• What risks are associated with your sport? How do you manage these?
• What is considered to be negligent activity in your country’s legal system?
• Are there health and safety concerns that affect your organisation?
• How can you protect your brand?
Key Recommendations
c Identify where your OSO fits into the Olympic family.
c Be clear about your organisation’s role in the delivery of sport policy.
c Review your operating context on an annual basis.
c If necessary, adjust the operations of the organisation in response to the

review.
The following illustration presents a review that the Trinidad and Tobago Olym-
pic Committee did of its external context. The OSO considered a number of the
questions listed previously in order to develop a picture of the environment within
which it operates.
Illustration 1.1
Operating Environment:
Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee
The Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee (TTOC), formerly called the Trinidad
and Tobago Olympic Association, was affiliated to the IOC at the IOC Session held
in London in 1948 on the occasion of the celebration of the XV Olympic Games. It
operates within a small population, which has only recently climbed to 1.3 million.
An analysis of the operating context revealed the following factors that affect the
way the TTOC can contribute to sport in the country.
(continued)
Illustration 1.1 (continued)
Political Factors
The government of Trinidad and Tobago values sport. It has developed a national
sport policy that is intended to offer a formal, holistic and systematic framework for
the development of sport in Trinidad and Tobago. This framework is based on the
recognition of the important role that sport plays in the life of the individual, the
community and the nation. The purpose of the policy is to guide decision making
with regard to the development of sport. The government has developed a 2020
vision for the country (to be reached by the year 2020) that includes sport, and the
vision is for the country to be recognised as a successful Western Hemisphere nation
in the field of sport.
In order to further the implementation of the national sport policy, the

government approved the establishment of a limited liability company with terms
of reference geared towards the management, administration and programming of
sport in Trinidad and Tobago. This company, wholly owned by the government and
referred to as the Sport Company of Trinidad and Tobago, was approved pending the
establishment of the Sport Commission of Trinidad and Tobago (SCOTT). The TTOC
has been a central figure in the development of the sport policy, in the formation
of the Sport Company and in discussions with regard to the SCOTT. The TTOC will
have representation on the SCOTT, although it remains independent of government,
its status and relationship established by an act of Parliament.
Sport is structured on a mainly voluntary basis, and recognised sport bodies

come under the Ministry of Sport. In addition, Olympic sports are affiliated to the
TTOC. In terms of improving the structure of sport in Trinidad and Tobago, an audit
carried out by the TTOC showed that serious consideration needs to be given to
the training of sport administrators. Sport in the country is at a point where it can
no longer be run out of the car trunk or on the kitchen table. In this regard, the
government and TTOC need to find a way of providing sport organisations with
administrative support.
The relationship between the TTOC and the Trinidad and Tobago government
is excellent. The objectives of the TTOC and the ideals of the Olympic Movement
and the tenets of Olympism are in sync with the government’s stated vision for the
society and nation based on tolerance, equity and discipline. The TTOC is highly
respected by the government, corporations, media, general public and sport bodies.
It is sought in a consultative role by the government on a number of issues related
to sport. Politicians value the work of the TTOC; however, as in most countries, at
times it appears that sport plays second fiddle to health, education and national
security. In addition, also as in many countries, physical education has only been
reinstated in schools in the last 3 years and is therefore not at a point where it
supports participation in sport.
Sociocultural Factors
Trinidad and Tobago is a sport-loving nation, but only from a recreational and social
point of view. As in many countries, sport is not considered to be as important
as education. Parents’ attitudes reflect a preference for academic work, and
participation in sport is encouraged only as long as it does not interfere with studies.
However, these attitudes are starting to change. Trinidad and Tobago’s qualification
and success at the 2006 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
World Cup in Germany may very well be the catalyst for raising the importance of
sport since people experienced firsthand the pride and joy that sport can bring.
Economic Factors
Sport is primarily funded through the Ministry of Sport, the newly established Sport
Company and corporations. In order to obtain funds, sport bodies have to submit a
subvention request to the Ministry of Sport. This system works fairly; however, there
are issues with the funding delivered by the Sport Company. Ten sports have been
selected to receive development funding, and bodies not selected have expressed
concerns over a perceived lack of transparency with regard to the selection criteria
and process. In terms of funds from the corporate sector, sport bodies need to go
directly to organisations with proposals.
Funds can be increased or withdrawn on the basis of the organisation’s subvention

request, interviews with the Ministry of Sport and Sport Company officials, and
reports. Sport organisations have to prove that they are effective by showing that
funds have been properly expended and audited. In addition, rightly or wrongly,
the performance of the team is used as a measure of success.
Several activities can be considered as competitors to sport. Because most

involvement in sport is voluntary, other activities and demands from family and
career can get in the way of participation. In addition, some volunteers leave sport
because of too much politics and poor administration, which highlights the need
for increased training in all aspects of sport management and governance. This
lack of well-trained administrators is a major challenge facing sport in Trinidad and
Tobago, and many sport bodies are in danger of missing out on opportunities due
to the administration issues mentioned earlier.
In the search for sponsorship, the TTOC sometimes finds itself competing in the
same funding pool as the sport organisations that come under its umbrella. Although
at times this is unavoidable, the TTOC liaises closely with its affiliates to ensure that
they do not approach the same potential sponsors for projects and games under
the auspices of the TTOC. The TTOC does not charge for many of its services, but it
does charge nominal fees for courses.
(continued)
10 MANAGING OLYMPIC SPORT ORGANISATIONS
Legal Factors
Like all NOCs, the TTOC has constitutional and legal obligations in its relationship
with the IOC, corporate sponsors, member bodies and government. The TTOC is
constituted and managed under an act of Parliament, and therefore the Board is
obliged to properly account for funds received. To do this, the TTOC ensures that
it has proper accounting systems in place and that its accounts are audited by a
recognised external auditor.
In terms of direct risks to participants, all sports expose participants to injury and
public liability. In order to deal with this, the TTOC emphasises proper coaching and
playing within the rules. In addition, where applicable, insurance is the preferred
risk management tool. However, a culture of paying close attention to safety is
not fully developed, and only recently has a health and safety act been framed to
bring to the Parliament. This act is not expected to change anything in the field of
sport; however, sport bodies could have new obligations regarding employer and
employee relationships. These legal implications have not been clarified and the
TTOC will look into this aspect.
Impact of the Operating Context

A review of the operating context allows the TTOC to determine its future actions. It is
apparent that it has a clear remit for sport in Trinidad and Tobago, and its relationship
with the government is excellent. It has been involved in the development of new
structures for sport and is consulted on a wide range of issues. This relationship is
essential, and the TTOC needs to ensure that it carefully manages its relationship
with the government, and to some extent, with corporations to ensure continued
sponsorship.
The low level of managerial knowledge is also an area for further work. Without
improvements in governance and management, some sport organisations may not
take advantage of the interest in sport generated by the 2006 FIFA World Cup and
may not develop the standards required to achieve funding from the Sport Company.
To this end, the TTOC meets with its affiliates to assess their training needs and
continues to offer training courses in aspects of sport management.
—— G ——
The TTOC strategic plan, which is based on an environmental audit, emphasises
the principles of Olympism. The organisation adopts best practice in its operations,
which are reviewed on an ongoing basis. There are always challenges, such as adverse
doping test results or contentious selection issues that cannot be fully anticipated.
However, the TTOC has a solid, key role in the provision of sport within Trinidad and
Tobago. By being aware of its operating environment, the NOC is more likely to be
able to take advantage of this role and deal with unexpected challenges.
ORGANISING AN OLYMPIC SPORT ORGANISATION 11
Section 1.2
Nature of Olympic Sport Organisations
Most of you will have had experience of effective organisations and of organisations
that are less effective, and it is obviously important to understand what makes an
organisation work well. However, first it is necessary to identify what an organisa-
tion is, what its key components are and how it is constructed, which is the purpose
of this section. These issues will be illustrated by a discussion of structural change
in the British Olympic Association.
What Is an Organisation?
In its most basic form, an organisation is a group of people working together to
achieve an end goal. An OSO is therefore a group of people working together to
achieve goals related to Olympic sport. (See the introduction to this text for a com-
plete definition of an OSO.) Old (2004) suggests that there are three core elements
by which an organisation can be characterised.
• People: Who are the members of the organisation? What roles do they play?
What is the relationship amongst members, other internal constituents or
stakeholders, and external stakeholders?
• Rules: These define formal and informal tasks, roles and responsibilities; prin-
ciples of good corporate governance; patterns of communication; authority
relationships; and the nature of power in organisations.
• Ends, goals and purposes: In the context of OSOs, this element primarily includes
the nature of goals in an organisation and the differences in goals amongst
various constituents or internal stakeholders.
To this list you could also add “resources.” Without these, it would be impossible for
an organisation to function. The resources that are available come in many forms:
• Revenue: These resources include membership fees; sponsorship; grants from the
IOC and government; and for some fortunate sports, income from TV rights.
• People: Volunteers, paid staff, team staff and athletes are all resources.
• Services: Access to legal advice, assistance with drug testing and staging of
events are all resources.
• Time: This is perhaps the greatest resource of all, because without the time given
by volunteers, many OSO activities would not be possible. For example, the
Olympic Games could not be staged without volunteer time because it would
be too costly to pay all of the people needed for the Games to be held.
When you consider how your organisation might function more effectively, you
need to address these elements. However, it is also necessary to remember that the
external context outlined in the previous section will have a significant impact on
the way you can shape and manage your organisation. Being part of the Olympic
family will significantly influence the goals you can pursue. It also has a large
influence on the rules by which you operate; even the most commercial OSOs are
likely to have an elected Board made up of volunteers. Finally, the context allows
your organisation to access people who are prepared to give up their time without
pay because of their belief in the value of sport. Very few other operating contexts
provide such access to volunteers.
People
How people are identified within an organisation depends on the context, but iden-
tification falls principally into one or more of three categories:
• Individual identity, or who they are

• Role and formal position, or their principal duties in the organisation
• Type of stakeholder, or type of interest or group they represent
Individual Identities
The first level might seem to be so obvious that it is hardly worth mentioning, but
it is crucial to the smooth operation of the organisation. People are individuals and
need to be recognised as such. Conventions will vary from one culture to another,
but knowing people’s names, acknowledging them by greeting them appropriately,
knowing something about them as individuals, knowing what their strengths and
weaknesses and likes and dislikes are, and praising and giving public recognition
for good performance certainly can be crucial in motivating them to do their best
for the organisation. This concept is dealt with in greater detail in chapter 3.
Roles and Formal Positions: Effects on Structure

The notion of roles within an organisation has two principal dimensions. The first
dimension is the place of the individual within the organisational hierarchy—the level
of responsibility a person is required to undertake. For example, Board members
carry the greatest responsibility within an OSO. The key functions of the Board
include the following:
• Reviewing, guiding and approving strategy, risk management, budgets, business

plans and performance objectives
• Selecting and compensating key executives and planning for succession
• Monitoring conflicts of interest
• Ensuring the integrity of the accounting system
• Monitoring the effectiveness of operating practices
The extent to which responsibility and authority are concentrated at the top of
an organisation is referred to as the level of centralisation within an organisation. If
an organisation is centralised, decisions are made primarily by senior management,
such as the Executive Board or team staff. This type of decision making is useful if
there is a need to respond to a crisis, such as the withdrawal of a sponsor or a major
incident involving an athlete. In this case, the people who will be held responsible
for the outcome of the decision make the decision and have the authority to imple-
ment it. However, a high level of centralisation can make others who are involved
with the organisation feel as though they are not valued, which can be demotivating
and can lead them to take less responsibility for their work.
In a decentralised organisation, all people who work for the organisation make
decisions about their work, and those with the most relevant expertise make deci-
sions about particular skill areas. This can lead to faster decision making and less
bureaucracy, but it does require a number of controls. You will need to ensure
that those who are making decisions that affect the organisation have appropriate
guidelines and training.
The second dimension of role is the area of competence to which that role is
ascribed, such as general administration, the sport department, the finance depart-
ment or volunteer management. This dimension is referred to as the level of speciali-
sation with the organisation. Centralisation and specialisation affect the structure
of the organisation, and the levels of each vary from one organisation to the next.
Structure is the way an organisation is shaped. Organisations can adopt a struc-

ture that is tall and narrow, broad and flat, or a mix of both. Structure type depends
heavily on the organisation’s levels of centralisation and specialisation. Small OSOs
have mixed structures. There is likely to be little decentralisation of decision making
and relatively little specialisation of tasks, leading to a flat and narrow structure.
Such organisations, which are too small to have a marketing department or special-
ist financial management staff, may have a few volunteers and perhaps a few paid
staff who take on a diverse set of responsibilities.
Larger, more complex organisations are likely to adopt a tall and narrow hierarchi-
cal structure. This type of structure is useful for complex and varied tasks, which
require differing types of skills and a level of supervision or middle management.
Most NOCs, IFs or even NFs need this type of structure in order to meet their objec-
tives, even if the organisation is made up of volunteers. Figure 1.2 shows a proposed
structure for the National Olympic Committee of Iraq.
Alongside the principles of centralisation and specialisation, OSOs can be struc-

tured along the following dimensions.
• Organisational size: Although not always the case, the general rule of thumb is
that the larger the organisation, the more structured it needs to be.
President Executive Board Secretary General Governance
Director General Management
Finance and Project Human Office

Management
accounting management resources administration
Sport Sport Sport

Marketing Communications
technical administration policy
Figure 1.2 The proposedE3592 Olympic

operating Solidarity
structure of theFigure 1.2, Olympic
National 275211 Committee
DeniseL of
R2-alw
Iraq (NOCI).
Courtesy of Mark J.M. Clark.
• Complexity of task: Complex tasks usually require specialisation and hierarchical

management. For example, the staging of a major event is complex, requiring
various specialised divisions to deal with aspects such as promotion, accredita-
tion, security and accommodation. These divisions require managers, who in
turn require management. See chapter 6 for a greater discussion of the structure
required for staging an event.
• Formalisation: This is the extent to which roles are explicitly stated, usually in
written form, such as job descriptions.
• Standardisation of tasks: This dimension refers to the number of tasks that are
carried out according to certain procedures. For example, organisations that
carry out drug testing exhibit high standardisation of tasks because procedures
must be carried out in a standard way to ensure that drug testing is reliable
and valid.
• Professionalisation: An organisation with a high level of professionalisation has
paid staff and has become more sophisticated in its approach to its environ-
ment.
These internal features are related to features of the external environment. Simple
organisations are likely to be best suited to simple and stable external environments.
A community athletics club that trains twice per week, uses community facilities
and organises one event a year might be characterised as operating in a simple
environment. Its goals are relatively clear and uncomplicated: to train athletes, to
stage a small event and to meet financial obligations. The environment is generally
stable, meaning it is likely next year to be operating in a similar context to that in
which it operated last year. The structure of such an organisation is therefore likely
to be simple, having no need for a human resources division or marketing division.
However, for the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)—the IF
for athletics—the environment and the organisational structures are likely to be
very different.
Although OSOs may differ in size, complexity and shape, a number of features are
common to all of them. They are all ultimately responsible to a voting membership,
who has the power to determine the way the organisation is run. This membership
usually establishes an elected Board, which is charged with carrying out the wishes
of the membership and is legally liable for the conduct of the organisation. This
Board sits at the top of the organisational hierarchy, as outlined in figure 1.2. OSOs
are usually funded significantly by governments or other agencies such as Olympic
Solidarity and thus have to consider the objectives of these stakeholders. Finally,
OSOs rarely operate independently from the country’s sport system, and this will
affect how they are structured and managed.
Types of Stakeholders
A stakeholder is anyone who has a stake or interest in the organisation. That interest
may not be material or financial; it could, for example, be emotional or symbolic, such
as the interest that the general public has in the performance of the nation’s athletes
at the Olympic Games. Thus the stakeholder community includes everyone who is
affected by an organisation. This will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 2.
Rules, Tasks, Roles and Responsibilities

Organisations invariably work by certain rules. These may be formally stated or
they may be agreed upon informally. Similarly, the roles and responsibilities of a
particular post can be formally stated in a job description (see chapter 3), informally
agreed upon or even simply implicit in the title of a job, such as team manager. Even
where roles are undertaken voluntarily, if the task is substantial it is worthwhile to
set out a job description of the tasks that the person should undertake (the role) and
of the resources and results the person will be responsible for (the responsibilities).
If these are clearly articulated, then both the post holder and others in the organi-
sation should be able to identify whether the job has been carried out successfully.
As mentioned, formalisation of rules and roles is one of the key dimensions along
which one can differentiate amongst types of organisations.
In addition to specifying roles and responsibilities, there may be an operating

manual or some kind of set description of how to undertake specific tasks. This
point will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 3. Such standardisation of tasks
is mostly for activities that can be repeated in the same way by following a proce-
dure, such as booking travel for delegations or paying expenses. In many contexts,
however, standardisation of tasks may be entirely inappropriate, such as when
coaches rely on their experience to make changes to training regimens in order to
bring about better performance.
OSOs operate under a number of rules that are common to all organisations that
are part of the Olympic family. These rules provide the guidelines for all activities
that go on in the organisation and should be formalised in a governing document.
For example, NOCs need to establish their statutes based on the following:
• Mission: Statement of the purpose of the NOC. “The mission of the NOCs is
to develop, promote and protect the Olympic Movement in their respective
countries, in accordance with the Olympic Charter” (Rule 28.1).
• Role: Statement of what the NOC will do. For example, they “promote the fun-
damental principles and values of Olympism in their countries, in particular,
in the fields of sport and education, by promoting Olympic educational pro-
grammes in all levels of schools, sports and physical education institutions and
universities, as well as by encouraging the creation of institutions dedicated to
Olympic education, such as National Olympic Academies, Olympic Museums
and other programmes, including cultural, related to the Olympic Movement”
(Rule 28.2.1).
• Obligations, responsibilities and competencies: Statement of what the NOC can
and is required to do. For example, “Each NOC is obliged to participate in the
Games of the Olympiad by sending athletes” (Rule 28.3).
• Autonomy: Statement highlighting how the NOC is an autonomous organisation.
For example, “NOCs must preserve their autonomy and resist all pressures of
any kind, including but not limited to political, legal, religious or economic
pressures which may prevent them from complying with the Olympic Charter”
(Rule 28.6).
• Membership: Statement of who makes up the membership of the NOC. For
example, “NOCs must include all IOC members in their country, if any. Such
members have the right to vote in the general assemblies of the NOC. In addi-
tion, the IOC members in the country referred to in Rule 16.1.1.1 are ex officio
members of the NOC executive body, within which they have the right to vote”
(Rule 29.1.1).
• General Assemblies: Statement outlining details of the timing and purpose of the
assembly of members. For example, “Each NOC shall hold a General Assembly
of its members at least once a year, in accordance with the NOC’s statutes”
(paragraph 1.4 of the Bye-law to Rules 28 and 29). “NOCs shall, in particular,
include on the agenda of their General Assemblies the presentation of annual
reports and audited financial statements and, as the case may be, the election
of officers and members of the executive body” (paragraph 1.4 of the Bye-law
to Rules 28 and 29).
• Voting: Statement outlining details of who can vote and how decisions are
determined. For example, “The voting majority of an NOC and of its executive
body shall consist of the votes cast by the Olympic sports federations or their
representatives” (Rule 29.3).
• Flag, emblem and anthem: These symbols of the NOC “shall be subject to the
approval of the IOC Executive Board” (Rule 32).
• Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in Lausanne: NOC statutes should make
reference to the competence of the CAS in Lausanne for disputes that cannot
be resolved at the national level.
The approval of the statutes of an NOC by the IOC Executive Board is a condition
for recognition. The same condition applies to any subsequent change or amend-
ment to the statutes of an NOC. In addition, the statutes should contain a date of
approval by the NOC. This date, which should appear in the text, is the date of the
General or Extraordinary Assembly at which the text was approved. Finally, the
statutes must be certified as a true copy by the President and the Secretary General
of the NOC. This document should be the ultimate source of information on rules
and procedures in the organisation.
The flag and emblem of the Canadian Olympic Committee. The flag and emblem of an NOC are
subject to the approval of the IOC Executive Board.
Logo courtesy of the Canadian Olympic Committee.
Goals and Purposes

Every organisation can be characterised by its goals and purposes. For an OSO,
the larger purpose of the organisation is to promote Olympism. The goals used to
achieve this purpose could vary from providing recreational opportunities at the
grassroots level to sending athletes to the Olympic Games. The process of develop-
ing goals for the organisation is discussed in chapter 2. However, at this point it is
important to realise that different groups of stakeholders may have slightly different
goals, which may be complementary, competing or unrelated. An understanding
of stakeholders’ goals is likely to be crucial to how an organisation is perceived by
stakeholders and how its effectiveness is evaluated. For example, an NF will have
a range of stakeholders, including athletes from elite competitors to recreational
participants; international, national and local coaches; and national and local club
administrators. You will need to identify what the objectives are of these various
groups and then try to find a way to meet these objectives.
Key Recommendations
c In conjunction with your Board, identify the most appropriate structure for
the size, complexity and tasks of the organisation.
c Ensure decision making related to the management of the OSO is devolved
to those responsible for implementing the strategies as defined by the
Board. The strategic direction of the OSO must remain the responsibility of
the elected Board.
c Ensure that your statutes are comprehensive and make clear the rules of the
organisation. For more information on how to develop statutes, please con-
tact your NOC, or if possible, look at the NOC Extranet.
The following illustration highlights the relationship between organisational con-

text and some of the structural features identified earlier in the chapter.
Illustration 1.2
Structural Change in an NOC:
The Case of the British Olympic Association
This illustration deals with the transformation of the British Olympic Association
(BOA) from a relatively small-scale organisation with a modest budget and modest
goals to an organisation that has a turnover of several million pounds and is involved
in a wide range of athlete-support and sporting services. The rapid change was
triggered by an injection of funding provided principally from more effective
marketing after the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. The BOA’s financial position in
1976 after the Montreal Olympics and in 1980 after the Moscow Games was positive,
though available funds were small (£2 million in 1976, £1.5 million in 1980). However,
after the Los Angeles Games, funds available to the BOA grew to an unprecedented
£8 million. The organisation was thus faced with the unusual decision of how to
deploy this extra cash.
As part of the dialogue regarding the future direction of the BOA, a weekend
conference of key stakeholders was held to review the organisation’s role, changes
that might be made, and the strengths and weaknesses of each potential change.
As a result, a commission was established to consider the following possibilities:
• To maintain current roles and responsibilities and to take comfort in being a

cash-rich organisation
• To redistribute the excesses to NFs
• To provide a wide range of support services (rather than extra cash) to NFs
Structure, Roles and Responsibilities

The BOA opted for the third alternative. This decision was accepted by the NFs as the
course of action best suited to meet their needs and to provide the expert services
required at the elite level of modern sport. Having made this decision, the BOA
moved rapidly from an organisation with a simple structure and the single focus of
organising and funding the mission to the Olympic Games (figure 1.3) to one that
set itself the task of interfacing with the NFs of Olympic sport at every level in the
development of high-performance sport. This necessitated the appointment of
staff with specialised skills and thus led to an expansion of the professional staff
(figure 1.4).
What, then, were the implications of this change in terms of the nature and
structure of the organisation and in terms of power and control? The most evident
change from the organigrams (organisational structures) in the two figures is the
development of a divisionalised form. Having taken on a range of additional and
complex tasks, the organisation opted to delegate responsibility for each of these
areas to departments directed by personnel with specific areas of expertise. Thus
the organisation completely changed its way of working, now having an active
programme throughout the 4-year Olympic cycle.
National
Olympic
Committee
Governance
Chair and
Executive Board
Secretary
General
Management
Appeal
marketing Deputy
Secretary
General
Support staff 1 Support staff 2

Honorary Honorary Honorary
Legal Advisor Treasurer Medical Officer
Figure 1.3 Divisionalised structure of the BOA before changes were made.
E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 1.3, 275212 DeniseL R1
National
Olympic
Committee
Governance
Chair and
Executive Board
Secretary
General
Management
British Olympic Deputy Secretary
Medical Centre General
Games Liaison
Technical Public Marketing Finance Athlete Human Education

department affairs/media department department liaison resources department
Support staff
Figure 1.4 E3592

Divisionalised
Olympic structure
Solidarityof the BOA
Figure following
1.4, 275213 changes.
DeniseL R2-alw
(continued)
19
Goals and Purposes

The mission that the BOA had embarked upon was to make the organisation more
relevant to the general sport culture in the UK and in particular to relate with the
NFs of Olympic sport at every possible level in order to assist them in becoming
more effective as they delivered sporting excellence. Thus the activities of the BOA
sought to interface with the NFs at the following levels:
• Athletes, coaches and team managers

• Medical officers and physiotherapists
• General administration
• Sport scientists
• Media
• Marketing
• Legal concerns
• Education and legacy
People: Roles and Formal Positions

The changes that the BOA underwent had several implications both for the
governance and management of the organisation. The critical relationship between
the elected President and the salaried Secretary General became more crucial,
particularly as the pace of activity increased. With the increased activity of the
professional staff, led by the Secretary General, the balance of power shifted in
his direction. This required a sensitive touch to prevent tensions from developing.
The role and function of the Executive Board changed from having oversight of
finances and general activities to taking a strategic view of the direction, pace, risk
and performance of the organisation and its finances.
The responsibilities of the individual members of the Executive Board increased

and required a greater understanding of finance, budgeting, strategic management,
performance review and risk management. Members were required to deal with
administering larger budgets and a greater financial turnover, monitoring cash flows,
anticipating shortfalls, and in particular, satisfying themselves of the prudence and
probity of the organisation’s financial management.
In addition, the changes required an entirely different management style by

the Secretary General, whose function now was that of a Chief Executive Officer
(CEO). Instead of personally processing much of the organisational details, the role
changed to that of strategically managing a team of specialists. Thus a new skill set
was required, which comprised the following:
• Internal communication with staff was necessary to clarify the general direction
of the organisation and ensure that each department’s activities contributed
to that direction.
• External communication was important to ensure that the BOA commanded
respect from stakeholders and others. Ensuring that the staff developed
effective communication with the relevant stakeholders was a critical aspect
of the working relationships with NFs and their athletes and support staff, as
well as with the external agencies.
• Team building was necessary to ensure that the staff worked as a team, each
person contributing to the overall strategic direction and interfacing effectively
with each other.
• Recruitment skills were important to ensure that appointments were
appropriate for the skills required.
• Monitoring the effectiveness of both individual staff members and of the
organisation as a whole was required.
• Analysing the costs and benefits of the organisation’s activities and modifying
direction accordingly were necessary.
• Strategic management was important because the new setup required
the development and implementation of a strong strategy to which the
stakeholders were committed.
• Political judgement was important because of the involvement of a wide range
of stakeholders influenced by the BOA’s activities. It was necessary to exercise
political judgements in relation to the nature and pace of developments
and with acute sensitivity as to the impact of the developments. Thus, good
communication and information gathering were vital to ensure the relevance
and effectiveness of the programme.
People: Purpose and Power

The consequences of taking on the additional tasks were not simply structural
but implied a very different set of working relationships (see table 1.1). The level
of centralisation in the organisation had been extremely high (see figure 1.3).
There was essentially one person through whom most decisions were taken or
implemented (leaving to one side the role of elected members for the purposes
of this illustration). The implication was that the Secretary General had to have
sufficient expertise in all of the organisation’s tasks to be able to steer it efficiently.
In the new structure, power and authority are decentralised to specialists recruited as
experts in a particular field, and the Secretary General now has the task of initiating
and overseeing the strategic direction of the organisation and working with the
governance mechanism and outside agencies.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of BOA Structure Before and After 1984

BOA structure before
Characteristic 1984 BOA structure after 1984
Organisational Relatively simple and Increasingly complex
environment stable, but changing and dynamic as a result
from late 1960s of the politicisation and
professionalisation of sport
Task size Simple Large number of complex
and complexity and restricted tasks
Organisational size Small Large
Centralisation Power and authority Decentralisation to
highly centralised Department Directors
Specialisation Low High
Formalisation Low High
(continued)
Thus, unusually for a larger, more complex organisation, the particular

organisational structure chosen by the Secretary General was a flat one rather than
a hierarchical one. This allows for a greater sensitivity to the impact of the BOA’s
activities with its stakeholders. There are, of course, other formats and possibilities.
Whatever the structure, it is important that it fits the purpose and personalities in
that particular environment.
—— G ——
This illustration shows how a change in the environment may require a change
in the structure and mode of operation of an organisation. In this case, the
happy circumstance of receiving considerable additional funds that permitted the
organisation to expand its activities was an important contributory factor. This
expansion led to changes in the people, roles and responsibilities of the BOA and,
in particular, saw a change in role for the Secretary General, who moved from
operational to strategic responsibility for the organisation.
Section 1.3
Governance of Organisations
The previous discussion of organisations focused primarily on the roles and respon-
sibilities of individuals within the organisation, rather than on the organisation’s
responsibilities as a whole. In recent years there has been a considerable focus on
this collective aspect of management, which generally falls under the heading of
corporate or organisational governance. Corporate governance refers to the systems
and processes for ensuring proper accountability, probity and openness in the con-
duct of an organisation. This might include the processes by which committees are
selected, monitored and replaced; the capacity of committees to effectively formulate
and implement sound policies; and the respect of members for the structures and
the procedures that govern economic and social interactions amongst them.
This section looks at the concepts associated with the governance of OSOs. It
considers the impact of organisational culture, power and politics on the way the
organisation can be governed and then considers the principles that can be used
to help with the governance of organisations. This is followed by a discussion of
the principles and practices of risk management, a concern that is likely to directly
affect those involved in running an OSO. The section finishes with an application
of the concepts to the Estonian Olympic Committee.
Corporate Governance
Governance can be difficult to define but is perhaps easier to recognise in prac-
tice. It involves the use of power to direct, control and regulate activities within
an organisation. It deals with the high-level issues of strategy and policy direction,
transparency, and accountability and is not concerned with daily operations, which
are the responsibility of management. The Australian Sports Commission (2002),
having carried out much research in this area, regards governance as concerning
three key issues:
• Ensuring that an organisation develops strategic goals and direction

• Ensuring that the Board monitors the performance of the organisation to ensure
that it achieves these strategic goals
• Ensuring that the Board acts in the best interests of the members
The Australian Sports Commission (2003) also commented that poor governance
has a variety of causes, including director inexperience, conflicts of interest, failure
to manage risk, inadequate or inappropriate financial controls, and poor internal
business systems and reporting. Ineffective governance not only affects the particular
OSO but also may undermine confidence in the sport industry as a whole.
The IOC President, Jacques Rogge, in his speech to open the First European
Conference on the Governance of Sport held in 2001, emphasised the principle of
good governance and suggested that common features that should underlie all sport
bodies include responsibility, democracy, transparency and solidarity. His argument
was that if sport organisations complied with these principles, their position would
be strengthened and they would provide considerable benefits to the stakeholders
of sport, especially the clubs and athletes. In a subsequent address at the 2006 First
Seminar on the Autonomy of the Olympic and Sport Movement, Jacques Rogge
again emphasised the importance of good governance, in particular the need to
be transparent, and stated that it is the responsibility of the Olympic Movement to
work in total transparency.
However, although the principles of governance discussed below are applicable to

all OSOs, it is important that they are introduced and used in a way that is appro-
priate for your OSO and the context in which it operates. The following discussion
of governance is to be considered as a guide to improving practice, rather than as a
set of rules that the organisation must operate by. The OSO’s effectiveness will be
best improved by applying the principles of governance in a way that is acceptable
to the culture, politics and power systems within the organisation.
Organisational Culture
Organisational culture refers to members’ assumptions and beliefs about an organi-
sation and the way these assumptions and beliefs affect members’ behaviour. The
ways that the members of an organisation value volunteers, address Board members
and believe in Olympism are all examples of organisational culture.
Organisational culture shapes the organisation’s goals and objectives because it

leads members to make assumptions about what the organisation values. For example,
objectives regarding drug testing are based on the assumption that the organisa-
tion values drug-free sport. Organisational culture also affects the relationships
that exist within the organisation because it dictates who and what is important.
For example, the secretary of a Board may be perceived as being more important
than the president because the secretary controls information in the organisation.
In addition, organisational culture outlines the accepted ways of working, behaving
and even dressing. It is the way things are done in an organisation, and therefore it
has a significant impact on management.
Although it can be difficult to understand organisational culture because it is

often hard to see, it is possible to create a picture of what it might be by considering
the following:
• Stories about the behaviour of members at General Assemblies or about the

value of decisions made by elected members
• Choice of spokespeople for the organisation
• Use of logos on all posters, pamphlets and advertising, which suggests profes-
sionalism and a corporate image
• Use of first names or last names when addressing seniors
• Use of acronyms such as IOC and WADA, which indicates that some issues are
so well known that they can be referred to in shorthand
• Staff celebrations, social events for volunteers and the announcement of teams
for major events
• Office layout, decoration and age of the building
• Uniforms, trophies and mascots
These factors make it possible to identify the unwritten rules of the organisation
and what it considers to be important.
Culture affects the OSO by affecting how resources are allocated. It provides an
explanation for why certain decisions are made, why some groups appear to be more
important to the organisation than others and why some staff members are promoted
and others are not. A successful chief coach may be able to behave towards the Board
in a manner that would not be acceptable from the chief executive. Funding may be
diverted from development programmes to elite teams if the Board considers elite
sport to be the raison d’être for the organisation. Therefore culture determines who
is powerful and what is important to the people in the organisation. Understanding
culture and using this understanding as a framework for your management activi-
ties will make you more effective within the organisation.
Power
OSOs will be affected by the exercise of power because the influence of individuals
and groups upon decision making depends on the relative power that they are per-
ceived to have in the organisation. Elected members can insist that paid staff imple-
ment decisions made by the Board since elected members are ultimately responsible
for decision making in most OSOs. However, if those decisions are contrary to the
wishes of funding bodies, the funding body can veto the decision.
Power comes from six main sources.
• Physical size: This power comes from physical characteristics such as size. For
example, members may vote on block to force a policy change even if it is
against the advice of the elected Board.
• Position in the organisation: The chief executive is more powerful than admin-
istrative staff, and the elected Board is expected to be more powerful than the
executive staff. Some less obvious positions can also be considered powerful,
such as the personal assistant to the chief executive, who controls access to the
chief executive.
• Personality of individuals: Some people are powerful in organisations simply
because of who they are.
• Control of resources: Some power arises from control of resources such as money,
volunteers, equipment and facilities.
• Expert skills: This power comes from knowledge or abilities that are limited
within an organisation. For example, the person who knows how to set up a
new piece of equipment has expert power; however, this power only exists for
as long as there is a need for the expertise.
• Ability to prevent things from happening: An organisation relies on the goodwill
of volunteers and staff to follow decisions and guidelines. The volunteers and
staff can exert power by refusing to do what is asked.
Power affects the OSOs in a number of ways. First, those people or groups with
the greatest power can determine the strategic direction of the organisation by influ-
encing the planning process. For example, the General Assembly can effectively
block the introduction of a policy into the organisation by voting against proposed
changes. As outlined previously, those with power can determine who and what
gets resources and thus what activities and programmes can be followed. Power
affects who is involved in decision making even to the extent of influencing who
is elected to the Board. Finally, people with power determine what behaviours are
considered acceptable to the organisation. If the chief coach does not communicate
well with the Board, it signals to others that such behaviour is acceptable. Therefore
it is helpful to understand who has power within the organisation and why they
have that power.
Although power cannot be seen, it is usually obvious within organisations. To be

influential, you should utilise the power relationships that are present in the OSO.
In many organisations, this requires an awareness of organisational politics, which
is the third factor affecting the governance of OSOs.
Politics
All organisations have an internal political system, which is difficult to describe
because it is often hard to see. Organisational politics can be thought of as the
manifestation of power, and it occurs whenever an individual or group seeks to
influence the thoughts, attitudes or behaviours of another individual or group. The
most obvious example of politics at work is meetings where attendees know that
the major decisions have already been taken outside of the meeting and that the
meeting is a mere formality. This is because politics determines who makes the
decisions (usually the most powerful groups or individuals) and even what will be
discussed. Although this is often detrimental to open discussion, it would be naive
to think that this type of organisational behaviour does not occur.
Organisational politics has both benefits and weaknesses for OSOs. The politics of
an organisation assists with team building, ensures communication and coordination,
and helps provide a framework for decision making. Conversely, politics may lead to
misuse of resources, create conflict and distract attention from the objectives of the
organisation. Despite these serious weaknesses, all organisations have an internal
political system that will influence decision making and determine who controls
the resources. Thus, in order to be effective within the organisation, you should be
aware of its politics and then find a way of working with the system.
Governance in OSOs
Governance is a concept that can lead to the efficient, effective and ethical manage-
ment of sport. It will not solve all of the problems faced by your OSO, but it may
create the conditions necessary for success by enabling you to make the most effec-
tive use of your resources and allowing you to consider fully the interests of your
stakeholders. To better understand the nature of governance in your organisation,
consider the following:
• Clear delineation of governance roles: A clear organisational structure with no

overlap of powers of any two individuals or bodies will help to allocate respon-
sibilities within the OSO. This may include separation between the Board (stra-
tegic direction) and the executive (management) supported by a documented
delineation of the roles of each.
• Governance processes: Clear, documented policies and processes that reflect
best practice will help with governance because they will provide clarity and
consistency to operations. These policies and processes may relate to meeting
processes, decision making, agenda and minute taking, committee and com-
mission purposes, authority and scope, and executive delegation authority.
• Governance controls: In order to guide and focus the activities of the OSO, it
is helpful if there is agreement about organisational values, vision, mission,
goals, strategic plan, operational objectives and key performance measures,
risk management, legal compliance, accounting and auditing, reporting and
evaluation systems, and performance-review processes.
• Governance improvement: If appropriate, regular development training for all
Board members and staff may be beneficial to the operation of the OSO. This
is clearly an issue to be approached tactfully as some people may feel that they
already have the skills required for their roles and responsibilities.
• Member responsiveness: Good member–stakeholder relationships are impor-
tant to the effectiveness of the OSO and will develop from transparency and
accountability, good internal and external communication, feedback and prompt
responsiveness to concerns, and preparation of a public annual report covering
aspects of governance, finance and sport performance.
Role of the Board in Governance

As outlined previously, governance is enhanced by a clear separation between the
Board, which is usually the highest decision-making body, and the operating staff of
the organisation. Ideally, the day-to-day management of the organisation should not
be a Board function, and the authority for this is usually delegated to the volunteers
or paid staff who are responsible for delivering the Board’s decisions. It is helpful if
OSOs have a CEO or equivalent, as well as specialist administrative support, such
as financial or legal support, to provide assistance both to the Board and the CEO.
This will clearly depend on the resources available to the OSO.
It is in the interests of Board members to have a clear understanding of their legal

duties, responsibilities and liabilities, and a good working knowledge of the many
ways in which governance of their organisation can be improved in order to manage
and reduce risk in their daily operations and decision making. Therefore, those who
make up the Board benefit from having the necessary skills and abilities to make
strategic decisions about the organisation. Providing the same induction and train-
ing to new Board members as all new members of staff may help inexperienced
new Board members who may have little understanding of their legal duties, the
potential liability their position places upon them or the governance mechanisms
operating within the organisation.
Having clear rules determining who can be admitted or removed from the register
of members fosters democracy. These rules usually include democratic elections;
the process by which members of the Board are elected, set in writing, and com-
municated to all those who are entitled to vote; and a fair and transparent process
for nominating candidates. The organisation should normally make reasonable
attempts to promote elections and voting levels. The results of elections are usually
widely communicated to all members. It is good practice to appoint Board members
for a specified period of time, and reappointment should not be automatic, unless
allowed by the OSO statutes.
Size of the Board

The size of the Board presents its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Whilst
a large Board (15 or more people) has the advantage of enriched decision making
from a group able to embrace diverse viewpoints and expertise, it may suffer from
its size because of decision-making processes that take longer and become increas-
ingly unwieldy and unsatisfying. Above a certain size, there is room for certain
members to be crowded out of discussion, or to be able to hide and not contribute.
In practice, the experience with many large Boards is that an inner circle emerges
naturally and takes the lead in all decisions. This smaller group may be officially
mandated as an executive committee for particular emergency purposes, but may
also over time develop beyond any restricted mandate to exercise effective control
over all decisions.
Photo courtesy of the Comité Olimpico Colombiano.
Small Boards tend to be efficient and allow for free communication. Shown here are some
members of the Executive Board of the Comité Olimpico Colombiano (Colombian Olympic
Committee).
At times free communication may be difficult with a large Board. The need for
formal meeting procedures tends to reduce the possibility of a free exchange of ideas
and healthy dialogue and to increase the possibility of combative debate or distract-
ing points of order. However, your OSO may be required to have a larger Board in
order to meet the requirements of representation, where the Board is required to
represent the views of various minority groups or regions. In this instance, you and
the Board should try to ensure that all members have an opportunity to discuss
policy and issues.
Stakeholder Involvement
Stakeholder engagement fosters effective governance. One of the activities of the
Board is to remain proactively engaged with all the organisation’s stakeholders, and
to invest time and effort in developing and strengthening those relationships. A
Board represents all of its stakeholders, not simply those preferences of the Board
members.
Stakeholder involvement is maintained by regular communication with members

on policy decisions, elections and other matters. This provides channels for two-way
communication through which stakeholders have an opportunity to ensure that
their interests are being recognised. Stakeholders may be included on the Board
or committees, through open meetings and Annual General Meetings or General
Assemblies or through actively seeking feedback on relevant issues.
Governance is about leadership, accountability and good systems of control, and

OSOs that attempt to operate following the principles of organizational governance
increase their chances of meeting the needs of their key stakeholders in an efficient
and effective manner.
Risk Management
The management of risk is integral to the governance of an OSO. Everyone involved
with the organisation has a responsibility to take well-judged, sensible risks to
develop the organisation. However, to make sure that risks are well judged and
sensible, risk management benefits from being part of the general procedures that
operate within the OSO.
Risk management is a fairly straightforward process; however, including it in the

functions of the Board helps to ensure it is carried out properly. In some countries,
taking responsibility for risk management may make the Board legally liable for
accidents to spectators, financial failures and bad publicity for sponsors. If the Board
considers risk management an essential function, a possible process is as follows:
1. Assessment of the risks facing the organisation and identification of key risks
2. Creation of a programme to deal with risks
3. Periodic review of the programme
Assessment of the Risks Facing the Organisation

Although each OSO is unique, there are certain risks that are common to most
sport organisations. Key areas for consideration in the assessment of risk are as
follows.
• Effectiveness of the Board: Because the Board provides strategic direction for the
organisation and is the final arbitrator on what the OSO can do, it is important
for the Board to operate effectively. You might ask yourself the following ques-
tions: Does the Board have the right type and level of skill needed to ensure
the OSO works effectively? Are members fully aware of their responsibilities
and liabilities? Is there a process of succession planning that ensures that not
all members come up for election at the same time?
• Financial climate: The importance of finances to OSOs is well understood and

is discussed in detail in chapter 4. In order to evaluate the risks associated
with your financial environment, you could consider the following: Does the
organisation rely on one source of funding? How easy would it be to replace
that source of funding? What would happen if the major funder withdrew its
support?
• Policy and strategy: Risk arises in this area from both inside and outside the
organisation. The organisation itself may have a policy that leads to risk, such
as poor communication with stakeholders. Alternatively, government policy
towards physical education in schools or the role of sport in society may bring
about risks. When evaluating risk in this area, you could determine whether
the organisation has an appropriate strategy for the resources it controls and
the services it needs to provide.
• External factors: As outlined in section 1.1, the external context can have a
major impact on OSOs. You should use the questions suggested in that section
to evaluate the risks of the external environment.
• Operating effectiveness and efficacy: The way the OSO operates may lead to risks,
such as a loss of sponsorship, loss of membership, poor use of resources, or
recruitment of inappropriate staff and volunteers. The two main questions that
will allow an assessment of risk in this area are as follows: Does the organisa-
tion have a clear and appropriate strategy for achieving its objectives? Is this
strategy backed up by appropriate operating principles?
• Financial prudence and probity: The use of finances in an efficient manner for
the purpose they were intended is an ethical responsibility for an OSO and will
be discussed in chapter 4. When assessing risk in this area, you might ask the
following questions: Does the OSO follow the procedures outlined in chapter
4? Does the organisation have financial controls in place? Can these controls
be circumvented by those in authority? Can the organisation account for all
of its revenue and its expenditure? Does the OSO offer audited accounts to its
stakeholders?
• Legal risks: The manner in which the OSO is constituted will greatly determine
the extent of legal liability it can bear as an independent legal entity, as well as
the corresponding extent to which individual members, or Board members, may
bear personal liability. In addition, it is helpful if all contracts binding the OSO
are reviewed by a legal expert to ensure that legal risks are properly identified.
Contracts even of low value may carry a large potential legal risk exposure, so
often it is not sufficient to adopt crude thresholds for contract review; instead,
a proper assessment of the risk should be made. The OSO must also, of course,
ensure it complies with all applicable legislation, such as employment law, data
protection law, and health and safety law. You might ask yourself: Is your OSO
an unincorporated association in which the individual members have personal
liability, or is it a partnership or perhaps a corporation with liability limited
by guarantee? Are Board members aware of the extent of their personal legal
liability? Are contracts reviewed for legal risk? Are the OSO’s assets properly
protected by law (this is especially important in relation to intellectual property
protection for your brand and merchandising or sponsorship rights)?
• Any other identifiable risks: These may be risks to do with the sport itself—for
example, judo is likely to have more inherent risks than badminton. There may
be risks to do with the activities of the OSO, such as attending major events.
Finally, there may be systems, such as computer systems, that the organisation
is dependent upon and whose failure could cause major difficulties: Is there
appropriate data backup and disaster recovery? What are the IT maintenance
and support service levels?
In order to identify potential risks, you may find it useful to review the past history
of the organisation. This will highlight areas where things have gone wrong or might
have gone wrong if they had not been identified as problem areas. The experiences
of other OSOs may also highlight potential areas of risk for your organisation. If you
are aware that funding has been cut to OSOs that have not achieved Olympic success,
then you can be fairly certain that your OSO is at risk if your athletes’ performance
is not considered to be successful. Finally, brainstorming sessions with the Board
and management and seeking the views of external consultants and auditors will
also allow you to establish a detailed picture of potential risks.
Managing Risk
Quantifying risk involves multiplying the likelihood (or frequency) of the risk event
occurring by the extent of the impact it will have if it does indeed occur:
Risk = Likelihood 3 Impact
Once a review of risk in the areas discussed previously has been carried out, each
risk needs to be quantified. Managing the risk then involves selecting tools from the
risk management armoury to prevent or minimise the risk by reducing the likeli-
hood or the impact. Insurance is one tool to reduce the impact of a risk. Of course,
another option is to accept the risk, but this decision should only be taken after
careful assessment of the risk and possible consequences of accepting it.
Although it is desirable that risk management is the responsibility of the Board,

OSOs may also find it helpful to appoint a risk officer to take the lead in risk man-
agement. The risk officer should be responsible for preparing and updating a risk
register, as outlined in table 1.2. This will form the basis of the risk management
strategy.
A number of methods mitigate the risks that affect an organisation. First, the risk
management process itself makes it possible to avoid some risks and to properly
manage others. Changes in the way the organisation is governed may also mitigate
potential risks. If the organisation is governed in a transparent and accountable way,
many risks associated with public image, funding and stakeholder satisfaction can
be avoided. It may also be possible, if not necessary, to change the strategic direc-
tion of the organisation. For example, if government policy is turning towards elite
sport rather than grassroots sport, an OSO that supports grassroots sport may wish
to reconsider its objectives. At the very least, it should consider how to manage the
risk associated with the change in policy.
Table 1.2 Sample Risk Register

Likelihood Potential Control Monitoring Further Date of
Risk of risk impact procedure process Ownership action review
Athlete Low High Regular test- Schedule Head Report 12
testing ing of athletes of testing coach on suc- months
posi- in and out of devel- cess of from
tive for competition oped and proce- start of
banned reviewed dures proce-
substances by head to the dure
coach Board
in 12
months
With- Medium High Meetings Board to Marketing Respond 12
drawal of with sponsors monitor to issues months
sponsor- quarterly and reports of raised from
ship after every meetings in meet- start
major event to ings of pro-
ensure their cedure
expectations (review
are being met sponsor
satisfac-
tion)
Loss of High Low Regular com- Senior Volun- Review 12
volun- munication manage- teers man- plans for months
teers with with such ment to ager succes- from
specific volunteers to monitor sion in 6 start of
expertise reinforce their process months proce-
commitment dure
Succession
planning to
ensure skills
are not lost
OSOs can reduce or expand services and change their way of operating to reduce
risk. For example, introducing the evaluation and control procedures outlined in
chapter 2 will assist greatly with the management of risk. Finally, if the sport is
inherently risky, or if there are significant risks facing the organisation, it may be
possible to take out insurance to cover the risk. For example, in many countries
officials are insured against liability for injuries that occur to athletes under their
control. In addition, most OSOs that stage events insure themselves against injury
to spectators. This will be discussed in more detail in chapter 4.
As with all aspects of governance, the process of risk management should be trans-
parent and communicated throughout the organisation. The annual report should
include an acknowledgement of the Board’s responsibilities, the process followed and
a confirmation of the systems in place to control areas of major risk. This allows all
stakeholders to be comfortable with the risk management of the organisation.
Governance Checklist
You might consider the following questions when examining the governance pro-
cedures of your OSO.
Delineation of Governance Roles

• Is there a clear organisational structure, with no overlap of powers of any two
individuals or bodies, and with alignment with stakeholder services?
• Is there clear delegation of power from the members to the Board? Do Board
members understand their roles and responsibilities and their collective and
individual personal liability?
• Is there a clearly defined separation between the Board (strategic direction) and
the executive (management) and a documented outline of the roles of each?
• Are the roles and extent of authority of committees and commissions properly
documented?
Governance Processes
• Are general meetings, Board meetings, and any committee or commission meet-
ings properly conducted and documented, and are decision-making processes
clearly documented, democratic and transparent?
• Are election, appointment and recruitment processes transparent, fair and
nondiscriminatory? Is there efficient succession planning to replace personnel
who leave?
• Are decisions and policies quickly and effectively communicated?
Governance Controls
• Have values and a vision been agreed upon and communicated? Have a mission
and strategic plan been agreed upon and communicated? Are these periodically
reviewed?
• Depending on the size and nature of your OSO, have operational plans, a
financial business plan, financial accounts, an annual report and audit, a com-
munications plan, a development plan and a risk management plan (with risk
register) been documented, communicated and regularly updated?
• Do all individuals in the organisation, including Board members and the CEO,
have a job description, clear personal objectives and regular personal apprais-
als?
• Is organisational performance regularly reviewed against the strategic plan?
Is individual performance reviewed against personal objectives and is a cor-
responding rewards system in place?
Governance Improvement
• Are there regular individual and collective training sessions for Board members,
management and staff to ensure individual and organisational development?
• Is there a knowledge management plan to ensure institutional knowledge
is recorded and developed? In particular, are volunteers and staff properly
debriefed before leaving the organisation?
Member Responsiveness
• Is the relationship between the General Assembly and Board good? Are there
regular general meetings? Is the annual report and other information periodi-
cally distributed to members?
• Has a detailed stakeholder analysis been carried out and regularly updated?
• Is the organisation regarded by its General Assembly, staff and stakeholders as
transparent, accountable and responsive?
Governance is an issue that is likely to be of importance in an industry that pro-

vides role models for children, offers worldwide entertainment and utilises public
monies. The principles discussed above may help your OSO to be more effective and
provide you with the opportunity to shape the direction of your organisation.
Key Recommendations
c Understand what your OSO values and how this affects culture.
c Be aware of who is powerful in the organisation and how this affects inter-
nal politics.
c Use the previous checklist to determine whether your organisation is oper-
ating as well as it can under the principles of governance: responsibility,
democracy, transparency and solidarity.
c Identify whether your Board has the necessary knowledge and skills to
govern in a manner that allows the OSO to be most effective.
c Ensure that there is a transparent and accountable voting system.
c Regularly ask yourself fundamental questions about the governance struc-

tures of your OSO.
c Carry out risk assessments of all activities of the OSO.
c Maintain an up-to-date risk register.

The following illustration applies the governance checklist to the Estonian Olym-
pic Committee.
Illustration 1.3
Governance of the Estonian Olympic Committee
In 2001, the Estonian Olympic Committee (EOC) became the umbrella organisation
for sport in Estonia when it merged with the Estonian Central Sports Union. This
means that in addition to the ordinary tasks of an NOC, the EOC has responsibility
for general sport development. This is reflected in the NOC membership, which is
made up of 64 sport federations in Olympic and non-Olympic sports, 19 regional
sport unions and 13 sport associations representing university sport, school sport,
Sport for All activities, sports medicine and other areas of the sport movement.
Clear Delineation of Governance Roles

The EOC has a clear and simple structure. All members (96 legal persons and 23
natural persons) form the Session, which meets every spring. According to the
statutes of the NOC, the Session elects the General Assembly. This is made up of
59 representatives, more than half of them representing Olympic NFs, who are in
the Assembly for a period of 4 years. The Session also elects the 17 members of the
Board, including the President, two Vice-Presidents and Secretary General, who
hold these positions for a period of 4 years.
The office of the EOC Secretariat consists of 10 paid managers, including the
President and Secretary General. Staff members are responsible for a broad range
of different activities in the sport movement. They achieve these responsibilities
with the help of committees and in cooperation with member organisations,
governmental structures and local authorities. The roles of the Secretariat are clearly
expressed in job descriptions and internal documents.
In 2001, it was agreed that the tasks of the Board are to discuss and accept the
strategic and major working directions of the EOC. Because the President and
Secretary General are Board members as well as executives, they bear responsibility
for the effective operation of the EOC. It is the responsibility of the Board and the
Secretariat to make decisions and to organise the programmes. It is, however, the
responsibility of the Board to present strategic plans to the Session.
There are effective relationships amongst the President, Board members and
senior executives. Estonia is a relatively small country, so personal relations and
trust are important. An analysis of the past 5 years suggests that relations have
been effective, results oriented and team building.
Governance Processes
The Session has the opportunity to consider and evaluate the work of the EOC
through the annual performance report. The constituents of the General Assembly
represent the appropriate sport organisations. All bodies of the NOC are aware of
the programmes available and are also aware of procedural regulations.
(continued)
Governance Controls
The EOC, as the supreme organisation in Estonian sport, has set certain values:
to be a strong, needs-oriented and trustworthy sport organisation. It has clear
priorities: youth sport, Sport for All, coach qualifications, sport medical services,
anti-doping education, elite sport and postcareer planning, and respective support
to athletes.
The EOC has short-term and middle-term strategic plans for 1 year and 4 years.
It has an annual operating plan that is presented in December of each year. It
has a 4-year development plan and an annual and 4-year business plan. The EOC
does not have a risk management plan. However, financial risks are monitored by
the representatives of the Estonian business elite who sit on the Board, and the
Secretariat regularly reports strategic risks to the Board.
The Board has not considered its own effectiveness; however, the performance
of the Board is evaluated twice a year by the Session and the General Assembly
of the NOC. This evaluation, carried out against the formal plans of the EOC, has
always been positive.
Member Responsiveness
Each year for the past 15 years the EOC has presented a complete financial and
activities report to the Session, which then has adopted the report. This report
indicates fulfilment of all plans and is the basic criteria used to improve the future
plans by which the governance of the OSO is held accountable. Evaluations made
amongst member organisations, several SWOT analyses (see chapter 2 for more on
SWOT analyses), and the good opinion of the Session and the General Assembly
have shown that the Board has been successful.
—— G ——
The application of the checklist (presented earlier in this chapter) to the EOC
indicates that the organisation is operating effectively. The responsibilities of the
Board are clearly outlined and understood and the Board is held accountable by the
stakeholders. The EOC has the appropriate strategic and operational documents.
It could be argued that the Board has too many members (17); however, its size
does not appear to have significantly influenced its effectiveness. The EOC has
no risk management strategy, which may lead to problems for the organisation.
The organisation attempts to take account of and manage financial and strategic
risk, but it is likely to benefit from the development of a risk register. Overall, the
procedures in place in the EOC are likely to lead to a democratic, transparent and
accountable organisation.
Section 1.4
Information Management
and Information Technology
This section considers the role of information in OSOs and the potential uses of
information and communication technology (ICT). It begins by outlining the impor-
tance of information and discussing the characteristics of good information. The
remainder of the section deals with ICT, outlining what types of technology are
available and how they can be used within OSOs. The discussion will be limited
to the most common ICT tools and will not cover specific technology requiring eso-
teric computer skills. The section ends with an example of how ICT has facilitated
information provision and communication within the Oceania National Olympic
Committees (ONOC).
Use of Information in OSOs

The flow of information is increasing on a daily basis, brought about by advances
in ICT. As computers and digital devices have become more pervasive, information
and ICT have had a significant influence on several aspects of organisations, such
as organisational structure, communication and tasks. Many OSOs have established
sections or jobs in media and ICT management. Others have become increasingly
decentralised because, by using a range of technology, it is possible for volunteers
and paid staff to work away from the main site. For most, e-mail is the prevalent
method of communication within an organisation.
Information is vital for the good governance of an organisation. It allows you to

manage your resources effectively and to communicate with key stakeholders. It is
particularly important that you share information with those who deliver services,
namely the paid staff and volunteers at all levels of the organisation. Up-to-date,
relevant information is essential for you to be able to do your job, and this infor-
mation is increasingly coming from electronic sources. The mass media and ICT
provide a continuous source of information. Indeed, the danger is that you receive
too much information, some of which may be of dubious quality.
Once you have acquired information, you must interpret it to decide what it means
for decision making and organisational operations. For example, information about
changes in international drug-testing procedures may or may not require a change
in your organisation’s procedures. You should also be sceptical of some information,
particularly if you do not know or do not trust the source. There is often a danger
that once you have received information, you fail to be critical of it and instead
interpret it at face value. Finally, you need to use the information in order for it to
be of any value.
Clearly, information is necessary for the effective management of an OSO. It could

even be argued that the survival of the organisation depends on sharing informa-
tion because this facilitates planning and decision making. Therefore you need the
most accurate and relevant information at the right time in order to make effective
decisions.
Managing Good Information

Good decision making relies on having good information, which has the following
characteristics.
• Completeness: You are able to make better decisions the more informed you are
about the choices and the consequences of your decisions. The more complete
information is, the better, and you should collect information from a variety
of sources when making decisions.
• Relevance: Information must be relevant to the problem or decision under con-
sideration; otherwise it may divert attention away from the problem or lead to
incorrect decisions. For example, when you select teams for competition, you
should do so on the basis of their most recent performances. This is because
information about performances in the previous season may no longer be rel-
evant and may lead to mistakes in selection.
• Timeliness: Information can only be useful if it is available at the right time.
You should be aware that information can be produced too frequently, as well
as too infrequently.
• Accuracy: This is the most important characteristic of good information. Infor-
mation needs to be as accurate as possible for its intended purpose. However,
as long as the information is reliable, complete accuracy may not be a goal.
For example, when making decisions about staging an event, organisations
often use an estimated figure to establish whether it is worth proceeding.
Establishing the exact cost of the event is not necessary for initial decision
making.
• Understandability: Information that is easy to understand is useful because you
often do not have the time to try to interpret it. Thus, information that assumes
prior knowledge that users may not have or that contains jargon is not helpful
in decision making.
The speed with which information can be obtained, and its associated obsoles-
cence, makes the appropriate use of information difficult. Thus the four Ds rule
is essential: do, delegate, drop and destroy. If the information is not relevant, you
should delegate it to the right colleague, drop it into data storage or the archives
or destroy it. Search engines such as Google and online storage of press clippings
allow for easy retrieval of information, so it may not be necessary to retain hard
copies of such information. Each OSO should find the right balance between hard
information (paper) and soft information (electronic), and that balance should be
determined by the organisation’s culture and the expectations of stakeholders. For
example, you may communicate with junior members via text (SMS) or e-mail, but
write letters to the Board.
The effective management of information is above all a human matter, and effec-
tive information use should be part of the internal managerial culture. You must
be able to identify and capture information that is crucial to success, translate it
into something of value for the organisation and ensure easy access to it. ICT will
allow you to do this.
Applying Electronic Management in OSOs

With the management of sport organisations becoming more complex and requiring
more specialised knowledge, the demand for information technology management
tools is increasing. The appropriate use of ICT can save time and money because
it frees human resources from routine duties, such as correspondence, in order to
make people available for more relevant functions.
ICT has several forms:

• Telephones: fixed, mobile, via Internet
• Computers: mainframes, servers, PCs
• Personal digital assistants: PDAs (often merged with mobile phones)
• Cameras: digital, phone, webcam
• Video: tape, numeric, Internet streaming video
• Internet: satellite, cable, wireless, dial-up (via telephone lines)
• Television: cable, satellite, Internet
• Storage: disks, CDs, DVDs, USB keys
• Networks: optical fibre cable, wireless, Bluetooth
OSOs are likely to have a diverse range of information needs from a diverse range
of sources, and the integrated use of several forms of ICT allows these different pur-
poses to be met in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Known as “e-management”,
these technologies can be used to deliver information and services to members and
other stakeholders, as well as to the public.
E-management has a number of uses in OSOs, which need to move away from using
computers simply for data storage. For many organisations, the first step towards
e-management is getting staff to move away from having files saved in their own
computer drives to a shared network where files are saved on a role or functional
basis. Through having a shared network, anyone in the organisation may have
access to the organisational files. OSOs may also consider having Web-based filing
and database systems so that staff may access files while away from the office. The
development of an organisation website, which is used to communicate information
about the organisation to those inside and outside of the organisation, is another
step in e-management, and you can also use ICT to develop various services for
your members, such as e-newsletters, virtual shops for merchandise or competition
entries. For example, since the 1990s, the Canadian Olympic Committee has col-
lected athletes’ personal data through an ICT network, eliminating the need for a
paper-based process. You can service Board and staff meetings by making agendas,
minutes and discussions available electronically, and you can communicate inter-
nally and externally via e-mail.
Photo courtesy of the U.S. Olympic Committee. Tom Kimmell, photographer.

The tools used for information and communication technology are diverse and ever changing, as
experienced by this MEMOS X class.
Because the Internet has become a worldwide interface, it offers the potential to
upload membership records and information archives to the Web and thus make
them available to stakeholders, anytime and anywhere. One step further is to use
these technologies to meet, even anticipate, the needs of stakeholders. For example,
this may mean general editing of your Web-based events calendar, press releases
and stories, as well as the creation of a specific media section with all the material
necessary to cover your organisation, including logos and athletes’ and leaders’
biographies and success stories.
The Internet also helps with the governance of an organisation because it improves
the transparency of management. For instance, posting your annual report on your
website is a strong indicator of good governance. Making an e-newsletter available
to anyone surfing the Web is not only good for communication, but may help you
to enlarge your membership and consolidate awareness of your organisation. Inter-
nal communication will also benefit from ICT. An intranet is a form of electronic
communication that is available only to those who work within the organisation.
Developing an intranet will speed up knowledge transfer and the efficiency of com-
munication. For example, by posting policy documents and operating procedures
on the intranet, people who work with the organisation will have access to these
at all times.
An extranet, which only authorised members may access with a personal password,
is a valuable tool. Like an intranet, it allows you to address your members, clubs,
major stakeholders and even suppliers. Furthermore, it is possible to customise access
for each target group, even for individuals. Making minutes, technical requirements,
athletes’ progress and coaching instructions available via the extranet stimulates
knowledge transfer amongst grassroots stakeholders. For instance, the feeling of
being part of the Olympic family by NOC staff may be reinforced by having access
to the NOC Extranet.
For an OSO, the sharing, collecting and organising of information within the
country’s Olympic family represents a significant challenge that can be expensive
and time consuming. An online database or an extranet could address this prob-
lem, particularly for Games preparation. Databases are also an excellent means of
capturing and storing electronic information on athletes, coaches and volunteers,
which reduces the need for paper-based systems.
However, e-management is not just simply about the public dissemination of

information. ICT also has the potential for educational, societal, commercial and
operational application. For example, it allows distance working and nomad manage-
ment, which is of particular value for OSOs. Volunteers who are working in various
locations around a country can access information about organisational objectives
and programmes. Coaches can monitor their travelling athletes, who complete
online training diaries accessible to coaches from all over the world. In addition,
e-learning has enhanced the anti-doping education of local experts in a cost- and
time-effective way, allowing these individuals to be trained using material available
online or on CD-ROM.
ICT will certainly enhance your organisation’s development. There are, how-
ever, a number of key factors that an organisation must consider before investing
a great deal in these technologies. Factors such as organisational culture, attitude
and expertise all have an impact on the effectiveness of ICT implementation and
use. There are many examples of ICT implementation failing, not because of poor
design or functionality, but because people within the organisation did not adopt
it. In addition, disseminating knowledge of new ICT requires training, and specific
skills must be provided. There are also external factors to consider, such as acces-
sibility to the Internet and the broadband availability in a country. It would be
pointless to develop a system that no one can access or that is too slow to operate
effectively. However, despite these factors, e-management and accessibility to ICT
should be a priority for OSOs.
If you are not sure whether you are utilising e-management to its full capacity,
• Can your staff and volunteers, including those who are off-site, easily access
policy and procedure manuals? If not, consider developing an intranet on which
these manuals can be posted.
• Can the public easily find information about your organisation? If not, you may
want to develop a website.
• Can your staff and volunteers meet on a regular basis to share information? If
not, you may wish to consider the use of e-mail and Web forums.
• Do athletes have to provide the same information for a number of competi-
tions? If so, you may wish to move to online entry that is linked to a database
of personal details.
Implementing Electronic Management

The implementation of e-management should focus on stakeholders rather than the
administrative structure of the OSO, which should be redesigned accordingly. E-
management needs to be integrated into broader policy and service-delivery goals,
management processes and information activity. Strong leadership that is committed
to e-management leads to success, and where there is little or no commitment on
the part of the Board, the implementation could fail.
For reasons of complexity, cost and lack of technical know-how, some OSOs may
hesitate to develop an integrated e-management policy. There are, however, ways
of overcoming these problems. It may be possible to identify students who are
willing to participate in an IT traineeship in the organisation and who could then
develop websites or even set up intranets or extranets. Depending on the needs or
size of the organisation, you could recruit in-house ICT experts, although a sensible
alternative may be to outsource the technical development of your e-management
integration. This pay-per-service solution could be cost effective and ensure state-
of-the-art service.
Developing integrated ICT solutions requires a significant level of expertise.

Considerable planning, research and time are essential, along with a global com-
mitment by those involved with the organisation. However, the focus on technol-
ogy sometimes overshadows the importance of human concerns. Technology may
prove a useful tool, but to ensure that investment in technology yields the desired
knowledge, it is important to build an organisational environment that supports this
outcome. Stress and health problems related to more computerised jobs need to be
addressed carefully. A programme for training end users should be implemented.
Even the best-designed systems are doomed to failure if end users are not appropri-
ately trained and do not adopt the new way of doing business.
Finally, e-management needs to be carefully evaluated once it is in place. You need

to check that the systems are providing the benefits you expected and that every-
one who is working for the organisation is using the systems to their full potential.
Evaluation will allow you to identify whether any changes need to be made to the
system or whether additional training is required in order to make e-management
work effectively.
E-management will enable you to make your organisation more effective. If OSOs
ignore the expansion of the digital environment and its associated technologies, they
will miss out on commercial opportunities, access to enhanced knowledge and more
effective management of sport.
Key Recommendations
c Identify sources of trustworthy information and use these to manage your
organisation.
c Investigate how your organisation can make better use of ICT.
c With the commitment and support of the Board, encourage and support the
use of ICT within the organisation.
c Seek partnerships to expand your e-management.
The following illustration shows how ICT has been used by Oceania National
Olympic Committees to improve information management and communication
within its region.
Illustration 1.4
Information Management in the Oceania National Olympic
Committees Continental Association
The ONOC continental association has a unique and healthy level of communication
amongst its members and has been taking a leading role in utilising information
and communication technology to facilitate communication amongst its member
NOCs. In order to do this, ONOC had to find a means of embracing the developing
technologies at an affordable price. To demonstrate its commitment to this process,
ONOC included the following goal in its strategic plan (2005-08): To build on the
efficient and effective communications network for sport throughout the ONOC
region.
ONOC developed an agreement with SportingPulse, a Melbourne-based company,

to collaborate on the development of their products with a view to establishing
a multisport games management system. In return, ONOC was offered the use
of the SportingPulse system for a discounted rate. This relationship has been
particularly productive because ONOC has provided assistance to SportingPulse in the
development of the company’s product range and in return has had affordable access
to an increasingly powerful set of sport administration and games management
tools. Financial support for the implementation of this project was provided through
the Australia-South Pacific 2006 Sports Programme and Olympic Solidarity. From this
relationship, Oceania Sport was developed, a Web-based, interactive information
system that links the organisations within ONOC.
With Oceania Sport, ONOC has an established Web presence for every NOC and
member NF in the Pacific islands. In turn, these organisations all have access to the
games management and sports database software (Sportzware) and an online
games entry and registration system that was used exclusively for the 2005 South
Pacific Mini Games in Palau.
(continued)
This Web portal links all NOCs and their member sport federations in the Oceania
region and provides databases that can upload details and results of competitions to
sport federation websites. In addition, it can upload all details of registered members
of the respective sport federations to an online database. The members themselves can
operate all aspects of the system at the grassroots of their sport. The system includes
four main functions:
1. A website for each NOC that is self-editing and accessed through the Oceania
portal for sport (www.oceaniasport.com). These websites can integrate with an
online database for members.
2. A website for all NFs affiliated to their NOC. These are also self-editing websites
that are simple and easy to use and meet the general communication needs of
any sport association. It is through these websites that the day-to-day operations
of the associations are carried out, in particular the dissemination and logging
of competition information and results.
3. Competition management program (CMP) that enables sport associations to
generate draws and fixtures as well as print results and statistics. It also allows
the administration of tribunals. This software permits the organisation to keep a
record of members and officials, handle finances, and display all this information
in hard copy or on the Web.
4. A member database. In addition to the database available in the CMP, which
can work offline, all NOCs and their members have access to an online member
database that can be used both locally and regionally. It was through this
database that accreditation and entries were handled at the 2003 South Pacific
Games. The strength of this database is that it can be used repeatedly for the
administration of local or regional and single or multisport events, handling
accreditation, event entries and finances.
The first part of the implementation process were a regional workshop held in
Suva in February 2003. This workshop was for NOC administrators and was aimed at
familiarising participants with the development of their own membership databases
and with the use of competition management software. Participants were also able to
commence work on their own self-editing websites during the workshop. Following
the completion of the regional workshop, ONOC and SportingPulse personnel, along
with national coordinators who attended the regional workshop, conducted a series
of national workshops. The system and the process of implementation were evaluated
at General Assemblies and administration workshops, and a full evaluation has been
carried out now that the implementation process is complete.
The development and implementation of the system were well planned. The
requirements of the system were based on members’ needs as identified in surveys
and were in line with needs identified in the strategic planning consultation process.
This planning, alongside a programme of constant consultation and experience in the
field, allowed the specifications of the system to be developed.
This illustration shows how e-management can facilitate the management of OSOs.
Notice these features:
• The system (Oceania Sport) was developed in response to a goal set forth in
ONOC’s strategic plan.
• ONOC sought a partnership to make the cost of the system affordable.

• The developers surveyed ONOC members to fully understand their needs.
• The e-system was developed in constant consultation with those who would
be using the system.
• Once the system was developed, ONOC invested in training and evaluation.
Section 1.5
Management of Change
One of the few constant factors in the management of OSOs is the need to continu-
ally respond to changes that occur inside and outside of the organisation. You have
to seek out management practices, organisational procedures and services that need
to change in order for the organisation to continue to operate effectively. In doing
so, you are managing change. To be effective, you need to recognise when change is
desirable or inevitable and respond accordingly. For example, in the past 20 years,
managers of OSOs are likely to have
• responded to at least 10 new directives from stakeholder organisations such as

the IOC or the IFs,
• continually introduced new working practices or refined existing practices to
take account of innovations in sport science,
• continually updated procedures in response to WADA,
• developed objective criteria for selecting athletes and recruiting volunteers,
• developed strategies for athlete retirement,
• had at least one change of major funding provider,
• handled the fallout from an athlete scandal, and
• seen the sport move away from amateurism.
Some of these changes may have been introduced willingly, whilst others may
have been forced on the organisation, and in many instances there was likely no
choice about whether to change the way the organisation operated. You will have to
deal with athlete scandals, changing requirements of WADA and changes of major
funders. If you ignore such changes, the organisation may face criticism and censure.
The main point is that the organisation cannot continue to operate as it always has
without becoming much less effective in its work.
Such changes usually have to be introduced alongside the day-to-day running

of the organisation. In order to be effective, you must identify the need for change
and plan and manage the introduction of change in addition to carrying out other
duties. This section will discuss how change can be managed effectively within
OSOs. It will begin by outlining how to prepare for the possibility of change and
the reasons why people resist change in organisations. It will also discuss the factors
that ensure the successful introduction of change. Finally, the section ends with an
illustration of these points by discussing the implementation of change within the
South African sport system.
Preparing for the Introduction of Change

Change in OSOs is continual, so those who work with the organisation need to
be able to work in a constantly changing environment. However, in order to help
volunteers and staff to be effective in such an environment, you need to encourage
a state of readiness for change within the organisation. There are two factors that
help accomplish this. First, you need to be aware of what is occurring inside and
outside of the organisation and then communicate this information to volunteers
and paid staff. This will let you identify any potential changes before they become
unavoidable and will allow appropriate time for planning what change should be
implemented and when. Second, you need to encourage an organisational culture
that is willing to accept change, which will reduce resistance to changes that are to
be implemented.
Environmental Auditing
In order to identify potential changes, you have to be aware of what is occurring in
both the external and internal operating environments of the OSO. This can be done
by a process of environmental auditing, or scanning of the operating environments
in order to generate information about the environments and to identify trends that
may suggest a need for change.
Two main factors affect the success of environmental auditing. First, the accuracy
of the audit will only be as good as the information upon which the audit is based. It
is therefore important to have access to current and relevant information on trends
and changes that may affect the organisation. Second, the success of environmental
analysis relies on a structured approach to the review. This ensures that all key
aspects of the environment are addressed in a comprehensive manner. The danger
is that without a structured approach, important changes in the environments may
be missed. This is particularly vital when auditing the external environment, given
its size and the number of features to consider.
The questions posed in section 1.1 will help greatly with auditing the external
environment. These questions will allow managers to identify changes that may
affect the way OSOs operate. The analysis of the internal environment provides
information on the OSO’s mission, values, internal culture and permanent objectives,
corporate and business strategies, organisational and human resources, facilities,
finances, and sport results. The questions posed in section 1.3 can help with evalu-
ation of the decision-making structures. Internal auditing should also be carried out
by a review of the following:
• Physical resources: These include the actual items at the disposal of the OSO,
such as equipment or facilities, the age and condition of these items, and the
potential to use these items to enhance or gain competitive advantage.
• Human resources: These include the OSO’s paid and unpaid staff in terms of
the roles required, the skills and experience available, and the ability of staff
to adapt to potential changes.
• Financial resources: These include how the organisation is financed and funded,
the management of income and expenditure, and the relationship with key
financial stakeholders such as sponsors, other commercial partners or banks.
• Operational resources: These include how the OSO operates, where it operates, the
resources required by different services and how the services are perceived.
Within these areas you should examine and evaluate past performance in order
to try to explain the organisation’s past successes and failures. It is not enough to
just be aware of the success or failure of strategies; you must be able to account for
these in order to learn from the past. Next, the current practices of the organisation
must be evaluated. This evaluation should focus on what is actually happening, not
on what policies or strategic documents say should happen. This will ensure that
the audit actually reflects the internal environment.
Once you have collected the relevant information, you must identify factors that
may require changes in operations or services. These areas then should be priori-
tised in order to meet service objectives. Finally, the effect of these changes on the
operation of the organisation needs to be evaluated. Some changes may require an
immediate response, whilst other changes may be required in the future and can
be planned and implemented over time. For example, suppose that in auditing the
environment, you found that government policy was about to change from funding
elite sport to promoting grassroots participation. If your OSO worked with elite ath-
letes, you would have to identify other sources of revenue or change your operations
so that you worked with grassroots participants as well as elite athletes.
The purpose of environmental auditing is to help you be proactive in delivering

services. By being aware of the threats and opportunities in the external environ-
ment and the strengths and weakness of your internal environment, you will be in
a better position to anticipate and plan changes required of the organisation. This
means that you need to identify reliable sources of information about both environ-
ments. Information about the internal environment can be gathered by talking to
colleagues and staff and by being aware of what is occurring in the organisation.
Information on the external environment is more difficult to obtain, but it is often
provided by organisations such as the NOC or IF and by networking with others
who work in the industry.
Developing a Culture That Supports Change

As stated earlier, the working environment changes constantly, and therefore you
need to develop an organisational culture that facilitates change. This can be done
in a number of ways. Those involved with the organisation must feel that they are
fully involved in or fully informed of the decision-making process so that the intro-
duction of change does not come as a surprise.
You also need to be clear about what can and cannot be changed without great
resistance. For example, the colour and style of team uniforms may have historical
or local significance, and attempts to change these will meet with strong resistance.
Conversely, if you know what can be changed, you can use these aspects to begin
to introduce change to other aspects of the service. For example, if objective selec-
tion criteria for national teams are valued by those within the organisation, you
can use this desire for objectivity to introduce objective-led systems of performance
measurement.
© Catherine Laville
As change is introduced, it is important to keep the lines of communication open.
Resistance to Change
Most change will lead to resistance amongst some or all of those who work with
the organisation. The need to change suggests that the current way of working is
no longer adequate, and often those carrying out the work will take this personally.
It is also possible to argue that resistance to change is a logical reaction because
people and organisations function best in circumstances of stability. Nonetheless,
resistance to change needs to be identified and overcome if change is to be fully
integrated into the organisation.
People resist change because of the following:
• Differences: There are likely to be concerns about what will be different in the
working environment. Volunteers and paid staff may be unclear about or dis-
like what the change means for their position, their workload or their working
practices.
• Competence: Unsurprisingly, people may have concerns about being able to

carry out the new tasks required of them or being able to use new equipment
or technology. Therefore they will resist the introduction of change that makes
them feel incompetent.
• Ripples: Resistance to change may not come solely from those directly affected
by the change. The introduction of change in an organisation usually has a ripple
effect in that if change is introduced into one department, changes are usually
required in other areas. For example, if the finance department implements a
new system for claiming back expenses, the change will not only affect those
employed by the organisation but also volunteers. This may create confusion
until the new system is understood.
• Workload: Most changes require more work. New procedures or ways of deliv-
ering services will have to be learned, and this inevitably requires more work.
Volunteers and paid staff often have to attend training courses if new technol-
ogy or new objectives are introduced. At the same time, people are expected to
complete their usual workload. This increase in workload will lead to resistance
to the change.
• Resentment: The introduction of change may provide the opportunity to express

resentment about what has happened to volunteers or paid staff in the past.
For example, if certain members think that they have missed out on an elected
position, they may take the opportunity to express their resentment by under-
mining the need for change amongst other members.
• Real threats: In some instances change represents a real threat to those who
work with the organisation. For example, a change in regional structure may
mean that some volunteers will lose their positions on a committee or have
their influence significantly reduced. In this instance, resistance to change is
understandable and is likely to be significant.
Resistance to change is inevitable, and therefore a strategy for dealing with it

is needed. It is vital to communicate the reasons for change in the organisation.
This may allow those affected to become convinced of the need for change before
resistance is established. Information about why change is necessary, the process
to be followed and the consequences of both changing and not changing allows
volunteers and paid staff to see the logic of what is being proposed. This is a useful
strategy for overcoming concerns about competence and differences in the working
environment.
The most effective strategy in overcoming all types of resistance, however, is to

encourage those affected to participate in designing the required change. Involving
volunteers in designing and introducing the new regional structure will build com-
mitment to restructuring because it is difficult for people to resist changes that they
have helped develop. Involvement can occur at any stage, but the more people are
involved at the initial stages, the more committed they will be. This involvement
must, however, be meaningful; otherwise resistance will become even greater when
those affected become aware that they have been given a token role in determining
their future.
Not all resistance is bad. Opposition to change may bring forward issues that
had not been considered and that would have eventually had a negative impact on
the proposed change. For example, raising the qualification standard for a national
event may result in no event being held if the standard is set too high. In most cases,
resistance should be viewed as a means of identifying problems, which you then
need to find ways to resolve. If resistance can be dealt with effectively, commitment
to change is likely to be stronger than if resistance did not occur.
Implementing Change Successfully

A number of features increase the likelihood of change being implemented suc-
cessfully. Although many of these seem obvious, once a potential solution has been
identified it is easy to become overly concerned with what is to change, rather than
how to go about making the change. The following features do not guarantee the
successful implementation of change, but they do make it more likely.
Change as a Good Idea

Although it seems obvious, change must be perceived as being a good idea; otherwise
it is unlikely that it will be accepted. Not all potential changes will be appropriate,
even if they appear to be a suitable response to changes in the operating context. For
example, although the certification of volunteers may be a sensible way to address
increases in litigation, it may be unacceptable to the volunteers, leading many to
stop volunteering. You must therefore involve others, in this case the volunteers, in
deciding what changes should be introduced, and you must seek feedback on any
proposed change. This will allow issues to be raised that had not been considered.
Knowledge of Factors That Will Promote and Prevent Change

You need to identify what will work for and against the proposed change, such as
people, resources, time, external factors and culture. This will allow you to identify
factors that can be used to promote the change, such as the support of the president, or
factors that will prevent the change, such as lack of funding. It is important to gener-
ate a list of these factors through discussion with people who have a vested interest in
the change. If you carry out this process on your own, you are likely to miss concerns
that may not be of importance to you but are of key importance to others.
Effective Change Team

Having a team of people responsible for implementing a change can be important.
If you are implementing a large change, such as organisational restructuring, or a
series of smaller changes that need coordination, such as the introduction of new
technology, you will need a team of people who are responsible for promoting the
change.
An effective change team has a variety of members:

• It is necessary that the organisation’s leaders either are part of the change team
or support the team. For example, it will be impossible to introduce changes
that are not supported by the Executive Board.
• The Board, aided by the financial director or the treasurer, must be part of
the team since they control resources. Without the commitment of those who
control money, facility or staff, changes will be hard to bring about.
• It may be necessary to include people who represent the organisation’s main
stakeholder groups, such as funding bodies, sponsors and members.
• The team should include a spokesperson from the parts of the organisation that
will primarily be affected by the proposed change. This may include volunteers,
paid staff or athletes.
Introducing Change at the Appropriate Level in the Organisation

There are three levels at which change can be introduced. It can be introduced at
the individual level, where a volunteer or member of staff may require new training.
Change can also be introduced at the group level and may affect a particular team,
region or department. For example, a change in drug-testing procedures will only
affect those who are involved with drug testing. Finally, change can be introduced at
the organisational level, which may occur with a change in organisational priorities,
the introduction of new technologies or the introduction of operating procedures
that affect the organisation as a whole.
It is necessary to identify exactly what and who needs to change. You should
do this to ensure that the proposed change will bring about the desired outcome.
For example, if certain staff members are performing poorly, they need to change
their behaviour rather than asking colleagues to help with their work. If a par-
ticular part of a team is performing poorly, it is important to introduce changes
into the team, such as a change of coaching staff, rather than changing the team
as a whole.
Sufficient Resources
The introduction of change requires money, staff training and time. Although money
is important, allowing adequate time to develop and implement the change is even
more so. One of the major factors that leads to the failure of change is competition
from alternative activities. As suggested in the beginning of this section, you usually
have to continue with your day-to-day duties in addition to the activities that are
required for the proposed change. In most situations, you will naturally continue to
give your daily tasks priority because you know how to do these and the work has
to be done so that the organisation can continue to function. This often leads to a
low prioritisation of the activities associated with change.
In order to overcome this, you should consider delegating some of your everyday
work or ensure that other people are also involved in developing and implement-
ing the change. You then need to make sure that these people have adequate time
to devote to both their own work and the extra activities you have asked them to
do. Deadlines may need to be extended or work flow reduced during the change
process.
Implementation Strategy
The final feature that leads to the successful introduction of change is a well-
developed implementation strategy. This is particularly important when intro-
ducing large-scale change. All of the activities required to bring about the change
need to be identified and put into an appropriate order. Necessary tasks must be
allocated to individuals who will be responsible for these, and the whole process
needs to be communicated to everyone who will be affected by the change. The
implementation strategy should also include a period of evaluation in order to
ensure that the change has been implemented successfully and is achieving its
intended outcome.
The key to the successful management of change is preparation. If you are consis-
tent and thorough in your environmental auditing, you can be proactive in anticipat-
ing how and when your practices will have to change. An understanding of people
is also key to this process. You need to know your volunteers and paid staff well so
that you can anticipate where and why resistance may arise and how to deal with
it. Most importantly, knowledge of the people involved in the change will highlight
who has to be involved in the process, what can be changed in the organisation and
the most successful way to go about it.
Key Recommendations
c Work with the Board to ensure a culture of readiness for change within the
OSO.
c Identify sources of information to help with environmental auditing.
c Make sure you know why people may resist an intended change.
c Involveothers in planning and implementing the change.

c Make sure that the change is planned thoroughly.
The following illustration shows how it is possible to implement large-scale change

in the sport industry. Although you may never be involved in change of this scale,
when reading this illustration, note how the principles of effective change were
followed and consider any similarities to situations you have faced within your
organisation. The illustration provides a brief description of the situation and then
describes the process of change. It ends with an analysis of the process in terms of
the principles outlined in this section.
Illustration 1.5
Changing the Governance of South African Sport
When South Africa emerged from apartheid government rule in 1994, it was
clear that this period had left sport with a complex and fragmented governance
framework. At the end of the apartheid era, seven different bodies were responsible
for sport delivery in the country. In addition, the NFs had responsibility for their
own sports, which resulted in more than 80 organisations having a vested interest
in the governance of sport in South Africa.
The lack of a single organisation with responsibility for sport had created several
problems. First, sport development in the country was fragmented, with no clear
lines of responsibility or clear leadership. This situation created confusion amongst
athletes and other stakeholders, such as sponsors. Second, there was no systematic
planning of the preparation and delivery of sport. This led to a lack of coherence in
the work of the bodies responsible for sport. In addition, much work was duplicated
because of breakdowns in communication and the replication of objectives and
responsibilities, which led to a waste of resources. These problems were felt to be
hindering the development of sport in South Africa and had led to a general climate
of dissatisfaction and disaffection with the delivery of sport.
As a consequence, a taskforce was established under the guidance of the National

Olympic Committee of South Africa (NOCSA) and with the support of the Ministry
of Sport and Recreation. This taskforce was made up of representatives from the
seven organisations that were responsible for sport, the national governing bodies
and the ministry. The taskforce’s recommendation was the development of a single
entity to govern sport in South Africa, catering for the delivery of Team South Africa
to major multisport events.
The entity was to be known as the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic
Committee (SASCOC) and would be a single sport system with a governmental and
a nongovernmental structure working in tandem to develop sport in South Africa.
This entity was to have two benefits. First, it would be a single self-governing
macrobody with a mandate to lead and represent all sport in South Africa. Second,
it would allow the rationalisation of roles and responsibilities, thus providing an
integrated athlete-support programme.
The main task arising from this proposal was to combine the various structures of
sport in South Africa into one governmental and one nongovernmental structure.
A major strategic change arose as a result of this proposal in that the seven bodies
that had been responsible for sport had to agree to the proposal. The proposal to
create the single entity had implications for the power and influence of the sport
bodies and in some cases challenged their survival. In addition, there was potential
for changes in the responsibilities of those employed within the bodies, and perhaps
even job losses.
In order to establish the strategic decision-making structure of the new entity,

members of the taskforce carried out a period of discussion and consultation with
representatives of the sport bodies that were to be affected by the change. Although
concerns were expressed about a loss of territory and the resulting power of the new
structure, it was agreed to accept the proposal put forward by the taskforce, and a
cooperation agreement was established amongst the key stakeholders to progress
the development of a macro sport body. This led to the formal constitution of the
SASCOC, for which an Executive Board was elected, made up of representatives from
the NOCSA and from the sports of baseball, boxing, cycling, tennis and wrestling.
The CEO was then appointed, and two months later the SASCOC became responsible
for governing sport in South Africa.
In terms of implementing change, the process outlined here reflects many of the
features required for successful change.
Change as a Good Idea

The proposal to restructure the governance of sport in South Africa was a good idea
for several reasons. It addressed the concerns expressed by sponsors and athletes
about the fragmented nature of the governance of sport in the country. It cut down
on the duplication of work that had been occurring. In addition, it provided clear
leadership and representation for sport in policy making; it became the voice of
sport.
(continued)
Knowledge of Factors That Will Promote and Prevent Change

A desire for clear leadership and responsibility for sport within South Africa, a wish
to avoid duplication of work and a need to overcome the fragmented nature of
the industry were all factors promoting the change. The fact that the NOCSA was
prominent in the process was a major driver for change amongst the organisations
affected. Factors with the potential to prevent the change were concerns about
loss of jobs, status and power, which were overcome by ensuring that all bodies
had representation in the new structure.
Effective Change Team

The specific proposal was developed by the taskforce, which comprised representatives
of the affected organisations. As a result, the main stakeholders were part of the
change team, actively promoting the need for change. The involvement of these
groups was essential with change of this magnitude, and without their involvement,
it is unlikely that the development of the SASCOC would have proceeded at the
pace it did, if indeed at all.
Introducing Change at the Appropriate Level

It is unusual for industry-wide change to be proposed; however, in this instance it
was certainly appropriate. Although it may have been possible to make changes
to the responsibilities of individual organisations and thus remove duplication,
this would not have addressed the fragmented nature of the industry. In order to
develop a coherent system of planning and development for sport in South Africa,
the significant restructuring was appropriate.
Implementation Strategy
The change process had a clear implementation strategy with allocated responsibilities
and time frames. A taskforce was formed, charged with the development of a
proposal for change that would be acceptable to the organisations involved. The
proposed restructuring required the approval of key stakeholders, which was given
after consultation and discussion. This was followed by the establishment of an
elected strategic decision-making body and the appointment of a chief executive.
This was a well-planned process that occurred on a realistic time frame.
—— G ——
The restructuring of the governance of sport in South Africa is an example of
how a large change can be implemented effectively by following the principles of
good change. These principles are equally important in small changes, although
their scale will obviously be different.
The following case study applies many of the points covered in this chapter to
the Olympic Council of Malaysia. The purpose of this case study, and others in
subsequent chapters, is to demonstrate how the material covered in the chapter is
applicable to OSOs. Although your organisation may not be the same type of OSO,
the case study will highlight how the concepts covered in this chapter can be put
into practice.
Case Study 1
The Nature of the Olympic Council of Malaysia
The Olympic Council of Malaysia (OCM) was established and registered in 1953
as a nongovernmental and nonprofit multisport national organisation under the
Societies Act 1966 (revised 1987). With the establishment of the Sports Development
Act 1997, the Council is now registered with the Commissioner of Sports office in
the Ministry of Youth and Sports Malaysia. It is recognised by the IOC.
c Organisational Context
Since 1954, the OCM has been the sole sport organisation in Malaysia with the rights
to enter athletes to participate in the Olympic Games. The OCM is affiliated to the
following international sport organisations:
• Association of National Olympic Committees (ANOC)

• Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)
• Southeast Asian Games Federation (SEAGF)
• Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF)
• International Assembly of National Organisations of Sport (IANOS)
Within the country itself, the OCM and the Sport Ministry are responsible for
sport. The ministry works with the National Sports Council, and the National Sports
Council assists the National Sport Associations (NSAs, otherwise known as NFs) and
works with sport partners who provide support to the NSAs. The OCM works with
all of the organisations responsible for sport in Malaysia. Figure 1.5 shows how the
OCM fits into the Olympic family.
c Nature of the Organisation

In this chapter it was suggested that there are three core elements by which an
organisation can be characterised: people; rules, tasks, roles and responsibilities; and
ends, goals and purposes. We also discussed the concept of organisational structure.
A review of the OCM under these headings reveals the following.
People
The people associated with the OCM are a mix of members, associates and paid
staff. The strategic decision-making body primarily comprises representatives of the
NSAs, and these individuals identify strongly with their sport, bringing a particular
agenda to the General Assembly.
In terms of paid staff, these people have clear roles within the organisation.
Many are the only person responsible for a management function, which means
that their identification with this role is strong. In addition, a large amount of
the operational work is done by the elected office bearers, which demonstrates a
significant commitment to the OCM.
(continued)
CASE STUDY 1 (continued)
Olympic Charter
Contractual terms Statutes
OCOGs IOC IFs
International level
National level
Sport Ministry OCM
National Sports National Sport

Council Associations
Financial assistance
Sport partners
Financial assistance
Figure 1.5 The operating environment of the OCM.
The main stakeholders of the OCM are the NSAs, which are members of the OCM.
There are aE3592 Olympic
total of Solidarity out
47 members, Figure 1.5, 275214
of which 33 NSAsDeniseL R2-alw
are Ordinary Members with
voting rights and 14 are Associate Members without voting rights.
Other important stakeholders are the IOC, OCA, CGF, SEAGF and other international
sport organisations, which contribute funds, programmes and assistance to the
OCM. Sponsors and partners are also important stakeholders; many of them have
joint sport development programmes with the OCM and as such have a say in the
implementation of the joint programmes. Other stakeholders are the tenants of
the OCM buildings, the main one being the Hotel Grand Olympic, which holds a
20-year lease to part of the building.
Athletes, coaches and technical officials could be considered as stakeholders of

the OCM. However, because athletes, coaches and technical officials are all members
of their respective NSAs, the OCM has no direct access to them. This means that it is
difficult for the OCM to take account of their needs and expectations, unless these
are filtered through the NSAs.
Rules, Tasks, Roles and Responsibilities

Affiliation to the international sport organisations makes the OCM the sole sport
organisation in Malaysia with the rights to enter athletes to participate in the Asian
Games, the SEA Games and the Commonwealth Games. The members of the OCM
are the NSAs of Malaysia, which are recognised by their respective IFs as the sole
governing bodies of their sport in Malaysia.
Other roles of the Olympic Council of Malaysia are to
• promote the fundamental principles of the Olympic Movement through

educational programmes;
• collaborate with the NSAs, government agencies and IOC for the development
and training of athletes, coaches, technical officials and sport administrators
for competitive sports, as well as Sport for All;
• collaborate with the NSAs in the preparation of athletes and officials to
participate in the Olympic, Asian, SEA and Commonwealth Games; and
• raise funds in order to fulfil its objectives and role.
Goals and Purposes

The objectives of the OCM are to
• develop and protect the Olympic Movement and to promote the fundamental
principles of Olympism through sport activity and education;
• be completely independent and to resist all pressures of any kind, including
those of a political, religious or economic nature;
• act as the coordinating body for all sport organisations in Malaysia;
• promote the development of high-performance sport and Sport for All;
• facilitate exchanges between the OCM and its members with other NOCs and
IFs;
• select and enter athletes for the Olympic, Asian, SEA and Commonwealth
Games and world or regional multisport competitions; and
• organise Olympic, Asian, SEA and Commonwealth Games and world or
regional multisport competitions.
Note that these objectives promote all levels of sport within the country, which is
likely to be the objective of most NOCs.
(continued)
The programmes to achieve these objectives are varied and include
• the provision of services, advice and assistance to the NSAs and to other sport
organisations;
• the selection and entering of athletes and officials for participation in
international multisport games;
• the selection of participants to attend courses, seminars and study tours
overseas;
• the planning and organising of courses and seminars for coaches and sport
administrators in Malaysia; and
• the sending of delegates to meetings and conferences of international sport
organisations such as the OCA, CGF and SEAGF.
Structure of the OCM

The organisational structure has evolved since the OCM was established as a small
NOC in 1953. As with most OSOs, the strategic decision-making body of the OCM
lies with the General Assembly, which is made up of delegates of the NSAs. This
assembly elects 12 officers, and thus the Executive Board is established. Again, like
most OSOs, the OCM maintains an office of full-time staff to organise the daily
affairs and to maintain financial accountability.
This staff includes the following:
• General Manager
• Finance (one person)
• Marketing and sponsorship (two people)
• International relations (one person)
• National relations (one person)
• Information technology (one person)
• Human resources (one person)
• General administration (four people)
• Olympic Museum and Hall of Fame (one person)
• Indoor sports arena and training hall (one manager, two supporting staff
and three workers)
The present structure was adopted after Coopers & Lybrand Management
Consultants carried out the Financial Strategy and Human Resource Consulting Study
in May 1993. The present structure is adequate due to the voluntary contributions
of the elected office bearers, a couple of staff members on a full-time basis and a
few on a part-time basis.
c Governance of the OCM

As with all NOCs, the power of the OCM is vested in the General Assembly, which
meets annually in June. Each NSA is entitled to send three delegates to the General
Assembly. The General Assembly elects the 12 officers:
• President
• Deputy President
• Vice-Presidents (five people)
• Honorary Secretary
• Honorary Assistant Secretaries (two people)
• Honorary Treasurer
• Honorary Assistant Treasurer
The Council of the OCM includes the officers and one representative from each
NSA. The Council meets in January, April, July and October each year. The Executive
Board of the OCM comprises the officers and four additional nominated members,
and it meets once a month. The Executive Board of the OCM discusses and makes
recommendations on strategic decisions to the Council. The Council normally
approves all the recommendations of the Executive Board, so therefore it could be
argued that it is actually the Executive Board that makes the strategic decisions.
The General Manager and the Honorary Secretary are responsible for the everyday
running of the OCM. The General Manager decides on routine day-to-day matters,
whilst urgent and unforeseen matters are decided by the Honorary Secretary and
the President. The OCM programmes have evolved greatly over the years, and the
staff responsible for each of the programme areas has a good understanding of the
constituent needs and is able to run the programme efficiently.
The programmes and projects of the next year are finalised by December of the
preceding year. The implementation of the current year’s programmes and projects is
monitored by the Executive Board through its monthly meetings and by the Council
at its quarterly meetings. As such, all staff members are fully aware of their duties
and responsibilities for the year.
The principles of good governance are apparent in the way that the finances of
the OCM are managed. The annual budget of the OCM is prepared by the Honorary
Treasurer in December of each year for the consideration and examination by the
Executive Board and approval by the Council.
A monthly financial report, comprising the receipts and payments account; status
of rental payment of the OCM building, office space, conference rooms and sport
arena; statement of receipts from sponsors; and statement of investments of the
OCM, is presented for the consideration and approval of the Executive Board. At
the quarterly Council Meeting of the OCM, a quarterly financial report, comprising
the receipts and payments account and the quarterly balance sheet, is presented
for the consideration and approval of the Council.
The annual balance sheet, income and expenditure and receipts and payments
accounts for each calendar year, audited by a firm of chartered accountants
(approved by the General Assembly), are presented to the members of OCM for
their examination and study 35 days before the General Assembly. The annual
audited financial reports are then formally presented for questions, clarifications
and approval at the General Assembly. These procedures enhance the accountability
and transparency of the management of a key organisational resource: money.
(continued)
In terms of stakeholder consultation and engagement, the various stakeholders

of the OCM influence its governance in different ways. The affiliates of the OCM
(the NSAs) have a direct impact on the management of the OCM since they elect the
office bearers of the OCM. However, other stakeholders, except the government,
have no direct influence on the management of the OCM. The government has
recently reduced its funding of the OCM and now provides only partial funding (up
to 70%) for the participation of the national athletes and officials to multisport
games, such as the Asian Games, Commonwealth Games and SEA Games. The OCM
has responded to these cuts by increasing its revenue-raising activities. Of course,
if the funds from sponsors were reduced, then management would have to work
harder to raise funds.
c Information Management and Information Technologies

The OCM makes full use of e-mail for internal and external communication. The
OCM also has a website that communicates information to the NSAs, sponsors and
general public. The website highlights relevant stories that are published in the press
and has a function that allows readers to e-mail the stories to others. This means
that positive information about the OCM and sport can be disseminated further.
The website provides information about the history and operations of the OCM
and its officers, and the minutes of the General Assembly are made public on the
site. This is in line with the principles of good governance. In terms of other services
to stakeholders, the website contains a calendar of major sport events and provides
links to the calendars of the NSAs. Other major sport organisations can be accessed
via the OCM website. Thus the OCM website is a valuable e-management tool.
—— G ——
This case study shows how an OSO can be considered in terms of its environment,
goals, roles and activities. It also demonstrates how the principles of good governance
can be implemented. Finally, although the OCM’s use of technology may not be
highly sophisticated, it does make good use of websites, e-mails and other
communication technologies.
Chapter 2
Managing Strategically
© IOC / KISHIMOTO Tsutomu
Objectives
• Work with your Board to develop a strategic plan.
• Prepare effectively for the strategic planning process.
• Carry out a strategic diagnosis of your organisation.
• Develop and implement plans in order to achieve strategic objectives.
• Assist your Board in evaluating the effects of the strategy.
61
D iversification in sport practices and the growing marketing potential of sport

have inevitably led to increased competition between traditional and novel sport
organisations to attract and keep followers and sponsors. To answer this challenge,
sport organisations today must use strategic management, much as commercial
enterprises first did in the 1960s.
Strategic management can be defined as the implementation of a strategy, which

is a plan for achieving long-term goals and objectives and allocating resources
necessary for carrying out these goals. The need for strategic management within
sport organisations first surfaced in Europe, but today it exists on every continent
as a result of the globalisation of business and sport. Many NOCs, IFs and NFs as
well as other Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) have already implemented such
procedures.
Strategic management can be represented as a simple five-step process consisting

of preparation, diagnosis, objectives, planning and evaluation. The process, outlined
in figure 2.1, needs to focus on the OSO’s vision and mission. In order to create a
strategic plan, you and your Executive Board must answer a few basic questions:
• What is your situation?

• What are your objectives?
• How do you realise those objectives?
• Have you achieved your objectives?
Preparation
Diagnosis Objectives
Vision
Mission
Control and Action plan

evaluation
Figure 2.1 Strategic management cycle.

managing strategically 63
This process needs to be ongoing. You would not develop one plan and then expect
it to guide the OSO for the rest of its time. Usually strategic plans are developed for a
4-year period. As this period comes to a close, the plan needs to be reviewed by the
Board and OSO management and, if necessary, adapted for the next quadrennial.
The goal of this chapter is to present the principles and techniques that can be
used in the strategic management of OSOs. The first section outlines how you can
prepare for the planning process, followed by the second section, a discussion of the
operating environments. The third section looks at the role of vision, mission and
objectives in guiding the plan, and then the fourth section outlines how you can
develop plans to meet these objectives. The fifth section considers the control and
evaluation of the plan, and the chapter concludes with a presentation of the strategic
plan of the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee.
Section 2.1
Preparing for the Strategic Process
The conditions for implementing your strategy and the success of that strategy will
depend largely on the quality of your planning. Engaging in strategic management
requires formulating a detailed political and administrative plan that addresses, at
a minimum, the following four questions:
1. Why do you need a strategic plan?

2. How will you go about developing this plan?
3. How much time do you have to carry out the strategic planning process?
4. What budget do you have for the strategic planning process?
This section considers these four questions and then concludes with a description
of the framework that the New Zealand Olympic Committee developed in order to
prepare for the planning process.
Reasons for Implementing a Strategic Plan

Strategic plans can be motivated by internal factors such as vague objectives, poorly
defined roles and responsibilities of participants, a lack of clear cohesion amongst
activities and a need to clearly define priorities. The strategic plan should be a
unifying tool for management and internal communication. It should encourage
paid staff and volunteer involvement and a more effective collaboration between
the two types of workers. It is also important to note that the strategic planning
process is not just the domain of managers, rather it can be initiated and promoted
by elected members, such as the Board. It may also be a request that comes from
the membership.
Internal factors can be important, but external factors are often the main driver
of the development of a plan, such as the need to demonstrate good governance
and to communicate goals, values and key objectives to partners. A plan will also
show partners that you are doing everything you can to fulfil these goals, values
and objectives. In many cases, a strategic plan is required by funding agencies to
show how you will use the resources they give you. Such plans are also a useful
tool for dealing with the increasing cost of high-performance sport; a strategic plan
will allow you to plan the efficient and effective use of your resources. This is par-
ticularly important if you operate in an environment of dwindling public funding
for sport. Externally, the strategic plan is a communication tool that you can use to
reinforce the organisation’s image and the legitimacy of its activities to your public
and private partners.
Clarifying the role of strategic management in an organisation is an essential

step that highlights the importance that stakeholders should place on the plan’s
development and implementation. Organising a meeting with volunteers and paid
professionals, for example, could help validate the role and advantages of the stra-
tegic approach. In addition, a meeting with the Executive Board will be necessary
to discuss the strategic planning process. Inviting an expert to explain the benefits,
principles and methods of strategic planning may be useful, as may the director of
another Olympic organisation who could explain the strengths and weaknesses of
that organisation’s strategic plan.
The purpose of this stage of the planning process is to ensure that all stakehold-
ers are aware of the need for a strategic plan and are committed to helping with
its development if required. Once this is achieved, you can decide how you will go
about developing the plan.
Developing a Strategic Plan

You must decide on the steps and methods for gathering information. If you are not
sure what is required, you could seek information on how to develop a strategic
plan from other OSOs, your NOC, or a relevant government department. In addi-
tion, the Internet provides a wide range of information on the process of strategic
planning.
You also need to determine who will be involved in this planning effort. The
Executive Board must be part of the process, and it should also be part of the roles
and responsibilities of any salaried professionals in your OSO. The strategic plan-
ning process should be coordinated and supervised by a senior Board member or a
strategic committee that will act in concert with the Executive Board and any paid
staff. The Executive Board and the General Assembly will be required to approve
the strategic objectives.
Photo courtesy of the Comité Olimpico Mexicano.

You might seek advice from other OSOs as you embark on the strategic planning process.
It is also helpful to know whether you are able to use an outside consultant to
help in your approach. This decision might be dictated by the desire to have input
from someone with an objective view of your organisation’s past and present per-
formance. The consultant can act as a guide and facilitator during the process. For
many smaller OSOs, this may seem an unnecessary luxury; however, an outside
consultant does not necessarily need to be expensive. Students in business courses
are often looking for organisations with which to carry out research work, and this
may provide the opportunity for external assistance. In addition, you may be able
to ask for assistance from an OSO that has a strategic plan.
The expertise of an external consultant could also be retained for preparatory

work. However, you need to clearly define the role of any consultants you choose to
employ. They will need to have a specific set of tasks, and you must also communicate
their role to all involved with the organisation so that their role is understood. It is
also important to employ a consultant who is aware of the special nature of sport
organisations and the environment within which they operate. Consultants who try
to apply ready-made solutions from the commercial world are rarely successful in
OSOs. Table 2.1 shows how the planning process can be developed.
Table 2.1 Responsibilities in the Strategic Planning Process

Task Person responsible Time frame
Draft desired objectives and Internal leader or Start of process
develop scope of strategic committee responsible
planning process (who, what, for strategic planning
when, where, how).
Recruit external consultant if

required.
Approve process and budget. Internal leader or As soon as possible after the
committee scoping of the process
Collect and analyse data (envi- Internal leader or Once approval has been
ronmental scan, evaluation committee given; 3-6 months will be
reports, stakeholder input). needed
External
Prepare strategic planning consultant if recruited
report and recommendations.
Submit preliminary report. Internal leader or committee 3-6 months after the data col-
lection process
External consultant
Discuss the report with the Executive Board At Board meeting
Board, soliciting various con- following submission
tributions and amendments. of the draft report
Submit final report for Internal leader or committee To be agreed upon with the
approval by Board/General producer of the report, but
Assembly. External consultant usually within 3 months
Adapted from the Canadian International Development Agency, 1997.
Establishing the method is important so that you know who will be involved and
at what stage they will be involved. You then need to set a time frame for the process
so that you know when stakeholders have to be available. In addition, performing a
strategic diagnosis and defining a strategic plan are usually long processes. Therefore
it is helpful to define how much time you have to develop or revise the strategy.
This could include
• a quick exercise, such as a week, in which case it will only be possible to make
revisions to an existing strategy;
• a relatively short process, such as 1 month, in which case diagnosis and strategy
development will be compressed; or
• an in-depth analysis over 9 to 12 months.
To be realistic, you should plan for 3 to 6 months to analyse and develop a new
strategy because most OSO strategies require a collaborative approach with other
OSOs. This type of methodology requires frequent dialogue between the Executive
Board and key directors, volunteers and managers. The strategy must involve col-
laboration amongst all participants in the organisation to ensure that all stakeholders
are committed to the plan once it is developed.
Finally, it is useful to establish a budget for developing the strategic plan. This
budget should include financial and administrative costs, such as the costs of data
collection and human resources, including time dedicated by Board members and
managers. If feasible, the budget may also include the cost of an outside consul-
tant.
The support of the Executive Board and the General Assembly is essential, par-
ticularly when a long process is required or when an organisation has been through
a serious crisis. If the time available for strategy development is short, such as 3
months, the Executive Committee may approve the procedure and then commu-
nicate the information and explanation to your management team and member
organisations. By the end of this planning stage, you should have obtained political
support, with the approval of your Executive Committee or General Assembly, for
the following:
• Rationale for the strategic planning process

• Methodology for achieving the plan
• Budget, time frame and human resources dedicated to achieving the plan
This will allow you to begin the process of developing your OSO’s strategic plan.
Key Recommendations
c Work with your Board to clarify why you need a strategic plan and how
much work needs to be done to develop it.
c Identify a member (or members) of the Board who will lead the strategic
planning process.
c Look for outside help from consultants, other OSOs or students if you need
assistance.
c Ensure that all stakeholders are willing to be involved in the process.
c Develop clear procedures for involving the necessary people and collecting
the information that you need.
c Do not try to rush the process. Use as much time as you have available to
ensure that the process is thorough.
There are a number of ways that you can prepare for the strategic planning
process. The following illustration outlines the preparations that the New Zealand
Olympic Committee made in order to develop a new strategic direction for the
organisation.
Illustration 2.1
Preparing for Strategic Planning:
New Zealand Olympic Committee Inc.
The New Zealand Olympic Committee Inc. (NZOC) adopted an innovative strategy
when preparing for their strategic planning process. The organisation developed a
value framework, called the Peak Performance Framework (PPF), to act as a guide for
their subsequent planning. The organisation also was specific about what it wanted
to achieve with the strategic planning process. The PPF was required in order to
• ensure that the NZOC remained a peak-performing organisation at the end of

the planning process,
• spread peak-performing principles across the member federations involved in
developing the strategic plan, and
• ensure that the NZOC achieved a clearly defined plan that unified the
organisation and provided a clear direction for the future.
The organisation engaged a consulting company to assist with the development

of the PPF. The consultant interviewed the NZOC Board and its staff in order to
assess the organisation’s strength and preparedness to embrace the concept of peak
performance. A 2-day workshop was also held to define the beliefs and concepts
that were to pervade the strategic planning process. This led to an articulation of
the organisation’s spirit, inspirational dream, greatest imaginable challenge and
focus (table 2.2), which went on to shape the development of the strategic plan. The
process also established a game plan for putting the new organisational purpose
into play. The final activity was a single-day inspirational workshop for the NZOC
members that developed both individual and collective commitment towards the
purpose of the organisation.
This process resulted in a framework to build the organisation’s capacity to move

from high to peak performance. The approach was innovative and permitted the
subsequent development of organisational plans that flowed from the strategic
thinking that was developed through the methodology described previously. Key
stakeholders were engaged in the process and prepared for the subsequent strategy
development. This was the first step to building a strategy, which took more than 6
months; however, by clearly identifying the underpinning ethos of the organisation,
the NZOC was in a good position to ensure that its plan accurately reflected the
desired future position.
In many OSOs, this process is unlikely to be as lengthy or as comprehensive.

However, it is important to spend some time getting ready for the strategic planning
process to ensure that once you begin to plan, you have all the resources and
stakeholder support you need.
Table 2.2 Aspects of the Peak Performance Framework
PPF Purpose Content Reason Explanation Communication intent
Spirit: Dream, inspire, excel together Who The spirit defines the organisation. Spirit infuses our communication
are with intent.
we?
It provides the tone of our commu-
nication.
Inspirational dream: Building a peaceful and better world Why? The dream explains why the NZOC The dream positions the brand.
by inspiring people through sport and the Olympic ideal exists.
The dream is made up of the following:

Beliefs provide key messages about
Heart: Inspiration through Olympism The heart is the emotional centre or what we stand for.
core of the business.
Beliefs:
Participating in sport as a fundamental right Beliefs define what the NZOC stands
that benefits society for.
Being influential advocates for sport at all levels
Celebrating our heritage and achievements
Providing opportunities and the environment for people

to excel through sport
Creating and sustaining opportunities for sport develop-

ment nationally and internationally
Providing an inspirational Games experience
Maintaining our autonomy
Olympism is our philosophy

Greatest What? What the NZOC wants to achieve. It For external communication the GIC
imaginable must be measurable, stretchy and is translated into an external per-
challenge (GIC): To be the model NOC on the planet achievable in 3-5 years. spective that is the overall impres-
sion we want to leave people with.
Focus: Live the Olympic experience How? Focus defines how the NZOC will Focus influences the emphasis of
69
achieve the GIC and live the dream. our communication.
Section 2.2
Diagnosis of the OSO Environment
Diagnosis is the second step in an organisation’s strategic management process and,
as mentioned in chapter 1, helps determine where the OSO is in relation to its internal
and external environment. It is important to fully understand the environment in
which the strategy will take place so that you can take advantage of opportunities
and avoid threats. This section considers ways of diagnosing your environment and
begins with a detailed discussion of the concept of stakeholders. This is followed by
a discussion of how you can organise the material obtained by the environmental
audits outlined in chapter 1. The section concludes with a presentation of the envi-
ronmental diagnosis of the Cyprus National Olympic Committee.
Identifying Stakeholders
It is important for all OSOs, no matter what their function and size, to identify the
stakeholders of the organisation in order to analyse the external environment and to
see in what ways the stakeholders can help or hinder your strategy. Understanding
stakeholders’ points of view and expectations and integrating their comments in your
plan will improve your strategy. Similarly, by identifying stakeholders who might
oppose your strategy, you can anticipate their reactions and better address them.
Stakeholders of OSOs are the internal or external individuals, groups or organisa-

tions that can directly or indirectly affect the organisation’s present or future situ-
ation. These include the following:
• General Assembly members, who elect the Board members

• Board members
• Volunteers
• Beneficiaries of the organisation’s services, such as athletes, parents and offi-
cials
• Staff
• Public authorities who subsidise sport and expect positive contributions to
health, education and social integration
• Donors who provide funding to the organisation
• Sponsors
• Suppliers
• The media
Brainstorming with people who are familiar with your organisation is the best method
for identifying stakeholders, although an individual who knows the organisation
well can also complete an analysis.
You can focus on the stakeholders in your immediate environment, known as the
microenvironment, or in an expanded environment, known as the macroenvironment
(figure 2.2). The microenvironment includes members, clubs, leagues, institutional
and financial partners, suppliers of goods and services, your current and potential
public, and your direct and indirect competitors. The macroenvironment includes
the broader demographic, sociological, economic, technological and legal factors that
are outlined in chapter 1. Sport organisations inevitably undergo frequent situational
(political, economic, social, international) and structural (demographic, cultural)
societal changes on the national and international level, which is why regular audits
of key stakeholders are necessary.
Macroenvironment
Socioeconomic Microenvironment Political

changes Other Institutional changes
participants partners
Favorable Sport as an
economic Media International economic medium
conditions Sport for municipalities
Interest groups
Population Federation Elected members’
Financial world
interested in sport NOC concern with
Sponsors modernising
Other financing Minister of sport
equipment
priorities
Little leisure time
National
Federation
Technological
Demographic Competitors Community and ecological
changes changes
New sports Athletes
Participants Importance of
Other federations Trainers outdoor activities
starting younger
Private Leaders
Aging population Preserving
organisations Doctors natural areas
Clubs
Leagues
Figure 2.2 Stakeholders E3592 Olympic Solidarity

of an NF. Figure 2.2, 275411 DeniseL R1
Once you have identified the stakeholders, you can categorise them according to
their interest in and control of your strategy. The Stakeholder Interest–Control Matrix
(table 2.3) allows you to classify stakeholders according to how much attention they
should receive from the organisation. There are four priorities, corresponding to the
four quadrants of the matrix:
• Priority 1: These are stakeholders you should always consider during the devel-
opment of the strategy. You should carefully manage them and keep them
informed during the implementation of the strategy.
• Priority 2: These are stakeholders you should keep satisfied during the develop-
ment phase.
• Priority 3: These are stakeholders you should keep informed during the devel-
opment and implementation of the strategy.
• Priority 4: These are stakeholders you should keep an eye on from a distance.
Priority 1 stakeholders are essential to your strategy. You must understand their
own strategies and, if they are individual participants, their motives. This is because
they have the power to prevent you from proceeding with your chosen strategy if
they are not committed to it.
Conducting an Internal and External Analysis

Chapter 1 outlined a structure for auditing the internal and external environments
of an OSO. In addition to the structure proposed in chapter 1, you and your Board
might ask yourselves the following questions:
• What is your history?

• What is your current mission? Is it well formulated and appropriate for your
activities?
• Who are your members, beneficiaries, clients, suppliers and, more generally,
your stakeholders?
• Who are your competitors? Who are your potential allies?
Table 2.3 Stakeholder Interest–Control Matrix for an NF

A lot of interest in your
Factor Little interest in your strategy strategy
Little control over General public Sponsors
your strategy Some suppliers OSO competitors
Priority 4: Keep an eye on Priority 3: Keep them informed
them from a distance
A lot of control NOC Community
over your strategy IF Priority 1: Manage them
Priority 2: Keep them satisfied carefully
Adapted from www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_07.htm.

• What are the threats and opportunities in your organisation?

• What are your organisation’s strengths and weaknesses?
The last two questions in this list are the most important. They lead to the pre-
sentation of an analytical technique known as SWOT, which stands for strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This technique involves identifying the
strengths and weaknesses of the organisation, as well as outside threats and oppor-
tunities, and then charting them as outlined in figure 2.3.
Strengths Weaknesses
Stakeholder support No organisational chart

Good volunteer involvement Poorly developed job descriptions for
Good public image volunteer and paid staff
Satisfied sponsors Low level of professional training
Paid staff who are very involved in the success Lack of room for expansion
of the organisation Blame culture prevalent amongst staff
Good relationship with government Lack of teamwork
Good premises Hidden agendas of some directors
Good promotional strategy
Current lack of major competitors
Excellent transport links
Opportunities Threats
Government capital investment programme Changes in government

Increasing awareness of the benefits of Decrease in school physical education
exercise Doping in sport
Lifestyle changes for improving health Increasing culture of litigation
Use of management techniques to improve Increasing competition
management
Branded image of service
Lottery funding
Figure 2.3 SWOT matrix for an NF.

Strengths are the things the organisation does well or the resources it controls.
Strengths must be maintained and developed through good strategic management.
Weaknesses are the things the organisation does poorly or the resources it lacks.
Weaknesses can and should be corrected through better management. You need to
analyse the strengths and weaknesses of your organisation in terms of its organisa-
tional, human, technological and financial resources.
Opportunities are positive factors that are outside the organisation’s control but
that the organisation can use to its advantage. Finally, threats are negative factors
outside the control of the organisation. They must still be rebuffed or blocked through
good strategic management. Opportunities and threats can be identified by analysis
of the external environment, as discussed in chapter 1.
This technique is easy to use and can be applied to all OSOs, no matter what
their function or size. A SWOT analysis is most effective when it is developed via
discussions with a variety of stakeholders. This will help ensure that all vested
interests are considered in its development and will widen the range of issues that
can be entered in the matrix.
This type of matrix can serve as a framework for capturing ideas whilst they are
being debated. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish internal factors from external
ones, or even strengths from weaknesses or threats from opportunities. When in
doubt, the factors you are unsure of can always be temporarily placed in any of the
matrix borders.
© GETTY / MUNDAY Steve
Just as coaches and athletes assess strengths and weaknesses during a competition, conducting a
SWOT analysis provides an assessment of your organisation.
Once you have refined the SWOT matrix through discussion and brainstorming,
you can use the matrix to present the strategic diagnosis. With this diagnosis and
the activities led by the organisation, you can determine the future key challenges
to development.
Key Recommendations
c Identify all individuals, groups and organisations that have an impact on
your organisation.
c Determine the priority each stakeholder has for your organisation.
c Together with the Board, carry out a thorough internal and external diagno-
sis by asking yourselves the questions presented in this chapter and in chap-
ter 1.
c Use the SWOT framework to organise the information you obtain from dis-
cussions with stakeholders in order to inform your strategy.
The following illustration presents the process of diagnosis carried out by the
Cyprus National Olympic Committee.
Illustration 2.2
Environmental Diagnosis for the
Cyprus National Olympic Committee
In 1996 the decision was made for the Cyprus National Olympic Committee (Cyprus
NOC) to embark on an ambitious development plan with the aim of upgrading
the organisation’s role and services. Once the decision was taken, the Cyprus NOC
decided that this should be a well-coordinated effort involving all partners. It is worth
noting that when OSOs decide to develop a strategic plan, it is crucial to invite all
stakeholders or partners to take part in the process. Otherwise there is the danger of
resistance to change, which will become obvious during the implementation stage,
when stakeholders are unwilling to cooperate in the implementation of different
projects. Thus, a customer-oriented approach was implemented by the Cyprus NOC
whereby all stakeholders were given the opportunity to be involved in the strategic
development process.
The first step was strategic analysis. An internal and external analysis was required
whereby the strengths and weaknesses of the Cyprus NOC and the opportunities
and threats in the environment were identified. This exercise involved a two-step
procedure. Initially, individual consultations were conducted with all stakeholders in
both the microenvironment and the macroenvironment. In this first step, stakeholders
were asked to submit their proposals for discussion in individual consultations,
whereby the issue under consideration was upgrading the services offered by the
Cyprus NOC to the stakeholders. This was a lengthy and demanding process that
lasted almost 6 months but was crucial to the development of a strategic plan that
was accepted by all partners. Upon completion of the first step, stakeholders were
invited to participate in workshops. A major part of these workshops was devoted
to brainstorming, leading to the development of the SWOT, as outlined in figure
2.4.
(continued)
Internal analysis
1. A charismatic and influential President 1. Weak support provided to customers

supported by a team of competent (NFs mainly)
officials and officers 2. Facilities and offices both for the NOC
2. A small but vibrant organisation, and NFs are not adequate, thus creating
transparent and credible many problems in the day-to-day
3. Good utilisation of available resources operations and functioning of the
sport system
4. Special expertise and knowledge on
sport management, which offers a 3. Limited use or exploitation of the
competitive advantage marketability of the five rings
4. Minor use of the valuable resource of
volunteers
External analysis
1. Utilise wisely the excellent relations 1. The fact that some authorities or people
with the government in key positions do not like that the NOC
2. Capitalise on the excellent opportunities is upgrading its role in the Cypriot sport
available in the business environment system
for sponsorship/partnership agreements 2. Resistance to change by people who
3. Capitalise on the opportunities available enjoy living in the comfort zone
because of the Olympic Games in 3. The fact that many new emerging oppor-
Athens in 2004 tunities are available for partnerships and
4. Capitalise on the opportunities available people without expertise or knowledge
for developing bilateral agreements for have been rushing to capitalise on
sport development the opportunities, acting in very unprofes-
sional ways to the detriment of sport
4. The lack of a sporting culture
Figure 2.4 Summary of the SWOT analysis of the Cyprus NOC.

The SWOT matrix allowed the Cyprus NOC to organise the findings of the audits
and communicate areas that needed to be addressed by the strategic plan. From
this information, the Cyprus NOC identified key areas that constituted the backbone
of the strategic development process.
—— G ——
This diagnostic step will allow you to identify your OSO’s organisational abilities,
which should be linked to the requirements of your strategic objectives. Once you
have completed this step, you will need to redefine the organisation’s vision and
mission and establish clear strategic objectives for your organisation.
Section 2.3
Vision, Values, Mission
and Strategic Objectives
Internal and external analysis makes it possible to determine the potential strategic
actions that target one or several SWOT factors. Actions that address several factors
are the most important. It is necessary to structure these actions by defining the
vision, values, mission and strategic objectives that the organisation wishes to adopt.
This section considers the role of these in the development of strategic objectives.
It then goes on to discuss how the objectives are used to guide the development of
plans. The section concludes with a discussion of the vision, values and mission of
the Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee.
Banners displayed at the XX Olympic Winter Games, Torino 2006, clearly communicated the
values of the Games.
Vision and Values

The vision and values of an OSO will help its members and partners to share the
organisation’s dream for the future. Vision corresponds to what the organisation
wants to be in the long term, whilst values are the underpinning beliefs that the
organisation promotes.
For example, the United States Olympic Committee’s (USOC) vision statement,
adopted in June 1996, was as follows:
The United States Olympic Committee is dedicated to preparing America’s

athletes to represent the United States in the ongoing pursuit and achieve-
ment of excellence in the Olympic Games and in life. Our Olympians
inspire Americans, particularly our youth, to embrace Olympic ideals and
to pursue excellence in sport and in their lives.
To establish an OSO’s vision, you must be very clear about the values you want
to protect and promote. Values, such as those that underpin the Olympic Movement,
are immaterial things but are the essence of the vision of an OSO. Values work as
principles and a framework that will inspire the formalisation of objectives and the
implementation of the strategy. They represent a collective belief that inspires indi-
vidual behaviour. Values are often a reflection of society’s underpinning concerns
such as equality, importance of leisure time, new ways to do politics with more
transparency and necessary accountability. Figure 2.5 presents the values of the
Swiss Swimming Federation (SSF).
As suggested by the NZOC’s Peak Performance Framework, outlined in illustration

2.1, the vision and values provide a framework for the rest of the strategic planning
process. This is why it is important to be sure of the values that your organisation
wants to promote. For example, the values of the SSF were highlighted and formalised
to give the federation anchor points for implementing strategic activities.
Mission
Mission corresponds to the reason the organisation exists, and the development of a
mission statement should follow a discussion on shared vision and values. The mis-
sion determines the personality of your organisation and therefore must be in line
with the organisation’s values. In order to develop a good mission for the organisa-
tion, you must answer four questions:
• Why does the organisation exist?

• What are the goals the organisation strives to achieve?
• For whom does the organisation aim to function?
• How does the organisation fulfil its function?
If you already have a mission, from time to time it is useful to verify the current
state of the mission by asking these questions:
Equity Sporting spirit Self-discovery and

self-affirmation
Access to Love of physical and
participation for all mental challenges, Assuming
precision, responsibility,
perseverance developing autonomy
VALUES of the Swiss Swimming Federation
Protecting the Solidarity and Educational virtues

individual respect for others
Self-control and control
Health, safety, physical Nondiscrimination, of others, fair play,
and psychological universality respect for the rules
well-being
Figure 2.5 Values of the Swiss

E3592 Swimming
Olympic Federation.
Solidarity Figure 2.5, 275416 DeniseL R3-alw
• Is your mission still appropriate in current circumstances?

• Does the organisation exert the desired influence within its domain of activ-
ity?
• Should this mission be modified?
If your mission no longer accurately reflects the current reality of your organisation,
it must be amended.
Many OSOs centre their mission on the idea of sport performance, medal winning
and organising competitive events. However, you should also integrate a humanistic,
social and environmental orientation into the mission in order to reflect the values
of the Olympic Movement. This can give social meaning to an OSO’s mission and
allow it to connect with different areas of society in order to reinforce and validate
that mission to its stakeholders. For example, an OSO’s mission could include the
following:
• Diffusing the organisation’s values through volunteer work

• Participating in educating young people
• Developing training for responsible volunteers who share the OSO’s vision
• Contributing to environmental protection and land-use planning
• Fighting inactivity through sport practices
• Reinforcing the home country’s image in the world
The SSF revised its mission to give new meaning to its activity, especially through
integration of leisure activities that had been previously overlooked. Its mission is
presented in figure 2.6.
Two missions in particular are new and reflect social concerns: “Develop new
forms of access to participation” and “Promote access to swimming to as many people
as possible.” Others, such as “Participate in social support and in training athletes,”
were included to give the SSF a broader and longer lasting influence.
Promote and Develop new forms Promote access

develop participation of access to swimming to as many
in sport to participation people as possible
Represent the MISSION of the Ensure the

International Swiss Swimming protection of
Federation Federation values
Organize national
Represent competitions and issue Participate in
Switzerland at the champion titles social support and
international level for Switzerland in training athletes
Figure 2.6 The mission of the Swiss Swimming Federation.

The closer you come to the top of the Olympic sport system, especially at the IF
and IOC level, the more the social and educational values become central to the
stated missions of the organisation. This type of social and educational contribution
is not only explicitly stated in the mission of the Olympic Movement, it is its driving
force. However, in order for the vision and values of the OSO to guide its activities,
both need to be expressed in organisational objectives.
Strategic Objectives
Strategic objectives are an OSO’s articulated aims to address major changes, com-
petitiveness, social issues and business advantages. Strategic objectives are focused
both externally and internally and relate to significant stakeholders, markets,
services, or technological opportunities and challenges. Broadly stated, they are
what an organisation must achieve to remain or become competitive and ensure
the organisation’s long-term sustainability. Strategic objectives set an organisation’s
long-term directions and guide resource allocations and redistributions.
The strategic objectives of an organisation help categorise the mission and outline
the organisation’s values in more detail. Your choice of strategic objectives is often
important politically. The objectives are usually determined through negotiation
amongst key decision makers. This period of reflection and dialogue is essential to
strategic planning because it provides the basis for the subsequent development of
plans.
An OSO may have multiple and often contradictory objectives. For example,
providing educational support for athletes whilst also encouraging them to reach
peak possible performance can lead to certain contradictions in that an important
competition may occur at the same time that examinations are scheduled. In this
instance, a decision will have to be taken on whether the objective of providing life
skills to the athlete through education is more or less important that the objective of
improving elite performance. OSOs can make a profit by selling merchandise and
charging competition entries, but they should use this profit to further the activi-
ties they organise for their members instead of sharing it amongst their owners
or shareholders. OSOs must also take into account the fact that their standards of
efficiency (achieving goals with the most efficient use of resources), effectiveness
(establishing and monitoring effectiveness using measurable and attainable targets),
performance and allocated resources are not, and cannot be, exactly the same as in
the commercial sector.
In addition, the long-term goal of OSOs is an ideal with a political dimension.

Usually there is no market for judging the success or failure of a strategy. Your
organisation will depend on many volunteers, will be governed by elected officials
and will need to be open to the scrutiny of public opinion. The motivations of
elected officials who decide on the strategy to be followed may be different from
those of salaried managers who are responsible for carrying out the strategy. It is
therefore necessary to reconcile the multiple and sometimes contradictory external
and internal objectives of the different stakeholders involved.
To help with this, you and the Board need to carry out the following four tasks
and then use the matrix outlined in table 2.4 to define strategic objectives:
• Identify your strategic objectives.

• Analyse the impact that the objectives will have on your organisation.
• Evaluate the feasibility of each objective.
• Evaluate the risks your organisation could face as a result of each objective.
Once you have gauged the impact, feasibility and risk of each objective, you must
weigh all of these factors and decide whether to pursue the objective. It is important
to only choose objectives that help your OSO achieve its vision and mission, which
also means that changes to the vision and mission require changes to the objectives.
In addition, bear in mind that organisations work best with continuity, so at least
some objectives should maintain continuity with the past.
Table 2.4 Matrix for Determining Strategic Objectives of an NOC

Decision
Strategic Strategic
orientations objectives Impact Feasibility Risks Yes No
Provide Increase printed High High Conflict with Yes
promotion for media promo- non-Olympic
Olympic NFs tion of the sports sport federa-
of the Olympic tions
Games.
Increase visibility High Low Cost and fea- No
and promotion sibility
of sport by creat-
ing specific sport
TV programmes.
Key Recommendations
c State your OSO’s underlying principles as a clear vision.
c Underpin this vision with value statements and use these to create a mission.
c Use the mission to develop objectives for the organisation.
c Evaluate vision, values and mission on a regular basis to ensure that they
reflect what is important to the organisation.
The following illustration shows how the objectives of an OSO relate to its stated
vision, mission and values. The Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee is a relatively
small NOC; however, it has embraced the principles of good strategic planning.
Illustration 2.3
Vision, Values, Mission and Strategic Objectives
of the Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee:
Strategic Plan, 2006-09
The following information shows how the Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee
(PNGOC) has defined its vision, mission, values and strategic objectives. (The acronym
PNGSFOC, which is used in some of the documents, refers to the new name of
the NOC, Papua New Guinea Sports Federation and Olympic Committee, pending
approval.)
Vision Statement
To build a framework of Sports Development that will bring regular and frequent
success for our athletes at the South Pacific Games, Commonwealth Games and
Olympic Games.
“Building for success in Sports”
Values
In carrying out its mission, PNGSFOC will act according to the following overriding
values:
• Acknowledgement of the need and responsibility to develop Papua New

Guinean athletes to pursue excellence in sport internationally
• Recognition of the importance of effective coaching, administration, sports
medicine and officiating in sport
• Recognition of the need to cooperate with all agencies contributing to sports
development in PNG and direct resources in a more objective manner
• Conducting our affairs in a businesslike approach
• Obligation to communicate effectively to all our Stakeholders, including our
members, sponsors and the National Government
• Recognition of the principles of “Olympism” and the spirit of the Olympic
Charter at all levels of sport
• Ensure that all people in PNG can participate in sport without any form of
discrimination on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise and
in a safe, secure environment
• Participate in sport fairly and without the use of substances and procedures
prohibited by the IOC or IFs
• Encourage development of sport and support the promotion of Physical
Education, Health and Recreation in Papua New Guinea, in particular amongst
persons with disability, women and veterans
Many of these values are reflected in the following mission statement.
(continued)
Mission Statement
To provide the required resources for elite athletes and officials to participate in
organized sporting competitions at national and international levels, including
South Pacific Games, Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games.
Key Result Areas With Strategic Objectives

The mission requires a number of key result areas that address the situation in sport
in Papua New Guinea and the mandate of the PNGSFOC. These areas are associated
with key objectives, including the following:
• Management: To improve and sustain an efficient management structure for

the PNGSFOC
• Financial Management: Increase the amount of financial support to our
membership
• Elite Competition: To improve the performance of PNG athletes and officials
at elite level competition
• Sport Development: To assist members in developing more opportunities for
all athletes and officials to be competitive at the elite level
• Sponsorship, Fundraising and Marketing: Improve the profile of the PNGSFOC
to attract more revenue from sponsorship and fundraising
—— G ——
The example of the PNGOC illustrates how a mission guides the subsequent
planning activities. One can observe that the mission statement is focused on
sport results in international competitions, which permits the OSO to present clear
objectives for key results. It is interesting to note the emphasis on all athletes and
officials, which shows the PNGOC’s commitment to working with athletes regardless
of ability, gender or otherwise. This reflects the Sport for All and other social values
the PNGOC promotes. This will help to ensure that they receive the importance that
is attached to them in the value statements.
Portions of this illustration are reprinted with permission from PNGOC (2006) Strategic Plan 2006-2009.
Section 2.4
Action Plans
In order to achieve the objectives of the organisation, it is necessary to develop plans
that allow this to happen. These plans may be simple or complex depending on the
objectives that you wish to achieve and the resources that you have. The size of the
plan is irrelevant; what is important is that it covers all of the OSO’s objectives. This
section discusses the development of action plans and begins by identifying why
a plan should be developed and what it should contain. It then goes on to outline
how plans might be developed and put into action. It finishes with a presentation
of the plans that the Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association
has developed to meet its strategic objectives.
Content of Action Plans

After defining the strategic objectives, you and your Board need to develop an
operational action plan for the organisation. An action plan is a way to make sure
your organisation’s vision, values and mission are made concrete. It describes the
way your OSO will use its resources to meet its objectives. The plan should be
complete, clear and current. Additionally, the plan should include information and
ideas you have already gathered whilst brainstorming about objectives and strate-
gies. The plan addresses general goals you want to see accomplished, and then the
action steps help you determine the specific actions you will take to help make your
vision and mission a reality.
Each action plan should include the following information:
• What actions or changes will occur

• How the actions or changes will be carried out
• Who will carry out these changes
• By when they will take place, and for how long
• What resources (including money and staff) are needed to carry out these
changes
• Communication (who should know what)
In order to determine this information, you have to choose actions and operations
that are feasible. Table 2.5 shows how you could set out the required information
if you were planning for an NF.
Each proposed activity must be in line with the OSO’s strategic objectives. A clear
identification of responsibilities and allocated resources is particularly important
for the success of the strategic plan because it ensures that objectives can be met.
A crucial point is to keep to deadlines so that plans are achieved within required
time frames. Furthermore, because OSOs often achieve objectives by working in
partnership with organisations (see the following section on working in partnership),
it is important to meet deadlines. If you don’t, you may be holding up the work of
another OSO. Carrying out an action plan can be difficult if your OSO has few or
no paid staff and relies primarily on volunteers, but there are two things that can
help in this situation. First, everyone involved should try to follow the principles
of good time management that will be discussed in the next chapter. Second, by
keeping the objectives simple and in line with existing resources, planning will be
more straightforward.
Table 2.5 Planning for Action

Action Tasks Responsibility Resources
(what) (how) (who) Deadline (when) (with what)
Promote Help introduce new Regional sport As soon as pos- Human, logistical and
Sport for leisure activities into governing sible, in line with financial resources
All clubs and new ser- body (person club capacity to Support from the
vices (hosting, youth in charge of implement new regional sport gov-
education, events) development) activities erning body
Developing Action Plans

The process of developing an action plan requires three steps. First, it is necessary
to develop an overall, top-level action plan that depicts how each strategic goal will
be reached. This must contain the information outlined in the previous section and
will provide direction for the OSO as a whole. Next, you need to develop an action
plan for each major function in the organisation, such as marketing development (see
chapter 5), finance, and human resources (see chapter 3), and for each programme
and service. These plans should depict how the overall action plan and the action
plans of the major functions will be implemented. In each action plan, you should
specify the relationship of the action plan to the organisation’s overall action plan.
Finally, each manager should develop an action plan that contributes to the overall
strategic plan.
There is sometimes a danger, particularly in volunteer-run OSOs, that action

plans may be developed that cannot be resourced. For example, an NF may decide
to promote its sport by running a number of events; however, the clubs responsible
for the implementation of these events may not have the required resources. This
is why umbrella organisations such as NFs should involve local stakeholders in
developing the action plan. This allows local organisations to define their level of
involvement and time schedule before any plans are confirmed. The strategic plan
of the NF will then take into account the local constraints.
Just as sport teams conceive of action plans during competition, so OSOs might develop action
plans that help them achieve their overall goals.
Working in Partnership
Implementing action plans to achieve objectives is often something that an OSO
cannot achieve on its own. This is why OSOs may need to work in partnership
with other OSOs or with public and private partners. Alliance and partnership
strategies can help you implement an action plan in a more effective and efficient
manner, which might heighten the impact of your objectives within your limited
resources.
Alliance strategies exist in different forms and on different levels, as shown in

table 2.6. It is possible to differentiate between two types of strategic alliances:
internal and external. Internal alliances are alliances with organisations in the OSO
network. For example, if your OSO is an NF, you could create internal alliances
with your regional leagues and clubs. External alliances are alliances with agencies,
such as other OSOs belonging to the same family of sport activities (for example,
outdoor sports); with OSOs that are at the service of other OSOs, such as an NOC;
with other nonprofit organisations like nongovernmental bodies in health care; or
with public partners and private partners, such as sponsors.
Partnerships and alliances are often very helpful in achieving your OSO’s objec-
tives and may be essential for small or volunteer-run OSOs. They allow you to make
the most of your assets in order to overcome the resources you lack.
Table 2.6 Examples of Possible Partnerships for an NF

Other not- Public and
Internal OSOs in the for-profit private
alliances same family Service OSOs organisations partners
The headquar- Develop shared Save money Work with Establish
ters of an NF leisure prac- and resources universities sponsorship
and its regional tices by sharing by sharing a to provide for team
and departmen- equipment and location, office sport science uniform.
tal structures training pro- equipment, support for
agree on objec- grammes. secretarial staff, athletes.
tives in order switchboard and
to establish the reception with
action plans. your NOC.
Key Recommendations
c In conjunction with the Board, develop a number of action plans, beginning
with the overall OSO plan and finishing with individual plans for those who
have to deliver services.
c Involve all parties who will have responsibility for actions in the develop-
ment process.
c Define work plans, procedures, responsibilities and resources for each plan.
c Establish alliances wherever possible to maximise resources.

The following illustration shows how the strategic priorities of the Swaziland
Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association have been expressed as actions
to be achieved.
Illustration 2.4
Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association
National Strategic Framework
The Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association (SOCGA) has a clear
vision for sport in Swaziland. Sport is recognised and valued by the government and
citizens as a tool for development and encompasses
• compulsory school sport,

• physical education, and
• community Sport for All.
This vision will be supported by qualified human resources and accessible

facilities.
From this vision a number of strategic priorities were identified, and table 2.7
outlines these and the general actions associated with them. The general actions will
allow the strategic objectives to be met; however, they are not detailed enough to
guide the day-to-day activities of those responsible for delivering the action plans. In
recognition of this, each key action required for the actions to become operational
has been specified. Table 2.8 shows how one key action has been expressed in order
to direct the activities of those who will deliver the associated actions.
This illustration shows how action plans can be developed at a number of levels.
The vision led to strategic objectives, which had strategic actions associated with
them. However, to make the plan operational, the strategic actions were further
developed in order to delineate how they would be implemented in practice and to
state clearly what has to be achieved, by whom, by when and with what resources.
There is also a link back to the strategic activities so it is clear how each operation
will allow the strategic objectives and thus the vision to be met. This process reflects
good practice in developing action plans.
Table 2.7 Strategic Priorities and Key Actions of the SOCGA

Plan for Sport
Strategic priorities Key actions
Promoting the Build the case for sport that will demonstrate the impor-
value of sport and tance and values of sport in human development for pre-
physical activity sentations to all stakeholders.
Design credible criteria for the recognition of achievers and

use them to promote the case for sport.
Increase public awareness through the media.

Strategic priorities Key actions

Sport for All Coordinate Sport for All programmes with various sport
bodies and form partnerships with regional and interna-
tional organisations for capacity building and promotion of
Sport for All.
Establish gender equity commission.
Establish suitable programmes and structures for people

with a disability.
Integrate disadvantaged groups to existing sport struc-

tures.
Establish links with school programmes inclusive of parents

and community.
Capacity building Create a sport education curriculum framework and accred-

itation system.
Conduct a feasibility study for an academy of high perfor-

mance.
Establish training of sport leaders and administrators in

corporate governance.
Infrastructure Survey the status of ownership and accessibility of existing

facilities.
Encourage creation of sporting clubs and fundraising initia-

tives at community level for improvement of already exist-
ing structures.
Develop a system for maximum collective utilisation of

available nongovernmental facilities by sport organisation.
Coordinated sport Enact legislation.

system
Coordinate meaningful partnership with stakeholders.
Implement effectively the strategic plan and existing

national sport policy.
Build outreach capacity of ministry of home affairs and

SNSC (Swaziland National Sports Council).
(continued)
Table 2.8 Operational Plan for the Goal to Provide Opportunities for
Sport for All in Communities and Schools
Activity Tasks Responsibility Timeline Resources
(what) (how) (who) (when) (with what)
Coordinate Hold a meeting between SNSC, SOCGA By end of Human
implemen- SNSC and SOCGA persons. October resources
tation of
Sport for Share programmes’ con- SNSC, SOCGA By Novem- Human
All pro- tent and redesign as nec- ber resources
grammes. essary.
Set implementation plan. SNSC, SOCGA Beginning Money for

of January equipment,
Implement the pro- travel
grammes.
Section 2.5
Control and Evaluation
Control and evaluation are central to the management of every organisation and is
a key responsibility of the Board of any OSO. Strategic evaluation is the final step
in the strategic management process and involves comparing objectives with the
actual results, which should be done by the Executive Board. As figure 2.7 shows,
the evaluation and control process is not closed but continuous, and it takes place
over regular control periods, scheduled as needed.
This section considers the role of evaluation in controlling and assessing the
strategic plan. It discusses how plans can be evaluated and how these evaluation
measures should be used. It also highlights why evaluation may be difficult in some
OSOs. The section concludes with a presentation of the evaluation criteria used by
the French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking.
How to Evaluate
In addition to the regular annual reports, accounting balance sheets, and profit and
loss statements presented to the General Assembly (see chapter 4), the Executive
Board must report the results of the OSO’s activities to its members, as well as to
its public and private partners. The role of the Executive Board in evaluation is
paramount, and Board members should be involved in systematic evaluation of the
strategic plan on a regular basis. This helps with the governance of the OSO (chapter
1) and makes the OSO accountable and transparent.
Comparison of
objectives vs. results
Internal and external Yes

Should the objectives
analysis of the current Develop new objectives.
be modified?
situation
No
Should the strategies Yes

Find a new strategy.
be revised?
No
Do the programmes, plans Yes

and budgets need to be Compose new programmes,
adjusted? plans and budgets.
No
Figure 2.7 Strategic control.
In order toE3592 Olympic

evaluate Solidarity Figure
performance, 2.7,to
it needs 275425 DeniseL and
be measured, R4-alw
all possible actions
should be evaluated in order to control the strategic process. This control is best
achieved through measurable indicators and benchmarks that have been set with
the objectives attached to the mission. The indicators will help assess the resources
used in relation to the desired goals. The performance indicators should give a bal-
anced picture of the organisation’s performance so that the Board can accurately
assess performance.
The strategic plan needs evaluation measures, known as performance indicators,

to serve as a global evaluation framework. Evaluation criteria need to be established
for each action in the plan in order to control and evaluate that action. These evalua-
tion indicators should correspond to the SPORTS acronym (specific, pertinent, objec-
tive, representative, transparent and simple), and they should be quantitatively and
qualitatively measurable. For example, if you want to measure the success of your
Sport for All programmes, you need an indicator such as “a 1% increase in partici-
pation amongst school-aged children by October” in order to evaluate whether the
plan has been successful. In addition, milestones, which are performance indicators
analysed at regular intervals to see what has already been achieved in the strategic
plan, should be established in order to revise strategies and adjust programmes and
budgets accordingly.
Using Performance Indicators

Several factors need to be considered when using performance indicators (PIs) in order
to ensure that they are valuable for evaluation. First, the data on which PIs are based
must be trustworthy, particularly if the data is being used for external comparison.
For example, if you are measuring financial performance, your financial records must
be accurate and meet standard accounting conventions. At a minimum you should
report financial performance in a consistent and standardised way. The data used
to form PIs must be collected from the same sources and in the same manner. This
is necessary to ensure that the performance that is being reported is accurate and
allows comparisons. For example, if you are reporting on the success of four events
encouraging children to join your sport, you need to decide whether the numbers
attending the event or the numbers joining clubs is the measure of success.
© IOC / TOBLER Hélène
We can measure the success of strategic plans by using performance indicators, much like we
time participants in sport events.
PIs also need to measure what they are considered to measure; otherwise they
may lead to mistakes in management decision making. For example, counting the
number of members is not always an accurate reflection of participants in the sport.
Membership numbers do not include nonmembers who play the sport and often
include people who are no longer active.
Perhaps of greatest importance, PIs should only be used as a guide for the manage-
ment of an OSO because they do not provide an explanation for performance. For
example, a PI will show that your athletes won three silver medals at the Olympic
Games, but it will not explain why they didn’t win gold. PIs will indicate areas
of strengths and weaknesses, but they will not say why these areas are strengths
and weaknesses. You and the Board need to provide an explanation for the perfor-
mance.
Performance indicators on their own are meaningless. Performance needs to be

evaluated in comparison with objectives. For example, an OSO may be successful in
obtaining sponsorship, but it may have done this instead of promoting participation
in sport. In this case, the OSO has been effective financially, but it has been inef-
fective from the point of providing Sport for All. Actual evaluation of performance
has to be done in the context of what your OSO is trying to achieve. In this case, if
the organisation wanted increased revenue, then its performance was effective.
Barriers to Evaluation
Some OSOs neglect evaluation and strategic control, and there are several reasons
for this. Evaluation and control take time, and as a result of having to balance a lot
of tasks, Board members may prefer to look to the future instead of evaluating the
present. Indeed, as a result of the work many volunteers have to complete, there may
simply not be time for thorough evaluation if it is not prioritised. There may also be
deficiencies in information systems, and Board members may not always have the
information needed to carry out the evaluation and control process. Finally, evalu-
ation, and in particular control of the OSO’s activities, are not very fulfilling tasks
and may also lead to difficulties for elected members as they may have to make
reductions in operations that they, or their electors, value.
However, a lack of strategic control deprives the organisation of lessons learned

from experience, and some type of evaluation using basic PIs should be attempted.
If you do not feel that you or anyone associated with your OSO has the skills to
develop appropriate PIs, it may be helpful to approach other OSOs for help or to
approach a local university for student help. The Internet is also a valuable source
of information on how to develop PIs.
In addition to assessing objectives and actions, the evaluation of an OSO can be

an opportunity to quantify the organisation’s contribution to society. Indeed, the
clear mission of OSOs is to have an impact on society by sharing educational values
related to sport, such as fighting against social exclusion and inactivity or improving
the image of a country through events, competitions, medals and champions. Areas
of evaluation could include the following:
• Financial value of voluntary contributions. This could be evaluated by trying

to inventory the number of volunteers and the number of hours dedicated to
developing sport.
• Creation of direct jobs within the OSO and indirect jobs in tourism, the hospi-
tality business or organising public events.
• Contributions to the environment and health. This could be assessed by the
number of actions that favour the protection of nature, or by highlighting sport’s
contributions to the health of individuals.
• Inclusion of former high-level athletes and young directors into the professional
and social aspects of the organisation.
It is clear that not all the effects of sport on society can be evaluated objectively.
It is also difficult to link effects to the actions of a single organisation. However,
it is possible to evaluate certain contributions through specific reviews, and OSOs
should attempt this in order to reinforce their Olympic values.
The strategic management process that follows the phases presented in this
chapter has several benefits. Strategic management gives elected members better
control and a clearer vision of the OSO. It facilitates the use of resources by setting
out clear plans for their use. It also replaces a culture of resources with a culture of
results and performance. This means that elected members, volunteers and salaried
managers must be responsible for the effectiveness of their actions.
However, strategic management practices in OSOs often clash with two problems
that can affect the implementation of the management process. The first is a lack
of clarity in the organisation’s goals. The second involves barriers that sometimes
arise due to the difficulty of getting a group of people with different statuses and
interests to work together. These barriers can also arise as a result of differences in
the level of development and professionalism within an OSO’s network. This is why
you must focus on creating conditions that will allow the effective implementation
of the strategic planning process. Two factors can help achieve these conditions.
First, the mechanisms of governance and strategic management must be clear so
that everyone involved understands who is responsible for what in the planning
process. Secondly, you and your Board must promote the strategic plan internally
and externally. This will allow you to outline what you want to achieve with the
resources you have.
Key Recommendations
c Use the Board to develop indicators that directly measure the achievement
of your objectives.
c Make sure that these indicators cover all key areas of activity.
c Ensure that you do not have too many indicators and that the indicators you
use are relevant.
c Use the indicators to explain performance, and communicate this explana-
tion to key stakeholders.
The following illustration shows how the Fédération Française de Canoë-Kayak

developed evaluation criteria in order to measure the success of its strategic
actions.
Illustration 2.5
Evaluation Criteria: Fédération Française de Canoë-Kayak
The development plan of the Fédération Française de Canoë-Kayak (French
Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking, FFCK) for the 1998-2002 period was adopted
on 14 March 1998 by the General Assembly. This national document was developed
with the input of all federation participants and provided an opportunity to reaffirm
the OSO’s values. The structure adopted for the plan was innovative. The category
called “Think it” corresponds to values and mission, and “Say it” corresponds
to objectives. “Do it” corresponds to action plans and evaluation measures. The
following material shows how the FFCK has linked performance indicators to actions
that lead to its strategic objectives.
Think It
Clubs are at the heart of the FFCK development project. The federation would like
to provide clubs with clear, concrete support to allow them to multiply and sustain
themselves on a quantitative level, and on a qualitative level, to allow them to
organise themselves and develop an appropriate practice that takes into account
all disciplines and motivations.
Say It
This part of the plan sets out the organisation’s objectives.
Qualitative Objectives
• Promote the formalisation of canoeing and kayaking structures.
• Encourage use.
• Reinforce the information and attitudes that promote safe sport practices.
• Advise clubs in maintaining sport facilities.
• Train directors and officers.
Quantitative Objectives
• Create new clubs.
• Welcome new clubs and help clubs having difficulties.
• Promote membership to all.
Do It
This part of the plan states what the organisation will do and how it will be evaluated.
It is presented in table 2.9.
(continued)
Table 2.9 Actions and Evaluation Criteria of the FFCK’s Development Plan
Actions Evaluation criteria
Publish and make the logbook known.
Accompany and better certify the for-

Total number of clubs formalised
malisation procedure.
Find additional sources of funding.
Centralise requests and propositions.
Provide administrative and legal advice.
Contribute to the dynamic nature of

Number of new jobs created
the professional field.
Number and type of canoeing or kaya-
Participate in safety campaigns.
king accidents (accident analysis)
Publish and distribute appropriate
documents.
Systematise the use of the federation
signalling procedures.
Publish and distribute documents that
support and advise clubs.
Encourage structural improvement Number of clubs submitting a chal-
(challenge club). lenge club file
Develop and implement training pro-
grammes adapted to new needs: jobs Number of noncoach training pro-
for young people, employers, decision grammes proposed
makers.
Develop training programmes dealing
with water access, river upkeep and Number of members trained
understanding of the environment.
Inventory potentially favourable sites. Number of sites inventoried
Identify future directors.
Number of new clubs created every

Help provide equipment.
year
Promote cooperation and sponsorship
between clubs.
Propose forms of membership adapted
Increase in number of members
for the clubs and members.
The FFCK has established qualitative measures for the actions that will lead to
an increase in new clubs and better service to existing clubs. Note how clear the
performance indicators (PIs) are and that there are a limited number. The information
that leads to the PIs is straightforward and easy to obtain. These PIs will present a
clear evaluation of performance that can then be explained by those responsible
for the plan.
It should be pointed out that this 4-year plan was developed over two Olympiads—
1998 to 2002—in order to avoid politicisation of the results and to ensure better
continuity of action. The strategic plan that followed the 1998-2002 plan was
established in the 2002-12 decade and was titled All for Action. It adopts a more
global development approach that aims at getting decentralised bodies, such as
regional leagues and departmental committees and clubs, more involved.
The key steps in achieving a strategic plan have been established and are presented
in table 2.10. It is part of good governance to communicate the strategic plan to your
public and private partners and the media to show the strategic intent of your OSO.
However, this communication should be managed with caution. If you are unable
to perform the expected objectives and actions due to factors outside your control,
your organisation may face censure.
Table 2.10 Steps of Strategic Planning

Step 2
Conduct Step 3
Step 1 an internal Determine Step 4 Step 5
Prepare the and external the strategic Develop the Schedule the
strategy. diagnosis. objectives. action plan. evaluation.
Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives
Explain the rea- Understand Develop strate- Identify the Develop perfor-
sons for engag- your internal gic objectives in actions to be mance indica-
ing in a strategic and external connection with implemented tors.
planning process. environment. your mission to realise each
and values. strategic objec- Decide how
Present the Define your tive. to report your
chosen method- strategic capac- actions to mem-
ology and the ity. bers and part-
data to gather. ners.
Define the
period of time
available, allot-
ted budget, and
roles and respon-
sibilities.
(continued)
Table 2.10 (continued)

Step 2
Conduct Step 3
Step 1 an internal Determine Step 4 Step 5
Prepare the and external the strategic Develop the Schedule the
strategy. diagnosis. objectives. action plan. evaluation.
Tools Tools Tools Tools Tools
Identify a Analyse key Formalise the Create an oper- Report on the
member of the stakeholders strategic objec- ational action strategic per-
Board who will who should be tives by restat- plan linked to formance indi-
be responsible kept satisfied. ing, and revis- the strategic cators.
for the process. ing if necessary, objectives.
Perform SWOT your mission Prepare a com-
Create a strategic analysis. and values. Define work munity report.
committee. plans and
procedures,
Define a budget. responsibilities,
and resources
Gain internal for implement-
political approval ing them.
of your method
(Executive Com-
mittee).
the planning process of the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee. The purpose of this
case study is to demonstrate how the material in this chapter is applicable to OSOs.
Although your organisation may not be the same type of OSO, the case study will
highlight how the concepts can be put into practice.
Case Study 2
Developing the Strategic Plan
of the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee
Until 2002, the work of the Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) was accomplished
exclusively through volunteer efforts. At that time an office was established and an
Operations Manager, Administrative Assistant and Office Orderly were hired. In July
2000, at the urging of several Directors who had participated in strategic planning
exercises and had seen the value that such planning could bring to an organisation,
the ZOC Board of Directors directed that a strategic plan be developed. However,
the process was not initiated until 2002, following the election of a new Secretary
General who championed the process.
c Preparing for the Strategic Process

In March 2002 the Secretary General sought the input of a consultant to develop
a planning process. Funding from Olympic Solidarity was sought to pay for the
involvement of the consultant, and ZOC funds were budgeted to cover the costs
associated with the workshop, such as facilities; participant transport, accommodation
and meals; and communication and documentation.
A Steering Committee composed of the Secretary General, Marketing Chair and

Operations Manager, all of whom were experienced in strategic planning, was
formed. Guided by the consultant, this committee undertook the following:
• Identify key stakeholders to be involved in the process.

• Develop a status report, environmental scan and stakeholder survey.
• Design and coordinate the logistics for a 2.5-day planning workshop in a
retreat setting.
The Steering Committee was somewhat ambitious in establishing the timeline

and did not realistically assess the impact of final planning for and participation in
the Commonwealth Games. Table 2.11 outlines the original and actual timelines for
the process. Although the amended timelines did enable all the steps in the process
to be completed and an excellent plan to be developed, the resulting workload for
the Steering Committee and consultant was unrealistic and should not be replicated
without allocating considerably more time between receipt of survey results and
the actual staging of the workshop.
Table 2.11 Planning Process in the ZOC

Planned Activity Achieved
Jan. Board approved June workshop April
March Olympic Solidarity funds approved March
Consultant hired
June 30 Draft status report, environmental scan and stake- Aug. 25
holder survey
July 30 Finalised Aug. 26
Aug. 9 Surveys circulated Aug. 27
Aug. 30 Surveys returned Sept. 12-26
Sept. 20 Workshop design and tools completed Sept. 25-28
Sept. 25 Group facilitators training Sept. 25
Board planning orientation dinner
June 27-29 Workshop Sept. 27-29
c Diagnosis of the OSO Environment

The diagnosis process followed the principles and techniques promoted in this
chapter.
Identifying Stakeholders
The Steering Committee identified the ZOC’s key stakeholders as the following:
• National Federations (also known as National Sport Organisations or National

Sport Associations in Zimbabwe)
• Athletes
(continued)
• Sport and Recreation Commission

• Government
• Special groups (e.g., people with disabilities, women)
• Educational institutions
• Sponsors
• Media
A 14-page stakeholder survey was circulated to more than 200 people in the
identified stakeholder groups. The purpose of the survey was threefold. Its first
purpose was to provide stakeholders with a common understanding of the current
status of the ZOC, the environment in which it worked and the fundamental elements
of strategic planning. The second purpose was to solicit the opinions and ideas of
respondents with respect to the current challenges and future direction of the ZOC.
The third and most important purpose was to build ownership for the strategic
planning process and the resulting strategic direction. The Steering Committee
realised that if the strategic planning process was to be successful, it must mobilise all
stakeholders and partners behind the shared vision that resulted from the planning
process and garner their cooperation and support in implementing the plans.
Survey recipients were asked to set aside 1.5 hours to review the status report
and environmental scan and complete the survey, which could be returned by
e-mail, fax or regular post. Many recipients indicated that they spent 3 hours or
more and wished that they had had more time to devote to it. The survey asked
recipients to complete a SWOT analysis and a vision for the ZOC for 2008, to identify
the values that should guide the ZOC and to identify the roles it should undertake
in the Zimbabwean sport system. Input was also sought on a number of strategic
challenges facing the ZOC. Input from the stakeholder survey formed the basis for
the planning workshop.
Conducting an Internal and External Analysis

A status report prepared by the Secretary General provided information on the
internal environment. It outlined the history of the ZOC, including international
representation and participation and results at Olympic, Commonwealth and All
Africa Games. It also provided an overview of the ZOC’s current governance structure,
programmes, partnerships, communication with stakeholders and finances.
The environmental scan drafted by the Marketing Chair addressed both the
macroenvironment and microenvironment. The macroenvironment explored
political, economic and social trends both globally and within Zimbabwe and the
implications of the trends for the ZOC. Social issues and trends with respect to
equality, health and the physical environment were explored. The microenvironment
explored sport trends related to national sport organisations; high performance;
the sport system; lack of resources, facilities and equipment; societal expectations;
schools and tertiary institutions; the IOC; and the Commonwealth Games Federation
(CGF).
SWOT feedback from surveys was refined during the workshop as part of an
icebreaker exercise during the opening session of the planning exercise. Identified
items were then prioritised as high (H), medium (M) or low (L) based on the amount
of human and financial resources the ZOC should expend on each (figure 2.8). The
financial area is identified with an asterisk because it was high in both the weakness
and opportunity areas.
Build on strengths Improve on weaknesses

Training programmes (coaches, (H) Poor preparation of teams for Games (H)
(M)
sport admin.) Lack of strategic and business plans (H)
Committed, dedicated leadership (H) Lack of funds (H*)
International representation (M) Poor comunication with NSOs and (M)
and influence stakeholders
Competent, full-time staff (L) ZOC being run by a small clique; (L)
Responsiveness to requests and (L) Board sidelined
queries over past year Emphasis on medals instead of (L)
Olympism
Technology underutilised (no (L)
database, website)
Ineffective work by and monitoring of (L)
Commissions
Underdeveloped corporate image (L)
Inconsistent decisions (L)
Capitalise on opportunities Eliminate or neutralise barriers and threats

Promote the values of sport in (H) Limited capacity of NSOs (resources, (H)
combating crime, HIV/AIDS, expertise); inability of NSOs to take
poverty and unemployment advantage of the opportunities
Increase knowledge, skill, (H) Economic and political situation; (H)
experience and number of coaches FOREX, international opinion
and administrators Government policy legislation (M)
Access to finance (H*) (equipment, visas)
Access international accredited (M) Decrease in health of the population (L)
programmes, scholarships, exchanges Brain/talent drain (athletes, coaches (L)
and internships and administrators)
Develop the abundance of athletic talent (L)
Figure 2.8 The SWOT analysis refined during the ZOC workshop.
E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 2.8, 275430 DeniseL R3-alw R4-dawns
(continued)
c Vision, Values, Mission and Strategic Objectives

In September 2002, 49 ZOC Directors, stakeholders and staff came together for a 2.5-
day planning session that will long be remembered as a milestone in the evolution
of the ZOC. The retreat setting reduced distractions and created an environment
that facilitated sharing, setting aside of differences, building consensus and focusing
on the workshop’s desired outcomes:
• Strategic framework for the ZOC

• Increased understanding of the ZOC and its stakeholders (both ways)
• Ownership of the ZOC strategic plan by members and stakeholders
The primary purpose of the planning workshop was to develop the vision, mission,
values and objectives (strategic priorities and goals) for the ZOC. Within the ZOC
these elements are referred to as the strategic framework. The ZOC’s strategic
framework also includes a unique element, a section on roles.
The roles element was included in the strategic framework to add clarity to the
scope of the ZOC’s responsibilities. The stakeholder survey revealed that the sport
community generally expected the ZOC “to be all things to all people” within
Zimbabwean sport. The ZOC had neither the desire nor the resources to extend its
mission beyond that of an NOC and Commonwealth Games Association (CGA). It was
hoped that by including a clear statement of roles within the strategic framework
that the role of the ZOC within the Zimbabwean sport system would be better
understood and expectations more effectively managed.
One of the approaches to building ownership for the ZOC plan was to involve
current and emerging leaders from the ZOC and its stakeholders as presenters and
facilitators during the workshop. The Director General of the Sport and Recreation
Commission and the consultant acted as lead facilitators. Five other participants were
selected to lead small-group discussion and to work with the Steering Committee
to shape the work of their groups into a draft strategic framework. Through their
involvement in a 4-hour facilitators’ workshop and their role in building the final
strategic framework, these individuals not only became strong advocates for the
workshop outcomes but also developed strategic planning skills that they were able
to take back to their own organisations.
The strategic framework was developed through a series of sessions, each designed
to explore one element of the framework. Every session began in plenary with a
small presentation on the specific element, such as “What is a vision?”, followed
by group work using a discussion tool that was developed using feedback from the
stakeholder survey. Following the group work, one person from each group came
together with other group representatives to consolidate and reach consensus on
that particular element. The consensus result was then presented in plenary for
final whole-group discussion and approval. This process helped develop trust and
consensus building amongst the participants, elements that were lacking going
into the workshop.
All participants represented their group at some point in the process, and the
majority of participants made a presentation to plenary. This approach helped build
ownership of the process and the confidence and presentation skills of individual
participants.
On the final day of the workshop, the complete strategic framework was presented
to the Minister of Sport. The Minister of Sport responded with enthusiasm for the
openness, inclusiveness and transparency of the process and the direction and
contents of the plan. He tied the strategic goals to his government’s priorities and
direction for sport in Zimbabwe. The involvement of the Minister of Sport provided
an excellent vehicle for prompt, direct communication with and endorsement by
government. It also generated good photo opportunities for the members of the
media who were present. Considerable additional media interest was evident in
the days following the workshop.
ZOC Strategic Framework

The ZOC strategic framework is presented here.
Vision
The Zimbabwe Olympic Committee facilitates the advancement of high-performance
sport persons to win Olympic medals in Beijing 2008.
Values
The Zimbabwe Olympic Committee believes in:
• Ethical conduct
• Transparency and accountability
• Respect for others
• Integrity
• Commitment
Mission
To promote and protect the Olympic and Commonwealth Games Movements in
Zimbabwe and to facilitate quality participation in the Games.
Roles
1. To promote and support Olympism and high-performance sport.
2. To ratify and enter the Games Team.
3. To implement Olympic Solidarity Programmes in partnership with National
Sport Associations and other stakeholders.
4. To promote fair play, anti-doping and equity in sport.
5. To appoint or nominate representatives to IOC and CGF related positions and
programmes.
(continued)
Strategic Priorities and Goals (Objectives)

— Games
1.1 To ratify the selection, facilitate the final preparation and lead a quality,
medal-winning team to the Games.
— Capacity Building
2.1 To help build the capacity of National Sport Associations in order to increase
the number and quality of high-performance athletes.
2.2 To be a key partner in the development of an integrated sport system for
Zimbabwe.
2.3 To develop and support Zimbabwean sport persons as international leaders
in Regional, Continental and International Federations.
2.4 To increase the knowledge, skills experience and number of coaches and
sport administrators.
2.5 To provide opportunities for women and athletes in leadership.
— Facilitating Athlete Development
3.1 To facilitate the access of high-performance athletes to training programmes,
international competitions, scholarships and financial resources.
3.2 To educate athletes with respect to Olympism, placing particular emphasis
on fair play and anti-doping.
3.3 To facilitate the advancement of female athletes in high-performance
sport.
3.4 To involve athletes in decision-making within the ZOC.
— Business Development
4.1 To market the ZOC to all stakeholders and partners.
4.2 To become an organisation that integrates strategic business planning,
monitoring and evaluation in all aspects of its business.
4.3 To develop policies, procedures, systems and structures to efficiently manage
the ZOC.
4.4 To optimise the use of technology.
4.5 To mobilise the financial and human resources necessary to implement the
strategic and business plans of the ZOC.
c Action Plan
The Steering Committee reconvened to develop a template and critical path for
development of the action plan that would be the engine behind the framework.
Strategies identify activities, tasks and approaches to be undertaken in order to
achieve the success measure; responsibility, meaning the person or committee
responsible for delivering on the success measure; timeline, or the date by which
the success measure was to be achieved; and finally, the resources required. The
latter was not as well developed as it could have been. Table 2.12 shows the action
plan that was developed for goal 1.1 of the ZOC, to ratify the selection, facilitate
the final preparation and lead a quality, medal-winning team to the Games.
Table 2.12 Action Plan for Goal 1.1
Success measures Strategies Responsibility Timeline Resources
Athlete performance Set team selection policy. Board 8/2003 Human
Qualification 2004, 2006,
2008 Set appropriate selection criteria. Board 8/2003 Human
Personal best times
National records
Enforce selection criteria. Technical Commission 4/2003 Human, financial and
Finalists/equivalent
material
Medals 2004, 2006, 2008
Consult with the IOC and IFs. Technical Commission 4/2003 Human
Team management
performance Establish performance targets. Technical Commission 5/2003 Human
Actual team performance Set GTM policy guidelines. Board 3/2003 Human
Athletes’ feedback Implement GTM policy guidelines. Board 4/2003 Human, financial and
material
General team management Set final team preparation guidelines. Technical Commission 3/2003 Human and financial
(GTM) feedback
Evaluate process and performance. Board 11/2003⇒ Human
Performance appraisal
Provide honest feedback on the pro- Board 11/2003⇒ Human
cess and performance.
(continued)
managing strategically
105
c Control and Evaluation

The ZOC Board’s monitoring, led by the Secretary General, focuses on progress
towards the success measures. If progress is not being made, action is taken.
Strong emphasis was placed on ensuring that the action plan helped keep the ZOC
focused on its objectives (strategic goals) by clearly identifying expected PIs (success
measures). For this reason, success measures are the first item in the action plan.
The ZOC experienced its best ever results in Athens, including bronze, silver and
gold medals in swimming; a semifinal in athletics; and a quarterfinal in tennis.
In January 2005, the ZOC recognised that the volume of work created by the
implementation of the strategic plan and positive spin-off from the success in Athens
required more support than volunteers, especially the Secretary General, could
provide. With finances stable and a bright future ahead, the ZOC hired its first CEO,
effective March 2005. It is worth noting that in November 2003, the Board, as part
of its ongoing monitoring and evaluation, had added the employment of a CEO as
a success measure under the business development strategic priority, goal 4.5: “To
mobilise the financial and human resources necessary to implement the strategic
and business plans of the ZOC”. The ZOC continues to monitor performance against
its success measures on a regular basis and take corrective action as required.
—— G ——
This case study shows that planning can be well organised, involve all stakeholders
and have adequate time allocated to it. It also shows that other work sometimes
interferes with the planning process, such as the Commonwealth Games, and that
the process needs someone to champion it, in this case the Secretary General. The
process that was followed in order to develop the ZOC’s strategic plan was thorough,
inclusive and well planned, and this process can be followed by all types of OSOs.
The ZOC sought funding to employ a consultant to help with the process. Although
there may have been some delays, the end result has provided the ZOC with vision
and direction. The OSO now benefits from planning in that it has objectives to
help determine priorities, decisions are based on the strategic framework and the
organisation is financially stable.
Chapter 3
Managing Human Resources
© IOC / SUGIMOTO Hiroki

Objectives
• Understand the role of human resources management in your organisa-
tion.
• Develop and implement rules and regulations for good management of your
human resources.
• Undertake the development and implementation of a human resources
strategy.
• Identify the key principles and actions for attracting, recruiting and motivat-
ing human resources.
• Implement a development policy through training.
• Develop the skills to effectively manage people.
107
I ndividual members of an Olympic Sport Organisation (OSO) are the main resource
of the organisation. Human resources are essential for the efficient operation of
the organisation and are necessary to obtain other resources such as money. Human
resources management (HRM) is therefore the means of optimising the activities
of the members, or human resources, of an OSO so that it can achieve its mission
and goals under optimal conditions. In short, it is a way of using individuals for the
benefit of the organisation. HRM is a component of general management, and as
such it needs to serve the mission and objectives of the OSO.
However, although there is a functional side to HRM in OSOs, which have a mis-
sion to promote sport as a means of individual education and development, HRM
must conform to the humanistic values that are the basis of sport itself. From this
standpoint, HRM is both a means and an end for OSOs. If you agree that sport
affords a philosophy of life, then this should be expressed in the activities that your
organisation carries out. HRM in OSOs consists of both facilitating the education
and development of individual and collective members and organising and engaging
them in activities consistent with the values of sport.
OSOs have a number of characteristics that make the management of human

resources challenging. Most OSOs are small, informal organisations, as shown by
the research carried out by the NOC Relations Department of the IOC in 2005 and
2006. Table 3.1 shows that the majority of NOCs that responded (105 out of 202)
have fewer than 20 staff members, and NFs, clubs and leagues are likely to have
even fewer. In addition, the human resources of most OSOs are volunteers, with few
if any paid personnel. This poses challenges for ensuring a committed, consistent
and motivated staff.
Whether the staff consists of volunteers or paid employees, HRM is about match-
ing the available human resources for organising necessary activities (competences)
with the time period within which these activities are required (availability). The
challenge is for your organisation to benefit from competent and available human
resources.
Table 3.1 NOCs Classified According to Staff Numbers

Continental More than
association 5 or fewer 6-20 21-50 50 Total
ANOCA 7 10 1 2 20
EOC 3 14 9 8 34
OCA 2 7 8 4 21
PASO 9 10 2 4 25
ONOC 3 1 1 0 5
Total 24 42 21 18 105
managing human resources 109
In most OSOs the human resources function does not necessarily correspond to
a position on the organisation chart. The position is often assumed by a president
or secretary general, who is responsible for the strategic side of HRM, such as over-
seeing recruitment, salary policy and career advancement, and by the person who
manages daily personnel concerns like payroll and leave management. Sometimes
this situation reduces the function to the most indispensable tasks, such as those
explicitly subject to national labour law.
Despite the unique nature of OSOs, certain management activities, such as HRM,
are common to all organisations. This chapter looks at the issues involved in managing
human resources effectively. It begins with a discussion of how to organise human
resources and then in the second section considers the need to design and implement
a human resources strategy. OSOs need to design a general human resources policy
that fits with future goals and yet is realistic in terms of the organisation’s present
circumstances. The third section reviews the processes needed to recruit new human
resources. OSOs also need to retain and motivate existing human resources, and
this too is discussed. The fourth section considers the factors involved in developing
human resources through training in order to allow people to adapt to changes in
the environment and acquire the skills needed to address these changes. The final
section of the chapter looks at the personal skills necessary to lead and manage an
OSO effectively. The issues dealt with in this chapter are then illustrated by a case
study of the Gambia National Olympic Committee. Finally, please note that unless
otherwise stated the terms “human resources” and “staff” refer to both volunteers
and paid staff.
Section 3.1
Organising Human Resources Management
Chapter 1 outlined how an organisation is characterised by the rules governing the
way the organisation operates. While no organisation can exist without these rules,
the rules vary in number and effect, known as the degree of formalisation in an
organisation. One of the challenges in HRM is to establish rules and the conditions
that allow these rules to operate in a way that will help rather than hinder the activi-
ties of those who work in the organisation.
The purpose of this section is to discuss the key areas for regulation and formali-
sation within an OSO. Five areas will be examined:
• Formalising the relationship between the organisation and its members

• Formalising individual positions and responsibilities
• Formalising hierarchical and operational relationships
• Formalising hours of work
• Formalising remuneration conditions
In addition, the role of rules in general will be discussed, because the content and
application of rules have a significant effect on the operations and equity within an
OSO. The section ends with a discussion of the operating procedures of the Barbados
Olympic Association.
Formalising Relationships
OSOs should put procedures in place to formalise the membership of its volunteer,
elected and salaried staff. For paid employees, this usually involves an employment
contract, which outlines the agreement made by the signing parties. The contract
usually covers
• the position of the person representing the organisation at the time the contract
is signed;
• the specific nature of the contract, called a “letter of commitment”, which
summarises the person’s status (position and level), the length of the contract
(specifying the effective date and the length of the trial period), and the start-
ing salary;
• the conditions for termination, which can be initiated by either party, and
the conditions allowing the employer to break the contract and dismiss the
employee; and
• notice periods in the event of a breach of contract.
The terms of the contract are confirmed by the signatures of the parties involved.
Procedures similar to those described for salaried employees should also be

established for volunteer positions. The document that is used to establish the
procedures, the assignment letter, also outlines the nature and length of the assign-
ment, the responsible authority within the organisation, and the resources that will
be allocated, such as personnel, premises, equipment, funds and allowances. For
elected volunteer members, some OSOs use documents that formally outline the
nature of the accepted appointment (contract terms), which are distributed when
the individual takes office. In addition, the procedures covering elected members
are usually contained in statutes and fall under the control of the ruling authorities,
such as the General Assembly or the Executive Committee.
Formalising Positions and Responsibilities

Positions and responsibilities are usually formalised in job descriptions, and
detailed job descriptions for each position within the organisation need to be
created. Table 3.2 presents the job description for the Director General of the
Fédération Française de la Randonnée Pédestre (FFRP, French National Hiking
Federation). You can see from this description that the responsibilities of the posi-
tion are organised into four major categories, which is a common way to structure
a job description. A general job description like this one will allow you to outline
basic responsibilities and can serve as a foundation for more detailed workload
analysis at a subsequent point.
Table 3.2 Job Description for the Director General of the FFRP
Categories Responsibilities
General Has the President’s full and complete authority to sign on his behalf.
departmental
management Organises and coordinates the development and implementation of yearly action
plans, following the guidelines of the strategic plan.
Directs and coordinates the general management activities.
Divides up responsibilities amongst his colleagues and delegates them accordingly.

Personnel Responsible for managing and recruiting “personnel” and ensuring that the
management organisation chart is revised as needed.
Sets staff salaries and bonuses, with the input of the “Resource Committee”.
Maintains relations with personnel representatives.

Internal Acts as an advisory voice in the Executive Committee and in the Federation Office.
representa-
tion Is a member by right of the statutory commissions and committees, including the
“Finance Committee” and the “Resource Committee”.
Presents the annual management report to the federation authorities.

External At the request of the President, represents the federation in external organisa-
representa- tions.
tion
Guides policy and follow-up measures in the activities of private sponsors and
public partners.
At their request, participates in meetings organised by government ministers.

Adapted with permission of the French National Hiking Federation.
Formalising Hierarchical and Operational Relationships

Every position should be defined within the overall structure of the organisation,
and duties should be identified and divided amongst the organisation’s members.
Relationships within an OSO can be formalised in an organisation chart (chapter
1) and the internal operating handbook, or staff handbook.
This handbook outlines how the organisation operates as dictated by its statutes
and describes the internal regulations that guide the behaviour expected of employ-
ees in the professional life of the organisation. It also includes all duties and rights
of employees, as well as suggestions for the best way to adapt or apply these rights.
An example of an OSO’s staff handbook is provided in illustration 3.1.
Formalising Hours of Work

Modern forms of HRM are more concerned with tasks accomplished than the time
taken to accomplish them, especially in the case of skilled workers. However, in
many OSOs, it is still common practice to outline the hours of work for staff mem-
bers. Several elements should be covered:
• There should be agreement on what is to be included, excluded or partially

included in the schedule. Daily working hours are usually established, and
these can be more or less flexible depending on the needs of the employee or
the organisation.
• Maximum daily, weekly and sometimes annual numbers of hours are usually
established, along with the conditions under which the hours of work may be
changed.
• The conditions for working overtime or for receiving paid time off are
defined.
• Leave benefits, such as paid holidays, family leave or study leave, are also
established. Rules should be established for each type of leave, defining the
length of time off, requesting procedures and conditions for approval.
Of course, the rules established by an OSO exist within the larger framework of
the labour laws of the country in question. It is common that conditions for salaried
employees within the organisation are more favourable than those outlined in the
national labour laws.
While most OSOs formalise the work hours of their salaried workers, they do
not always do so for elected members or volunteers. However, for an organisation
to function efficiently, it is essential that an activity schedule listing dates of meet-
ings, assemblies and sport events be defined and communicated to all stakeholders,
including volunteers. This schedule is generally organised around the busiest periods,
such as the annual General Assembly and Executive Committee meetings or sport
events that dominate the organisation’s activities.
Formalising Remuneration Conditions

The management of human resources is sometimes described as finding a balance
between contribution and remuneration, and it is hard to imagine an organisation
being able to function for long if a general feeling of inequity prevails amongst its
members. When it comes to salaried employees, the points usually formalised to
constitute the organisation’s salary policy are as follows:
• A general remuneration scale for every position in the organisation

• The total amount paid for each position
• The form of the remuneration, such as salary, bonuses and benefits in-kind
• Definition of the rules covering changes to the remuneration, such as salary
increases based on seniority or individual performance
• The way in which human resources are paid, which may be based primarily on
legal statutes, time worked or the results of this work (which can be measured
quantitatively or qualitatively, using a short-term perspective, such as staging
an event, or a longer-term perspective, such as a quadrennial)
Whatever components make up the remuneration policy, they should be organised

in a payment plan, which may cover the aspects outlined in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Sample Payment Plan

Remuneration: salaried Base salary
employees Statutory bonuses
Performance-based bonuses
Benefits in kind: salaried Moving expenses
employees and volunteers Uniform allowance
Mobile telephone or laptop computer
Business vehicle
Business housing
Access to medical care
Educational grants
Family aid
Subscriptions or tickets for sport events
Decorations and medals
Allowances: volunteers Compensation allowance, accounting for a true loss of
earnings
Basic allowance
Long-term salary: salaried Retirement benefit, paid by the organisation
employees Life insurance, paid by the organisation
This table shows various factors that can affect remuneration and the way in
which they apply to different categories of staff within an OSO. It also shows that
many of these factors can be used in the remuneration of elected members and
volunteers, not just salaried employees. You need to develop a general remunera-
tion policy for all members, including volunteers, and you should be aware of the
importance of nonmonetary rewards for all staff, paid and unpaid. Section 3.3 dis-
cusses nonmonetary rewards in more detail, but it is worth noting that the benefits
in-kind outlined in table 3.3 are likely as important to paid staff and volunteers,
if not more important, as is monetary remuneration. These nonmonetary rewards
can help motivate staff and volunteers to perform at the highest level possible and
to stay with the organisation.
Role of Rules in HRM

Rules have two important roles to play in OSOs: They serve as a common reference
point for all individuals, and they prevent staff from falling prey to decisions based
on the quality of interpersonal relationships, which can be unpredictable. When
managing human resources within OSOs, clear rules thus have an undeniable effect
on operational efficiency and the equity with which individuals are treated. It would
therefore be of benefit for OSOs to formalise their procedures for HRM. However,
you should also ensure that these rules support the established values and mission
of the OSO, as well as its operating efficiency. Although sport organisations are often
knowledgeable about sport regulations, they do not always pay close attention to the
regulations that govern their internal operations. The conditions in which they operate
change, and old rules do not always apply to new situations. Similarly, regulations
are sometimes the result of different circumstances that bring something new to the
organisation, sometimes resulting in rules that are dense and incongruous.
Beyond the content of the rules and their eventual adaptation to an OSO’s situa-
tion, there are three difficulties that threaten every organisation concerning rules
and formalisation:
• Excessive rigidity in the application of rules, leading to a mechanical approach
to issues that does not take into account the nature of each situation
• Apathy towards the system of rules, which may have been inherited from a
former situation
• The arbitrary nature of rules that have been established without the participa-
tion of the employees and volunteers who are expected to follow them and who
may not always understand the reasoning behind them
In order to avoid these problems, encourage staff to use the HRM regulations in
a reasonable way. Respect for the spirit of the regulations should take priority over
strict adherence to their content. Motivating the salaried and volunteer staff in an
organisation can only be achieved by recognising their ability to adapt to specific
situations, by encouraging initiative and innovation, and by seeking their involve-
ment and participation in the life of the organisation.
Key Recommendations
c Encourage your Board to establish contracts for all paid personnel and vol-
unteers.
c Develop job descriptions for all positions in the organisation.
c Create a staff handbook to help staff and volunteers understand what is

required of them.
c Revise administrative rules regularly to ensure their continued relevance.
c Closely involve staff members or their representatives in drafting or revising

the rules in order to make the rules easier to follow.
The following illustration includes short abstracts from the Office Rules and Regu-
lations of the Barbados Olympic Association. It shows how it is possible to give staff
a clear view of what they can expect from the organisation and what the organisa-
tion expects from them. When reading this illustration, please be aware that there
may be rules and regulations that are not relevant for your OSO or that may not
be culturally acceptable in your country. This material is provided to give you an
example of what could be contained in a staff handbook.
Illustration 3.1
Office Rules and Regulations of the Barbados
Olympic Association Inc.
The Barbados Olympic Association Inc. (BOA) was established as the NOC of Barbados
in 1955 and was recognised by the IOC in the same year. However, it was not until
1968 that Barbados participated in an Olympic Games. Since then the Barbados flag
has flown at all Olympics with the exception of Moscow in 1980.
One useful tool in the formalisation of HRM in the OSO is the Office Rules and
Regulations manual. The BOA developed this manual in order to
• establish standardisation, consistency and protection in practices;

• assist in the training of office personnel;
• promote consistency in office performance; and
• aid in performance evaluations.
This manual is a current, practical administrative guide for the BOA (referred to
as “the Company” in the manual) and is administered by the Office Manager. It
describes specifically how business procedures and operations are conducted within
the OSO. The manual’s content and style are determined by the Administrative
Committee of the BOA, which is charged with addressing the needs of users of the
manual.
The BOA’s Office Rules and Regulations manual serves as an example of how OSOs can
formalise HRM.
Courtesy of the Barbados Olympic Association, Inc.
(continued)
Formalising Relationships
The manual covers the following in terms of formalising the relationship between the
BOA and its staff. Note how clearly the criteria for eligibility are laid out, as well as
the thorough process followed when appointing staff. Although there is no mention
of volunteers, the following procedures could easily be applied to unpaid staff.
Probation and Confirmation of Appointments

When interviewing candidates to fill a vacancy, the Company aims to use every
reasonable means available to select the best applicant to fill the position.
a. Applicants will be interviewed and may be tested in accordance with procedures

laid down from time to time by the Executive Council.
b. Applicants will be required to supply other pertinent information the
organisation may require.
c. If the applicant was not previously employed, written references must be
obtained from the Principal of the last school attended.
d. If the prospective employee has previously worked, National Insurance and
National Registration Identification Numbers are required.
e. Applicants should possess the following minimum educational qualifications:
four passes in GCE or CXC “O” level or equivalent, of which English Language
is compulsory, and other technical qualifications as may be required for a
particular position.
f. An employee joins the Company’s staff for a probationary period that is
usually three months. The employee may not be confirmed as a permanent
employee until this probation has been satisfactorily completed. The letter of
appointment will be forwarded by the President.
g. Accurate completion of the employment application form is absolutely
necessary, as this becomes an integral part of the employee’s permanent record.
Any change in this information should be reported to the Office Manager
and/or Secretary General.
h. If the applicant will be handling cash, an investigation may be carried out into
the individual’s employment history.
i. Employees may be required to take a Medical Examination before confirmation
of employment is approved, and annually thereafter if the Company so
requires. Such an examination is to be undertaken by a doctor specified by
the Company and at the Company’s expense.
Formalising Positions and Responsibilities

The manual contains copies of all relevant job descriptions, which outline the tasks
and responsibilities the positions entail.
Formalising Hours of Work

Expectations regarding work are clearly laid out in the manual.
Office Hours
The Company’s office is to be open from 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Monday to Friday
with at least one staff member on duty between these hours. All members of
staff must average 37.50 hours per week.
Overtime may be paid subject to prior approval and if special circumstances exist.
In lieu of overtime pay, compensatory time off may be offered by the Company
and each case will be considered on its own merit.
Holidays
Employees should realise that office routine should continue without interruptions
and the choice of vacation period is subject to the Office Manager’s and/or
the Secretary General’s approval. Employees are asked to submit requests for
holidays no later than January 31st of the year in which the holiday will be taken.
It is understood that this initial request may change but is necessary for the
Office Manager to ensure the office will be manned at crucial work times.
Holidays at Christmas and Easter should be taken on a rotational basis.
A minimum of fourteen (14) days holiday must be taken in a calendar year. Holidays
not taken during a calendar year may be carried forward and accrued to be
used within the current Olympiad: a four year cycle.
Absences
The Company endeavours to keep its staff balanced with the amount of work
to be done.
Everyone has a job to do and if an employee is away, it means another member
of staff has to take over some of the absent employee’s duties. We all know
it is necessary sometimes to be away. If an employee is ill, he/she should not
be at work. Whenever an employee will be away through illness, he/she
must notify the Secretary General before 8:00 a.m. on the day he/she will be
absent. Simply advising a co-employee or leaving a message on the voice mail
is unacceptable.
If an employee is absent for one or two days, an absence report must be submitted
immediately upon return to work. If an employee is absent for three or more
days, a Medical Certificate must be submitted by the third day of his/her
absence.
Formalising Remuneration Conditions

As can be seen by the following content, the BOA uses a number of financial
and in-kind benefits to motivate its staff. Perhaps most importantly, the manual
outlines exactly how the performance of employees will be evaluated. This will
clarify the situation for all involved and will minimise complaints of patronage and
favouritism.
(continued)
Merit Increases
At the time of employment, employees will be advised of the category into
which the particular post falls. Remuneration will be reviewed annually when
inflationary and merit increases may be applied. With the exception of the
inflationary increment, merit increases are based on the Office Manager
and/or the Secretary General’s report on the progress made in the year under
review.
Evaluation
Once an employee is confirmed, his/her performance will be evaluated by the
Office Manager and/or the Secretary General on a half-yearly basis. Some of
the ways the Office Manager and/or the Secretary General determines an
employee’s capabilities and values are on the basis of:
a. The quality of work being done.

b. The amount of work being done.
c. Punctuality and attendance record.
d. The way the employee reacts to new jobs and new instructions.
e. The interest displayed in the work being done and the work of those around
the employee.
f. The ability to assume a more responsible place in the Company.
g. The attitude towards co-workers.
Bonuses
These are usually one month’s salary and are paid during the month of December
at the discretion of the Executive Council. They are not an automatic right of
employees.
Insurance
When an employee’s appointment is confirmed, he/she may select to join and
contribute to the Company’s Group Life and Health and Accident Insurance
Plans. The Company pays a portion of the cost of these benefits.
Study Leave
It is understood that from time to time employees may register for courses
outside of the workplace in an effort to enhance their own professional
development.
Employees will be granted one week study leave per annum. Consideration will
be given to applications for an extension to this leave. This leave will take into
consideration study time and the taking of examinations.
General Rules and Regulations

The rules and regulations manual contains a number of other rules that are designed
to guide the behaviour expected of employees. A few of these rules are presented
next.
Alcohol and Drugs

Alcohol may not be consumed in the Company’s office, unless on a special
occasion. The use of illegal drugs is prohibited by law and the Company will
maintain a zero tolerance policy relating to the use of illegal substances.
Mail Procedures
Mail and deliveries are to be received by the Office Manager. In his/her absence
mail and deliveries should be received and opened by an assigned employee
and placed on the Office Manager’s desk.
All incoming mail must be stamped with the date on which it is received.
All incoming and outgoing mail must be recorded in the Mail Log, which is to
be maintained by the Office Manager and kept where it is easily accessible to
all employees.
The Secretary General must review copies of all incoming mail. Outgoing mail
should be vetted by the Secretary General before submission.
On perusal of the mail and acknowledgement of same by signing, the Secretary

General will collate and assign [appropriate responses] to an employee for
action.
No smoking
Smoking is not permitted in the Company’s office.
Opening and Closing of the Office

All employees will be issued with keys to the office. The first person arriving on
work days should check the office carefully before settling down to work.
He/she should also turn on the lights, turn on the door buzzer, turn on the
air-conditioner, close the doors to the washroom and kitchen, power up the
main system computer and check messages on the voice mail.
The last person leaving the office in the evening must ensure that all equipment,
lights (both office and storeroom) and air-conditioner are shut down, the coffee
maker/tea pot is unplugged, [and] the doors to the boardroom, kitchen and
washroom [are open]. All locks on the door must be locked and the padlock
should be fastened on the wrought iron gate.
(continued)
Secretariat Meetings
Staff meetings are a key element in keeping all employees abreast of current
work being done in the office. Meetings should be held monthly, but more
frequently if necessary.
Sexual Harassment and Violence

The Company will not tolerate any form of harassment or workplace violence on its
premises or at any Company sponsored event or activity, by or against any employee,
Executive Council Member, contracted service provider or visitor. Persons who think
they have been harassed or threatened, or who have knowledge of harassment or
threatening behaviour, are encouraged to contact the President.
It is the responsibility of all Executive Council Members and employees to

contribute to an environment free of harassment and violence.
—— G ——
As you can see, the objective of the BOA’s Office Rules and Regulations manual
is to present the rights and duties of the personnel, provide information on what
can be expected from the organisation, and give guidance on behaviours at work.
It defines the bases of good practices and could be used as a training tool. However,
it is important to remember that the content of such a staff handbook will vary in
relation with organisational and cultural differences.
Section 3.2
Developing a Human Resources Strategy
Working on the motivations and competences of human beings is a long-term pro-
cess, and in order for an OSO to manage its human resources effectively, it needs
to have an HRM strategy. This will provide a guide for the management of human
resources, thus ensuring that resources and activities assist in achieving the objec-
tives of the OSO. The process for creating an HRM strategy is similar to the strategic
planning process outlined in chapter 2; however, an HRM strategy is a functional
strategy in that it is developed in order to direct the work of the human resources
towards the strategic objectives. In the case of OSOs; organisations characterised
by educational, cultural, and social missions and objectives; a human resources
policy must not only ensure the efficient mobilisation of resources, but must do so
in accordance with Olympic values.
This section presents the procedures to be followed in developing an HRM strat-

egy and begins by discussing the process of analysing the human resources that
are available to the organisation. This is followed by a discussion of possible HRM
objectives, which are then related to action plans. The principles of implementation
and evaluation are considered, and the section ends with an illustration of the human
resources strategy that the Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français (French
National Olympic and Sports Committee) has for its paid employees.
Analysing Human Resources

The first step in developing an HRM strategy is to analyse the existing human
resources in the organisation. No action can be undertaken without having a clear
and broadly shared vision of the current resources. The analysis consists of identify-
ing the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses in terms of human resources, and it
must include any obstacles to the implementation of the organisation’s strategic plan,
including any obstacles that contradict the OSO’s values. For example, if the OSO
wants to stage a major event, does it have the human resources, paid or volunteer,
with the right skills to do so?
You could evaluate the overall situation, or you could address the main areas of
activity that comprise HRM, including the following:
• Circumstances and practices regarding working conditions

• Recruitment practices, such as a global head count by category, labour turnover
by category or recruiting procedures used
• Ongoing evaluation of staff skill levels
• Remuneration practices in terms of material compensation, such as salary
scales, individual and collective increases, and additional benefits
• Training practices in terms of the volume and type of training, the staff who
have access to training and the rules of access to training
• Internal communication practices, such as the existence of personnel informa-
tion, nature and frequency of communications, and circulation
• Decision-making practices, such as the relationship between decision-making
members and personnel, as well as conditions for developing this relation-
ship
Responsibility for such an analysis will depend on the size of your organisation
and the resources it has. It could be the work of a Board member, outside consultant
or ad hoc committee within the organisation. In all cases, the secretary general,
president or general manager, human resources director (if this position exists within
the organisation) and representatives from those who work with the organisation
should be involved in this analysis in order to validate its results.
Photo courtesy of Fong Wan Hor, Olympic Council of Malaysia.

Your organisation’s most valuable asset is its human resources. Here the staff of the New Zealand
Olympic Committee gathers for a celebration.
The analysis can be based on internal administrative documents, questionnaires,

and individual and group interviews. An in-depth analysis may be carried out every
4 years and updated every year through annual individual interviews. Performing
this analysis properly requires a financial and time investment. For example, if you
use an outside consultant, financing may be required for the consultant to work 1
or more weeks. In small organisations, as OSOs tend to be, undertaking a human
resources analysis is also an opportunity to update member records.
Defining Human Resources Objectives

Setting objectives for human resources involves identifying the actions needed in the
relevant areas of HRM, choosing priorities amongst these actions and then precisely
describing what the actions cover. When determining your objectives, you should
attempt to address the major weaknesses found in the analysis, particularly those
with a significant impact on operations. For example, if there is internal conflict
between management and elected members, you may wish to implement a com-
munication policy to help increase understanding.
Defining human resources objectives is a major responsibility of the person who is

in charge of HRM, and the objectives must have the approval of the Board. Because
achieving these objectives will require financial and human resources, the secretary
general and general manager should be closely involved. The following are possible
HRM objectives for an OSO:
• To ensure that monthly staff meetings have an agenda, in response to staff

criticisms of the inefficiency of meetings
• To recruit an information and communication technologies (ICT) officer in the
coming year, which is seen as a major need for the development of the organisa-
tion
• To carry out training in ICT over the next 4 years in order to implement a
computerised process into the administration of the OSO
• To build a framework for yearly performance-review interviews, in response
to criticisms regarding a lack of standardisation
• To set rules for career development on an 8-year agenda, in response to criti-
cisms over an absence of rules in that area
Developing the Action Plan

When the objectives have been defined, they must be translated into specific actions.
If, for example, you have defined the implementation of an internal communica-
tions policy as a priority objective, it may be necessary to recruit someone with the
required skills to define the objectives and practices of the policy. If the action plan
involves multiple operations, it should be broken down into several basic actions
that are developed and carried out by the various departments.
As outlined in chapter 2, an action plan involves an implementation schedule

and appropriate resources. For example, training senior managers in time man-
agement skills, carrying out a recruiting campaign for volunteers and developing
new salary scales within the organisation all require careful planning of actions in
order to achieve the end objective. The action plan cannot be put into effect without
the approval of the Board since it will affect the global policy and strategy of the
organisation.
Executing and Evaluating the Strategy

Once the HRM action plans have been developed, agreed on and appropriately
resourced, they need to be implemented into the OSO. This may require the manage-
ment of change, as outlined in chapter 1. Execution of the plan should be recorded
in order to show what has been carried out. For example, if an OSO implements a
new internal communications policy, the person in charge should keep track of the
process, the practical initiatives to be taken, the reactions that have been observed
and any amendments to the initial plan.
Once the plan is in place, it then needs to be evaluated. This could be done by
asking stakeholders whether communication has improved, getting feedback on
the use of the new intranet and e-mails containing minutes of Board meetings.
The evaluation of HRM objectives should follow the principles outlined in chapter
2. You should set performance indicators against the objectives when establishing
what you want to achieve, and these should be a mix of qualitative and quantita-
tive measures where possible. For example, consider two of the HRM objectives
previously set out:
• To ensure that monthly staff meetings have an agenda, in response to staff criticisms
of the inefficiency of meetings: This objective could be evaluated by keeping
records of agendas to show they were produced and asking staff if they have
helped to reduce the inefficiencies of meetings.
• To carry out training in ICT over the next 4 years in order to implement a computer-
ised process into the administration of the OSO: This objective could be evaluated
by keeping records of the people who are training and asking them to evaluate
how useful the training was. In addition, you could monitor their work to see
what gaps exist in the training programme.
OSOs undertake too many initiatives without seriously evaluating their effects.
Even if it is sometimes difficult to develop simple and reliable indicators for evaluat-
ing human resources, without such indicators it is impossible to evaluate the success
of the HRM strategy and its contribution to the overall direction of the OSO.
Key Recommendations
c Carry out an analysis of your OSO in terms of its head count, skill level and
labour turnover.
c In consultation with your Board, develop objectives for your HRM strategy
that link into the overall organisational strategy.
c Put actions in place to meet these objectives.
c Evaluate the impact of your HRM strategy on achieving the OSO’s objectives.
The following illustration presents part of an HRM strategy that has been imple-
mented recently in the Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français (French
National Olympic and Sports Committee). It concerns only the paid staff of the NOC
(around 25 persons) and excludes civil servants from the Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Sports operating within the NOC, as well as elected volunteers.
Illustration 3.2
HRM Strategy of the Comité National Olympique
et Sportif Français
The Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français (CNOSF, French National
Olympic and Sports Committee) is the umbrella organisation for sport in France.
It is responsible for coordinating activities in the association’s sport movement
and representing the movement to the public authorities. The CNOSF appointed
a Human Resources Director to work under the direct supervision of the Director
General. This person was required to prepare an HRM strategy in collaboration with
senior management, define the conditions for applying this strategy, coordinate
the activities of Department Directors in applying the strategy and ensure good
relations with personnel representatives.
Analysing Human Resources

In order to develop the strategy, a human resources analysis was undertaken. This
was done in collaboration with heads of departments, took nearly a year to complete
and was based on the following:
• Individual personnel interviews

• Interviews with Department Directors and Office Managers
• Consultation with personnel representatives
• Auditing of several departments
• Regular meetings between management and employees
• A satisfaction survey with members of the CNOSF (federations and central
bodies of the CNOSF)
From this list, you can see that a thorough analysis was carried out with all
key stakeholders. This provided a good underpinning for subsequent strategy
development. Using the information gained from these activities, the human
resources (HR) staff performed an analysis of the situation, which served as the
basis for formulating objectives that relied on the OSO’s strengths and offset its
weaknesses. The strengths of the CNOSF were as follows:
• Adherence by employees to the CNOSF culture of Olympic values and related

operations
• Positive perception of the increasing formalisation of HRM, in particular job
descriptions, which were perceived as a safety measure by employees and
management
• Motivation of CNOSF employees
The weaknesses were as follows:
• Difficulty in articulating the organisation’s values and certain aspects of its

practices, such as gender equity and team spirit
• Underrepresentation of women (5 out of 45) and young people on the Board
of Directors, where the average age was approximately 58
• Resistance to changes in operating methods, such as computerisation
• Resistance to changes in employee management methods (it was difficult to
involve senior management other than the Chairman, General Secretary and
Treasurer)
• Lack of understanding of some actions undertaken, which was a result of absent
or weak communication about some key actions developed for the ongoing
Olympiad
Objectives and Actions of the HRM Strategy

Following are the three objectives that the CNOSF set and the action plans chosen
in terms of human resources.
(continued)
Objective 1: To promote efficient employee management and improve

communication
This objective required the following actions:
• Develop shared job descriptions to improve coordination amongst employees

and facilitate recruitment.
• Assign a person to coordinate the departments (see also the following
information on training actions in objective 2).
• Implement weekly coordination meetings, led by the General Manager, with
Department Directors or Office Managers in order to manage communication
between senior management and department heads.
• Establish a monthly meeting between management and the personnel
representatives in order to establish social dialogue.
Objective 2: To organise internal training on critical issues to improve internal

communication
• Organise internal training sessions on public speaking.

• Organise internal training sessions on team management for department
coordinators.
Objective 3: To increase the number of women and young people in the

organisation
• Action at the federation level to nominate more women.

• Maintenance of the current balance in full-time staff at the recruitment
stage.
• Recommendations to the federations to hire more people younger than 45.
• Recruitment in favour of introducing more young people in the organisation
and the establishment of a recruitment plan.
Implementation of the Strategy

The actions outlined here have been implemented into the organisation, and their
current status is now presented.
Internal Communication
Internal communication was identified as an area of weakness for the organisation,
which led to the development of objective 1. The communication strategy is simple.
First, each Department Director is invited to attend the CNOSF Board of Directors
meeting to become up-to-date with the strategic options defined by senior
management. The Directors’ responsibility is to relay the contents of this policy to
the employees in their department.
A weekly meeting is also organised by the Chair’s Cabinet Director and includes
a representative of each CNOSF department. This meeting is an occasion to debate
implementation of the strategy decided on by the directors, as well for each
department to report on its current activities. It is also an occasion for general
management and the Executive Committee to report on the strategic options they
would like to implement. The dissemination of the minutes of these meetings allows
all employees to become familiar with the current general policy. In addition, they
can become familiar with all the organisation’s activities and therefore develop
a feeling of belonging to a community. Finally, a monthly meeting is held with
personnel representatives to allow management to pass on its messages and to
allow the departments to report on work in progress.
Training
In order to meet objective 2, training is used as one of the strategic HRM levers.
Because certain employees have specific technical skills that may be useful to
others, they have been used as trainers. Training is offered for computer skills,
public speaking and team management in order to meet the objectives of the HRM
strategy.
Recruitment
Careful recruitment helps the CNOSF to meet objectives 1 and 3 and is based
on a description of the job’s activities and skills necessary for performing them.
This description serves as the basis for each job description. In order to take into
consideration changes in the responsibilities of employees in the time since they
were hired by the organisation, HR staff interviewed each employee. The purpose
of this was to update the job descriptions in order to
• recognise the skills employees have acquired since being hired,

• obtain an accurate picture of each employee’s responsibilities and thereby
provide for the most relevant professional changes (internal transfers), and
• avoid conflicts related to misunderstandings in each person’s activities.
These job descriptions were also objective aids to the classification of employees
into an organisational structure.
Evaluation of the Action Plans

Although the CNOSF did not set out a specific strategy for evaluation, the
development of performance indicators for the objectives would be relatively easy
to establish because the objectives are so clear. For example, objective 1 could be
evaluated as follows:
Objective 1: To promote efficient employee management and improve

communication
• Develop shared job descriptions to improve coordination amongst employees
and facilitate recruitment: Have the job descriptions been prepared? Have they
improved job coordination and recruitment?
(continued)
• Assign a person to coordinate the departments: Has this happened? Is this

person performing this role effectively?
• Implement weekly coordination meetings: Has this happened? Are these
meetings improving coordination amongst departments? How could the
meetings be improved?
• Establish a monthly meeting between management and personnel
representatives: Has this happened? Do both parties value the meetings? What
would make the meetings better?
—— G ——
The thorough analysis carried out by the HR team allowed clear objectives for HRM
to be developed. This meant that detailed strategic actions could then be associated
with these objectives, which were subsequently introduced into the CNOSF. Although
the appointment of a Human Resources Director was the catalyst for this analysis,
this type of activity can be carried out by an OSO of any size. Indeed, smaller OSOs
will find this activity of particular value since it may identify skills amongst volunteers
that had been unused previously or may identify why the organisation has difficulty
getting volunteers to take up particular roles. The key to the process is to identify
the strengths and weaknesses of the organisation and then establish plans to use
your strengths to overcome the weaknesses. After completing the process once,
subsequent strategies will be much easier to develop.
Section 3.3
Recruiting and Motivating
Human Resources
Once you have developed a strategy, you must ensure that your organisation has
the resources to implement it. Even if you work hard to retain your members, the
effects of age and other changes in personal circumstances will cause some attrition.
In addition, OSOs generally require a regular increase in their human resources to
ensure the organisation’s development. For some key activities, such as the staging
of events, OSOs also need an increase in human resources for a short period.
Recruitment is therefore of vital importance for OSOs, and this section considers
how to determine recruitment needs in an OSO and design a recruitment strategy
to meet those needs. It then goes on to look at recruiting procedures. Dedicated and
motivated staff are also vital for OSOs, and the second part of this section looks at
the rewards that can be used to motivate staff within an OSO. The section concludes
with an illustration of what motivates volunteers in the Qatar National Olympic
Committee.
Recruiting Human Resources

Recruitment is the process of attracting suitable candidates to vacant posts. Recruit-
ment practices in OSOs vary widely and different procedures apply, often depending
upon whether an organisation is recruiting volunteer senior management, salaried
administrative employees or volunteer technical staff. The first stage of the process
requires you to carry out an HRM audit to identify where you will need to carry
out recruitment in the near future.
Evaluating Human Resources Needs

Evaluating HR needs in terms of volunteer and professional staff requires you to
define an expected quality of service and identify the human resources necessary to
meet this standard. This evaluation must not only take into account existing need,
but also address the needs of development projects that fall within the strategic
plan. It should also address the impact of the early departure of some staff. This
evaluation can be done by listing the human resources that your organisation cur-
rently has available and identifying shortfalls in these resources. You will need to
make a quantitative assessment in your audit, and one way of presenting the audit
is set out in table 3.4.
From this table we can see that the federation requires 14 qualified national
coaches. It currently has 10 national coaches, of which only 6 are qualified. The OSO
is planning to recruit one qualified staff member each year for the next 4 years and
train one existing staff member each year until they are all qualified. This evaluation
provides a guide for recruitment and planning and should be carried out position
by position in order to identify the necessary skills and the skills actually present,
as well as development needs.
Table 3.4 Evaluating Human Resources Needs in an NF

Current Optimal Head-
head Qualified head count Planned Number gaining
Position count staff count shortfall recruitment qualifications
National 10 6 14 4 1 each year 1 each year
coaches during during the next
the next 4 4 years
years
Manager 3 2 4 1 1 during 1 during the
the next 2 next 2 years
years
Recruitment Strategies
Optimal recruitment involves selecting an appropriate number of people with the
necessary skills to cover the organisation’s current and imminent needs, and then
assigning individuals to the departments that need them. Optimal recruitment
is rarely achieved by OSOs because it is often difficult to immediately find the
appropriate people capable of assuming the necessary positions. However, when a
vacancy occurs within an OSO, you have three options. You can recruit someone
from outside the organisation, you can fill the position with someone from within
the organisation, or you can decide that filling the vacancy is not justified and reor-
ganise instead.
If you choose to fill the vacancy, you need to decide whether to choose a candidate
from inside or outside of the organisation. Table 3.5 outlines the advantages and
disadvantages of each solution.
However, in many OSOs, the recruitment of staff and volunteers with no prior
links to the organisation is extremely rare. Indeed, in many sport federations or
clubs, athletes become volunteer coaches or team managers and subsequently are
appointed to paid positions within the OSO (figure 3.1).
In larger OSOs, this path to paid employment may take many years. It ensures
the worker’s loyalty to the culture and values of the organisation; however, it also
often prevents new ideas from coming into the organisation. In addition, moving
from one function to another assumes that the person has the skills needed for the
new job, which may not always be the case. Thus, it is important to find the best
compromise between loyalty and professionalism and to avoid opportunism and
nepotism.
Table 3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Recruitment Options

Internal recruiting External recruiting
Advantages Candidate’s knowledge of the Potential for greater innovation

organisation
Low cost and speed of recruit- Possible rebalancing of staff

ment composition (gender, age)
Motivation of employees Increased head count

through promotion
Disadvantages Limited choice Longer adjustment time
Reorganisation to be managed Uncertainty as to the recruited

individual’s knowledge and
skills
Potential for less innovation Risk of losing existing employ-

ees
Selection of athletes
Recruitment of staff, trainers or volunteer management from athletes
Recruitment of paid staff from Recruitment by promoting managers from

volunteer staff volunteer or paid staff
E3592 Olympic
Figure 3.1 Process of internal Solidarity
recruitment Figure 3.1, 275665
in OSOs. DeniseL R2-alw
Recruitment Procedures
Recruitment is a structured process that involves the steps outlined here. If possible,
this process should be followed when recruiting both paid staff and volunteers.
1. Identify needs: This should be done through analysis of the organisation in

order to identify numbers required and skills gaps in human resources.
2. Meet needs: Determine the way gaps will be filled, including internal or exter-
nal recruitment or reorganisation of the service. In addition, determine the
procedures you intend to use.
3. Invite candidates: Communicate your human resources needs internally and
externally by appropriate means, such as using an informal network of employ-
ees or advertising, and ask for candidatures to be presented in a standardised
format.
4. Receive and evaluate candidates: In general, a first selection is made on the
basis of written documents, and the selected candidates are interviewed by
the HR director, the head of the department concerned, and, in smaller OSOs,
the president or general secretary. The evaluation should be done against the
skills and knowledge required for the post.
5. Choose candidate: The best candidate is selected collectively by the main
stakeholders.
6. Formalise contract: According to labour law, a formal contract or assignment
letter is signed by the candidate and the head of the organisation.
7. Hire and integrate: During the first week or month, special treatment to facilitate
the smooth integration of new recruits is required to help them to understand
their job and the organisation.
In the case of volunteer positions, the recruitment procedure will depend on the
organisation’s attractiveness and reputation. For more recognised organisations, it
may be possible to attract a wide range of candidates for certain volunteer positions
and then use a procedure similar to that used for employees. A small local club with
a low level of attractiveness will undoubtedly find it difficult to recruit a competent
volunteer coach and may only have one candidate. In the case of volunteer managers
who are subject to an election, the procedure is different again in that a vote takes
the place of the recruiting procedure. Competition is generally lower at the local
level and higher nationally.
Motivating Human Resources

Following the recruitment of both paid and volunteer staff, a significant aspect of
HRM is the motivation of the human resources at your disposal. Motivation refers
to motivating workers in an organisation to carry out assigned tasks to the best of
their abilities. Pinder (1998, p. 11) has defined motivation at work as follows:
A set of energetic forces that originates both within as well as beyond an

individual’s being, to initiate work-related behaviour, and to determine its
form, direction, intensity, and duration.
This definition emphasises several aspects of the motivational process. First, it

refers to a set of forces, suggesting that a person is motivated to engage in a task
because of several reasons. Bear in mind that not all of these reasons will be obvi-
ous. This definition underscores the fact that the motivating forces could be within
the person or in the context in which the person is embedded. This distinction
between internal and external forces parallels the distinction between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual and is
usually quite difficult for the OSO to identify, whilst extrinsic motivation comes
from factors related to working with the OSO. Finally, the definition suggests that
the motivational forces determine how long, how vigorously and in what activities
the person will engage in. In short, if workers are not motivated in some way, they
will fail to carry out their activities to the best of their ability.
A fundamental responsibility of HRM is therefore to ensure that the internal

forces within a person are triggered into action, and to make the organisational
context such that it encourages motivation. There are a number of ways that this
can be done, making use of both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. In an OSO, the
main factor used to enhance motivation is the rewards systems instituted with the
organisation. In many cases, this system is primarily for paid staff; however, many
aspects of the intrinsic reward system can be applied to volunteers. The key is to
understand what motivates people and why.
Intrinsic Rewards
The extrinsic rewards just discussed are material rewards that involve financial
outlay by the organisation, whilst intrinsic rewards are administered and experi-
enced by the staff themselves. A significant feature of intrinsic rewards is that the
more the intrinsic reward acts as a motivator, the more the person values the reward.
That is, once staff members experience achievement and a sense of growth, they
want to experience it even more. In contrast, the value of monetary rewards tends
to decrease with the more financial rewards you get.
OSOs need to place greater emphasis on intrinsic rewards, particularly for their
volunteer workers. By definition, volunteer workers are not there for monetary
benefits. The only way to retain volunteers is to offer them opportunities to enjoy
intrinsic rewards. Of course, their altruistic orientation and the purposes of the OSO
are sources of intrinsic satisfaction. However, the organisation must go beyond these
basic rewards and create an environment wherein volunteers can experience other
intrinsic rewards and be motivated further to work on behalf of the organisation.
There are several activities that support or act as intrinsic rewards. They are not
only important for volunteers, but also motivate paid employees. Intrinsic rewards
can take the following forms.
• Direct feedback: Staff members should receive immediate and concrete feedback
when their work has been evaluated. In some cases, the feedback can be built
into the job itself. For example, a volunteer worker recruiting members for the
sport organisation gets direct feedback every time the membership fee is col-
lected.
• New learning: OSOs may provide their staff with the opportunity to gain knowl-
edge and learn new ways of doing things. This could entail assigning progres-
sively more challenging jobs to staff. For example, the OSO may assign a new
recruit the task of keeping account of the day-to-day income and expenses.
Progressively, this person may be asked to master double-entry bookkeeping
and preparing a balance sheet. As these tasks are mastered, the person may be
asked to become conversant with the tax laws that govern the finances of the
OSO, including donations and sponsorships.
• Control over scheduling: It is possible that an OSO may permit some of its staff
to schedule their own work within some broader limits. For example, flexible
work time requires that an employee be in the office between 10 a.m. and 12
noon and then between 2 and 3 p.m. This covers only three hours in a day,
and the employee is permitted to schedule the rest of the time with the provi-
sion that over a period of time, such as a week, the employee must spend the
minimum time required, such as 40 hours. This allows an employee to spend
the stipulated minimum 3 hours in one day and spend 12 hours the next day
as desired.
• Control over resources: Staff members may be given control over the material and
human resources required to do their job. For example, the technical director
of an OSO may be allotted a certain amount of travel money for the year and
allowed to decide on the trips to make that year.
• Direct communication authority: Staff should be allowed to communicate directly

with those who provide input to their work and those who use their output.
For instance, the public relations manager of an OSO should be permitted to
communicate directly with media personnel, government agencies, and regional
or provincial counterparts.
• Personal accountability: Staff must feel personally responsible for the outcome
of their work. This will enhance a sense of responsibility, which has a motiva-
tional impact.
To summarise, recruiting and motivating human resources are key issues for an
OSO. Without people who have the right skills and who are motivated to do their
best for the organisation, OSOs will fail to meet their strategic objectives. Both
aspects of management should be based on a comprehensive evaluation of the needs
of the organisation and expectations of the existing human resources. This requires
consultation with both volunteers and paid staff to find the ways to implement these
tasks efficiently.
Key Recommendations
c In consultation with your Board, evaluate your human resources needs on a
regular basis. Do this for both paid personnel and volunteers.
c Have a fair system of recruitment that allows you to choose the most appro-
priate people for vacant positions.
c Make sure you know what motivates your staff and ensure that these factors
are present in the OSO.
c In particular, provide intrinsic motivators because these are more powerful
than extrinsic, or material, rewards.
The following illustration highlights how a better understanding of volunteers’

motivations could help the management of volunteers in the Qatar National Olympic
Committee.
Illustration 3.3
Motivations of Volunteers in the Qatar
National Olympic Committee
Every year several international state-of-the-art sport events are organised in Doha,
the capital city of Qatar. As a consequence, Doha has become known as the sport
capital of the Middle East. However, apart from the challenges of technical event
management and operations, when Qatar organises multisport events, it faces
difficulties in recruiting dedicated volunteers.
Upon questioning sport

managers about volunteering
in Qatar, it seemed that most
organising committees had
majo r p ro b le m s f in din g
the necessar y number of
volunteers, primarily because
no attention was given to
recruitment in the early
stages of event organisation.
Volu nte e r s we re m o s tl y
recruited in the last minute
amongst family members
of the leadership of the
federation and amongst sport
fans. Only the Qatar Tennis
Photo courtesy of Olympic Solidarity.

and Qatar Golf Federation
have a comprehensive list of
some 300 volunteers each
that they count on every
year. As a result, research
was carried out by the Qatar
National Olympic Committee
(QNOC) to determine what
would encourage people to
volunteer for major sport
events.
A volunteer at the 15th Asian Games, Doha 2006.
Description of the Project

The aim of this work was to identify motivational and other elements that would
enhance volunteering for multisport events organised in Qatar. Information was
collected through a review of literature and through documentary analysis of
previous events. Additional information was collected through interviews taken
from organisers of national sport events.
Based on this information, a questionnaire was designed to assess volunteering.

The questionnaire was completed by 800 people, 100 per gender from the following
four main groups in the population of Qatar: Western expatriates, expatriates from
non-Arabic-speaking nations in Asia, expatriates from Arabic-speaking nations
in Asia and Africa, and Qatari nationals. All 800 questionnaires were subject to
statistical analysis to detect intragroup differences, as well as differences between
the two genders.
Questionnaire Results
The questionnaire contained questions that aimed to establish the frequency of
respondent volunteering, the types of activities people would be most likely to
volunteer for, what motivated them and what rewards they would expect. The
questionnaire identified the following factors.
(continued)
Participation in Volunteering
Less than 29% of the 800 people surveyed had ever volunteered for a sport event
in Qatar in the past. This percentage is low compared with the 45% to 50% of
people that volunteer in Western populations. There was also a difference in the
frequency of volunteering of men (33%) and women (25%). The gender differences
were mainly found in the Asian, Arab and Qatari groups; women in these groups
volunteered significantly less frequently than Western women.
Activities
In general, it was found that Western men would choose to volunteer in the fields
of management and accreditation, while Asian men would volunteer in significantly
higher numbers as drivers, porters, cleaners and maintenance workers. Both Arab
and Qatari men would volunteer in the fields of public relations and escorting.
Western women would volunteer in public relations, while Asian women would
volunteer in the fields of public relations, cleaning and maintenance. Arab as well as
Qatari women were more likely to volunteer in the field of administration. Analysis
of educational aspects showed that Asian women who finished secondary school
would volunteer in the fields of administration and public relations, while those who
had less education would volunteer in the fields of maintenance and cleaning.
When comparing the results of the Qatari men and women, it was found that
the men were more interested in volunteering in the area of public relations and
as escorts, while women scored much lower in these fields. The women were more
interested in management and administration.
Motivations and Rewards

Nearly all men who responded to the questionnaire indicated that they would
volunteer if they received a job that satisfied them and had responsibilities, which
are intrinsic motivational factors. The significant difference was that Western men
were more motivated to volunteer if they received respect for their contribution,
their expenses were paid and they were given a uniform to wear. Asian men were
motivated by good social interaction, and Arab men were motivated by financial
rewards, such as having their meals and local transport costs covered and receiving
pocket money. Qataris were motivated by free entrance to the sport facilities as
well as having their meals and local transport costs covered.
Western women were also motivated by intrinsic factors, such as a role with
responsibilities and good social interaction, and also expected a uniform and their
expenses to be paid. They were also keen to receive respect for their work. Asian
women, unlike their male counterparts, wanted their expenses paid and extra pocket
money. Arab women were motivated if their meals and local transport were paid
for as well as their expenses and if they could work in a quiet environment without
too many problems. Qatari women were motivated to volunteer if they were asked
by a relative, as well as if they received free access to the sport facility, free meals
and free local transport.
Many of these factors have limited financial costs, and those that do have costs
are the traditional factors expected to be provided to volunteers (free meals, free
entrance). From these findings, it would appear that it should be relatively easy
to develop a package that would encourage people to volunteer for sport events.
However, it is interesting to note that Qatari men and women expected a salary,
or a daily allowance. This suggests that altruistic volunteering is not yet embedded
as a concept in this group and highlights the fact that for some countries, sport
organisations and events may not be staffed by individuals giving their time for
free or for notional expenses.
—— G ——
Although the questionnaire did not provide any solutions to the potential
problems faced by QNOC, it was a structured approach to identifying a problem
and gathering information to address this problem. The results show that you
must understand individual motivations of volunteers and the related intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards. It is important to take culture, nationality and gender into account.
As you can see from this research, some volunteers are motivated by intrinsic factors
whilst others are motivated by material rewards. The research suggests that some
groups should not be targeted for voluntary activity since they will lead to increased
costs to the OSO. This highlights the need to carry out research that identifies the
motivating factors of each group of volunteers and to manage these factors properly.
An example of how to do this is provided in chapter 6.
Source: Bin Abdulrahman Al-Thani 2004.
Section 3.4
Developing Human Resources
Through Training
OSOs are facing increased demands of professionalism from their members and
from the public or private partners that support them. Addressing these demands,
whether they are internal or external, functional or ethical, requires OSOs to invest
in staff training. Training furthers the development of individuals or groups by
allowing them to acquire the skills necessary for their activities and, more broadly,
their continued development.
The purpose of training in an OSO is to help individuals acquire the skills they
need in order to ensure that the organisation fulfils its mission and day-to-day activi-
ties. Training staff to meet development needs provides an alternative to hiring new
people who already have the skills being sought. Training may be preferred for ethical
reasons, such as to ensure the personal development of members, or for functional
reasons, such as to promote internal mobility and careers within the organisation,
with a view to member retention.
Committing to a deliberate training process requires OSOs to fulfil a certain

number of stages, which will be presented in this section. The first stage is an assess-
ment of the needs of the organisation and its human resources, as well as the level of
skills demanded of its staff. The second stage involves preparing a training plan to
address identified needs in order of priority and according to a schedule. The third
stage implements the required training and monitors its success, and the fourth stage
evaluates the training that has been carried out and its effects on individuals and
the organisation. These stages are discussed in more detail in the following section,
which concludes with an illustration of the training plan developed by the National
Olympic Committee of Albania.
Assessing Training Needs

Assessing training needs in an OSO means identifying shortfalls in skills that
impede the organisation’s functioning and the fulfilment of its mission and objec-
tives. A qualitative evaluation of the status of human resources within an OSO
begins with an assessment of its global activities and its capacity to attain its goals.
When carrying out this assessment, you must identify areas of weaknesses within
your organisation that might suggest a training need. This can be done by using the
following questions to analyse any problems that arise.
• What does the problem consist of?

• Is it a permanent or one-time problem?
• How does the actual situation differ from the desired one?
• What are the consequences of this problem for the organisation?
• What factors explain this problem?
• What role does a shortage of skills play in these factors?
• What is the nature of the skills gap to be resolved?
• Which employees and staff are affected?
• What are the reasons for the skills gap? Is it a lack of appropriate human
resources or an inability to mobilise these resources?
For example, when evaluating the performance of an NF the following difficul-

ties might be identified:
• Inability of the federation to regularly inform its members about the competi-
tions it organises
• Inability of the federation to submit a credible development plan to a funding
body, which is a prerequisite for obtaining funding
• Failure of a regional league to qualify for a national championship
Analysis may show that these failures are due to skill failures, which need appro-
priate action (table 3.6).
Table 3.6 Training Needs As a Result of Performance Analysis

Analysis of operations Human resources analysis Proposed actions
Information on competi- The department responsi- Train a responsible person
tions organised within ble for member communi- with the requisite skills.
the federation is not dis- cations and information is
seminated to the clubs not operating effectively.
concerned.
No development plan was Planning procedures have Implement training in
presented to the authori- not been mastered by the planning for committee
ties to justify a subsidy. members of the commit- members with the support
tee responsible for this of an outside consultant.
task.
No regional team quali- Nonqualification is due to Implement a programme
fied for the national the inexperience of the to improve the coaches’
championship. coaches responsible for skills and knowledge.
the teams.
Such problems may arise from a shortfall in skills in a number of areas. For
instance, they may be due to the lack of skills of a person holding a key position.
This is the case, for example, if the NF lacks a person capable of designing and
promoting a communication programme. The skills gap may also occur within a
group, such as the committee responsible for creating a development strategy for the
federation. Finally, the skills gap may occur in a group of people associated with the
organisation. This is the case with coaches of clubs in a regional league that have
been unable to qualify for a national championship.
In the case of paid employees, it is generally possible to ensure that staff receive
training to deal with skills gaps. This is not always true for elected members, whose
full-time professional activities may leave them with little time for training, or who,
having the legitimacy of being elected, do not always acknowledge their shortcom-
ings. You will need to convince such members of the need to address any skills gaps
that are identified.
To ensure the success of any training, it is important to obtain the support of

those affected. You will need to promote the benefits of training, which may involve
symbolic compensation, such as the satisfaction of serving the organisation more
effectively or of successfully performing a difficult task, thereby increasing self-
esteem. It may also involve immediate material compensation, such as a salary
increase, or deferred compensation, such as enhanced career prospects. You must
also ensure that the method of reducing the skills gap will allow training goals to
be attained and is consistent with the individuals’ availability.
Photo courtesy of the Tanzania Olympic Committee.

A working group in Tanzania benefiting from the training offered in the Sport Administrators
Course.
Preparing and Implementing a Training Plan

Once training needs have been assessed, you can select the training procedures and
choose and implement a training programme.
Selecting the Training Procedures
There are two principal types of training: formal training and informal training.
Formal training is organised to meet a training need, and it is often carried out
with the support of a specialised professional as part of a programme prepared
in advance. Informal training is an apprenticeship process that relies on practical
experience in the activity, with no formalised plan and no specialised personnel.
Most OSOs restrict training to what is known as formal training, or an activity
that requires the trainees to leave their jobs in order to go to a special location for
a specific period of time.
However, formal training often has major weaknesses. It cannot always be used to
significantly change the skills of a person whose growth is vital to the organisation.
Similarly, it cannot always help people acquire mastery of a tool whose use is indis-
pensable to the organisation, such as training in IT for members of a department in
the process of being automated. This is because formal training programmes do not
always address the specific needs of those being trained; they often ignore the skills
that people already have, how much knowledge they will need to do their job and
the ways that they prefer to learn. Gaining skills through formal training in these
cases is difficult because the training is often general and poorly contextualised.
Consequently, you should try to incorporate the training process into the organi-
sation as much as possible. This may include some off-site training in activities
that directly relate to the jobs of the individuals in question; however, most train-
ing should involve skills that are available within the organisation. For example, a
management coaching relationship could be developed where an experienced and
competent staff member advises, guides or supervises a learner, or coachee. Occa-
sionally, when money is available, a consultant may lead this type of training. Other
ways of providing training within the OSO may include the following:
• One-hour sessions on various topics, held every other week or every month,
led by different people in the organisation
• One- or two-day intense training sessions on one topic (e.g., how to use the new
computer system)
• Regular consultation, guidance or supervision by an experienced and competent
staff member within the organisation
Choosing a Training Programme

In addition to general training procedures, training is further enhanced when there
is a clear description of the skills to be transferred and an accurate appraisal of the
skills in advance. In addition to a detailed training programme, conditions must be
defined for assessing the acquisition of these skills by the participants. The prepara-
tion of a training plan should cover the aspects described in table 3.7.
If the training is aimed at improving the organisation’s performance in the mid-

term, it must not result in poor organisation in the short term. A training plan must
be organised in such a way as to ensure that all relevant personnel are trained. For
reasons of both fairness and functionality, it is desirable for all personnel to have
access to training in turn. Of course, this does not prevent priority activities related
to the organisation’s operations from being carried out.
Table 3.7 Framework for a Training Plan

Objectives These need to address the training programme’s expected results
(learn ICT techniques, master planning methods) and should be
defined in terms that facilitate assessment.
Population to Should be defined in terms of demographic characteristics (gender,
be trained age, status), motivation, and professional experience and prior train-
ing.
Choice of A range of appropriate methods should be identified, such as dis-
teaching tance learning or management coaching.
methods and
resources Trainers should be prepared for the characteristics of the population.
Customised teaching methods are important.

Assessment Should be customised to the objectives of the training activity, the
conditions population and the environment (feasibility).
Evaluating Training
Evaluation of training is an essential part of the process because it validates what has
been carried out or shows where corrections are needed. Evaluations may be made
via objective factors, such as the measurable transformation of a job, or subjective
factors, such as participants’ views of the training they engaged in. It may relate to
the effects of the training on the individual, on the team or department, or on the
organisation as a whole. Three levels of evaluation may be envisioned:
• Acquired skills and knowledge: Have the trainees acquired what corresponded
to the training objectives?
• Skills building: Have the trainees been able to use the acquired resources in
their daily activities?
• Impact on the organisation’s operations: Have the acquired skills resulted in the
better functioning of the OSO?
Most training programmes provide for an assessment of the activity by the trainees,
often carried out at the end of the programme by the trainers themselves. However,
it is also important that in-house training, such as an apprenticeship scheme, is also
evaluated. Both types of training can be evaluated by means of a questionnaire that
includes, for example, the following criteria:
• Physical and logistical conditions

• Choice of teaching methods
• Clarity of objectives
• Applicability of the acquired skills to the work situation
• Relevance of the acquired skills to training needs
• Quality of the trainers
• Maintenance of the motivation to learn
• Assistance in the transfer of skills in the work environment
In order to assess the impact of training on skills and the OSO itself, it is pos-
sible to perform an annual assessment of an individual’s training through a review
interview. This is generally carried out by the immediate supervisor to measure the
perceived impact on the trainee and the way the trainee sees changes occurring in
daily professional activities.
OSOs as Learning Organisations

Learning organisations facilitate the ongoing development, mobilisation, training,
assessment and dissemination of the knowledge needed for their operations, and
this is what OSOs should aspire to. Continual learning is necessary in order to suc-
cessfully address changes in the environment and requirements of key stakeholders.
Although every organisation should have a stable framework and rules of operation,
it is sometimes problematic when routine is the guiding force because this works
against innovation and responsiveness. OSOs, which are often anchored in tradition,
sometimes tend to reproduce their activities without necessary assessments and
changes in response to the operating context. Each problem encountered should be
viewed as an opportunity to develop new knowledge.
The steps towards becoming a learning organisation are relatively straightfor-

ward. First, you need to identify resource persons, or paid staff and volunteers with
recognised skills who are prepared to share their skills with the other members
of the organisation. These skills then need to be formalised to ensure their lasting
retention and eventual large-scale transfer. OSOs often give little importance to this
formalisation of knowledge, but one of the ways these skills may be formalised is
by a collection of best practices in a standardised format. This can then be made
available to all members of the organisation through a system that ensures acces-
sibility, guidance and effective communication. Learning organisations thus turn
training into a process that enhances the value of the expertise developed within
the organisation.
Key Recommendations
c Identifyareas of skill development by careful analysis of problems that occur
in the OSO.
c Ensure that training needs are identified by regular skills audits supported by
the Board.
c Develop a range of training methods and activities to suit the skills required
and those who are to be trained.
c Evaluate each training session to see if it is meeting its objectives.
c Develop the OSO as a learning organisation by passing on skills and knowl-

edge to all involved.
The following illustration presents a training programme that was developed by

the National Olympic Committee of Albania in response to a lack of opportunities
for sport administrators.
Illustration 3.4
Training Policy for Sport Administrators
of the National Olympic Committee of Albania
The National Olympic Committee of Albania (NOC of Albania) was created in
1958. Since then, Albania, a country of about 3.5 million inhabitants, has regularly
participated in all major sport events, including the Olympic Games. The fall of the
communist regime in the beginning of the 1990s introduced a new organisation
for sport, with more autonomy for sport federations and clubs in relation with the
state. Subsequently, a need for qualified managers to lead those organisations was
identified. Although efficient training and education for coaches had been provided
by the Academy of Physical Education and Sport and by NFs, nothing existed in the
country to train sport administrators and managers.
In 2002, the NOC of Albania decided to undertake a consultation exercise with its
members, which included the 13 Olympic Sports Federations, their local clubs and
the local sport authorities, to identify their needs and their willingness to involve
participants in a training programme for sport administrators. The consultation
showed a strong demand for the programme, resulting in the training programme
outlined next. The goal of the programme is to establish a sustainable system of
training for sport administrators in Albania in order to meet current and future
needs. The programme is targeted at leaders of national, regional and local sport
associations, as well as those who are ready to lead, either as volunteers or as
salaried personnel.
Competences Covered
The competences to be developed by the programme are at three levels.
Basic Level
• Understanding the functioning of a sport organisation
• Improving the understanding of the administrator’s role and responsibilities
in a sport association
• Improving the level of management and communication in a sport
association
Intermediate Level
• Mastering the juridical structure of a sport organisation
• Administering the budget for a sport association
• Conceiving a development plan for a sport club
• Leading a sport association
Advanced Level
• Improving the organisation’s level of autonomy in its socioeconomical
context
• Overcoming conflicts in a sport association

• Promoting social integration of young people through a sport association
• Mastering the organisation of a local, national and international sport event
All competences are addressed in modules that make up the detailed content of
the training programme.
Administrative Framework
The programme is run under the responsibility of the NOC of Albania, the Ministry
of Sports and the Academy of Physical Education and Sport. The dissemination of
information concerning the programme is the responsibility of the NOC, as is the
receipt of candidates. The three main stakeholders are responsible for the selection
of an average of 30 candidates a year and, based on evaluation questionnaires filled
in by participants, for the adaptation of the programme.
Programme Format
The training programme is a 1-year, part-time, partly distance-taught adult education
programme. Participants receive written course materials, and they also meet once
a month, usually on the last Saturday of the month, which represents 72 contact
hours. The contact hours are organised in the capital city, Tirana, mostly in the
facilities of the Academy of Physical Activity and Sport. Lectures are given by local
specialists in management and by senior sport managers who are experienced and
trained in the relevant areas.
Training Methods
The intention of the training is to reflect as closely as possible the daily situations
encountered by sport administrators. These situations are also used to apply the
principles covered in the programme to the sport context. The programme is
underpinned by an organisation-based project defined by each participant and
carried out under the guidance of a tutor. The participants receive written materials
in advance and must take part in the monthly sessions. During the remaining
period of time, they are required to implement their new knowledge directly into
practice. During the monthly training sessions, they share their experiences and
make comparisons with other OSOs to identify good practices.
Validation and Certification

Participants are evaluated on the basis of a report presented both in a written and
oral form. They receive certification given in cooperation by the NOC of Albania
and the Academy of Physical Education and Sport.
—— G ——
(continued)
The training programme of the NOC of Albania is perhaps more interesting

because of its global coherence in linking the skills required by sport administrators
than because of the exceptionality of the content. The programme represents a
rational response to existing needs and to an identified demand. The mix of work-
based training and lecture sessions meets the needs of the participants and makes
the best use of their time. The programme is based upon and responds to the daily
situations administrators face in their organisations in the new political, economical
and social conditions that prevail in the country. For this reason it successfully
integrates the basic principles of administration and management in order to develop
the competences of sport administrators.
The validation procedures ensure the practical mastery of those principles and
competencies in real-life situations. The partnership involves all the authorities that
are required to give recognition and sustainability to the programme. The evaluation
of the programme by all stakeholders, including the participants themselves, assures
improvement of the programme. The recruitment of trainers qualified in both the
academic and practical fields, alongside the collective exchange of experience
and sharing of good practices, promote the progressive establishment of a proper
organisational knowledge within the Albanian sport system. In addition, the
Albanian experience has inspired in Olympic Solidarity the concept of an advanced
sport management course, to be supported by this text.
Section 3.5
Developing Skills
for Managing Human Resources
To make an OSO more effective, and more specifically to make its human resources
more effective, you need high-level management skills. These will help you to plan,
organise, recruit, motivate and develop the volunteers and paid staff who work with
your OSO. Even as you develop these skills, you will want to use some of the train-
ing methods discussed in section 3.4 to ensure that others in the OSO also develop
these skills.
This section considers the skills that are needed to effectively manage the human
resources of an OSO. It focuses on the key skills of decision making, problem solv-
ing, communicating, managing time and managing conflict, because these skills
underpin all management of human resources. The management of conflict will be
illustrated by a discussion of conflict resolution within a European NF.
Decision Making
The management of OSOs requires decision making. You need to make decisions
about everything from the allocation of resources to the colour of team uniforms.
Decision making is often difficult because of the turbulent environment within
which OSOs operate. Often you cannot be sure of the exact consequences of the
decisions you make and thus will make few decisions about which you are certain.
You will also have to make risky decisions, which occurs when you have an idea
of the choices available but no definite idea of the outcomes. Thus, there is a risk to
making decisions, which you should try to reduce by collecting additional informa-
tion and relying on previous experience. For example, if your junior athletes have
never travelled out of the country before, there is a risk that the situation will be so
daunting that they fail to perform as expected. You can assess the likelihood of this
happening by considering the previous experiences of junior teams, or by asking
the team how they feel about the trip.
You will make decisions where you have no clear idea of the alternatives and
therefore the outcomes. This does not happen often, but it does arise in situations
where there has been no precedent. Gathering additional information about the issue
can help to reduce uncertainty, as can seeking help from others. Your organisation
may never have staged a major event for a certain sport, but seeking assistance and
information from those who have will allow you to make a more certain decision.
Obviously, decisions about which you are certain are the safest for the organisa-
tion. However, since there are few opportunities to make such decisions, the risk
of decision making needs to be reduced, particularly for major decisions such as
whether to invest in facilities or services. One way to reduce this risk is to adopt a
rational decision-making process. In order to make rational decisions, you need to
be clear about the choices available and the criteria against which you can choose.
Sufficient information in order to assess decisions against these criteria needs to be
obtained. This information then should be used to come to a decision. This process,
outlined in figure 3.2, is important when significant resources are involved.
For example, you may have a limited budget and have to decide whether or not to
enter a junior team into a competition that is being held in another country. There
are four options: to enter them into the competition, to not enter them, to seek
appropriate competition in your own country or to use the money for an alternative
event for the team, such as a training camp. There are costs and benefits associated
with these options, such as the experience to be gained from the competition, the
cost of travel, the experience to be gained from travelling to another country and
the money to be saved by not going. The criteria used to make the decision might
include monetary cost, other opportunities lost if the team is entered, how much
schooling the team will miss, the benefits of exposing juniors to international com-
petition, how this competition fits within your development plan and the level of
competition expected. From these criteria, you can make a decision about entering
the competition.
Analyse the situation
State goals
Derive criteria for choosing

Identify possible options
amongst options
Obtain information on
Assess options against criteria
consequences of options
Choose the best option
E3592 making.
Figure 3.2 Rational decision Olympic Solidarity Figure 3.2, 275670 DeniseL R2-alw
Adapted, by permission, from R. Paton, 1995, Book one: On being a manager, Foundations of Senior Management course material (Open
University: Milton Keynes), 31.
Problem Solving
Much work in OSOs is related to problem solving, and having a structured approach
to problems will help the organisation become more effective. The rational decision-
making process outlined previously will help with problem solving. However, you
first need to be aware that there is a problem, and this is not always as easy as it
sounds. The volunteers and paid employees who work for the organisation may hide
the fact they are struggling with their work, or sponsors may be disappointed in
the publicity they are getting but may not tell you this. It is only when something
goes wrong or when a sponsor withdraws support that you may become aware of
the problem. Once you are aware of the problem, the problem can be dealt with;
however, it is often easy to confuse the symptoms of the problem with the problem
itself, for example, trying to raise money to deal with a loss of sponsorship rather
than establishing why the sponsorship was lost.
You need to gather information from the people who perceive that there is a
problem and on possible causes of the problem. This is best done in consultation
with others since other people may have a different perspective on a problem and
talking to them may allow you to identify a better solution. When the problem is one
of sponsorship, you should speak with those responsible for obtaining sponsorship,
those who benefit from the sponsorship and, if possible, the sponsors themselves in
order to identify why sponsors have withdrawn their support.
Once you know what the problem is and have an idea of why it has arisen, you
need to determine various ways to solve the problem. If the problem involves spon-
sorship, alternative sponsors could be sought, or you could attempt to reengage the
sponsors you have lost. You may choose not to seek new sponsorship, instead raising
money from other sources, such as increased membership fees. The implications of
these alternatives also need to be considered because some decisions may solve the
problem but may also cause greater problems. Raising membership fees is likely to
be unpopular and lead to a decline in membership, and some available sponsors,
such as tobacco companies, may not be considered appropriate by other sponsors,
leading them to remove their sponsorship.
The next step is often the hardest. You have to make a decision and then com-
municate it to all of those affected, such as funding bodies, athletes, members and
other sponsors. The decision must be unambiguous, communicated appropriately
and implemented well. Finally, you should check to see that the problem has been
solved. For example, have funds increased as a result of your decision? Occasionally
you may need to change the decision in order to achieve the best result. You may
even have to admit that you made a mistake and start again.
This is clearly a lengthy process and is not likely to occur for all problem solving;
indeed, it is not appropriate for all problems. It is important, however, to take a struc-
tured approach when the problems are so significant that they can fundamentally
affect the organisation or the people working within it.
Communication
The ability to communicate is arguably the most important skill required of those
responsible for managing human resources, and there are many advantages of good
communication. Communication increases efficiency; the volunteers and paid staff
who work for the organisation make fewer mistakes because they know exactly
what tasks have to be achieved, why they have to be completed and how to go about
completing them. Not only is this motivating, it also reduces costs to the organisa-
tion since fewer errors are made. In addition, in order to engage stakeholders you
need to establish what they want, which is particularly important for sponsors and
funding agencies. Finally, the end result of greater motivation, involvement and
reduced mistakes is better service to stakeholders.
Photo courtesy of the National Olympic Committee of Albania.

Effective management involves the ability to make decisions, solve problems and communicate
clearly.
Information can be communicated in written (paper or electronic) or verbal form,

and three factors affect the form of communication you choose. The purpose of the
communication is important, and written information tends to be more formal than
verbal information. For example, an offer of employment must be made in writing,
while an offer of additional training could be made verbally. Although e-mail is
often used in an informal manner, it is important to realise that some people con-
sider it to be a written form of communication, and therefore it carries an element
of formality.
The target audience also needs to be considered. It is appropriate to verbally pass

information on to volunteers and paid staff; however, agreements with sponsors
should be written. In addition, information needs to be communicated in an appro-
priate language and form. This may mean that information should be available in a
foreign language, in large print or even in pictures if you’re trying to communicate
with children. Finally, the length of the communication is important. Verbal com-
munication is appropriate for short messages, whilst lengthy and complex informa-
tion is better disseminated in writing so that people can return to it to assist with
understanding.
The ability to listen is also a vital communication tool. If you can show that you
are interested in what is being said and have heard and understood the message,
the people communicating with you will be more satisfied. There are a number of
ways to do this:
• Maintaining eye contact with the person who is talking

• Encouraging the person to continue talking by nodding or agreeing with what
is being said
• Summarising what has been said before answering
• Not interrupting
Listening is particularly important for appraisal interviews, discipline and grievance

interviews and when counselling staff members or athletes.
Time Management
Managing time is one of the major problems facing those who work in OSOs. It is
often difficult to say no to additional work, particularly if it appears to be of value
to the organisation or yourself. However, if time is not managed properly, you run
the risk of being unable to complete your work to the proper standards. Alterna-
tively, you may become so overburdened that you cannot complete all your work.
Therefore you need to be skilled at time management in order to manage yourself
and your organisation’s human resources effectively.
A time management strategy is required to ensure that you have enough time
to do the work required. First, however, you should be aware of the activities that
cause time to be lost, such as the following:
• Lack of preparation: Not spending enough time prioritising tasks or making sure
you know what has to be achieved
• Procrastination: Putting off tasks because they are too difficult or boring
• Poor prioritisation: Working on tasks that are simple rather than important
• Confusing what is urgent with what is important: Responding to the person who
is the most persistent rather than doing the most important task
• Poor delegation: Trying to do everything rather than getting someone to assist,
or delegating so poorly that the staff member has to continually ask for help
• Poor communication: Giving out incorrect or poorly expressed information so
that time is wasted by having to provide more information or correct errors
that have come about as a result of poor information
• Lengthy phone calls, meetings or conversations: Taking more time with these than
is required because the purpose is not clear or information is missing
• Taking work home after a full day: Working inefficiently because of tiredness or
conflicts with other demands
A time management strategy is a useful way of handling these distractions. You

should record all commitments, including meetings, tasks to be completed and dead-
lines. This record will allow you to carry out regular work planning and to ensure
that plans are followed. Where this information is recorded is not important; you
may choose to record it on paper or electronically or ask someone else to record it.
What is important is that the record is kept.
You need to be clear about what has to be achieved. It is not possible to do every-
thing, so assess the tasks that are essential in terms of achieving the objectives of
your work. It is more important to seek the information needed to complete a strategic
plan than to respond to information about a social event, although the latter may
be more enjoyable. This will allow you to prioritise the tasks that you have been
asked to complete. It is easy to get sidetracked and to waste time on things that are
interesting but not essential.
You also need to learn to structure your time. Time should be divided into blocks
and allocated to certain activities, such as writing reports, attending meetings, work-
ing with colleagues or performing administrative duties. Tasks requiring concentra-
tion and research should be allocated to the time when you feel most alert, such
as first thing in the morning. Alternatively, you can leave phone calls, paperwork
and e-mail for times when it is more difficult to concentrate on work, such as after
lunch. In addition, it is important to identify time periods when you can and cannot
be disturbed by those who work with you, which you should then communicate to
all who may be affected.
Finally, and most important, learn to say no. Rather than making you appear lazy,
the ability to turn down requests for work when overloaded or faced with other
priorities is an indication of efficiency. If you refuse to organise a team-building
event because of your workload, this will indicate to others that you have a large
workload and are able to prioritise your tasks, and they will allow you to complete
the work. If the team-building event cannot wait until your workload is reduced,
delegate the task to someone else.
Over time you will develop time management strategies that work best for you.
Different techniques, such as delegation, using a “to do” list or working from home,
will suit different occupations, management styles and organisations. The key point
is that once time has been lost, it is impossible to get it back.
Managing Conflict
Conflict between individuals and teams is a part of every organisation. Individu-
als and teams compete for financial resources, time from managers, equipment
and even customers. This competition will occasionally result in conflict within
the organisation. Conflict within organisations is not always a bad thing, and con-
structive conflict can serve a variety of functions. Conflict can encourage people
to work together to fight a common enemy. It can help define roles and increase
understanding of others’ feelings; for example, debate over who should be captain
of a national team will highlight what is important to those having the debate and
the skills of those under consideration.
Constructive conflict can increase understanding of the problem, since conflict

usually arises when individuals are not aware of the concerns of all involved. Thus,
constructive conflict is to be welcomed in an OSO. Alternatively, destructive conflict
is usually detrimental to the organisation because it tends to be based on personal-
ity differences or concerned with the preservation of power. You want to be able to
identify destructive conflict and have a strategy for dealing with it.
There are several issues to consider before tackling conflict. The first question to
address is whether it is worth intervening. If the conflict is not affecting the work
of those involved and looks like it will resolve itself, your intervention may inflame
the situation. You will also need the personality characteristics and communication
skills to be able to deal with the conflict in a calm, rational and fair manner. If you
lack these skills, it is often better to have someone else deal with the situation.
Finally, the timing of the intervention is important. Intervention must come at a

time when it can actually be of use, rather than too early or too late, when interven-
tion may escalate the conflict or inflame it. For example, if you see an argument
between a chief coach and an assistant coach and attempt to intervene, you may
look ridiculous if the argument was over something minor or was unrelated to the
job. Alternatively, if you ignore a number of arguments, team performance may be
negatively affected. The skill is to intervene after the right number of arguments!
Once the decision has been made to intervene, a strategy to deal with the situa-
tion is required. This involves the following:
1. Identifying the problem: It is necessary to identify who is involved in the con-

flict, why the conflict has arisen and the issues involved.
2. Examining the relationships that the protagonists have within the organisation: This
will allow you to identify other people who may help resolve the problem.
3. Identifying the problems and the costs of the behaviour: This may be in terms of
time wasted, the demotivating effect on others on the team or an unpalatable
atmosphere.
4. Approaching those involved in the conflict: Work together to search for a solu-
tion.
5. Implementing the solution and then evaluating the situation: After implementa-
tion, evaluate the situation on an ongoing basis until the conflict has ended.
Although handling conflict is often an unpleasant task, if it is ignored there are

likely to be negative consequences for the organisation. The best strategy is to be
aware of where conflict may arise and to develop plans to prevent it from arising.
This strategy can be facilitated by the fair allocation of resources, equitable and
fair treatment of all involved with the OSO, and awareness of relationships and
tensions that may be occurring within the organisation. Preventing conflict is not
always possible, however, and once conflict is identified, it needs to be managed
efficiently and effectively.
All of these skills are necessary for the effective management of OSOs. The abil-
ity to make decisions and communicate these and to organise and complete a full
workload is essential for OSOs to meet their objectives. Fortunately, all of these skills
can be developed or improved by personal development activities, using the methods
outlined in the previous section. Therefore it is important for you to evaluate your
level of skill in these areas and then improve your skills if necessary.
Key Recommendations
c Adopt a rational approach to making decisions that are significant for the
organisation and the people in it.
c Make sure that you know exactly what has caused a problem to arise and
whom it involves. Carefully consider the possible ways to solve the problem
and then communicate the final decision to those affected.
c Be aware that communication also involves listening.
c Learn how to prioritise your work and to say no.
c Realise that not all conflict is bad for the organisation, but do develop
appropriate strategies for intervening if necessary.
The following illustration shows how conflict has been managed in a European
NF. When reading this illustration, be sure to consider any similarities to situations
you have faced within your organisation. The illustration provides a brief descrip-
tion of the federation, and then it goes on to describe the conflict that occurred. The
conflict resolution strategy and style are analysed. The federation has been kept
anonymous to preserve the confidentiality of those involved.
Illustration 3.5
Managing Conflict in National Federations
The federation was founded in the 1930s and is the main governing body for the
sport. It has more than 70,000 members, and its clubs are structured on a regional
basis. Most regions have professional staff to assist the voluntary regional Board.
The Conflict
The start of the conflict cannot easily be pinpointed. A discussion about restructuring
the federation resulted in a series of proposals that were presented to and discussed
by the members of the NF’s General Assembly (GA). One of the main reasons for
proposing the restructuring of the NF was because of a decline in the number of
members and affiliated clubs. The Board wanted to modernise and rationalise the
organisation so that it would be better equipped to meet the needs of the players
and clubs, but this programme of change had met tough resistance from two of
the eight districts. A new President was elected, who continued the modernisation
process; however, the GA did not appear to trust him as much as it had trusted the
former President.
In September, three years after the President’s election, the GA discussed a

definitive proposal for the reorganisation of the NF. It involved the abolition of the
regions, leading to a complete restructuring of the NF, which would have required
the statutes of the NF to change radically.
Before there could be a vote on the proposals, one of the regions resisting the
changes proposed a motion of no confidence in the Board, accusing the Board of
sloppy work, withholding financial information and neglecting the interests of
the members. However, a large majority of the GA supported the Board, and the
original proposal for the restructuring was accepted, albeit with the agreement that
several crucial topics required further elaboration. A representative of one of the
supportive regions stressed that the trust and communication between the Board
and the two dissenting regions had to be restored as soon as possible.
In March the following year, members of the Board visited all eight regional
meetings, where further details of the change and the implementation of the
decisions of the GA were discussed. Several proposals and suggestions were sent
to the Board after these meetings, which were discussed by the Board during May
and June. In June and September, the GA convened to discuss progress. As a result,
several Working Groups were convened to investigate and report on outstanding
issues, including the financial questions that had been put forward.
In December, the GA reconvened, and on this occasion a motion was made to halt
the entire reorganisation process. This was proposed by one of the dissenting regions
due to a perception of failing communication between the Board and the GA, as well
as a lack of crucial financial information. This time, the motion was accepted due
to the inability of the Board to establish confidence amongst members of the GA.
Unsurprisingly, the Board considered this to be unacceptable and stepped down.
The Board’s Management of the Conflict

The Board’s handling of the conflict can be analysed by considering their strategy
for managing the conflict and the style that they adopted.
Identify the Problem

The changes proposed by the Board would have led to a decrease in the power of
the regional Boards, and as a result, two regions of the federation did not support
the modernisation programme. This led to an initial motion against the Board, which
was made on the basis of perceived poor communication and financial irregularities.
Although the motion was lost, it created a schism within the federation, and other
regions began to question the plans. The failure to identify the real problems that
led to the conflict resulted in another challenge at a subsequent GA.
Examine the Relationships That the Protagonists Have

Within the Organisation
Although the Board had theoretical control over the regions, because regional Board
members were also delegates of the GA, the regions had the power to affect Board
decisions. In this instance, the Board was initially supported by the other six regions.
It was clear, however, that the other regions felt that the Board had to make an
effort to restore trust and communication with the two dissenting regions. In the
end, the regions supported each other.
(continued)
Identify the Problems and the Costs of the Behaviour

Overtly, there were concerns about the cost of the restructuring process, and it was
felt that the Board was not communicating effectively enough. Covertly, however, it
is likely that the main problem was the loss of power that the regions would face as
a result of restructuring. These problems undermined the change process, resulting
in the motions against the Board.
Approach Those Involved in the Conflict and Work Together to Search for a
Solution
In an attempt to overcome the perceived communication problems, the Board met
with each of the regions to discuss the modernisation process, and proposals put
forward by the regions were discussed by the Board. In addition, Working Groups
were established to deal with outstanding issues in an attempt to deal with the
concerns expressed by the regions.
Implement the Solution and Then Evaluate the Situation

The proposed solutions were not perceived to have addressed the issues that led to
the conflict, and as a result of the inability of the Board to gain the confidence of
the GA, a motion against the change was won and the Board resigned. No change
was made to the structure of the NF; the decline in membership continued and the
financial situation gradually deteriorated. At this point in time, the conflict was
clearly not resolved.
Conflict Management Style and Summary

In terms of conflict management style, notice that the conflict was managed in a
number of different ways. When the conflict first emerged, indicated by the original
motion of no confidence, the Board’s approach to the conflict was to collaborate
and compromise as members visited the regions and considered their suggestions.
This is an appropriate way to handle conflict, particularly conflict that arises as a
result of proposed major changes. However, as a result of a failure to identify an
acceptable solution to the problem, this approach was not adequate. Once the lack
of trust in the Board became apparent, the Board stepped down, thereby avoiding
the conflict and giving up their responsibility.
—— G ——
This illustration demonstrates how important it is to fully understand the issues
involved in creating conflict. In this situation, lack of understanding meant the
conflict was not successfully resolved. Problems that were expressed overtly, such as
lack of communication and concerns about finances, were likely to be hiding greater
concerns regarding loss of power and control on behalf of the regions. Failing to
fully understand these underlying concerns, the Board did not manage to find a
suitable solution to the conflict even though their style of handling the conflict was
appropriate. Arguably, this conflict could have been anticipated, and by working
more closely with the dissenting regions before the GA met, the Board would have
been able to identify the absolute resistance of the regions to the proposed change
and thus seek an alternative solution.
This illustration also shows how necessary it is to have a strategy for dealing with
conflict. It also shows that getting this strategy right may, in fact, be more important
than the style adopted in order to deal with the conflict. Of paramount importance
is the ability to establish exactly what the problem is. This was not done thoroughly
enough in this situation, which meant that the conflict was never fully addressed
despite the Board adopting an appropriate conflict management style.
the Gambia National Olympic Committee. The purpose of this case study is to
demonstrate how the principles of HRM can be applied to OSOs. Although your
organisation may not be the same type of OSO, the case study will highlight how
the concepts covered in this chapter can be put into practice.
Case Study 3
Human Resources Assessment and Design
for the Gambia National Olympic Committee
The Gambia National Olympic Committee (GNOC) was established in 1980 as an
Olympic and sport committee and takes the lead in organising activities sponsored
by the IOC. The Committee retains exclusive powers of representation of the Gambia
in all games patronised by the IOC.
In meeting the challenges of improving the management structure of the NOC,

the GNOC decided to conduct a human resources assessment. With the support
of Olympic Solidarity, Sahel Invest Management International was contracted
to conduct a diagnostic review of the organisation’s HRM. The consultants were
required to conduct a human resources assessment and design a human resources
development plan for implementation by the GNOC. The following text presents
some of the key issues presented in the final report in April 2005. It is an overview
of HRM diagnosis in an NOC and shows how a development plan and an action plan
might be defined on the basis of this diagnosis.
c Organising Human Resources

Representation in the GNOC is broad based and voluntary. The General Assembly is
the highest body within the GNOC and comprises all members of the NOC. This body
meets at least once a year to review activities of the GNOC. The Assembly meets at
congress to elect the Executive Bureau once every 4 years. The Executive Bureau is
supported by Technical Committees to facilitate smooth conduct of business. The
Bureau is responsible for the overall policy and strategic direction of the GNOC,
albeit within the context of the Olympic Charter. Day-to-day administration is the
responsibility of the Administrative Secretariat under an Executive Director.
(continued)
The organisation was hierarchically structured with a simple reporting line and
basically no staff functions apart from the administrative responsibility conferred
on the Executive Secretary. This simple structure had been serving the needs of the
organisation; however, with an increase in its activities, it was determined that the
existing structure and staff complement were inadequate, leading staff to suffer
from work overload. This decision was made taking into consideration the task
variety, task significance and overall job content of the staff.
c Analysis of Human Resources

The analysis conducted by the consultants considered the main human resources
functions of recruitment and selection, training and development, performance
appraisal, and motivation. An assessment of these showed that despite laudable
achievements, the OSO had no clearly defined human resources policies. This
situation had much to do with the history of the organisation; the focus had always
been external, on the human resources development needs and requirements of
the NFs. This external focus had been at the expense of the skills and knowledge
required to progress the NOC.
The Bureau members, as articulated by the President, were very clear about the
future development of Olympic sport and the required growth and development of
the GNOC, both in terms of supporting activities and management requirements. This
had not, however, been translated into an HRM policy document. The absence of such
a policy framework meant that there was little attention on the staff development
needs of the GNOC, and consequently HRM was reactive and incremental.
Current Administration and Human Resources Planning

The absence of an expressed HRM policy framework meant that one of the most
important functions, planning, had not been given much attention. The GNOC was
externally oriented, and this had created the lack of focus on staff development.
Another factor was that the capacity to plan was inhibited by the number of
activities the Secretariat had to undertake with a very small staff complement. An
absence of a strategic or long-term plan aligned with the quadrennial programmes
of Olympic Solidarity was also observed. This meant that the GNOC mainly focused
on its annual programmes and activities, and therefore the long-term HRM needs
of the GNOC became secondary, if not omitted all together.
Assessment of Human Resources Administration

An assessment of the human resources functions revealed the following:
• Recruitment and selection: The consultants could not establish that there
was a recruitment and selection policy in use. Existing staff were recruited
based on the requirements of the GNOC at the time, so there was no policy
articulated for this function.
• Training and development: The GNOC had concentrated on meeting the

training requirements of the National Associations (NAs) for their various
developmental needs. Little attention, however, was placed on the training
and development requirements of the existing staff. Once again, there was
no training policy in place for GNOC staff members, although some off-site
training had been extended to both the Development Officer and Confidential
Secretary.
• Performance appraisal: There was no formal performance appraisal system
for the staff. However, the Executive Secretary had always brought staff
weaknesses to their attention and had also given praise where it was
due. This process was informal; hence records had not been kept for staff
performance, and neither had the outcome been linked to any reward or
sanction regime.
• Motivation: Staff were well rewarded when compared with similar
organisations within the Gambia, the major weakness being once again
the absence of a structured pay and reward system. The staff had access to
facilities like loans and access to medical treatment, which was administered
in an ad hoc manner. This was due largely to the absence of administrative
and financial manuals detailing the entitlements and responsibilities of the
staff by the organisation and vice versa.
Conclusions on the Human Resources Function of the GNOC

The absence of an effective HRM strategy was largely due to the fact that there
were shortcomings in the planning subsystem of the GNOC and its elements.
This meant that the GNOC had been rather incremental in its approach to HRM
rather than being proactive and matching increases in job content with staff
requirements and adequately planning for development of human resources.
In other words, there was no proper fit between organisational development
and the environment. Furthermore, stakeholders had many expectations of the
GNOC, but these expectations had to be delivered by a three-person Secretariat,
which was overstretched. Therefore the weakness of the organisation in planning,
postprogramme follow-ups and evaluation was in part a consequence of the quality
and number of staff.
c Human Resources Development Plan

An assessment of the human resources function suggested that the GNOC needed
to be functionally structured given the nature of the organisation. Furthermore,
the staff complement needed to be augmented to reduce the work overload of the
existing staff, particularly the Development Officer and Executive Secretary.
The main activities of the GNOC are as follows:
• Training and development

• Finance
• Administration
• Infrastructure development
• Facilitation
(continued)
It was recommended that these activities be placed in three main units of the
GNOC, namely development, administration and finance. It was thought that this
proposed structure would help define the roles and activities to be undertaken by
each unit.
Staffing Needs
Given the various activities and tasks of the GNOC, the consultants recognised that
the development unit needed to be strengthened and its activities rationalised.
It was therefore recommended that additional staff be recruited to support the
activities of the unit. The positions that were identified included an Administrative
Officer, Development Assistant and Accounting Assistant. Although this was a
substantial increase in staff numbers, the consultants recommended that these
vacancies should be filled by the beginning of 2006, culminating in the movement
of the GNOC office to its new head office.
Using the audit technique outlined in section 3.2, table 3.8 presents the human
resources requirements that were perceived to be necessary for the GNOC. It shows
the new positions that were proposed and what the new staffing complement
would be.
Table 3.8 Proposed Staff Complement for GNOC

Position Current Proposed Total Remarks
Executive Secretary 1 - 1 Rename as Executive
Director
Development Officer 1 - 1
Development - 1 1 New position
Assistant
Admin. Officer - 1 1 New position
Accounting Assistant - 1 1 New position
Confidential Secretary 1 - 1
Librarian - 1 1 New position
Driver 1 - 1
Messenger 1 - 1
Typist/Telephonist - 1 1 New position
Cleaner - 2 2 New positions
Watchmen - 2 2 New positions
Total 5 9 14
As can be seen from the table, the consultants recommended a substantial increase
in the staff complement of the GNOC. This presented a challenge for the GNOC in
terms of financing these new posts, particularly given the speed with which it was
felt the new staff should be recruited. An audit of human resources and any proposed
change in staff complement needs to be realistic within the resource constraints of
the organisation. Establishing that you need more staff but not being able to meet
those needs is demotivating for all concerned.
c Developing Human Resources Through Training

The consultants carried out a skills-gap assessment of the GNOC, which indicated
the current qualifications of staff and what was required for them to effectively
contribute towards the development and management of the GNOC in particular and
the development of sport in general. In order to minimise the training requirements
of the staff, it was proposed that the staff to be recruited in the future must meet
the job requirements and person specification, which outlines the personal and
interpersonal skills required of the job, before being recruited.
The need for continuity and management succession in any organisation cannot
be overemphasised. It was recommended that the GNOC put in place an effective
succession mechanism to allow for a smooth transition between outgoing and
incoming staff. The consultants recommended the following:
1. An Executive Secretary should be recruited within the next 2 years.
2. The Development Officer needs a qualified assistant who has the requisite
management experience to assure continuity.
3. The Confidential Secretary should be trained in IT to anticipate the future ICT

requirements of the GNOC, particularly in documentation, Web updates and
database management.
4. The current typist should be given permanent tenure and trained in secretarial
studies to prepare her for possible succession to the Confidential Secretary.
5. The Development Officer needs to be prepared as a future deputy to the

Executive Secretary.
c Action Plan for Human Resources Management

The consultants produced an action plan for the organisation and HRM of the GNOC.
This was intended to fulfil the GNOC’s primary objectives for human resources
development as highlighted in the consultancy report. The recommendations
contained in the report were translated into activities in the action plan. The matrix
includes monitorable outputs, and it was recommended that the Bureau should
ensure that an evaluation exercise is undertaken in 2007 to assess whether all the
targets have been met. Please note that table 3.9 only includes those strategies that
related to the human resources function of the GNOC.
(continued)
Table 3.9 HRM Plan for GNOC

Policy/ Strategies/ Time
objectives measures frame Implementer Expected output
To improve Adopt and July The GNOC Well-articulated
organisational implement the 2005 Bureau human resources
efficiency proposed organ- policy frame-
and human isation and work in place
resources devel- human resources
opment management
plan.
To enhance Appoint Jan. Executive Staffing comple-
the day-to-day Accounting 2006 Secretary ments enhanced
accounting Assistant. and efficiency
capacity improved
To establish a Prepare and Oct. Executive Well-articulated
well-defined adopt a long- 2005 Secretary organisation and
staff develop- term staff devel- staff develop-
ment and train- opment training Bureau ment plan in
ing programme programme. members place
capacity of the
GNOC
To motivate Prepare a staff- Oct. Executive To motivate
GNOC staff ing function 2005 Secretary GNOC staff
policy (recruit-
ment).
Prepare and put Oct. Executive

in place perfor- 2005 Secretary
mance appraisal
system.
Prepare and Nov. Executive

adopt a well- 2005 Secretary
defined pay
structure for
GNOC staff.
The plan is now in place, and the need for formalisation of the organisation has
been taken into account through the production of an operational manual of
administrative policies and procedures and financial management. You can see
from the previous discussion that the human resources planning process covers the
main dimensions of the human resources domain. The challenge then is to create
a system that allows the development of a new culture for the organisation and to
make these activities part of the daily life of the organisation.
Chapter 4
Managing Finance
Courtesy of the Comité Olimpico Ecuatoriano.
Objectives
• Communicate the need for good financial management and integrate it into
the governance system of your OSO.
• Inform the Board of its responsibilities in terms of the OSO’s finances.
• Develop a financial plan in line with the strategy of the OSO.
• Prepare necessary budgets to achieve the financial plan.
• Put in place procedures for accounting for finances.
• Monitor and evaluate the success of the financial plan.
• Report the financial performance of the OSO accurately and transparently.
163
N o matter how great the potential within an Olympic Sport Organisation (OSO),
how well designed its internal structure or how good the athletes it produces,
an OSO with poor financial management will experience problems at several levels.
Finances are the lifeblood of an organisation. Simply put, if finances are out of
control, so is the organisation.
This chapter is broken into five sections. The first section introduces the financial
management cycle and outlines why OSOs need sound financial management. The
second section outlines the financial planning process, and then the third section
focuses on the key areas of budgeting. The fourth section looks at how you can account
for your organisation’s finances, followed by the final section, which considers the
principles of evaluation and reporting. The chapter concludes with a case study that
draws on the experiences of the Swiss Olympic Association in its need to develop a
uniform financial reporting system for all of its affiliated sport associations.
Section 4.1
Good Financial Management
Financial management can be defined as monitoring and communicating an organi-
sation’s cash flow prudently and in accordance with the law. It requires both a broad
strategy from a planning perspective and articulate implementation and recording.
Financial management is the process by which an OSO conceives, budgets for, imple-
ments and reports its activities on a regular basis. Ideally, financial management
should be a component of a strategic plan. Managing funds transparently, efficiently
and effectively is essential to ensure continued income and growth for your OSO.
This section presents a number of factors that make up the financial management
process. It begins by considering the roles and responsibilities of those involved in the
finances of an OSO. It then presents the financial management cycle and defines key
terms associated with finance. The section concludes with a discussion of the principles
of financial management adopted by the Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee.
Roles and Responsibilities

All Board members and staff of an OSO are responsible for its financial management.
From the boardroom to a team in the field, everyone has to be attentive to the ethi-
cal and accurate use of funds. Few people are more important in the process than
the chair of the Board of Directors, treasurer or finance director, executive director,
and team manager. Please note that the term “treasurer” will be used in this chapter
to describe the person who is managerially responsible for finance in an OSO. This
may not be the title you use, and in your OSO the treasurer may also have another
role on the Board. The chair of the Board often sets the overall ethical and visionary
tone of the organisation. In this regard the chair can affect the manner in which
money is allocated. The executive director administers all financial activities in the
office at an organisational level. The team manager helps ensure that spending in
the field occurs in conformance with official policies. It is, however, the treasurer
who has the greatest responsibility for financial management and whose actions in
this area have the greatest effect on the organisation.
managing finance 165
Treasurers play a crucial role in establishing realistic budgets and keeping them
under control. The treasurer, who in many OSOs is an elected member of the Board,
must be the principal contributor to the financial planning process and the architect
of financial planning. The Queensland Government’s Sport and Recreation Initiative
(2006) describes the tasks of the treasurer as follows:
• Maintaining accounts and all financial transactions

• Assisting in the preparation of budgets
• Supervising income and expenditures, including acting as a signatory for all
expenditures
• Preparing regular bank account reconciliation statements for presentation to
the Board
• Preparing and presenting financial statements on a regular basis to Board meet-
ings
• Recommending and managing investment strategies for surplus funds
• Handling payroll and income tax payments for employees, if applicable
• Preparing all necessary financial statements for inclusion in the annual
report
• Ensuring that annual returns and audited financial statements are filed with
the relevant government departments, if applicable
Although the Board and staff must work together to run an OSO effectively, it is
the treasurer who will set the financial tone of the organisation regarding income
and expenditure. A good treasurer will ensure that an OSO stays solvent, grow
the organisation’s assets and strike a healthy balance in the organisation’s annual
cash flow. Financial management is the responsibility of the entire organisation;
however, ultimate responsibility lies in the hands of the treasurer and associated
financial staff.
Financial Management Cycle

The financial management cycle can be divided at the macro level into four stages:
planning, budgeting, implementation and accounting, and evaluation and reporting.
The first two stages concern primarily the OSO Board and lead to the latter two
stages, which concern the OSO’s stakeholders. Figure 4.1 illustrates the four stages
of the cycle, each driven by a commitment to the vision, mission and objectives of
the organisation.
The successful execution of the first stage, planning, requires a holistic approach,
one that is somewhat intangible but comprehensive in nature. It facilitates function-
ality, increases performance and is inextricably linked to other aspects of the OSO,
such as mission, programming and governance. It is essential that your vision, mis-
sion and objectives are in place in order for any spending to occur, because these
will show you where to place your funds.
1 2
Spending must support: Budget categories:
• Vision, mission and • Operating
objectives • Capital
• Principles of Olympism • Cash flow budgeting
(nondiscrimination) OSO oriented Structural framework:
Sensible distribution between: • Income
• Junior, senior, pre-elite, • Expenditures
and elite development 2 • Projected surplus
• Nonsporting Olympic Responsibilities of Board:
activities
Bu
• Probity
ng
• Diverse investments that
dg
ni
• Prudence
an
will produce high yield in
e
tin
Pl
future
g
Driven by
1 adherence to
vision, 3
mission and
4 objectives 3
tin n
Ev re
un tio
Building credibility: Structural requirements:
al po
g
co ta
ua rt
ac en
• Evaluate quantitatively and • Legally registered status
tio ing
d em
n
qualitatively • Treasurer
an pl
an
Im
• Show where improvement • Bank accounts
d
is necessary 4 • Legal documents:

• Internal reporting back to – Contracts
board of OSO – Waivers
• Reports to all investors Stakeholder – Insurances
• Independent auditing oriented • Internal accounting
• Public, annual report procedures
Figure 4.1 Four-stage financial management cycle.

If your organisation is experiencing problems, do not jump to the conclusion that

the source of the problems is financial in nature. The financial problems may be
symptomatic of more difficult governance or philosophical issues. However, because
power is germane to money, good financial practices can help maintain good power
structures and thus assist with the governance of the OSO. Therefore, do not try
to fix problems by simply increasing expenditure; having a lot of money without a
financial plan for its spending can empower problematic individuals or philosophies
within your sport system.
How and when does an OSO strike a balance between what it wants to do and
how it gets there? The answer lies in
• how the OSO decides to spend its money by developing a financial plan related
to belief in its mission,
• how the organisation budgets and its ability to realize a concept financially
through funding and implementation,
• how the OSO accounts for spending its money carefully by being accountable
to stakeholders, and
• how the organisation evaluates and reports spending, which will reflect the
integrity of its governance system.
Effectively managing these four stages will help increase the opportunities your
organisation has to function and grow.
Key Definitions
Some of the following definitions will be obvious and well known to you. How-
ever, one of the main steps towards good financial management is to have clear
understanding of what is being discussed when finances are being reviewed. It is
therefore important to ensure that everyone with financial responsibility in an OSO
understands the following terms.
• Assets: Something of value that the OSO owns or has the use of. These can
be current assets, which are only owned for a short time, such as cash, or
fixed or long-term assets, such as a building, which the OSO owns for a long
time.
• Liability: Something owed to someone else; liabilities refer to the debts of the
OSO. Again, these can be current liabilities, which must be paid within a fairly
short time, such as the money owed to travel agencies, or long-term liabilities,
such as the money owed to a bank for a mortgage on OSO headquarters.
• Overheads: Costs needed to run an OSO’s daily operations. These are not ser-
vice or project specific and include the cost of heating, electricity and rent.
• Surplus: An excess of income over expenditure.
• Deficit: An excess of expenditure over income.
• Liquidity: The amount of money you can access immediately to pay your
debts.
• Reserves: The amount of unspent funds at any given point.
• Balance sheet: A list of all assets owned and liabilities owed by the OSO at
a given date. It is a snapshot of the OSO’s financial position at a particular
point.
• Profit and loss account: A record of income generated and expenditure

incurred over a given period. This account shows whether your OSO has a
surplus or a deficit.
• Capital expenditure: Expenditure that results in the acquisition of fixed

assets, such as a building. It can also be expenditure on an improvement in the
earning capacity of a fixed asset, such as an extension to a building that can
be hired out.
• Revenue expenditure: Expenditure incurred on the operations of the OSO

or on maintaining the earning capacity of fixed assets, such as maintenance
on a building that is hired out.
Photo courtesy of the Comité Olimpico Paraguayo.

An organisation’s building is considered one of its assets. Pictured here is the headquarters of
the Comité Olímpico Paraguayo (Paraguay Olympic Committee).
Key Recommendations
c One person should have overall responsibility for the financial management
of your organisation.
c Make sure that all Board members are committed to good financial manage-
ment and are aware of their role in this.
c Follow the financial management cycle in the financial management of your
OSO.
c Be familiar with the terminology associated with finances, which will make
your understanding of this key area greater.
The following illustration considers the principles that the Papua New Guinea
Olympic Committee has developed to underpin the financial management of the
OSO.
Illustration 4.1
Principles of Financial Management: Papua New Guinea
Olympic Committee
The 2006-09 strategic plan for the Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee (PNGOC)
outlines several principles under which the OSO will operate, and a section on
financial management was included in the plan. Clearly, the organisation has a
commitment to the principles of good financial management as shown by the
following key result area (KRA) of the strategic plan (figure 4.2).
KRA 2: Financial Management

Objective: Increase the amount of financial support to our membership
Rationale: Adequate funding to the membership of the PNGSFOC is vital for

ongoing success of PNG sport. We will ensure adequate funding is provided
by:
• Capitalising on investment opportunities and increasing the amount of
corporate support we receive
• Reducing the reliance on both government and non-government sources
of income
• Striving to achieve cost effective utilisation of different sources of income
toward our strategic priorities
• Maintaining transparent financial protocols to ensure accountability to
our membership
Categories Strategic priorities Key performance indicators

2.1 Administration 2.1.1 Maintain sound Develop new and more
financial budgeting efficient financial prac-
and reporting practices tices
across the organisation
2.2 Accountability 2.2.1 Communicate Annual budget and

financial information to financial report distrib-
relevant stakeholders uted to key stakeholders
2.3 Funding 2.3.1 Provision of finan- Support provided in
cial support to our mem- 2005 exceeded annual
bership allocation
2.3.2 Administer and Funding policy devel-

report against funding oped and endorsed
received more efficiently
2.4 Investment 2.4 Sustain and grow Revenue increased by
investment sources 10% over 4 years
Figure 4.2 Principles of financial management in the PNGOC. The acronym used in
this figure, PNGSFOC, refers to the new name of the NOC, Papua New Guinea Sports
Federation and Olympic Committee, pending approval.
(continued)
First, the inclusion of financial management in the strategic plan shows an

awareness that finances must support the mission and objectives of the organisation.
It also shows that the evaluation of financial performance is important to the
PNGOC as there are clear key performance indicators associated with the strategic
priorities. There is also a statement of the desire for accountability to sponsors
and membership, indicating a stakeholder-oriented approach, evaluated by the
distribution of the annual budget and financial report to key stakeholders. Although
sound practices are in place, there is awareness that these could be more efficient,
and this is a key area of future performance. Finally, the PNGOC has committed to
ensure that it uses its funding sources in a more effective way, aiming to reduce
reliance on external funding.
These clear statements of principled financial management communicate to

others that the PNGOC will manage its finances in a sound and prudent manner.
This is a very public statement of how the OSO will operate and demonstrates that
the OSO will be accountable for its financial dealings. The public nature of these
statements shows the strength of the commitment to good financial management
within the PNGOC.
Section 4.2
Financial Planning
Financial planning is the process that helps you take stock of your organisation’s
financial situation, determine your goals and objectives and develop strategies to
help take control of the organisation’s finances in order to achieve its goals. Finan-
cial planning starts with the recognition that an organisation has distinct needs
and goals. Comprehensive financial planning includes a number of critical areas,
including cash management, budgeting, project management, insurance, capital
expenditure and tax planning.
This section considers the process of financial planning and begins with a dis-
cussion of the need to determine your OSO’s priorities in order to guide planning.
It goes on to discuss the assets that an OSO might have and then presents some
important concepts to assist with the financial planning process. It concludes with
a discussion of the financial planning system of British Swimming.
Good financial management encompasses handling money in a manner that

advances an organisation’s growth. Conversely, financial mismanagement encom-
passes handling money in a manner that inhibits an organisation’s growth. To ensure
that your OSO employs good financial management, all four stages of the financial
cycle summarised in figure 4.1 should be kept under tight control.
Even when there is tight control, financial mismanagement can occur due to delib-
erate misconduct. Thus, the integrity of those overseeing the control mechanisms is
crucial. However, deliberate misconduct is not the only way financial mismanage-
ment can occur. Although deliberate misconduct poses a serious threat to all OSOs,
a systemic attitude problem regarding the availability of money and how it should
be spent is often more difficult to overcome.
It is not the obligation of a prospective sponsor to support Olympic activity simply

because of the strong brand integrity represented in the Olympic rings. Misspending
money for whatever reason is of real concern to any stakeholder regardless of the
perceived integrity of the agenda or context. Misspending is particularly threaten-
ing because it can happen involuntarily and even without subterfuge at a variety
of levels in the OSO simply because the people spending the money are not guided
by the organisation’s mission or empowered with the information necessary to help
them maximise the yield from the resources.
Good financial management is linked to a myriad of nonfinancial factors that

make interpreting the financial health of an organisation impossible just by read-
ing a spreadsheet. For example, fraud is not necessarily apparent when reviewing
financial accounts because accounts can be doctored. Money must be spent keeping
in mind the context in which your OSO operates, both in terms of its membership
in the Olympic Movement and the condition and attributes of your country, sport
and stakeholders. Only then will you be able to determine the financial integrity
of your organisation.
Understanding Your Assets

Your OSO is likely to have various assets that have the potential to generate revenue.
Some of these assets will be current and some will be fixed, and the ratio between
these needs to be carefully managed so that you have enough cash to run the OSO
and deal with any emergencies that arise.
Cash Versus Value In-Kind Assets

Current assets fall in two broad categories: cash and value in-kind. Cash assets are
those that arrive to your organisation in the form of cash, cheque or bank transfer
and can be used to buy products or services in support of a given activity. Your
organisation should distinguish between cash provided for a specific purpose and
cash provided for general use. Cash given for a specific purpose must be spent
accordingly; otherwise you are engaging in misappropriation. In order to change
the way in which such cash is used, you may need to receive written consent from
the investor.
For example, the IOC and Olympic Solidarity provide a subsidy for the Olympic
Day Run to all NOCs. This subsidy is intended to support any number of costs associ-
ated with the run. An administrative subsidy is also provided to all NOCs annually
that can be used to cover general overhead expenses. It is good financial practice
to keep these two accounts separate in order to avoid using the Olympic Day Run
subsidy to pay for general office expenses not associated with the run.
Photo courtesy of Raymond Conzemius.

Olympic Solidarity’s value in-kind contributions include MEMOS scholarships. Pictured are
MEMOS students at the IOC headquarters in Lausanne.
Value in-kind contributions are those that come in the form of paid-for services,
activities or equipment where a third party has been paid directly by the investor
or sponsor to support a given budget item. In the case of Olympic Solidarity, value
in-kind contributions are those such as scholarships for athletes and coaches, which
are paid directly to the training centre, and scholarships for the MEMOS programme.
Just because these contributions are not cash does not mean that they do not have
value. You must report them in your earnings and should factor them into your
financial planning. Always seek to include a broad array of cash and in-kind assets
in your financial planning, which creates flexibility and facilitates the ability of the
organisation to cover the costs of all services.
Infrastructure
There are other forms of assets that might be in an organisation’s possession, such
as built infrastructure, that have monetary value as a fixed asset. These assets are
of less importance to the discussion in this chapter because it is principally con-
cerned with cash and in-kind assets that are moving in and out of an OSO annually.
However, remember that liquidity is always more than what the organisation has
in the bank, and your OSO might be confronted with the need to sell fixed assets
to pay debt. If you have been monitoring your cash flow carefully, though, this will
rarely be needed.
Sources of Income
Be sure to know how much money is actually within your system when you start
the financial planning process. You should identify where your revenue comes from,
such as Olympic Solidarity, your government, sponsors and members. Then decide
which activity is most suitable for each source to support. In some instances you
will have no choice since some funds are provided for specific projects and must
be used for these projects, as in the Olympic Day Run subsidy outlined earlier. Try
to determine how much money over time each source has put into the system and
gauge how much benefit the stakeholders, including your OSO, have received as a
result. This will help you determine whether it is worth pursuing some sources of
income or not.
Key Concepts in Financial Planning

Many factors are important in financial planning, and several of these are outlined
here. The objective is not to offer you a financial plan; such a plan will be affected
by your environment and is therefore something that only your organisation can
create. However, the points do highlight some factors that you need to consider
regarding the handling of money.
Finance as an Extension of Planning

Ultimately, financial planning is an extension of an OSO’s broader planning pro-
cess. Financial planning must be connected to the design and implementation of the
OSO’s objectives; otherwise spending will be ad hoc and run the risk of putting the
organisation into deficit. A sound strategic plan will serve as a guide for managing
finances more effectively (see chapter 2).
Time Frame
The time frame of a financial plan is determined by the agenda outlined in an OSO’s
strategic plan. NOCs may wish to work on a 4-year cycle in line with Olympic qua-
drennials, but clubs or leagues may find an annual planning cycle to be more appro-
priate. However, all finances must be monitored frequently and should be reported
at least annually. Certain items have to be realised before others, whilst others are
more complex and require more funding, and those should be the items for which
the OSO seeks resources most vigorously. It is advisable that OSOs working on a 4-
year cycle seek to implement programmes in 1- or 2-year time blocks, unless there
are compelling reasons not to do so. This will allow regular evaluation in the 4-year
cycle. Even in the event of a long-term development initiative, such as an athlete’s
high-performance career, it is usually practical to break down the larger time block
into smaller components, such as a period ending with a major championship.
Cost Estimating
Once you have decided what the organisation wants to do, you have to decide how
much it is going to cost. To estimate costs accurately, you should think about every
possible scenario in the OSO’s programmes and have a corresponding budget line.
If you fail to do this, when an issue arises for which there is no budget line, you will
be stuck with the problem of reallocating resources. It is better to run to a surplus
than a deficit at the end of the year, although doing this too regularly will call into
question the accuracy of your budgeting. The balance of funds can be returned to
funders, or with their permission it could be redistributed towards the cost of other
programmes or carried over within the same budget line for the next fiscal year.
Programming is always more expensive than at first glance, albeit comparatively

affordable to most major infrastructure. Costs associated with running OSO pro-
grammes include design, printing, venues, gala dinners, transport, insurance, room,
board, mailing, rent, electric, water, training, indemnities, membership dues, legal
counsel and medical expenses. So when thinking about your OSO’s programmes,
consider those that are essential to its function and those that it could survive
without.
If the OSO does not have the internal resources to estimate costs accurately, then it
should outsource this work to a professional. This will reduce the risk of overspend-
ing, especially on infrastructure projects, once work begins on any given activity.
Cost estimating for infrastructure projects should be provided by the professional
company being hired for implementation. If any of the companies under review
does not include professional cost estimating within the scope of services for the
project, the OSO should avoid using it.
Once a service provider is selected, you need to negotiate a contract that defends
the OSO’s ability to stick to the budget. If the project runs over cost, it should be the
problem of the contracted professional, not the OSO, to deliver the final product for
the agreed-upon amount. It is important to work only with people holding profes-
sional registrations or licences to estimate or with significant professional experience
in the appropriate field. Your partners should understand the need to estimate and
agree contractually upon the cost of any activity in advance of commencing work.
It is not advisable to work with any service provider who wants to settle costs after
work commences.
Distribution of Resources
Distribution of resources should also be determined by the strategic plan, which, if the
plan is sensible, will ensure a broad base of investments. The most essential resources
are those that go towards initiatives designed to meet organisational objectives and,
in the long-term, the mission of the OSO. For example, high-performance activities
tend to be expensive per capita and affect fewer athletes. It therefore may not be
appropriate for an OSO whose mission is junior development to put all its resources
into a few elite athletes at the expense of its junior development programme.
Types of Expenditure
Another concern is the funding of programmes versus infrastructure. Although
infrastructure is necessary in many cases, it is not necessarily the priority. Smaller
investments in development programmes, phased in over time, usually produce
a higher return on investment in the size and quality of the athlete pool whilst
contributing to higher athlete retention. Infrastructure projects require significant
resources but do not guarantee any improvement in performance in the absence of
sound programming.
Area of Focus
Assuming the Board wants the organisation to perform at both the national and
international level, it needs to consider a variety of factors that affect the allocation
of finances. At the national level, these factors can include the following:
• Size of junior, senior, elite and masters programmes

• Number of federations and clubs within the system
• Overall income from membership dues
• Total cost of expenditures to support the system
• Resources available to support all stakeholders
• Flow of money between stakeholders within the sport system.
At the international level, factors to consider include the following:
• Other countries that participate in the sport

• How much the other countries spend annually on their sport relative to the
number of athletes they have
• Opportunities for international cooperation in training and competition
• Travel and insurances
• Number of events for which the OSO is eligible versus those in which it will
actually participate
Regardless of the level at which you work, you will need to be aware of the costs
of these factors. If this information is not available, you will need to set up a system
for collecting it before you can make many strategic financial decisions about how
best to spend money in the future.
Organisational Efficiency
Be sure to evaluate the internal efficiency of your OSO. Pay particular attention to
making sure that you have adequate and appropriately skilled human resources and
that your marketing and promotion strategies are effective. Organisational structure
also affects efficiency, as do the governance procedures under which the OSO oper-
ates. The evaluation of organisational efficiency can be done using the principles of
auditing outlined in chapters 1 and 2.
Key Recommendations
c Ensure that the Board takes responsibility for financial planning.
c Ensure that financial planning is directly linked to the organisation’s strate-
gic plans.
c Be clear about how much income you have and where it comes from before
planning.
c Be realistic about the costs of your programmes.
c Ensure that you finance activities that are appropriate for your OSO.
The following illustration outlines the financial planning process followed by

British Swimming. It shows how planning occurs on a 4-year process and is linked
with a strategic plan.
Illustration 4.2
Financial Planning in British Swimming
British Swimming is the National Governing Body for swimming, diving, disability
swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water in Great Britain.
The members are the three Home Country Swimming Associations of England
(Amateur Swimming Association), Scotland (Scottish Swimming) and Wales (Swim
Wales.) British Swimming focuses on the high-performance aspects of the sport
and is a member of the European Governing Body (LEN) and the World Governing
Body (FINA.)
In line with good practice, British Swimming receives funds from a number
of sources. The infrastructure of British Swimming is funded primarily from
contributions from the three Home Country Swimming Associations and UK Sport.
The performance programme for each discipline is funded primarily from the UK
National Lottery fund, which is managed through a subsidiary company of British
Swimming: High Performance Swimming Ltd.
The performance funding is awarded on a quadrennial basis against detailed

four-year operational plans that link into the overall corporate plan and vision for
swimming. The plans are compiled by the technical experts for each discipline, led
by the relevant National Performance Director, and full costs are apportioned for
each activity resulting in a four-year budget that includes the expected income and
expenditure month by month.
The central British Swimming budget is produced annually with an overview of

the following three years. The annual budget is broken down into monthly income
and expenditures.
Management accounts are produced on a monthly basis by qualified accountants

for both British Swimming and High Performance Swimming Ltd and all variances
are accounted for. Rolling forecasts are produced for both companies, ensuring all
budget holders are confident of the final year-end and quadrennial-end figures.
Regular reports are made to UK Sport to show expenditure against the grant.
The accounts for both companies are audited annually by an external audit firm
and the final accounts published in the annual report following approval by the
Board and acceptance by the members attending the annual meeting. In addition
to the annual external audit, an internal audit process has been introduced into
the day-to-day operation.
The financial planning of British Swimming demonstrates several of the concepts

that have been discussed in this section. Financial planning is linked to the strategic
and operational plans, which allow finances to be distributed and managed
effectively. The control of finances is good, as they are subject to both an internal
audit process and a thorough external audit. Finances are monitored and reported
to key funding bodies and the Board on a regular basis. For governance purposes,
final accounts must be approved by the Board and accepted by the members before
publication. From this description, it would appear that British Swimming carries
out sound financial planning.
Section 4.3
Budgeting
Budgeting is the process by which an OSO agrees upon the cost distribution of its
programmes and services for any given year or project. It includes planning as an
inherent precedent. Effective budgets can only be established once the financial
planning has determined the permissible range or type of spending that will occur
within the OSO. Once a budget is established, it is crucial to stick to it. For this reason,
constant communication between the Board members, especially the treasurer, and
other staff, such as the financial controller and project managers, is necessary.
The Board must agree to the budget and communicate its nature and volume
to staff if there is to be successful organisational compliance. If an OSO does not
adhere to its budget, the delivery of its programmes and services will be negatively
affected. Stakeholders are likely to become discontented as programmes and ser-
vices break down, financial stakeholders will become concerned about a potential
decline in reputation, and trust will be broken, thereby making all future actions
and relationship building more difficult for the OSO.
This section looks at how to compile a budget and then control it. It considers the
types of budget an OSO might have and ends with a discussion of the budgets of
the Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano (Ecuador Olympic Committee).
Compiling a Budget
A budget is probably the most important tool an OSO can have. It provides a plan for
not only long-term business operations, but day-to-day operations as well. A budget
can help your OSO meet its goals, and it tells stakeholders how much you want to
spend and in what time frame. This provides an immediate idea of the degree of
reason within your OSO’s planning because the budget breakdown gives investors
more detail about how the money will be spent. It also allows them to see if your
OSO has distributed its budget appropriately.
However, budgets are not just about expenditure. They should also contain the
income-generating aspects of OSOs, such as membership fees, competition entries,
ticket sales, advertising revenues and broadcasting rights (see chapter 5). Therefore,
it is important not to make the budget simply a list of expenses, but to present the
information in a manner that meets the needs of all stakeholders, particularly finan-
cial ones. The person preparing budgets should be knowledgeable about finances
and the OSO. This person could be the project director, a staff member involved
with the project or the person who handles the organisation’s finances.
The creation of a budget is a relatively straightforward process. You need to deter-

mine how much money you have coming in, how much money you are spending
and how much money you should be spending. This requires you to identify the
following:
• Sources of revenue, or how much money is coming in, including in-kind con-
tributions
• The costs of the services the OSO delivers
• Overhead costs, including salaries, rent and electricity
• Any other costs, such as investment in equipment, maintenance, fringe benefits,
employee benefits and payroll taxes
Once you have this information, you can develop a budget, outlining areas where
revenue will be spent. When calculating expenditure, remember to consider infla-
tion or increases in costs, such as rent increases or annual salary increases. When
developing a budget, most organisations allocate funds to specific “pots of money”
with an associated numerical code. For example, a budget for salaries may be created
and associated with the number 4421. This becomes known as the budget code for
salaries, and all expenditure that is relevant to salaries should be coded as 4421.
You want to avoid
• spending resources without a budget;

• starting initiatives for which there is no budget allotted in the respective cal-
endar year;
• reallocating budget resources from one line item to another, because this denotes
lack of financial control;
• asking funders for more resources because you did not estimate your budget
accurately;
• multiplying charges to seek additional revenue by having more than one funder
cover any given budget item, such as charging travel costs to both the club and
the federation;
• large price tags on “miscellaneous/other” budget line items; and
• large overhead budgets, which include unreasonably high salaries or unneces-
sarily high rent.
Such behaviour sends the signal that your OSO is not fiscally responsible and will
lead funders to shy away from investing in it.
You control expenditure of the budget with regular reporting on the differences
between actual and budgeted results. The differences are usually called “variances”
and are categorised as favourable or unfavourable. This analysis helps you to
• identify quickly whether things are going as expected;

• identify where corrective action is required;
• review plans, policies and decisions in light of performance;
• revise budgets if necessary;
• plan and coordinate the use of resources; and
• predict potential problems.
Budgeting and budgetary control can be effective management tools. The key to
making them effective is to ensure that all relevant managers are involved in the
process and that the right amount of information is presented, in the right amount
of detail, at the right time.
Types of Budgets
The three main categories of budgets the treasurer should assist in developing are
the annual budget, project budgets and capital budgets.
Annual Budget
The annual, or operating, budget is the total estimated cost of running an organi-
sation and its programmes in any given financial year. The annual budget is com-
posed of several project budgets plus the overhead of running the OSO. It includes
income, expenditures and the net sum calculated from the two. Table 4.1 presents
the annual budget of a local badminton club, which shows the budget items required
by a small OSO.
Note that the budget is in deficit (expenses are projected to be higher than income).
This means that additional funds will have to be found elsewhere. In an organisa-
tion of this size, fundraising activities may address the deficit, as will an increase in
membership fees. Alternatively, costs could be reduced and perhaps new equipment
could be purchased at a later date. In addition, the telephone costs appear high, so
there may be a possible reduction in this budget line.
Table 4.1 Operating Budget of a Badminton Club

Category Amount (AU$)
Income
Subsidies from municipality 2,000
Membership 1,500
Donations 400
Fundraising 2,000
Sponsorship 1,000
Total $ 6,900
Expenses
Rent 3,500
Equipment 600
Volunteers’ expenses 350
Publicity and printing 200
Fundraising expenses 200
Telephone 1,500
Stamps and stationery 300
Insurance 600
Sundry 500
Total $7,750
Projected surplus (deficit) ($850)
© 2006 State of Queensland (Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation).
Project Budgets
Project budgets allot a given amount of financial resources towards the achievement
of a stated organisational objective. These budgets are broken into two sections,
income and expenditure, which each comprise a variety of budget lines corre-
sponding to cost items. Table 4.2 presents a sample budget for the preparation and
participation of a Palestinian national team candidate in the 2006 Senior World
Rowing Championship.
You can see that the budget has a line for living expenses and then for each major
championship attended during the year. German classes were included as a devel-
opmental activity for the athlete, and the bike was essential to keep the costs of
commuting between the athlete’s residence and the club to a minimum. It is neces-
sary to include all items associated with a project, rather than simply those that are
immediately obvious. The budget also includes an exchange rate, which should be
included in budgets if funding is received in a currency different from that which
is to be used for expenditures.
Table 4.2 Project Budget for 2006 Training Camp and World Championship Participation,
Palestinian Rowing Federation
Months 2005-2006
Budget season Jan.- April- July- Per
2005/06, in € Oct.-Dec. March June Sept. Total Comment unit
Rent and living 2,250 2,250 2,250 2,250 9,000 750 per month (in line with aver- 750
expenses age student’s allowance)
Training camps 1,575 1,575 3,150 Three weeks, 75 per day, includ-
in winter ing travel, boat transport
World 2,800 2,800 Assuming the PRF gets into
Championship the development programme
again—500 for boat transfer, 300
for unisuits. Including jacket for
coach, 500 for miscellaneous (i.e.,
FISA fee, giveaways, etc.), three
flights to Eton/London at €500
each—one for athlete, one for
coach, one for administrator.
German lan- 1,200 1,200 1,200 3,600 20 per 45 minutes, 2 hours per 20
guage courses session, 3 sessions per week, 30
weeks between November and
May
Training camp 1,313 1,313 2,626 Five weeks, 75 per day, including 75
World Champi- travel, boat transport
onship
World Cups 1,000 1,000 2,000 1,000
Travel U.S.– 1,000 1,000 Athlete formerly training in U.S. 600

Europe (includ- prior to 2005-06 schedule
ing insurance)
Club 400 400 400
membership
Competitions, 100 100 100 300 Three, 100 each 100
Germany
Bike 100 100
Total 6,525 5,125 5,863 7,463 24,976
Income from grants
Oct. Jan. April June
6,525 5,125 5,863 7,463 24,976
Exchange 1.25
rate: €
Data from the Palestinian Rowing Federation.
181
Capital Budgets
When you need to spend more substantial funds, a capital budget for a certain
period of time, such as a 4-year period subject to annual review, can be used. Table
4.3 shows the capital budget that could be developed for improvements to a club’s
facilities that are put out for hire to raise revenue. Although this budget includes
maintenance items, such as painting, it is a capital budget item because the expen-
diture will improve the revenue-earning capacity of the clubhouse.
Budget Income
An OSO should be sure to raise its finances from a variety of sources. It should
also ensure that each budget line for which it is obtaining resources is targeted at
the appropriate source. For example, different items might be covered by govern-
ment funds, charitable organisations, private investors or supporters, and corporate
sponsorship. OSOs should decide what funding they have, how much they need and
the degree of difficulty in obtaining each budget line from a given investor. When
trying to identify a source of funds for any given budget line, an OSO should think
about the value it has to offer (see chapter 5).
You should avoid depending on one or two sources for all your income because this
leaves the organisation financially vulnerable if one source of funds ends without
an alternative having been identified. You need to carefully target where funds will
come from and for what projects. Not targeting your funders sends the message that
you simply want money but have not really considered how it should be spent. This
will not create confidence in your OSO’s financial management.
Table 4.3 Capital Budget for Improvements to a Clubhouse

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Total
Amount (AU$) (AU$)
Refurbish lounge area 7,000 5,500 12,500
Repaint exterior of building 10,000 12,500 22,500
Replace HVAC system 21,000 21,000
Upgrade gymnasium 7,500 7,500 15,000

equipment
Replace and upgrade car 30,000 30,000
park lighting
Rectify car park drainage 15,000 15,000
problem
Clubhouse extension 120,000 120,000
Fit out clubhouse extension 60,000 60,000
Total 32,000 26,500 37,500 127,500 72,500 296,000
One matter to highlight here that is often overlooked is grant writing. In many
countries, the economic situation is not conducive to large-scale investments in sport,
and OSOs have limited budgets. In such circumstances it might be worth the effort
to explore the options available through foundation or foreign government funding
such as the Ford Foundation, United Nations Development Programme and United
States Agency for International Development. These organisations have guidelines
to help you in the application process. In addition, the Internet provides a wealth
of information and guidance on how to write successful grant applications. Just do
a search on any search engine, using key words such as sport, funding, grants and
development.
Budget Expenditure and Control

Budget expenditure can be large or small, but the important thing is to be sure that
it does not exceed projected income (see table 4.1). If it does, your OSO has to find
ways to generate income in other areas, such as through increased membership
fees or ticket sales, to offset the difference. Try to avoid spending more than you
receive in income, reallocating budget lines to offset overspending, not declaring
liabilities and misrepresenting the financial solvency of your organisation. These
are bad practices that have a compounding effect and generally encourage the use
of illegal financial practices.
If money goes missing, it usually does so in small amounts. However, small

amounts can accumulate over time and constitute a significant loss. For this reason,
regular and clear balancing of the books and reporting to the Board are necessary
to demonstrate transparency and spending according to the financial plan. In most
cases, it is satisfactory for an organisation to have one person sign for financial
transactions. However, in the event that a particularly large sum of money needs
to be spent or obtained by the organisation, it is recommended that the treasurer
(or financial controller) and one other person, normally the president or secretary
general of the Board, have to sign. This will avoid the responsibility of a large sum
of money resting on one person’s shoulders.
Key Recommendations
c In consultation with the Board, identify all sources of income and expendi-
ture, no matter how small or irregular.
c Allocate funds to appropriate areas of expenditure, in particular taking into
account income that has been provided for an explicit purpose.
c Ensure that the Board regularly assesses actual performance against bud-
geted performance.
c Make changes to financial plans if necessary.
c As a last resort, adjust the strategic intentions of the OSO.
The following illustration shows how the Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano (Ecuador
Olympic Committee) raises revenue and then allocates it to its plans.
Illustration 4.3
Budgeting in the Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano
The Comité Olímpico Ecuatoriano (COE, Ecuador Olympic Committee) was recognised
by the IOC in 1959. In 1998, Danilo Carrera Drouet assumed the COE presidency.
He had a strong history in sport and important links to the private business sector.
This was important because when he was elected, the organisation was essentially
bankrupt. There was no stable source of income, and only 12 NFs were members
of the COE.
The first task for the new administration was to identify a permanent source
of income. The organisation sought a reform of the telephone laws to resolve
this dilemma. Through negotiations between the public and private sector, a 5%
tax was applied to all calls on the nation’s phone networks that would be paid to
sport organisations in the country. In 2005 the tax generated approximately US$50
million. The law now requires that 10% of the tax money go to the NFs. From this
10%, the NFs are required to contribute 10% to the NOC (or 1% of the total tax
income). Since the number of NFs has grown from 12 to 45 under Carrera Drouet’s
leadership, as outlined in table 4.4, the sum generated for the COE now constitutes
well over 10% of its annual income.
In addition to the income from the NFs’ share of the phone tax, the COE receives
an additional 1% of the phone tax as income. These two sources of income combined
provide the NOC with 2% of the total phone tax income annually, which was
approximately US$1 million in 2005. A provision in the law stipulates that not more
than 30% of the income from a public fund can be spent in any given budget year.
Thus, the COE is required to find a way to spend the US$1 million that it receives
over several years. This results in a prudent approach to spending across a variety
of services, as outlined in table 4.5.
The tax on phone calls and a subsequent change in legislation regarding the
ministerial budget were essential to generate a stable source of income for the COE.
However, more funds were needed to realise other development plans. The obvious
source would be sponsorship, but the COE had a legacy of uncooperative interaction
with the private sector. In addition, it did not have a product to offer in exchange
for advertising opportunities because athletes belong to NFs and the NOC can only
offer a product once every 4 years: participation in the Olympic Games.
To resolve this dilemma, the COE developed a new product in the form of an
annual Olympic Festival. The COE also remarketed the Olympic Day Run, which
previously had been poorly supported. These two activities are now major annual
sport events in Ecuador, with sponsorship from a national beer company (Cervecería
Nacional), two banks (Banco del Pichincha and Banco de Guayaquil) and a yoghurt
company (Industrias Lácteas Toni). The products of these companies are sold and
advertised at sport events and used on the national uniforms and team equipment
for the Olympics, in line with the terms established by the IOC and IFs.
Courtesy of the Comité Olimpico Ecuatoriano.

The COE developed an annual Olympic Festival, which contributed to bringing in
additional revenue from new sponsors.
Table 4.4 shows the origin of all funding sources, categorised as public and private
funding. Private funding is further categorised as local and international. The table
not only provides an overall figure but also shows itemised amounts for the overall
total. Thus, the amount that is raised from each source is immediately transparent.
Under local income, the amount provided by each sponsor of the Olympic Festival
is also made transparent. It is also clear that these funds must be spent on the
Olympic Festival. This level of detail is extremely valuable for accountability and
control purposes.
Expenditure is also provided in great detail, and you can see from table 4.5 that
it has been divided into departmental expenses, institutional expenses and the High
Performance Olympic Centre (HPOC). Departmental expenditure is budgeted against
the various functions required to run the OSO and primarily goes towards salaries.
Notice also how the overhead is allocated to each department, rather than being
an overall figure for the OSO. This allows stakeholders to identify where overheads
are highest, which is important for accountability and control.
(continued)
Table 4.4 Consolidated Annual Budget for the COE: Income, 2006
Values in US$ dollars
Description Itemised Totals
Income—public funding
1% of the 5% telephone tax 530,000
10% Ecuadorian Sports Federations 530,000
Ecuadorian Olympic Fund—National Federations 583,000
Grants 318,000
Olympic Festival 106,000
High Performance Olympic Centre and others 106,000
Federation sports support 53,000
Income retained by federations 33,300
Funds earmarked for 2005 300,000
Total income—public funds 1,976,300
Income—private funding
Local income
Ecuadorian Olympic Committee advertising 85,000
Cervecería Nacional (National Brewery) 25,000
National Lottery 25,000
Industrias Lácteas Toni (Toni Dairy Industries) 25,000
Banco del Pichincha (bank) 10,000
Other income 50,000
Banco del Pichincha (bank): lease 30,000
Miscellaneous income: rentals 20,000
Olympic Festival advertising 70,000
Banco de Guayaquil (bank) 12,500
Cervecería Nacional (national brewery) 25,000
Alcaldia de Salinas Industrias 10,000

Industrias Lácteas Toni (Toni Dairy Industries) 12,500
Aguapen (waterworks company) 10,000
Subtotal local income 205,000

Description Itemised Totals
International income
Olympic Solidarity Confidential
Meridian Confidential
Amounts due 2005 30,000
Subtotal international income Confidential
Total income—private funding Confidential
Total Income Confidential
Table 4.5 Consolidated Annual Budget of the COE: Revenue Expenditures,

2006

Description of expenses Itemised Totals
Departmental
Executive Committee Chair 33,735
Staff expenses—salary and employee benefits 28,700
Overhead 5,035
Management 27,580
Overhead 0
Accounting 26,280
Overhead 5,000
Press and PR 62,670
Overhead 36,350
Technical 27,100
Overhead 22,900
(continued)

Departmental
Library 5,600
Overhead 0
COEDI (Ecuadorian Olympic Records and Informa-
tion Centre) 9,800
Overhead 0
Administrative, security and maintenance 132,560
Overhead 97,000
Museum 4,500
Overhead 300
Systems 20,120
Overhead 5,000
Medical 4,728
Overhead 1,368
Women’s Sports Centre 10,806
Overhead 516
Subtotal departmental expenses 365,479
Institutional
Staff expenses—Women’s Sports Centre 6,000
Overhead 180,047
Legal expenses 10,000
188

Departmental
Sundry operational expenses 180,448

Subtotal institutional expenses 376,495
High Performance Olympic Centre (HPOC)
Services rendered: medical, technical and host
staff 114,120
South American Games 80,000
Basic services 58,013
Materials and supplies 30,425
Transportation expenses 7,800
Publications 14,533
Repairs 20,000
Materials for new buildings 85,358
Training program 38,400
Total High Performance Olympic Centre 490,369
Departmental, institutional and HPOC expenses $ 1,232,343
The remaining expenditure is allocated to the services offered by the COE. Once
again, in most instances, the budget shows excellent detail. Stakeholders may wish
for more details on the sundry operating expenses that are part of the institutional
budget. In addition, there appear to be two areas of expenditure allocated to staff
for the Women’s Centre. This is, however, likely to be due to different types of staff
that have been accounted for in a different way.
The budgets of the COE have a clear structure, with departments and services
having their own budget lines. For example, all costs associated with the HPOC,
including staff expenses, are allocated to one area of the budget. Sources of income
and areas of expenditure can be easily identified and are itemised appropriately.
Overheads are allocated to relevant budgets, rather than as their own budget
line, which makes control easier. Finally, all matters pertaining to the budgeting
of the COE are published publicly in an annual report and audited yearly by
PricewaterhouseCoopers, as required by the principles of good governance and
sound financial management.
Section 4.4
Accounting for Finances
Implementation of a budget means raising and spending the money included in it.
Accounting is the process of tracking and cataloguing the income and expenditures.
This accounting makes the information easily retrievable in the future. It is part of good
financial management, but it is also part of prudent risk management. A critical reason
to record all income and expenditure is so that other individuals or organisations can
see that the OSO spends its resources according to its expressed intent. Thus, transpar-
ency, risk management and functionality are all inherent to the accounting process.
A vital part of implementing an organisation’s finances is managing financial risk

whilst implementing programmes and events. This section addresses the structures
that must be in place in an OSO in order to spend money with minimal risk. It also
outlines how you can track and account for spending. The section concludes with an
example of a risk management tool, the waiver used by the United States Olympic
Committee at their Olympic Training Center.
Managing Risk With Legal Documentation

As outlined in chapter 1, sport includes risks that vary from minor legal disputes to
death. It is therefore part of sound financial management to accept these risks and
take prudent measures to control them in advance. An OSO’s primary concerns are
to minimise the potential for lawsuits that could bankrupt it and its Board members
and to conduct business in a manner consistent with the law. The principles of risk
management outlined in chapter 1 are crucial, particularly the use of a risk register.
There are, however, other tools that are valuable, and these are presented next.
Insurances
If available to you, an important measure to reduce risk is holding insurance policies.
There are at least two categories of insurance to consider in an OSO. One insurance
category limits the liability of the Board of Directors, which runs the OSO. Members
of any Board have a responsibility to their organisation that includes its financial
solvency. Therefore, protection of individual Board members’ personal financial
assets is part of sound financial management. If possible, an OSO should consider
taking out a policy of directors and officers liability insurance (DOLI) in order to
protect the Board members from financial ruin. DOLI also secures a pool of money
for legal fees in the event of a lawsuit.
The other insurance category to consider includes the various insurance options you
could offer to members, athletes, coaches and officials. Since OSOs provide services
with an inherent risk, membership in the organisation could include insurance against
equipment damage, health insurance, accidental death or dismemberment insurance,
or DOLI. At the very least, these policies could be offered at an additional charge.
If such insurance policies are not available to your OSO, you need to be confident
that the management and accountability systems that are in place in the organisa-
tion can provide protection against the need for such policies.
Conflicts of Interest
To reduce the risk of being charged with financial mismanagement during the imple-
mentation of finances, you need to make sure you are not operating with a conflict
of interest. Such conflicts occur in several situations. Of primary concern are those
that arise out of financial interests between members of the Board of Directors of
an OSO and anyone providing contracted services. For example, if a Board member
owns a clothing company, it would be a conflict of interest for that member to decide
which company should supply team uniforms.
Financial conflicts of interest may exist where a Board member or other stakeholder
(known as an “interested party”) of the OSO directly or indirectly profits as a result
of a decision, policy or transaction made by your OSO. Examples include situations
in which your OSO
• contracts, buys or leases goods, services or properties from an interested party,

such as leasing your headquarters from a Board member;
• employs an interested party other than a person who is already employed, such
as employing a Board member to carry out consultancy work;
• provides substantial gratuities or favours to an interested party, such as offering
free education to the children of sponsors;
• gratuitously provides use of the facilities, properties or services of your OSO to
an interested party, such as allowing the club that your president is a member
of to train at your high-performance centre free of charge; or
• adopts policies that financially benefit an interested party, such as including a
staff member’s husband on your approved list of suppliers.
Conflicts of interest may also occur when
• an interested party obtains a nonfinancial benefit or advantages that they would

not have obtained without a relationship with the OSO,
• an interested party tries to obtain preferential treatment for another interested
party,
• an interested party makes use of confidential information for personal benefit
or for the benefit of another interested party, or
• an interested party seeks to take advantage of an opportunity or enables another
interested party to take advantage of an opportunity that would be of interest
to your OSO.
In many countries it is illegal to have a conflict of financial interest within

your organisation because such conflicts are a primary source of corruption
and a threat to a nation’s economy. In the event that there are no laws regarding
conflicts of interest in the country in which an OSO operates, it is still prudent
for the Board to voluntarily adopt an internal policy on conflicts of interest. This
should require members of the Board to agree to and sign an “interests register”
that outlines clearly other interests that they have that may conflict with their
role on the Board. This will limit the possibility of an interested party directly
or indirectly benefiting or profiting as a result of a decision, policy or transaction
made by the OSO’s Board.
Indemnification and Waivers

If possible in your legal system, every contract you sign should indemnify your
OSO of any illegal behaviour on the part of a contracted service provider. Also, it
is helpful to only permit membership to people who agree in writing to an indem-
nification clause. Similarly, you might require athletes to sign waivers of liability
before participating in your OSO’s events. Clubs recognized by an NF must require
all participants in a sporting activity to sign waivers of liability. Unfortunately, if
you don’t take these actions, you may put your organisation at risk.
An indemnification clause releases a party from the legal responsibility for the
reckless or illegal behaviour of another party, such as members or contractors, with
whom you have a legal relationship. This type of clause is a good idea to embed in
waivers and contractual agreements in order to minimise the financial risk to your
organisation in the event of a lawsuit.
Waivers of liability are often used to reduce the possibility of a lawsuit brought
by a member of an OSO in the event of injury or death as a result of participating in
an activity of the organisation. Typically, a waiver asks the member to acknowledge
the risk of injury or death and release the OSO from any legal responsibility should
such injury or death occur. Signing waivers of this nature is often a condition for
an athlete’s participation in an event.
Financial Record Keeping

Accounting is the method by which an organisation records all transactions, prin-
cipally payments and investments, and classifies or files them such that they are
easily retrievable in the future. They may be retrieved later on for any number of
purposes, such as audits, reports or investor relations. It is crucial for your OSO to
maintain nationally and internationally acceptable accounting procedures so that
your financial management is transparent and auditable. Without good accounting
procedures firmly in place, your OSO will be undermining its financial stability
from the inside out. Unless you maintain retrievable records, you will not be able
to demonstrate that resources have been spent according to intent, and funding
sources might begin to withdraw their support.
© Human Kinetics
OSOs need to keep retrievable financial records.
For example, the money generated by the broadcasting rights of the Olympic
Games is distributed by Olympic Solidarity to all member NOCs. Olympic Solidarity
is essentially the custodian of this money, which rightfully belongs to the member
NOCs. However, the fact that the money belongs to the NOCs is no excuse for skirt-
ing good financial management practices and not having a clear accounting system
in place. It is because Olympic Solidarity is a good custodian of the money that it
requires accounting evidence of the funds that are distributed as a precondition for
the receipt of further funds. Thus, the NOCs are required to justify their spending
for any OS-approved activities. If an NOC does not have a good accounting system,
then it may not be able to demonstrate how the resources were used and, therefore,
may not receive any additional subsidies.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles

The process of filing and reporting financial transactions relies on the development
and adherence to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). GAAP are
financial principles established by your organisation that are in conformance with
the laws in the country in which the OSO is officially registered. These principles
include how to set up your profit and loss accounts, to and from whom income and
expenditure are reported, and the step-by-step procedure for cataloguing financial
transactions for internal or external review. If you operate under GAAP, your
accounts and financial practices will be consistent over time. This will make it
possible to compare performance from year to year.
Accounting systems are set up according to local laws and organisational cul-
ture; however, there are some basic international standards that all countries are
encouraged to meet. These standards are defined by the International Accounting
Standards Board (IASB), which has a website, www.iasb.org, that you can use as
a reference tool for good accounting procedures. A large amount of information
on the subject is available for free, and paying members have access to even more
information.
If your OSO has experienced difficulty setting up an accounting system, it will

be useful to use the summaries of the International Financial Reporting Standards
and International Accounting Standards available on the site. This portion of the site
offers definitions of key concepts and ways to deal with them in your accounting
process. In addition, the site offers a variety of documents regarding peripheral mat-
ters, such as how to deal with interested-party disclosure statements and financial
investments in activities.
Receipts
The majority of accounting is about keeping legally acceptable receipts of transac-
tions on record. The term “legally acceptable” varies from country to country, but
for the most part it is good practice to have a receipt from a vendor that indicates
the vendor’s name, address, telephone number, vendor number (as registered with
the government), and date and type of transaction. The receipt should indicate the
kind of payment used and the amount of change given, if any. It is the responsibil-
ity of the team manager to ensure that the appropriate paperwork is collected and
passed on to the accountant.
Because successful accounting relies on people in the field, it is vital that all
employees spending the organisation’s money are informed of organisational proce-
dures. It is helpful to supply a receipt pouch or envelope to these individuals with
an additional compartment for change. Having a drop box for such pouches in the
office facilitates prompt return of the receipts. This way everyone who travels and is
spending the organisation’s money knows that there is one place where they should
deliver their financial records. Emptying the drop box should be done only by a
person with responsibility for the OSO’s finances in order to limit the chances for
loss or questions about tampering.
Although this collection system for receipts and change sounds simple, every-
one can probably recall forgetting to request a receipt from a vendor. Therefore, it
is perfectly appropriate for your financial controller to remind all staff regularly
about collecting receipts and to review the classification procedures with them. For
example, the financial controller may wish that all receipts be broken down into
spending categories according to the published office codes prior to submission.
Such categories could be food, medical expenses and communication and could be
listed on a form that is distributed electronically or with the receipt pouch. The form
could also include fields for amount of cash provided, amount of cash spent as per
receipts, amount of cash returned and amount of cash that is unaccounted for. The
latter should occur infrequently and only in small amounts.
Currency Conversion
When travelling in a foreign country, one often has to deal with currency conversions.
This can be confusing because the conversion rates change daily, and sometimes
people spend more than they think they are spending. At times, delegations run out
of money and require an expensive wire transfer through Western Union or a local
bank to rectify this. Thus, a good delegation head will stay on top of the spending
and collect receipts from the delegates daily in order to avoid running out of cash.
Ultimately, the financial controller will determine the internationally acceptable
conversion rate to use in the final classification, but when delegations are in the field
it is wise to use Internet-based conversion software, such as www.oanda.com, or
a local bank to help you track your spending. When converting currencies, just be
sure to indicate the date on which the funds were actually spent so that the correct
conversion rate for the corresponding date is used and the calculation is accurate.
Auditing Accounts
It is in line with the principles of good financial management and governance to
have your accounts audited once a year. This should be done by an external, inde-
pendent individual or organisation. For larger OSOs, this may involve an auditing
company, whilst clubs may ask a member who is not involved in the operation of
the club to audit the accounts. If your accounting system is accurate, the audits
will be straightforward, simple and nothing to fear. If you have a poor accounting
system, an audit will tell you this and recommendations will be made on how to
improve the accounting procedures. Remember, it is not the end of the world if you
fail an audit; it is simply an opportunity to implement changes that will ultimately
strengthen your organisation.
Auditing is necessary for producing a credible annual report to investors. If you

cannot afford an independent auditor, you should at least have internal audits pro-
duced by your treasurer and approved in writing by every member of the Board.
Unfortunately, the problem with internal audits is that they are considered less reli-
able by funding sources, and their formats can be inconsistent from year to year. If
you have limited financial resources, you can try to find a certified public accountant
(CPA) to contribute your audit for free (perhaps someone who enjoys your sport),
but be sure the CPA is licensed so that the audit is credible.
Key Recommendations
c Ensure that your OSO has adequate and appropriate insurance for its activi-
ties.
c Avoid conflicts of interest by annually asking all Board members, staff and
volunteers to complete an interests register.
c Make liability waivers part of your competition entry requirements.
c Account for all finances in a consistent and transparent manner, following

GAAP.
c Put in place procedures to help field staff account for expenses.
OSOs invest time and money in preparing athletes for major competitions. In
many cases OSOs spend even more money once athletes are selected for a competi-
tion since expenditure is required for kit, travel and accommodation. However, even
more costly in terms of image and sponsorship is an athlete who is selected for a
major event, such as the Olympics or Paralympics, who then does not continue to
train for the event, or is caught up in a scandal.
The following illustration shows how the United States Olympic Committee has
attempted to avoid such events by requiring participants at their Olympic Training
Center to sign waivers that release the OSO from liability.
Illustration 4.4
United States Olympic Training Center Waiver
and Release of Liability
The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) attempts to minimise the risk of legal
action against the organisation by requiring participants to sign the waiver that is
presented in figure 4.3. The waiver and release of liability is a legal document that
takes effect once it is signed by an athlete. All participants at the Olympic Training
Center are required to sign the document before they can take part in any activities.
The document is relatively short but outlines clearly the basis on which participants
can take part in activities organised by the USOC.
Figure 4.3 The United States Olympic Committee’s waiver and release of liability.
The waiver is comprehensive in that it covers risk of legal action from all possible
sources, such as family and agents. It covers most of the risks likely to be faced by an
athlete, ranging from death to harassment, and covers all of the activities associated
with participation. It is renewed annually and covers all USOC facilities. In addition
to this waiver, participants are also required to sign a medical and travel release and
a code of conduct. These documents significantly minimise the risk to the USOC.
Section 4.5
Evaluation and Reporting
Reporting is a two-step process. First, you need to evaluate the organisation’s activi-
ties and spending to determine if the cost–benefit ratio was favourable. You have to
ask whether the outcome of your efforts and spending was worth the investment.
A variety of evaluations can produce quantitative data that can be combined with
qualitative data. Once you have a good picture of the results of your efforts, you
need to put everything together in a report that is available to the public. Certain
financial components of that report should be audited so that it is credible to readers.
The final product should also be easy to read and include some form of anecdotal
notes or journalistic highlights to give the report flavour and make it enjoyable to
readers, especially past and future investors.
This section considers how you can evaluate your activities and then report the
evaluation. It outlines the role of reports and final accounts and then concludes with
an illustration of how the Palestinian Rowing Federation reported on its training
camp activities.
Evaluation
Throughout the period of operations you should have been in control of the budget
through good accounting. Department managers should have provided monthly
reports, and the Board should have viewed monthly and annual reports. The objec-
tive of evaluating your work is to determine whether the money spent achieved the
objectives.
In order to perform a solid evaluation, you should first write up a summary of

the objectives, activities to be evaluated and budget lines supporting those activi-
ties. There are many areas of an OSO to evaluate, and these should all be included
on the list. Your evaluations should be both quantitative and qualitative in nature
and should be combined to generate information indicating the degree of success
or failure in the initiative.
Financial data is part of the quantitative aspect of the evaluation because it

comprises numbers that express a quantity of money owed or owned by your OSO.
These data are hard facts, not subjective indicators. Qualitative data may include
feedback, suggestions and complaints. For example, assume your OSO is developing a
new sport and has launched a test phase for introducing the sport at the community
level. There will be several areas to evaluate qualitatively, such as media coverage
to support the initiative and parent, athlete and volunteer satisfaction. These factors
can be evaluated through interviews and questionnaires.
Each qualitative factor can also be matched with a quantitative evaluation. Having
used media to promote the programme, you can then quantify the types of media
coverage in number of articles and television reportage, and you can quantify the
outreach within the community in number of readers or viewers. The impact can
also be assessed by the number of people now aware of the sport. Parent, athlete
and volunteer satisfaction can be represented as percentages to provide quantitative
data; for example, 65% of parents were satisfied with the programme and 88% of
athletes were satisfied with the programme.
You should always evaluate your athletes’ performance and maintain a compre-
hensive database of the results. This database is necessary to gauge improvement
and determine who might be eligible on the basis of athletic merit to receive train-
ing subsidies. Ultimately, when you get to the reporting phase you will want to
highlight some of the performance quantitatively for your investors. For example,
you could point out that athlete X at the local level was slowest last year but is now
in the top third of the squad. In this instance you would provide competition times
as quantitative data to support the claim. Another example could be athlete Y, who
recently placed fifth in the continental games of his region and is now looking to be
an Olympic hopeful. These types of quantitative evaluations are important motiva-
tors for some investors because they indicate success, and they can be included as
feature stories in an annual report.
Reporting
Reporting is essential to good financial management. There are several levels and
kinds of reporting that take place. At the project level, project managers must report
monthly to the department heads about the financial status of their projects. The
critical information in these monthly reports is whether the project is on budget.
Thus, these reports include a financial summary table showing the spending for any
given month compared with the spending year to date and the original budget. As
outlined in section 4.3, the difference between year-to-date spending and the budget
is referred to as the variance and is represented as a percentage. In monetary terms,
this corresponds to a positive cash surplus or a negative deficit. Table 4.6 provides
an example of a monthly report for a volleyball club. Note that the figures in round
brackets ( ) denote a deficit and that this is the usual way of reporting deficits.
The information provided to the department heads or project managers is passed

to the financial staff within the OSO. They then classify and file the information
so that it is easily retrievable in the future. Monthly reports should be supported by
receipts and other financial records for the month and should continue throughout
implementation of a project. When a project is concluded, it is necessary for the
project manager to write the final project report. The report will include all evalu-
ations and a summary table about the financial status of the project.
Table 4.6 Monthly Financial Report for a Volleyball Club

Original
This month Year to date budget Balance
AU$
Income
Grant 3,002.40 10,000.00 6,997.60
Sale of shirts 21.00 110.45 500.00 389.55

Affilitation fees 100.00 225.00 500.00 275.00
Interest 2.50 2.50 20.00 17.50
Total 123.50 3,340.35 11,020.00 7,679.65
Expenditures
Electricity 80.52 579.50 2,000.00 1,420.50
Stationery and postage 43.50 821.45 2,000.00 1,178.55
Telephone 176.30 500.00 323.70
Insurance 115.25 263.40 500.00 236.60

Equipment 2,000.00 1,000.00 (1,000.00)
Repairs and maintenance 186.00 2,000.00 1,814.00
Cost of shirts 400.00 300.00 (100.00)
Travel 21.69 775.26 2,000.00 1,224.74

Sundries 10.05 30.15 100.00 69.85
Total 271.01 5,232.06 10,400.00 5,167.94
Surplus (147.51) (1891.71) 620.00 2,511.71
(deficit)
The level of detail in a final report should always be comprehensive and include
qualitative and quantitative information. Reports should also be easy to read and
include the most important information up front in summary form. This means that
there should be an easily readable spreadsheet or financial table summarising all
cash flow and including a consolidated budget. You can also include an evaluation
summary in table format across a variety of categories to give the reader a quick
idea of the content of the report.
An OSO should produce financial quarterly reports, to be shared with the Board
of the organisation. Such reports normally remain confidential; only annual reports
become public documents available to everyone, including staff. Staff responsible
for specific projects will obviously know some financial information. However, they
should be reminded by the Board, executive director or financial controller that they
are not supposed to share financial information about their project unless necessary
to complete work required by the OSO.
Figure 4.4 presents a simple three-tier controlling and reporting structure that is
recommended to manage the finances associated with implementing programmes
and services. The reporting structure, supported by accounting records, helps ensure
transparency in implementation. Transparency is the process by which an organisa-
tion records its decision making and financial spending and earnings such that others
can verify the accuracy of the information. As outlined in chapter 1, transparency
in decision making permits an OSO to measure the effectiveness of its work and to
problem solve when necessary.
Being transparent does not mean that an organisation cannot have confidential
material. OSOs should have transparent structures as ultimately this means that they
are representative in nature. However, confidentiality is also an essential element in
reporting. In the same way that Olympic Solidarity respects the confidentiality of
financial affairs relating to its constituent NOCs, organisations or individuals within
a given system should respect the confidentiality of certain matters as defined by
the Board.
Treasurer (Board member)
Standards and budgets

Reporting
Financial controller (staff member)
Accounts payable Accounts receivable
Reporting
Standards and budgets
Project managers
PR/Media National team Pedagogy Junior development
Figure 4.4 Three-tierE3592

controlling
Olympicand reporting Figure
Solidarity structure.
4.4, 275692 DeniseL R2-alw
This does not mean that Olympic Solidarity does not divulge any financial infor-
mation about its dealings with NOCs. Olympic Solidarity publishes an annual report
that reveals how much it allots to NOCs across various programmes. It also pub-
lishes the total amount of money available at the start of its quadrennial. However,
this does not mean that the details of every financial transaction are available for
Olympic Solidarity to reveal to anyone who calls the office. The details can only be
shared with the consent of the NOC in question. In a system with so many competing
stakeholders at so many different levels, it may be important to keep certain matters
confidential, at least for a period of time. Table 4.7 suggests the confidentiality of
various items in the workplace.
An important way to maintain confidentiality in an organisation is to have all

persons working with or for the organisation sign a nondisclosure agreement as a
condition of employment. Violation of the nondisclosure agreement could be cause for
immediate dismissal. Nondisclosure agreements could be used as standard practice,
but they are particularly useful in situations where sensitive information about an
organisation or individual’s finances could be passed to parties that would use it with
malicious intent, such as competitors in the market. It is also recommended to use
nondisclosure agreements in high-profile projects and projects with large budgets,
such as a bid package for an international championship.
Table 4.7 Transparency Versus Confidentiality of Information

Time of
Document Produced by With help of For whom distribution Confidentiality
Agendas Chair Meeting Participants Before Medium
participants meeting
Minutes Appointee Scrutineer Participants After Medium
meeting
Mail Sender N/A Recipient Upon arrival Highest
Planning Planners Appointed Board Before Board High
documents staff meetings
Monthly Project Staff on Controller Monthly High
reports manager project
Quarterly Controller Project Board Before Board Highest
reports managers meetings
Annual Board Controller, Public First quarter Low
reports Executive
director
Midterm Controller Project Board Before Board Highest
reports managers meetings
Salaries Board Executive Staff After annual Highest
director reviews
Be sure to remind paid and unpaid staff to discuss confidential information only
in designated areas, such as a closed conference room. Staff should not discuss sen-
sitive information in the common areas of the office like the kitchen or bathrooms
or close to another person who is on a telephone. Accountants or treasurers should
not speak about their work with anyone other than the Board or executive director
in the office. Only those needing it should have access to sensitive information.
Final Accounts
Thus far we have reviewed information on how an OSO can develop, budget,
account for and report on its financial plans. The final stage in this process is the
preparation of annual, hopefully audited, final accounts. The two main accounts
that need to be presented to the General Assembly are the operating statement and
the balance sheet. These accounts will give members a feel for the financial stabil-
ity of the organisation.
Operating Statement
Also known as the profit and loss account, the operating statement is an analysis
of how the capital or net worth of an organisation has changed over a given period.
It is a record of income generated and expenditure incurred over a given period, as
can be seen in table 4.8, which is the operating statement of the Amateur Swim-
ming Association (ASA). The account shows whether the OSO has more income than
expenditure, that is, a surplus or a deficit.
These accounts must show the following:
• Turnover
• Income from rents
• Income from investments
• Equipment hire charges
• Depreciation charges and how they are arrived at
• Auditor remuneration
• Interest on loans
• Tax charge (if applicable)
• Transfers to and from reserves
• Any exceptional accounting adjustments
Balance Sheet
A balance sheet is the list of assets and liabilities an organisation has at a given time
(table 4.9). Reading, interpreting and explaining a balance sheet is not solely the
domain of trained accountants, and you should be able to articulate the meaning of
a balance sheet. The purpose of a balance sheet is to put a value on the net worth
of an organisation. To do this requires a list of those things of value (assets) that
the organisation owns, such as buildings and cash, and a list of those things that
the organisation owes to others (liabilities), such as loans. The difference between
these two figures is the net worth, or equity, of the OSO.
Table 4.8 Operating Statement of the Amateur Swimming Association
Actual 2004/05 Budget 2004/05 Actual 2003/04 Actual 2002/03
(£000s) (£000s) (£000s) (£000s)
Operating income
Awards scheme 1,642 1,696 1,599 1,517
(net)
Membership fees 942 902 1,155 1,159
Education 619 550 611 619
Grants from Sports 2,612 2,485 453 348
Council and gov-
ernment agencies
Competition 217 159 180 152
income
Sponsorship and 355 364 293 250
marketing fees
Management 69 130 142 169
charges
Crystal Palace 68 25 9 17
scheme (net)
Swimfit 6 0 11 0
English pro- 67 0 0 0
gramme contribu-
tions
Sundry 55 6 9 15
Total 6,652 6,317 4,462 4,246
Operating expenditure
Staff and related 1,770 1,828 1,686 1,645
costs
Competition costs 452 424 387 390
Contribution to 381 368 357 341
ASFGB Ltd.
Contribution to 1,350 1,340 0 0
HPSE Ltd.
Office costs 380 386 259 230
Education 258 255 255 315
Insurance 268 264 229 243
Nonrecoverable 86 145 68 122
VAT
Development 445 319 159 104
204
Actual 2004/05 Budget 2004/05 Actual 2003/04 Actual 2002/03

(£000s) (£000s) (£000s) (£000s)
ASA district grants 49 66 135 108
ASA regions 165 210 0 0
Committee 105 104 135 141
meetings
Publications 91 100 57 110
Depreciation 57 56 58 80
Office equipment 65 36 73 81
and IT services
Swimfit costs 8 0 18 17
Sponsorship and 178 231 167 70
marketing costs
Grants to other 64 70 64 64
bodies
Legal and 76 96 102 66
professional fees
HR training and 70 81 47 56
recruitment
Grant-funded 576 489 143 9
project costs
Other expenses 51 53 54 58
Total 6,945 6,921 4,453 4,250
Operating surplus (293) (604) 9 (4)
(deficit)
Reprinted with permission of the Amateur Swimming Association.
The balance sheet must contain the following:
• Corresponding amounts for the immediately preceding financial year

• Breakdown of the capital employed
• Details of freeholds and leases
• Value of patents and trademarks
• Valuation of fixed assets and how the figures were arrived at
• Details of any investments and their value
• Loans
• Cash and debts
• Stock and the basis of its valuation
• Total bank loans and overdrafts
Table 4.9 Balance Sheet of the Amateur Swimming Association
2005 2004
(£000s) (£000s)
Fixed assets
Freehold properties 165 168
Fixtures and fittings/IT 105 62
Motor vehicles 20 –
290 230
Investments at cost
Unquoted 85 85
Current assets
Bank and cash balances 850 1,467
Sundry debtors 1,111 531
Loan to ASA Swimming Enterprises 145 145
Stock 161 141
2,267 2,284
Subtotal 2,642 2,599

Current liabilities
Sundry debtors (712) (520)
Deferred income (831) (685)
Charitable donation (3) (3)
(1,546) (1,208)
Amounts due from Amateur Swimming 184 184

Federation of Great Britain Ltd.
Net assets 1,280 1,575
Reserves
Accumulated fund 1,197 1,500
Premises reserve fund 83 75
1,280 1,575
Reprinted with permission of the Amateur Swimming Association.
206
Because each organisation has different needs, the financial practices adopted
therein will be a reflection of those needs. However, problems can occur when
there is too much variation in the reporting of member organisation finances. These
problems are especially acute if liabilities are not reported and financial collapses
occur suddenly. This is why audited final accounts are necessary.
Key Recommendations
c You and your Board need to evaluate the OSO’s performance in qualitative
and quantitative terms.
c Ensure that you report on finances on an annual basis.
c Ensure that financial information is kept as confidential as appropriate.
c Produce annual, audited accounts to demonstrate financial probity.
The following illustration shows how the Palestinian Rowing Federation evaluated
and reported the activities of its coaching development programme.
Illustration 4.5
Evaluation of the Coaching Development Programme of
the Palestinian Rowing Federation
The Palestinian Rowing Federation (PRF) is one of the youngest rowing federations
in the world. Founded in 1998, it faces formidable development challenges
characterised by a volatile political situation and weak investment in sport in general.
In order to develop a national coaching programme to lay the foundation for the
future expansion of rowing in Gaza, the PRF sought and obtained funding from
Olympic Solidarity to send a group of coaches to the International Training Centre
for Rowing in Seville, Spain.
When reporting on the success of the venture and accounting for funds, as
suggested in this section, the PRF carried out qualitative and quantitative evaluation
of the training events, which were 2 months long. Qualitative evaluation of the
programme was carried out through interviews with the coaches and administrator
and through evaluation of the daily logs maintained by attendees whilst at the
training centre. In addition, an evaluation questionnaire was also completed.
From this data and the accounts kept of the event, and in order to account for
the funding received from Olympic Solidarity, the PRF provided a detailed report
that was prefaced by the report summary outlined in table 4.10.
(continued)
Table 4.10 Evaluation Summary Submitted to Olympic Solidarity (OS)

Summary report of first module of coaches training, PRF-OS-FISA*
Category Evaluation Comments
Train coaches in 0 Coaches used training boats, but not touring/
touring boats ocean boats specifically.
Train coaches in 4 Coaches learned how to use racing shells.
racing boats
Train coaches in 4 Coaches learned necessary rigging skills.
rigging
Training objectives
Train coaches 2 Coaches were introduced to basic weight

in weightlifting training techniques.
technique
Offer par- 2 Only 50% of intended participants travelled.
ticipants travel
opportunity out
of the Gaza Strip
Offer coaches 2 No structured programme.
cultural experi-
ence in line with
principles of
Olympism
Punctuality of 3 Three days late due to border passage prob-
commencement lems.
of programme
Time
Schedule 2 Adapted on location to be more manageable

and mesh with schedule at Centre, Coaching
Level 1 curriculum, and adjust for communi-
cation difficulties with language.
Number of male 4 All male participants attended (2).
coaches
Participants
Number of 0 No female participants attended (2

female coaches intended).
Community 4 All administrators attended (1).
administrator
Chaperone (for 0 No chaperone attended (1 intended).
females)
FISA budget 2 38.9% of budget spent (€2,526.56 out of
€6,489.36).
Cash spent
PRF budget 2 29.5% of budget spent (US$3,106.88 out of

US$10,535.00).
OS budget 1 29.6% of budget spent (€5,804.60 out of
€19,598.40).
Summary report of first module of coaches training, PRF-OS-FISA*

Category Evaluation Comments
Overall evalua- 2 Final rating 2.2 on a scale of 0 (low) to 4
tion (high), with 2 as intermediate. The pro-
gramme was a success, scoring above inter-
mediate in critical dimensions, training
objectives were achieved and the lower-than-
expected score is based on 50% participation
and, therefore, not a reflection of the integ-
rity of the curriculum, module design and so
on.
Points for PRF Visa process needs to be faster/better organ-
improvement ised, ensure attendance of female coaches in
the second module, respond to assignment
from FISA more promptly, and submit module
report more promptly.
FISA Confidential.
OS No need for improvement—does not affect

implementation.
How to pre- PRF Use courier service for visa application pro-
Next step
pare for second cess to consulate, identify a pool of female

module coaches and put them through a competi-
tive selection process for Seville, seek a writ-
ten guarantee of attendance from female
coaches and their respective chaperones,
utilise technology more effectively to over-
come physical barriers in the territories (per-
haps by improving federation intranet), set
mutual deadline with OS and FISA for submis-
sion of module report, adhere to schedules.
FISA Confidential.
OS Confidential.
Legend 0 = low; 1 = limited; 2 = average; 3 = satisfactory; 4 =

high
*FISA stands for Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Aviron (International Rowing Federation).
(continued)
This report summary provides an evaluative overview of the event in terms of its
objectives, budget and participants. Each of these factors is evaluated on a scale
from 0 to 4, and comments explaining performance are provided. The report also
provides an overall summary score, plus areas of improvements. By presenting the
information in this manner, the PRF was able to provide a succinct report to its
stakeholders, allowing them to identify the key information first: performance
against objectives and against budget. This structure allowed stakeholders to gain
an impression of the overall evaluation of the event and determine quickly whether
the cost–benefit ratio was favourable. The summary was then reinforced by more
detailed information in the remainder of the report.
This type of reporting makes good use of qualitative and quantitative information.
It is based on research with participants, which increases the reliability of the
evaluation and accounts for expenditure against key areas of interest. It also provides
meaningful information for stakeholders who may be too busy to read a detailed
report and therefore demonstrates the accountability of the PRF.
The following case study discusses the GAAP developed for Swiss OSOs. In recent
years, two Swiss NFs filed for bankruptcy, and another federation faced a major
financial crisis. These matters, combined with growing pressure from governmental
donors, encouraged the Swiss Olympic Association to develop a uniform reporting
procedure for all associated sport organisations in the country. The case study that
follows is an ongoing initiative that is expected to evolve through at least 2012.
Case Study 4
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles:
Swiss Olympic Association
In 1998 the Swiss Olympic Association (Swiss Olympic) began an initiative to resolve
problems with the finances of the OSOs under its patronage. Swiss Olympic needed
to finance all associations using federal money whilst ensuring reporting for spending
across competitive, popular and particularly junior development initiatives.
However, discrepancies in financial reporting amongst the 81 Olympic and non-

Olympic sport associations in the country had led to the inability of Swiss Olympic
to provide credible, reliable and accurate financial information to government
and private sector investors. This inconsistency resulted in a real threat to Swiss
Olympic’s funding. The message was clear: Swiss Olympic needed to develop a
uniform financial reporting system of generally accepted accounting principles
(GAAP) in order to reinforce weakening trust over the financial practices of the
organisation’s affiliates.
The objective of the project was to secure sufficient funding for Swiss sport in
the 21st century in accordance with the goals and objectives that the organisation
had set. In addition to securing financial stability, Swiss Olympic would also achieve
two important yet previously elusive objectives:
• The development of a
tran s pare nt , finan cial
reporting structure across
all 81 sport associations
• T h e g e n e r a t i o n o f
uniform standards for
data collection
The structure and standards
would result in a financial
information bank that could be
used to compare and evaluate
performance and growth over
time.
In addition, the Swiss Sport
mmittee.
GA AP would require that
all Swiss sport associations
Swiss Olympic Co
stop doing their accounting
voluntarily. The GAAP would
provide a description of the
accounting process to be
followed and the categories to
Courtesy of the
be included when compiling
a balance sheet. This would
introduce uniformity across
all organisations. The GAAP
project was an example of Swiss Olympic
taking the lead on providing mutually beneficial systems and training to i t s
member associations. Swiss Olympic would get what it needed to secure its funding,
and the sport associations would receive training on how to conform with the
expectations of their governing IFs.
c The Project
The project team consisted of members of Swiss Olympic, the Zurich University
of Applied Sciences Winterthur and the private financial consulting firm of
PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC). The process followed and the time frames involved
are outlined in figure 4.5, and from this it is apparent that the project was somewhat
lengthy.
It was, however, a thorough process. The first step in the process was to collect as
much data as possible on the financial statements of all national sport associations,
starting with the largest in order to set the standard. These sheets showed that
different sports were funded in different ways and amounts. For example, football
earned a high volume of cash from a wide competition range. In contrast, the only
source of income for paragliding was issuing certification for gliders. Consequently,
the balance sheets of associations were quite different.
(continued)
212
1998 - October 2003 1 November 2003 1 February 2004 1 April 2004 1 August 2004
• Start data • Analysis of annual • Development of • Informative meet-

• Preliminary gathering: reports and finan- Swiss Sport GAAP ing for Presidents
research • 81 sport cial statements manual of associated
• Theoretical associations • Looking for: • Objective to members (sport
models – 35 Olympic – Number and develop: associations)
– 46 non-Olympic types of audit – Manual to stan- • Objectives:
ZUW • Collected: – Direct cost dardize trans- – Explain the
– Annual reports – Overheads parent, financial Swiss Sport
– Financial – Accounting reporting struc- GAAP Project
Collaboration
on Swiss statements method ture – Sensitise for
SOA – Chart of accounts • Data showed: – Financial infor- targets
Sport GAAP
– Efficiency reports – No consistent mation bank – Gather support
• Communication financial report- – Developing • Approach in

PwC methodology: ing methodology comparable in- Meeting:
– Letter and email – Lack of credibility come statements – Question and
– Signed by SOA of information • PwC: Financial answer
• Relationship network
• Sport specific knowledge
• Expert financial
knowledge president and – Different knowledge, project
director methods of experience. SOA:
• Adherence to • 100% response valuation sport knowledge
Swiss law
• 1998: SOA mandates Dr.

Thomas Held to study sources 1 September 2004 15 October 2004 15 October 2004 1 January 2006
and support
and applications of funds for
Figure 4.5 Swiss Sport GAAP time frame and process.

Swiss sport • Kick off meeting for • Workshops for • Starting active • Annual reports
finance managers finance managers support during and financial state-
• 1999: SOA determines to
• Objectives: • Objectives: implementation ments delivered
launch reform of financial
– Establish targets – Implementation • Type of support: according to guide-
reporting process of affiliated
based on collaboration, transparency,

– Clarify principles – Key topics – IT (software) lines of Swiss
Detailed process between 2003 and 2006

sport associations
of Swiss Sport – Tools support Sport GAAP
• 2003: ZUW and PwC join GAAP • Methodology Used: – Legal support • All 81 sport asso-
initiative – Introduction of – Open communi- – Individual ciations to comply
• 2003-2004: Develop manual manual cation support • Commence revi-
– Establish – Providing meth- – Providing meth- sion of the Swiss
• 2004: Implementation of Swiss timeframe ods of resolution ods of resolution Sport GAAP based
Sport GAAP • Approach: – Confront and • Reasons support on experience of
• 2006: Annual report and – Promote handle issues needed: implementation
financial statement mandatory advantages and • Duration: 8 hours – Associations and feedback of
after guidelines of Swiss Sport benefits unsure associations
GAAP – Provide support – Validation • Establish long-
• Milestone in Swiss sport • Deadline for range goals for re-
achieved feedback given: 6 vision for 2009-
weeks 2012 quadrennial
E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 4.5, 275697 DeniseL R4-alw R5-dawns

After collecting the data from the balance sheets, PwC reconciled the information
from all the associations’ balance sheets with the Swiss Code of Obligation regarding
limited liability corporations. This was necessary to verify the accuracy and legality
of the reported direct costs of sport activities and their associated overhead. The
information was used to determine how much money Swiss Olympic needed to
target from investors, such as the national lottery, government and sponsors from
the private sector.
The data collection process proved the perceived wide discrepancies. For example,
not all sport organisations performed audits. Amongst those that did, some
performed internal audits, whilst some performed external audits with private
companies or through private contacts. Many of the accountants from the sport
associations had been copying their accounting principles from the business units
of private corporations from which they had been hired. They had applied the
principles to sport despite the fact that the two were not compatible. Ultimately,
much of the material that was collected was not comparable, thereby reinforcing
Swiss Olympic’s conviction to develop a uniform system of reporting.
The comprehensive data collection process lasted five months before the
GAAP manual was developed. This ensured a reliable basis for the manual. The
training associated with the project was targeted, and the first phase aimed to
communicate the need for the GAAP to Presidents of the associations. Intended
to gain commitment and support for the GAAP, this initial phase was followed by
communication with and training for Financial Managers. Although the Presidents
needed to be committed to the GAAP, Financial Managers would be implementing
it. They needed to understand what was required, and thus the training for this
group was much more detailed.
Classification Codes, Accounting Instructions and Other Tools

Aside from reconciling the financial practices of the associations with Swiss law,
the Swiss Olympic GAAP project resulted in the publication and distribution of the
Manual for the Establishment of Annual Accounts. This includes a set of classification
codes, accounting instructions and other tools for income and expenditure that all
associations had to adopt. A summary of these items as outlined in the GAAP is
presented in table 4.11.
From this table, we can see that the GAAP model requires that all cost items be
categorized by cost element, such as salary; cost centre, which can be multiple, such as
championships; and cost object, such as elite sport. This is a very structured approach
to accounting that increases comparability across time and across organisations.
Implementation
Once the Swiss Sport GAAP manual was developed, it had to be promoted to and
adopted by all the sport associations. Communication was critical to this step in
the initiative, as was the identification of serious backers. This meant educating
the Presidents of the sport associations on the model and getting them to back its
implementation in their respective sport associations. Thereafter, Swiss Olympic
could pursue the task of organising workshops for the staff members who would
be directed to implement the GAAP by their President or Executive Director.
(continued)
Table 4.11 Summary of Swiss Sport GAAP

Classification
codes Directives of distribution and evaluation of the assessment
A Directives of distribution and evaluation of the balance sheet
1 Assets
10 Current assets
100-130 (e.g., cash and equivalents, securities)
14 Fixed assets
140-180 (e.g., restricted capital, tangible fixed assets)
2 Liabilities
20 Short-term obligations
200-230 (e.g., short-term financial obligations, other financial
obligations)
24 Long-term obligations
240-260 (e.g., long-term financial obligations, other financial
obligations)
27 Restricted funds capital
270 (e.g., restricted funds capital)
28 Federation capital
280 (e.g., capital of the federation)
B Directives for auditing the income statement

Operating income
300-330 (e.g., contribution from members, public and private

subsidies, event revenues)
Direct sectoral costs
40 Elite sport
400-406 (e.g., world and European championships, training,
sports medicine)
41 Sports development
410-416 (junior world and European championships, competi-
tions, training, sports medicine)
Classification
codes Directives of distribution and evaluation of the assessment
42 Popular sports
420-424 (e.g., sectoral management, competitions)
Indirect administrative costs
450-476 (e.g., employee wages and salaries, travel, legal and

advertising expenses)
Financial results
360, 480 (i.e., funds invested and funds generated)
Sundry results
370, 490, 499 (e.g., taxes)
Funds results
910
C Cash flow statement

D Statement of changes in association’s net equity
E Appendix
Summary of the most significant principles for presentation of
the accounts
Tangible fixed assets table
Provisions table
Other notes
F Performance report
G Directives for review of the accounts
Review of the association’s official annual accounts
1 Review of the association’s consolidated accounts

10 Law of monitoring of the audits
Sample letters
14 (Includes a variety of templates used in the accounting process

according to Swiss Sport GAAP)
(continued)
Swiss Olympic organised a series of workshops and, in 2006, was working with
individual associations in the process of conversion as they began to implement
the financial reforms. At the first public workshop, Swiss Olympic presented the
Swiss GAAP model to the sport associations. Each sport association had 6 weeks
to offer their responses and key demands to Swiss Olympic regarding compliance.
Such demands included concerns about the feasibility of and time frame for
implementation. It was clear that some federations, such as swimming, rowing,
cycling, fencing and tennis, were in a much better position to implement the model
faster and more easily than those whose human resources or financial models were
less developed or consistent. Such organisations would require years to transition
into the new system. PwC offered 2 days of workshops for all associations’ financial
controllers upon the introduction of the manual into the sport system.
A financial software firm developed software to support the use of the GAAP by
the larger associations. The smaller associations are able to use Microsoft Excel for
implementation. In doing so, associations avoid purchasing additional expensive
software.
Naturally, the better positioned associations proved to be critical allies of Swiss

Olympic in driving implementation of the GAAP forward. Supportive and capable
associations provided reliable environments for beta testing, incubating new ideas
and even setting the same standards for their respective affiliates, such as clubs. Also,
these associations provided Swiss Olympic with good role models whilst buffering
tension and acting as catalysts to the less prepared associations, some of whom were
entrenched in the attitude of maintaining the old way of doing things.
Project Limitations
The four main problems faced by Swiss Olympic in the realisation of the GAAP were
as follows:
• Generating a commitment to change: The project was more than just a change
in a balance sheet, it was a change in the entire attitude towards consistency
and specialisation as critical factors in financial solvency.
• Pressure of money: Associations continued to try to take money without
opening up their books.
• Generalising budget categories: It was necessary to identify the terms
(including the spelling) for income and expenditure.
• Reconciliation from one system to another: Existing systems had different
financial codes than those required by the GAAP.
The length of time and variation in capability to implement the model also resulted
in Swiss Olympic’s decision to treat the model itself as an adaptable structure.
Ultimately, Swiss Olympic recognised that the project involved a dynamic model
that would have to be revised at the conclusion of the 2005-08 quadrennium, at
which time 2 years of uniform reporting amongst all Swiss sport associations would
have occurred.
Project Strengths
An important strength of the model is the static reporting system, which requires
only minor adjustments to be made over a clearly defined timetable. Since sport
operates in a dynamic environment, the GAAP allow OSOs to deal with constantly
changing financial officers and staff who often bring their own accounting
methodologies. Through the Swiss Olympic GAAP, the NOC is able to secure the
accuracy of information over time and across people.
Swiss Olympic considers transparency in communication through workshops

and professional communications and honesty to be the two most important
factors in the success of the initiative. These attributes are of high importance to
the government and private sector. Framing the reforms in line with the principles
and spirit of Olympism was also important, particularly when trying to expand the
implementation of the GAAP into the association’s clubs. Swiss Olympic is working
with the tennis association to introduce the model at the club level.
In the end, the effort to develop the Swiss Olympic GAAP was determined by
technical realities imposed by internal reporting deficiencies and the needs and
expectations of external stakeholders. Swiss Olympic’s realisation that it needed
to respond to these pressures through reforming the reporting system rather than
ignoring them will secure future funds for Swiss Olympic, making the restructuring
well worth the effort.
c GAAP Implementation in the Swiss Gymnastics Association

The Swiss Gymnastics Association (SGA) was founded in 1832. The primary
responsibility of the SGA is the management of gymnastics at the national level
in setting standards, setting competition categories, and selecting national and
Olympic teams. In addition, the SGA runs a large training facility.
Until adoption of the GAAP, the SGA maintained separate accounts for the events
that it organised. Events included the Swiss Cup, the World Championship of Popular
Gymnastics and the Federal Gymnastics Event (the biggest popular sport event in
Switzerland, held every 6 years). Each of these events had separate profit and loss
accounts. Now they are incorporated into the balance sheet of the SGA. Although
the SGA preferred to maintain the separate profit and loss accounts so as not to
lose transparency, it accepts that the integration of the accounts makes the balance
sheet more reliable and accurate.
With the full implementation of the GAAP model in 2006, a new internal
structure for the SGA was put into place. There is now a division between strategy
and operations. Previously, the President of the SGA controlled a portfolio. Now,
a more corporate model has been adopted in which the President is barred from
having this type of control.
(continued)
The SGA experienced several improvements through implementation of the GAAP.

The ability to benchmark now allows the SGA to determine how much it is spending
on popular versus elite sport versus administrative costs. This aids Board members
and stakeholders in making more informed strategic and financial decisions. The
balance sheet, once generated, is very clear. It is also mandated that efficiency
reports be more detailed through the incorporation of extensive explanations
under the GAAP. This helps define irregularities such as moving to a bigger office
and inappropriate variances in budget. In addition, the GAAP requires an outside
company to perform the audit in order to prevent misleading reports. Although
this is good from the perspective of Swiss Olympic, it is a considerable cost that all
sport associations must take into account.
Despite the many improvements and successful implementation of the GAAP,

the SGA identified a significant problem in one area. No association has yet found
a solution to the question of how to classify payroll in the balance sheet, especially
for large sport associations. The SGA found that the payroll system within the GAAP
does not match the organisation’s event pattern or comply with its IT structure.
This oversight in the planning of the GAAP means that the SGA has to include
detailed notes on the accounts to explain to members how much individuals are
being paid. This creates an even longer accounting structure than before. So, the
process by which a balance sheet is obtained has not been streamlined, although the
product will be easier to read and compare at a system level for Swiss Olympic.
Although Swiss Olympic never had a problem interpreting the balance sheets
of the SGA, it can now compare more easily the SGA data to that of other Swiss
associations. The SGA has essentially reclassified the same information it was giving
Swiss Olympic before it adopted the GAAP. The biggest difference between the
old and new system is that now both OSOs can see how much is being spent on
elite versus popular sport. Previously there had been no clear line for this on the
accounting record.
The SGA found that initially Swiss Olympic asked for too much information in
some areas. However, it is expected that the reporting package will change over
time to ask only for information that Swiss Olympic needs. At present, the GAAP is
a higher standard than required by Swiss law, but it does allow the SGA to analyse
two essential elements that constitute the GAAP’s overall structure: the balance of
spending on professional versus recreational sport and the balance of spending on
sport versus administrative costs.
—— G ——
The Swiss GAAP was an ambitious and innovative project that was driven by
the need for good financial practices. The underlying principles of consistency,
comparability, transparency and accountability were a solution to the problems
that Swiss Olympic faced before the project was undertaken.
Chapter 5
Managing Marketing
Photo courtesy of the Olympic Council of Malaysia.

Objectives
• Analyse the relevance of your organisation’s services in relation to your
stakeholders’ requirements.
• Enhance the quality of your services by being aware of what stakeholders
expect.
• Manage effective communication.
• Analyse what is required for a sponsorship programme.
• Consider your marketing from a strategic perspective.
219
T he effective marketing of Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) requires you to

be aware of what services your organisation has to offer and how these can be
marketed. The purpose of this chapter is to explain many of the key principles that
will help you to market your organisation effectively.
Marketing is the process of planning and developing products and services to

satisfy individual and organisational goals. In terms of marketing, an OSO primar-
ily offers images, values, ideas and services rather than products, which means that
the marketing of OSOs has several unique characteristics. Marketing is appropriate
for all organisations that can offer something to stakeholders. However, providing
services presents four specific challenges:
• Services are intangible, which means that they cannot be touched or seen.
Due to their intangibility, services cannot be inventoried, new services can be
easily copied and communication and pricing are difficult. This means that
you may have difficulty answering the following questions that are important
for gathering marketing information: What do we offer? How do we price a
sponsorship package? How do we promote our service quality?
• Services change across time, organisations and people, and therefore ensuring
consistent service quality is demanding. OSO service quality depends upon
both volunteers and paid staff, and it is impossible to guarantee how staff will
interact with stakeholders. Furthermore, many factors are difficult to control.
For example, although an NF may make promises to a sponsor about an event,
the promises may not be fulfilled if the service is delivered by clubs and vol-
unteers.
• Services are produced and consumed at the same time, and it is impossible to
separate the service from the person who delivers it and the person who receives
it. Consequently, all stakeholders, including volunteers, staff and members, are
part of the service that has to be marketed. For example, event spectators are
part of the show and can have a positive or negative impact on each other.
• Services are perishable, and therefore it is difficult to match supply and demand.
For example, it is difficult to anticipate entries for a marathon, so most of the
top events limit the number of participants, thereby sometimes causing dis-
satisfaction.
Another major difference in the marketing of OSOs comes from the fact that OSOs
promote values such as fair play and friendship. This means that their marketing is
more oriented towards society than business. This is particularly the case for clubs,
where little commercial value is usually associated with services. Social market-
ing often involves changing intractable behaviours in complex economic, social
and political climates, often with limited resources. Furthermore, social marketing
tends to emphasise voluntary behaviour, and it deals with services with which the
consumer is often either highly involved or not involved with at all.
managing marketing 221
Thus, marketing needs to be specific to each organisation in order to help OSOs

achieve their specific commercial and social objectives. This chapter applies strate-
gic marketing concepts to the environment of OSOs, the stakeholders of OSOs and
the organisations in the OSO system. The first section considers what OSOs have
to market and highlights a number of regulations that may need to be considered
when deciding what to market. The second section considers stakeholder expecta-
tions of OSO services in order to market quality services. The third section presents
methods and tools for improving the communications of OSOs, and then the fourth
section focuses on sponsorship. The final section presents the strategic marketing
process, which provides information on how to get into an attractive position in
the marketplace. The chapter concludes with a case study of the marketing of the
Olympic Committee of Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations.
Section 5.1
What Can We Market?
Like all organisations, an OSO has a relationship with its stakeholders, and this
relationship is supported by the values, products, services and brand of the organisa-
tion. OSOs primarily offer services to stakeholders, such as sport training, courses,
organisation of competitions, sponsorship programmes and information through
websites. As highlighted earlier, services consist of intangible elements that are con-
sumed during the time that the service is delivered. Services, however, also require
tangible elements related to facilities, equipment and staff, and some services can
be associated with training manuals, audiovisual documents, sport equipment and
merchandise.
© GETTY / HEWITT Mike
Some OSOs can market their values of cooperation and fair play.
It should be noted that an OSO offers services to its stakeholders and that these
stakeholders are free to accept or refuse the offer. This is why we use the term “ser-
vice offering” to describe what you can market. An offering is the set of tangible
and intangible elements of a service, conceived and managed by the organisation in
order to satisfy stakeholders’ expectations. This section presents tools that allow you
to analyse your current service offerings and to analyse and secure the legal rights
related to OSO properties. It goes on to outline key issues in making negotiations
and concludes with a presentation of how the Comité Olímpico Argentino (Argen-
tine Olympic Committee) has managed its marketing rights by careful negotiation
with sponsors.
Identifying the Current Offerings

OSOs market their offerings to stakeholders, who can be internal, such as the Board,
paid staff and members, or external, such as sponsors, local authorities and media.
Successful marketing requires you to be aware of what the organisation can offer
the market and to whom it should be offering services. The main characteristic of
value that an OSO has to market is the organisation’s brand. This consists of the
organisation’s name, image and associations with that name and image. The Olym-
pic brand (five rings) derives its power from a diverse base of values and attributes,
such as the values of fair play, friendship and community. An NOC’s brand will be
composed of the Olympic symbol associated with a national distinctive element as
approved by the IOC. A gymnastic club’s brand may be a vaulting horse underpinned
by the motto of the club. The following process may be valuable in organising your
marketing.
List Current Offerings

You need to know what your organisation has to offer to the market. In order to
do this, the following question should be considered: What services, brand, ideas
and products can be marketed to stakeholders? The answer may be complex due to
the fact that an offering often mixes services, ideas and products. For example, a
membership card allows a member to be part of training sessions and competitions,
to take part in the club’s democratic process and to be informed through the club
website. In order to answer the previous question, you could consider general offer-
ings, such as membership cards, sponsorship packages, tournaments, merchandising
and social programmes, or you could split the offerings into units, such as informa-
tion or training. The end result should be a complete picture of everything that the
organisation can promote to its stakeholders through marketing techniques.
List the Stakeholders

The concept of stakeholders was dealt with in chapter 2. Listing your stakeholders
is important in marketing because it allows you to identify targets for marketing
activities and highlights what services you could offer to which groups.
List Core and Peripheral Offerings

In order to identify all offerings, you should determine what you can offer that is
core and what is peripheral. A core offering satisfies key motives and expectations.
For example, a spectator expects to have fun when attending an important game.
A peripheral offering is related to lesser motives and expectations, such as the mer-
chandising available at the game. However, note that a peripheral offering could be
a core offering for another stakeholder and vice versa.
Relate Existing Offerings to Stakeholders

You need to establish how your OSO’s offerings relate to the stakeholders of the
organisation, which allows you to identify your portfolio of offerings. Table 5.1
presents an example of how the core services of a sport club may relate to its stake-
holders.
Table 5.1 Core Service Offerings Related to Targeted Stakeholders

Regional Local
Members league Sponsors Media authority Schools
Training Yes No No No No No
sessions
Competitions Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Club party Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Merchandising Yes No Yes No No No
Website Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Sponsorship Yes Yes No Yes No No
packages
Publicity No No Yes Yes No No
Summer Yes No No No Yes Yes
camps
Assess Market Portfolio Performance

An OSO’s market portfolio comprises the services and combination of services the
organisation has to offer. In order to assess your portfolio, list your stakeholders’
main motives for using your organisation and their expectations of the OSO. You
then need to assess the performance of each offering in relation to these motives
and expectations, as outlined in table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Assessment of the Market Portfolio of a Ski Club

Expectations held of
Stakeholders Motive for using club the club Performance
Elite skiers Registration with NF Club will register Good: Registration
athlete carried out on time.
Elite skiers Improve skills Demanding facilities Average: Slopes need
maintenance.
Challenging compe-
tition Club championships
attract high level of
competition.
Learners Learn to ski Good instruction Good: All instructors
are certified.
Safe practices
Nursery slopes are
Slopes appropriate well maintained.
This portfolio assessment has many benefits. It allows you to understand your
offerings better and to communicate these in a more efficient way to stakeholders.
You can also select priorities for delivery and marketing, and the assessment may
suggest new offerings to be developed.
An assessment of market portfolio performance also requires a legal analysis

of the marketing rights concerning these offerings in order to ensure that you are
working within the law when carrying out marketing activities. This is particularly
important for sponsorship and the protection of brands and trademarks.
Managing OSO Marketing Rights and Legal Issues

Marketing rights refer to the images, symbols, names, values and other distinctive
marks that the OSO has legal control over, or permission to use, in the marketing
of the organisation and its services. For example, NOCs have the right to use the
Olympic rings as part of their emblem, although they cannot use the Olympic symbol
on its own. Before discussing the tools and techniques of marketing in OSOs, you
will need to understand the concept of marketing rights. These rights affect what
you have to offer, what you can offer and what falls outside sport or government
regulations.
The following information may appear overly complex; however, this topic is of
key importance to OSOs. Understanding what is involved in managing the market-
ing rights of an OSO is important to ensure that first, you make the most of what
you have to market by protecting your offerings, and second, you work within the
legal framework that affects the marketing rights of OSOs. Therefore, although this
material may be difficult to follow, it is crucial.
Marketing Activities
To make marketing activities easier, an OSO needs a set of symbols or distinctive
marks, which should include the name of the organisation. These distinctive marks
of the OSO or its events can be registered as trademarks. A trademark is any mark
that distinguishes one organisation’s products and services from another organisa-
tion’s similar or identical products and services. An example of this are the symbols
of the NOCs, which although all incorporate the Olympic rings, are all different,
reflecting the culture and images of their respective country. The following could
be trademarks of an OSO:
• Words or combinations of words, such as the name of an event

• Images, shapes, symbols and graphics, such as the mascot presented in figure
5.1, which was developed for the 2005 Mediterranean Games
• Letters, numbers and their combinations, such as the number of an Olym-
piad
• Three-dimensional forms, which could include wrapping, packaging, the form
of the product or its presentation
• Any combination of the previously mentioned marks or media
Internet domain names enjoy a similar protection system that is also based on the
protection of intellectual property. Therefore, the symbols outlined in figure 5.1
could be protected as trademarks.
National Olympic Committee of Iraq
a b c
Figure 5.1 The symbols of OSOs: (a) Indalete, the mascot of the 2005 Mediterranean Games; (b)
the logo of the National Olympic Committee of Iraq; and (c) the logo of Olympic Solidarity.
Figure 5.1a courtesy of COJMA 2005. Figure 5.1b courtesy of the National Olympic Committee of Iraq.
Most OSO marketing activities fall into three major categories:
• Advertising: If your OSO owns material goods, such as vehicles, equipment or

magazines, or if it owns property, such as stadiums, sport facilities or office
buildings, it may place any type of advertising in these spaces. At some com-
petitions or events, however, advertising is prohibited, such as at the Olympic
Games.
• Sponsoring: This is when permission is given for a third party to associate its
name with the OSO. Your organisation will need a name and symbols or dis-
tinctive marks that are well defined and legally protected. For example, Kodak’s
use of the Olympic rings in advertising comes about because of sponsorship
arrangements with the IOC.
• Licensing: This occurs when permission is given to a third party to associate
the OSO with one of its products or services, such as key chains, coffee mugs
and pens. Once again, your organisation will need a name and symbols or dis-
tinctive marks that are well defined and legally protected. Selling merchandise
that is branded with the name of an event that an OSO is promoting (such as
national championships) is an example of licensing.
Legal Position
From a strictly legal point of view, there are four main issues to keep in mind when
marketing an OSO. First, you need to bear in mind the range of activities and degree
of control as defined in the rules of your organisation’s constitution. Any legal entity,
such as a club, NF, NOC or Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (OCOG),
is limited in its activities by what is set out in the constitution.
Second, you need to respect the laws of the country where your organisation is
active. Obviously, the scope of activities and ability to conduct business or grant
rights will be governed by the rules set by government authorities. OSOs should
also respect the principles, rules and guidelines established in the Olympic Charter.
Finally, OSOs need to respect the rights of third-party individuals and groups that
interact with the organisation, such as athletes, coaches, NFs and clubs.
Limitations on Activities Due to Rights of Third Parties

In the same way that your OSO has rights and can exercise them, the athletes,
coaches, clubs and NFs who participate in your activities also have rights. An organi-
sation may not commercially use or sell the name, image or likeness of the athletes,
coaches, clubs or federations without their consent, even if it is during an activity
organised by the OSO. It is recommended that you obtain the express written consent
of participants in order to use their image. You could also outline the possibility of
this happening within the competition rules or the rules of the organising entity. In
the latter case, there should be evidence that the participants are aware of the rules
or conditions regarding the use of their name, image or likeness.
Olympic Charter Limitations

Many of the features associated with the Olympic Movement, especially with the
Olympic Games, have the ability to generate marketing activities. However, the
rights to use these features are very limited, and in general only the IOC and NOCs
have the right to use the symbols associated with the Olympic Movement. The
distribution of rights and operating regulations are clearly defined in the Olympic
Charter. It is important that other OSOs do not infringe on these rights, including
clubs, NFs, leagues, IFs and event organising committees. This means that many
OSOs are very limited in terms of what they have the right to market in relation to
the Olympic Games and the Olympic Movement.
Negotiating Contracts
Once the legal boundaries have been defined and you understand what you can
market, you should protect your OSO’s rights in well-negotiated agreements.
There are several issues to keep in mind when negotiating marketing contracts
or agreements. For example, five key elements should appear in all contracts or
agreements:
• Identification of the parties involved

• Place, date and term of the agreement
• Content of the contractual relationship
• Each party’s rights and responsibilities
• Provisions for dispute resolution
Advertising Agreements
Two types of legal relationships exist in the world of OSO marketing:
• Agreements for advertising placement

• Sponsorship agreements
An agreement for advertising placement occurs when a company or entity wishes

to make its name, brand, products or services publicly known and uses advertising
media to do so. The location, or where the advertisement will be placed, must be
clearly defined. The best way to describe where an advertisement will be located is
to include a drawing or plan in the agreement illustrating the exact position of the
advertisement. The agreement should also specify when the advertisement must be
shown. In addition, the agreement should include the display and technical speci-
fications of the placement. Details to specify may include the dimensions, gloss of
printing paper, and colours, sizes and shapes of the signs, letters and graphics. The
technical quality of the advertisement should also be specified for the benefit of the
producer as well as the advertiser.
A sponsorship agreement for advertising purposes occurs when an organisation

wishes to make its name, brand, products or services publicly known and does so
in conjunction with an OSO, or uses the mark, name or image of the OSO to rein-
force its communications strategy. The agreement could simply grant permission to
use for advertising purposes the sport organisation’s name or emblem or the image,
name or logotype of the events that it organises. For example, an OSO may sign a
sponsorship agreement with a travel company. In exchange for value in kind (VIK),
such as airline tickets, the travel company can use the OSO’s symbols and indicate
that it is the official travel agent of the OSO. The parties should define the conditions
of this partnership, and the OSO should reserve its right to review and have prior
approval of any communication where its name or image is used.
Licensing Agreements
In a licensing agreement, a third party is granted permission to use the name, image
or symbols of the OSO. This permission can be attached to a tangible product, such
as T-shirts, caps, key chains, watches, umbrellas or pencils, or to a service, such
as insurance, investments, transport or accommodation. You can license any mark
that your organisation has registered, that is, its name and emblems and the names,
marks and images of its events. When negotiating licensing agreements, you should
• Whether it is exclusive or not (normally it would be exclusive)

• Extent of exclusivity in terms of time, space and content
• Type of product or service
• Technical characteristics of the licensed product
• Price at which it will be sold to the public
• Distribution and sales channels to be employed
• Quantity of products that may be distributed or sold
• Whether sublicensing agreements are permitted
• What control measures the OSO will have over licensed products
• Whether there are any specific marketing obligations with regard to quantity
or specific locations
This section has highlighted the fact that marketing contributes to the creation
and development of a relationship between the organisation and its stakeholders.
This process is based on a mutual understanding, allowing the development of ideas,
products and services under the brand of an OSO. Your organisation has a brand
that is valuable for marketing purposes, and you should endeavour to work within
the legal framework of your country to gain the most that you can from marketing
rights. These rights then need to be protected in legal agreements.
Key Recommendations
c Work with your Board and stakeholders to develop a clear idea of your
brand by listing the services, goods, values and images that constitute your
offerings.
c Identify what you have the right to market, and identify any limitations that
may affect your marketing.
c Market your core offerings to meet stakeholders’ main motives and expecta-
tions.
c Assess your portfolio’s performance in relation to your main stakeholders’
expectations.
c Carefully negotiate advertising and licensing agreements.
The following illustration discusses the market portfolio of the Comité Olímpico
Argentino (Argentine Olympic Committee) and will present how this organisation
is managing the exchange process with its sponsors.
Illustration 5.1
Managing the Exchange Between an NOC
and Its Main Sponsors: Comité Olímpico Argentino
The Comité Olímpico Argentino (COA, Argentine Olympic Committee) initially tried
to work with a number of marketing agencies in order to improve its sponsorship
arrangements. However, Olympic marketing requires an in-depth understanding of
the Olympic Movement. It must take into consideration the federations’ interests
and the restrictions imposed by the rules regarding logos on uniforms and athletes’
image rights. As a consequence, the sponsorship agencies soon abandoned the
effort. Thus, the COA now takes responsibility for its marketing activities with its
own team of three professionals. This staff offers the full range of opportunities
afforded by the Olympic Movement to any sponsor who wishes to gain entry into
the world of Olympic sport. For the Athens 2004 campaign, the COA’s Marketing
Commission developed and conducted an innovative prospecting strategy from the
second half of 2003 until the start of the Olympic Games in 2004.
Relating Existing Offerings to Stakeholders

Given the financial crisis that Argentina experienced at the end of 2001, it did
not make sense to approach potential sponsors until 2003, since the investment
atmosphere was not conducive to dialogue. Before the 2004 Games, the marketing
campaign had been accomplished using fewer sponsors and higher amounts of
support. However, as a result of the economic situation leading up to the Athens
Games, the Marketing Commission adopted a strategy of diversifying the categories
of stakeholders to target.
(continued)
Stakeholders were separated into different sponsor categories in order to better

match the portfolio with stakeholder interests and give small to medium-sized
businesses an opportunity to access Olympic sponsorship. This approach yielded a
record number of sponsors who were able to publicise their products, brands and
logos before, during and after the Games. Although this policy did not provide
more money, it gave a broader base of stakeholders.
Legal Framework
It is worth noting that Argentina has written and approved the 1996 Law No. 24664
for the Protection of Olympic Symbols and Designations, which recognises the COA’s
broad ownership rights regarding this material.
Negotiated Agreements
The COA signed 17 sponsorship agreements for Athens 2004. The following
discussion presents an overview of three of these agreements, highlighting how
the COA Marketing Commission matched its portfolio of offerings to the interests
of its stakeholders.
T & C Sports
T & C Sports is a cable sport channel that bought the international rights to the
Games, which led to a VIK agreement with the NOC for 8,000 seconds of television
advertising. The agreement with this organisation was important to the ability
to offer value-added features to other prospective sponsors. The COA Marketing
Commission focused on negotiating the most advertising time possible with T &
C so that it could later offer a global bidding package to future sponsors, which
included a certain number of seconds to advertise their product, brand, logo and
trademark. Agreement was reached on how the 8,000 seconds that were offered
could be packaged, and these packages were accepted by the other sponsors who
signed agreements with the organisation.
Through this agreement, the COA could not gain funds but was able to secure
a value in-kind contribution. The COA then transferred this contribution into the
negotiation package with other sponsors, making it more attractive for them to
be sponsors of the Argentinean Olympic Team. Consequently, each company was
guaranteed a minimum number of seconds on the air with T & C Sports during
the Olympic Games broadcast, giving the sponsors a base amount of advertising
time with which to better negotiate the rest of the seconds that they decided to
purchase on their own.
Micotrim
Micotrim is an antifungal cream and powder product, and the agreement
negotiated with the parent company, Schering-Plough S.A., was a cash agreement.
The agreement with this sponsor is an example of how to gain notoriety for an
unknown brand by associating it with an important event. It was also an important
agreement from the COA’s perspective because it created exposure for the COA
trademark in the global advertising marketplace. Micotrim gave the trademark a
wide range of publicity. It was advertised on television (on the network TV Subtle),
in several high-circulation newspapers, through announcements broadcast on all
underground stations in Buenos Aires and on several long-distance and city bus
lines in Buenos Aires.
Lumilagro
Lumilagro is the trade name of a hot-liquid thermos. This agreement was partly a
cash agreement; however, in addition to the fee for approval to license a product
with the COA logo, it was also agreed that Lumilagro would supply a mate kit for
all the members of the Argentinean delegation. The kit included a vacuum flask
with the official COA logo, a sugar dispenser, yerba mate tea, a special straw and
sugar. (Mate is the national drink of Argentina, made with yerba mate herb leaves
and hot water.) As a result of this negotiated agreement, each member of the COA
delegation took a traditional and appealing item with them. The kits created a bond
amongst the athletes of various disciplines because mate tea is consumed in a group
setting and is shared with everyone who joins the group, creating closer ties amongst
all who participate in the ritual. The company got exposure for its trademark brand
and the COA received an unexpected service that gave the organisation positive
exposure as well.
—— G ——
It is clear from this illustration that careful negotiation can lead to a number of
agreements between OSOs and their stakeholders. The agreements outlined here
used the COA’s marketing rights to great effect, resulting in benefits to all parties
involved in the agreements.
Section 5.2
Managing the Quality of the Offering
The quality of services has become increasingly important for OSOs. You need to
deliver more, often with less revenue, and you are becoming increasingly accountable
for the way that your OSO is managed. In short, stakeholders are expecting more
from you, and the services you deliver need to be of good quality. OSOs depend on
their stakeholders; therefore they should understand current and future stakeholder
expectations and meet those requirements. This understanding will improve the use
of the organisation’s resources, which, in turn, will lead to improved loyalty from
stakeholders despite increasing competition.
This section considers key issues in the quality management of OSO offerings. It
will begin with a discussion of stakeholder satisfaction, looking at the role of expec-
tations and perceptions of quality in creating satisfaction. It will then consider ways
of identifying and categorising stakeholder expectations. The section will conclude
with an illustration of how the Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee evaluated
the quality of its organisation.
When attempting to manage the quality of what your OSO offers, you need to
consider the two dimensions presented in figure 5.2. “Expected quality” refers to
what stakeholders expect from an organisation in the way of attributes and standards.
Expected quality is particularly important for stakeholders using your services for
the first time, since their decision to use the organisation is not based on experience
but on the expectations you create with marketing activities. “Perceived quality” is
the level of quality that stakeholders judge they have received after using the ser-
vice. Upon using the service, stakeholders compare expected and perceived quality,
assessing the quality of your offerings based on the gap between the two.
In order to deliver a quality offering, you thus need to design a service that is as
close as possible to stakeholder expectations, and then you need to assess whether
there is a gap between expected and perceived quality. If a gap is identified, you
need to manage operations in order to decrease this gap. Bridging the gap between
expected service and perceived service is the role of quality management, which is
a set of practices that allows an organisation to deliver its services to stakeholders’
satisfaction. These practices should deal with all aspects of the organisation, such
as staff training, stakeholder consultation and operating procedures.
Expected Perceived
quality Gap quality
Figure 5.2 OSO E3592

stakeholders’
Olympicexpected
SolidarityandFigure
perceived service quality.
5.2, 276559 DeniseL R1
Stakeholder Satisfaction
Satisfaction with services arises from the experience of what the OSO has to offer.
This experience is the sum of the interactions that a stakeholder has with an OSO’s
services, products, people and processes. It begins from the moment stakeholders
become familiar with the brand and continues beyond the service encounter. Argu-
ably, satisfaction is one of the main concerns in the marketing of services, because
if stakeholders are not satisfied they will choose to use your competitors.
The problem is that satisfaction is an emotional response and is determined by

the stakeholder’s perception of how well the service encounter has met his or her
expectations, rather than by what the OSO actually does. For example, an OSO may
have a lengthy entry period for a competition. If athletes miss the entry deadline,
they are likely to feel dissatisfied with the OSO, perceiving the organisation of
the event not to have met their expectations. Alternatively, if they do not miss the
deadline, the fact that the competition had an entry deadline is likely to have little
or no impact on their satisfaction with the OSO.
It is difficult to guarantee stakeholder satisfaction because feelings of satisfaction

are created by a number of factors, some of which are outside your control. Feel-
ings of satisfaction can be influenced by health and fatigue, by the impact of others
on the experience, by being caught in a traffic jam, or by something as simple as
having a bad day. This makes satisfaction with an OSO’s offerings particularly hard
to manage, and therefore you need to measure it by carrying out research with your
stakeholders. If you are only able to evaluate a single aspect of marketing effective-
ness, it should be satisfaction, because satisfaction results from an assessment of
performance in relation with stakeholders’ expectations. Therefore, feedback on
satisfaction will help to improve service performance.
Stakeholders’ Expectations
In order to manage customer satisfaction, you need to understand what creates it. As
outlined in figure 5.2, satisfaction is related to the gap between what is expected and
what is perceived to have been received. Stakeholders expect OSOs to provide certain
services at an acceptable standard. For example, a person who wants a physical and
psychological challenge and to have fun whilst respecting the environment will look
for services that create these benefits. This person will have certain expectations
related to the service, such as a risk-free, competitive sport held in a natural space.
These expectations can be met by several sports. However, expectations are often
more precise than this. For example, the person may wish to try rock climbing in
a club close to home, which will be expected to provide courses for beginners on a
climbing wall, with qualified staff.
People’s expectations vary in number and importance, and the challenge is to

identify which expectations are the most important. Fortunately, stakeholder expec-
tations are relatively easy to gather through interviews that ask questions such as
these: What do you expect from our OSO? What are your expectations of services
provided by a top organisation? Although expectations are usually quite specific,
they can be categorised into the five main dimensions of a service, as presented in
figure 5.3.
Intangible characteristics
People
Physical evidence Stakeholder

expectations
Associated products
Functional processes
Figure 5.3 Dimensions of services.

Adapted from A. Ferrand, L. Torrigiani, I. Camps and A. Povill, 2006, Sport et sponsoring (Paris, France: Editions INSEP).
• Intangible characteristics: As outlined in section 5.1, services have several intan-

gible aspects that cannot be seen, felt or touched. Stakeholders have expectations
about these intangibles, and therefore you need to know what these expecta-
tions are. For example, stakeholders might expect an OSO to be perceived as
the expert voice regarding a sport, in which case you would need to create this
image of expertise in order to meet expectations.
• People: Services are actions performed by people, and stakeholders will have
expectations of the attitude, competencies and personal appearance of the
people who are involved with an OSO.
• Physical evidence: An OSO needs to create a tangible environment in order to
deliver the service. Physical evidence includes facilities, equipment and any
tangible components that facilitate the communication of the service, such as
brochures, letterheads and signage. Because these aspects of the service can
actually be seen, stakeholders are likely to have clear expectations of the physi-
cal evidence of the organisation.
• Associated products: In line with expectations of physical evidence, stakeholders
also have expectations about goods associated with the service, such as T-shirts,
bags or merchandise.
• Functional processes: The quality of service provided to stakeholders depends
primarily on the organisation and execution of the various tasks. Stakeholders
will have expectations of service delivery, and you need to understand these
expectations in order to know if you are doing things right.
Stakeholders will have expectations in these areas for each service that you offer,
and therefore you need to evaluate the expectations for services in each area (table
5.3).
Perceived Quality
Once you are aware of what stakeholders expect, you then need to consider the
level of quality that they perceive the OSO to deliver. Stakeholders have to experi-
ence a service in order to evaluate its quality. As they use the service, they evaluate
quality across a number of dimensions, some of which, developed by Parasuraman,
Zeithaml and Berry (1988), are presented in table 5.4.
Table 5.3 Analysis of the Service in Terms of Expectations

Stakeholder
Expectation The OSO should be the voice of the sport.
Service dimensions
Intangible Need to develop an image of credibility and expertise about the
characteristics sport.
People Should be knowledgeable and competent about the sport. Experts
should be part of the OSO.
Physical Aspects of the sport should be incorporated into logos or letter-
evidence head.
Equipment and physical facilities should be on display.
Associated Newsletters that allow the OSO’s expertise to be demonstrated
products should be part of membership.
Functional The OSO should have a process by which it can access the mass
processes media when an opinion on the sport needs to be voiced.
Table 5.4 Service Quality Dimensions

Dimensions Characteristics Evaluation questions
Reliability Ability to perform the promised If a response is promised in a
service dependably and accu- certain time, does it happen?
rately
Responsiveness Willingness to help stakeholders When there is a problem, does
by providing prompt service the organisation respond to it
quickly?
Assurance Trustworthiness and believ- Are responses accurate and
ability of staff, honesty of the consistent with other reliable
service provider, security of sources? Are staff well trained?
belongings Can personal possessions be left
somewhere safe and secure?
Empathy Making the effort to under- Do staff try to determine what
stand stakeholders’ expecta- stakeholders want?
tions and needs
Tangibles Physical facilities and associated Are written materials easy to
goods understand?
Dimensions in left-hand column are from Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry 1988.
Stakeholders use these criteria and others to evaluate whether you are delivering
services of an expected quality. If there is a gap between the expectations of the
OSO offerings and the perceptions of their quality, you need to identify why this
has occurred and what can be done about it.
Managing the Gap

In order to manage service quality and close the gap between expectations and
perceptions, you need to communicate with stakeholders. This allows you to
• identify stakeholder expectations,

• measure the perceived performance of products and services compared with
expectations,
• understand the motives behind satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and
• understand what is expected in the future.
It is important to understand what stakeholders expect of your OSO. If you

understand their expectations and can then meet them, you will be offering services
of an acceptable quality. Talking to stakeholders allows you to ask the following
questions.
1. What are the most important expectations related to the service?

a. Which expectations are satisfied by this service?
b. Which expectations are not satisfied by this service?
2. What are the least important expectations related to the service?
a. Are any of these expectations satisfied by this service?
You can then use this information to classify stakeholder expectations into the
four categories presented in figure 5.4. The four quadrants outlined in the figure are
defined by importance of expectations on the vertical axis and performance levels
on the horizontal axis.
Areas of success correspond to important expectations for which the service sup-
plied is judged effective (or satisfactory). From a strategic point of view, it is worth
reinforcing these aspects. For example, London Marathon participants expect to run
past historic places in London, and as they do so, their expectations are met. Conflict
arises when performance in relation to important expectations is judged weak (or
unsatisfactory), such as if online entry to competitions is important and your OSO
does not offer this option. Priority should be given to improving performance in
these areas, as long as the human, technical and financial resources are available
to do so. This situation should be of particular concern if competitors offer a more
effective service than yours in relation to these important expectations.
Satisfaction with perceived performance
Importance of expectations High (satisfied) Low (unsatisfied)
2. Success factors 1. Critical factors

High Keep or provide React immediately
resources to and concentrate
maintain quality resources here
4. Differentiating factors 3. Secondary factors

Low Maintain if needed Do not invest
Possible overkill resources
Figure 5.4 Matrix

E3592of Olympic
expectations versus Figure
Solidarity perceived
5.4, performance.
276564 DeniseL R2-alw
Reprinted from J.A. Martilla and J.C. James, 1977, “Importance-performance analysis,” Journal of Marketing 41(1): 77-79, by
permission of the American Marketing Association.
The area relating to differentiating factors for an OSO corresponds to expecta-

tions of low importance for which the service is judged effective. This is a positive
point from an organisational perspective, but it is not a strong marketing factor. For
example, a race may have great exposure on TV, but this is not valuable if it is not
important for the participants. Areas of secondary importance consist of expecta-
tions of little importance for which the service has been judged as not effective.
This information is useful, but it is not worth investing greatly in these points. For
example, if merchandised products are perceived as too expensive, but the purchase
of merchandise is not an important expectation, then no change in the cost of mer-
chandising is needed.
Sport organisations differ in their mission, resources and competencies, envi-

ronment, and competition. Nevertheless, developing a quality offering remains
one of the most important challenges for all OSOs, which operate in a competitive
environment. You need to provide the right environment for desired stakeholder
experiences to emerge.
Key Recommendations
c Ensure that your Board is committed to offering quality services.
c Interview stakeholders to understand their expectations of your OSO.
c Consider all service dimensions in relation to stakeholder expectations in

order to design a satisfactory service offering.
c Assess the level of stakeholder satisfaction regularly and compare these
results over time.
As suggested earlier, it is important to evaluate your performance against the

expectations of stakeholders. This allows you to identify strong areas and areas
that need improvement. The following illustration shows the results of research
about perceived service quality carried out by the Romanian Olympic and Sports
Committee.
Illustration 5.2
Assessment of Perceived Quality Offered by the Romanian
Olympic and Sports Committee
The Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee (ROSC) conducted a study that aimed
to assess the Executive Committee and administration members’ satisfaction with
the organisation. They used 53 criteria that covered the entire activity of the ROSC.
For each criterion, the respondents were first asked to rate its importance for the
ROSC operations and then to assess how well the organisation actually met the
respective criterion. These ratings were based on a 5-point scale. The 53 criteria
were subsequently grouped into 10 major areas:
Area 1: Planning Area 6: Executive Committee

Area 2: Olympic preparation Area 7: Management
Area 3: Relations with partners Area 8: Communication
Area 4: Administration Area 9: Finance
Area 5: Structure Area 10: Organisation reliability
The following discussion presents the results for area 1, planning. For each
expectation presented in table 5.5, both Executive Committee and administration
members rated the importance of the respective criterion regarding the ROSC and
the degree to which they perceived that the ROSC delivered this criterion.
The results show that the Executive Committee members considered it of maximum
importance (5.00) that they contribute to setting up the ROSC’s objectives in the
long term (criterion 4). However, they evaluated their performance in this respect
as low (1.50). Nonetheless, they rated the performance of the ROSC in having clear
objectives (criterion 2) as satisfactory to good (3.75), leading to the conclusion that,
somehow, the top management and the administration had established objectives
without the Executive Committee’s help. Equally interesting to note is the Executive
Committee’s and administration’s low ratings (1.25 and 2.31, respectively) of the
ROSC’s performance in regard to the existence of strategic plans (criterion 1), as well
as the Executive Committee’s low involvement (1.50 and 2.56) in the evaluation of
ongoing programmes (criterion 6).
The research highlighted a number of factors. In terms of areas of key success,

expectations coincided for the two categories of stakeholders: Both the Executive
Committee and the administration had high expectations of criteria 2 and 3, and
these expectations were fairly well satisfied. Key success factors also illustrate points
of organisational cohesion. In addition, it is worth noting that the ROSC’s success
in setting objectives and devising programmes to fulfil them illustrates good use
of resources.
Table 5.5 Ratings of Performance of the Planning of the ROSC
Executive Executive Administration Administration
Committee: Committee: members: members:
mean mean mean mean
importance performance importance performance Overall Overall
Expectation rating rating rating rating importance performance
1 The ROSC has in place long- 3.75 1.25 4.25 2.31 4.15 2.10
term strategic plans for the
development of the Olympic
sports.
2 The ROSC has clear objectives 4.75 3.75 4.50 3.44 4.55 3.50
in the field of high-level sport.
3 The ROSC develops specific 4.50 3.50 4.25 3.31 4.30 3.35
programmes in order to
implement its objectives.
4 The Executive Committee has 5.00 1.50 4.25 2.81 4.40 2.55
a direct contribution in setting
up the ROSC objectives for the
long term.
5 The Executive Committee 3.25 1.75 3.94 2.81 3.80 2.60
knows about the programmes
in progress.
6 The Executive Committee 3.50 1.50 4.25 2.56 4.10 2.35
periodically evaluates and
improves the efficiency of the
ROSC programmes.
The mean ratings were computed based on the arithmetic mean of individually assigned values.
(continued)
managing marketing
239
As for areas of conflict, the ROSC’s perceived lowest performance by the members
of the Executive Committee was in respect to long-term strategic plans (1.25). This
may indicate a certain detachment of the Executive Committee from the organisation,
a detachment that was also perceived by the administration. This situation suggests
an area of organisational weakness that may be capable of causing tension between
these stakeholders and the ROSC’s top management. Measures should be taken
by the ROSC’s management to stimulate, inform, activate and empower Executive
Committee members to contribute more to strategic decision making. A positive
change in this direction is likely to lead to the establishment of a long-term strategic
plan, the lack of which has led to this area being rated as having the lowest level
of perceived quality by all stakeholders involved in the research.
This research enabled the ROSC to identify priorities that have been taken into
account in future planning. The success of this research was only possible because of
the objective performance review undertaken by the Board and the administration.
The performance review allowed realistic decisions to be made in order to define
priorities to enhance the quality of services provided to stakeholders.
Source: Oprisan 2002.
Section 5.3
Developing a
Marketing Communication Strategy
Communication with stakeholders is essential to the operation of an OSO. You need
to communicate in order to promote your vision, objectives and plans for the future;
seek sponsorship; select teams; and be accountable. The main point of communica-
tion is to develop relationships with your stakeholders, and communication enables
you to interact socially.
The management of communication within an organisation requires a global and

rational approach, and this approach is known as integrated marketing communi-
cation (IMC). This section considers the role of IMC in the management of OSOs
and proposes operational methods and tools that allow organisations to increase the
effectiveness of their communication. It focuses on establishing the proper basis
for an IMC strategy. The section concludes with a discussion of the public relations
strategy for Athens 2004 that was adopted by the Kuwait Olympic Committee.
The process of developing an IMC strategy is outlined in figure 5.5, which shows
the relationships amongst the various stages of communications planning. In order
to develop a communication strategy, seven major decisions have to be made:
• Which individuals and organisations do you want to target? In other words,

who are your communication targets?
• What are the communication objectives?
Communication
objectives
Relationship
with the Budget
target
Tactic:
push/pull
Assessment
Mix of media
Communication planning
Communication target
Figure 5.5 StagesE3592 Olympic

of planning Solidarity Figure
a communication 5.5, 276566
strategy. DeniseL R1
• What kind of relationship do you want to have with your communication tar-
gets?
• Which tactics will you use to communicate?
• What is your budget?
• Which mix of media will you choose?
• How will you assess the results of your communication?
These decisions will form the basis of the IMC strategy.
Communication Targets
Communication targets are the individuals and organisations with whom you wish
to create or reinforce a relationship. For example, a sport club may have to commu-
nicate with parents, physical education teachers, journalists, sport retailers, sponsors
and members. Once targets have been identified and selected, objectives can be set
for communication with each target.
Communication Objectives
Objectives can be categorised on the basis of how to win over the targeted groups.
Communication aims to change the behaviour of targeted individuals and organisa-
tions across three dimensions:
• Educating your audience about the OSO by creating an awareness of what the
organisation does, its image and the perceived quality of the OSO’s offerings
(cognitive dimension)
• Creating an emotional tie between your stakeholders and the OSO so that they
develop a preference for your OSO over your direct and indirect competitors
(emotional dimension)
• Influencing the decision-making behaviour of your targets to join and remain
loyal to your OSO (behavioural dimension)
These objectives are often linked together into an integrated communication

programme. For example, if you are trying to increase membership, you could try
the following:
• Publicise the services you offer with posters (cognitive dimension).

• Promote the quality of your services by inviting people to attend a session or
event that presents services (cognitive dimension).
• Have staff and members talk to potential customers (emotional dimension).
• Convince the person to join your organisation by giving an extra bonus like a
T-shirt (behavioural dimension).
Relationship With Your Communication Targets

Before deciding how you are going to communicate with stakeholders, you need to
decide what type of relationship you wish to create with them. This will help to decide
what kind of communication tactics you can employ and what media you can use.
There are three types of relationship that can be formed with communication.
• Diffusion: This type of relationship is created by mass media, which communi-

cate a message to a large number of people. Diffusion media, such as television,
radio, press and poster advertising, are powerful communicators; however, they
do not allow the organisation to develop a close relationship with targets, nor can
the communication be tailored towards the individual. A diffusion relationship
is simply about exposing stakeholders to the message, and therefore for many
OSOs mass media communication is made possible through public relations
strategies aimed at getting coverage or free publicity in media outlets such as
newspapers, radio and television. Mass media communication through paid
advertisements is not a cost-effective method of marketing for most OSOs.
• Personalisation: Personalisation of the relationship between the OSO and its

communication targets is a key factor in creating and developing a real rela-
tionship. In order to create this important relationship, an OSO should use
one-to-one media, such as face-to-face interviews, phone conversations, text
messaging (SMS) or e-mail, which enable you to personalise the communica-
tion. For example, you might present your programme to a group of potential
sponsors in order to outline your services and to understand what sponsors
expect. After the presentation, you can design a customised proposal for each
sponsor and present this at subsequent individual meetings.
• Social bonding: OSOs fulfil social and emotional expectations. A sport club
allows people to meet friends and to share emotions, and OSOs will want to
use communication to build this type of relationship. Through the use of events
and public relations tactics, it is possible to create personal and emotional rela-
tions between people sharing the same interests.
Diffusion communications convey messages to a large number of people, but

they can’t be personalised. Personalisation relies on one-to-one communication
where messages are customised in order to meet each person’s specific expectations.
Examples include direct marketing through telephone calls and direct correspon-
dence. However, with this method, information cannot be quickly disseminated
to a large number of people. Social bonding aims to develop social connections in
a group of people, and this process can be more powerfully communicated when
stakeholders are emotionally involved, such as when they participate in an event.
You have to decide what relationship you want with your stakeholders and then use
an appropriate communication method to build this relationship.
Communication Tactics
You can use two types of tactics to communicate with stakeholders: pull tactics
and push tactics. Pull tactics aim to attract individuals to the OSO and its services,
whilst push tactics promote the organisation and its services to the market. Pull
tactics only work if the OSO brand is attractive to stakeholders, and this type of
tactic is used by powerful brands like the IOC and the Olympic Games. Because
the brand is strong, sponsors are pulled towards the Games and are used by the
IOC to promote its values and to increase its social impact. Using the same type of
tactic, commercial brands like Adidas and Nike use advertising and sponsorship to
encourage people to purchase their products.
© IOC / JENNY Claude
A TOP sponsor’s logo displayed prominently at an Olympic Games, illustrating the strong pull of
the Games and the use of sponsorship by Coca-Cola.
Push tactics are offensive tactics in that the organisation actively promotes itself
and its services to the market. Common push tactics are sport events, direct market-
ing and sales promotions. These are likely to be the main tactic used by the majority
of OSOs because sport organisations are often not in a position to build a strong
brand. A final point to note is that push and pull tactics can be combined.
Choice of Media
Media are the vehicles by which organisations communicate, allowing you to develop
relationships with your communication targets. An OSO can use many types of com-
munication media, including publicity, advertising, printed documents, the Internet,
sales promotion, direct marketing and events. In addition, an OSO can use public
relations as a communication vehicle. Public relations involves a conscious effort
to organise and monitor communications in order to create, maintain and develop
a climate of mutual understanding and confidence between the OSO and its stake-
holders. Public relations combines many types of media in order to develop good
public support and opinion by promoting the values of the OSO. Table 5.6 shows
how communication media can create communication relationships.
Table 5.6 Communication Means and Relationships With the Target

Relationship
with the target Media Description
Diffusion Publicity These activities promote an OSO or its services by placing news about it
in media that is not paid for by the OSO or a sponsor. This form of free
publicity involves contacting the media through press releases and by
telephone and by inviting the media to events. It requires good rela-
tionships with key media.
Advertis- Includes paying for messages in the mass media, press, television, post-
ing ers, radio, cinema and Internet.
Printed Involves distributing printed documents aimed at informing an OSO’s
material stakeholders. This includes posters, fliers, booklets, folders, press kits,
business cards, invitations and greetings cards.
Diffusion and Websites The Internet provides a communication channel for OSOs, allowing
personalisation them to rapidly communicate values and inform stakeholders about cur-
rent activities.
Personalisation Sales Includes short-term incentives such as discounts or free merchandise.
promotion
Direct Includes any marketing technique that is personalised in order to estab-
marketing lish an interactive and measurable dialogue with a selected target. This
usually takes the form of telephone calls, direct correspondence and in
some cases, personal visits.
Social bonding Events Events can be celebrations that create emotion and thus reinforce social
bonds amongst stakeholders.
Social bonding Test Includes special events that give an opportunity to try or test the quality
and personali events of the offering.
sation
Social bonding Public Includes events, sales promotions, direct marketing or any activity that
relations creates and develops a positive climate within an OSO and its stakehold-
ers in order to reinforce cohesion amongst stakeholders.
The media you choose to use depends on basic decisions regarding the strategy
of the communication. These decisions relate to the quality of the relationship
desired with your target (diffusion, social bonding or personalisation), the type of
tactic (push or pull) and the objectives of the communication. A consideration of
these three dimensions makes it possible to determine the most appropriate media
to achieve the strategy.
For example, a sport club wanting to recruit new members could combine sales
promotion, direct marketing and an event promoted through free publicity in the
media. Awareness of the organisation is low and financial resources don’t allow
advertising using local newspapers and radio. The strategy could target the parents
of children aged 12 to 16 years who are living in the area, aiming to create social
and emotional relationships. One approach may be to adopt a push strategy, holding
an event that encourages people to try the sport. This initiative could be extended
by organising an open day that features well-known sport figures. Coverage or
free publicity for the event could be gained by sending press releases to the media
announcing the event, personally contacting media and inviting them to the event
and holding a press conference during the event.
Assessing the Impact of the Communication Strategy

In order to assess the results of the communication strategy, four questions need to
be answered. Table 5.7 outlines how the sport club discussed previously could use
these questions to assess the impact of its strategy.
Table 5.7 Evaluating Communication Strategies for a Sport Club

Dimensions Characteristics What to evaluate
Which Targets need to be evaluated to see if Number of new members
target? communication is effective Number of people contacting
the club to get information
What to Direct effects Number of new and renewed
assess? subscriptions
Indirect effects Number of known contacts
Visits to the website
Impact in the media
Image
Perceived quality
Satisfaction
Number of articles in press
How to Analysis of existing information on sub- Analysis of existing information
evaluate? scriptions, number of requests for infor- Interviews and questionnaires
mation and number of articles in the press
Specific survey of the awareness and
image of the organisation
When to Three periods of measurement should be Collection of information
evaluate? considered: before, during and after the throughout the year
communication plan Investigation of stakeholder
satisfaction
At the beginning of this section we presented the stages of a communication

strategy (figure 5.5). Using the example of the sport club referred to earlier, you can
see how the process might work in operation. The objective of the communication
strategy is to promote the club in order to increase membership, and the target is
parents with children aged 12 to 16 years. A personalisation and social-bonding rela-
tionship could be chosen, which could be developed by push tactics, within a budget
of €3,000. The media chosen should reflect the push tactic, such as a free trial week
promoted through advertising in partnership with local radio and newspapers. In
addition, there should be an emphasis on free publicity, such as sending out press
releases and joining radio talk shows. Finally, in order to assess the impact of the
strategy, indicators should be established, such as the number of people participating
in the free trials and new membership cards resulting from these trials.
Communication strategies should be formalised in writing and should have

indicators of success. You will have to adapt your strategy to the culture of your
organisation, its resources and its competences. The strategy must also be accepted
internally. You will have to convince internal parties of the need for the strategy so
that your organisation speaks with one voice. In addition, in order to be effective,
you will need to follow these principles:
• Use simple and repetitive messages whenever possible.
• Be realistic when considering communication targets, objectives, media, budget

and timing of communications.
• Develop a good relationship with the media in order to benefit from free pub-
licity.
• Don’t make messages too complex or choose media that is too expensive.
• Make sure you allow adequate time to get the message across.
In order to satisfy stakeholders’ expectations, communication in an OSO needs

to be proactive and personalised. This type of communication requires the IMC
approach outlined in this section.
Key Recommendations
c Ensure that you have an integrated approach to marketing communication
with stakeholders that is developed in consultation with your Board.
c Be clear about who you are targeting with your communications.
c Analyse the behaviours of your stakeholders in order to determine the best

mix of media for your communication purposes.
c Take advantage of opportunities for free publicity by developing relation-
ships with key media in order to count on their support to cover news and
events related to your OSO.
c Evaluate the impact of all communications.
The following illustration shows how a public relations strategy was used by the
Kuwait Olympic Committee in order to raise awareness of its work.
Illustration 5.3
Managing Public Relations: Kuwait Olympic Committee
The Kuwait Olympic Committee (KOC) used the Athens 2004 Olympic Games as a
media vehicle for a public relations (PR) campaign that aimed to raise awareness
of the NOC, the Kuwaiti athletes and the country itself. The campaign was
multidimensional and combined several types of media that adopted a variety of
tactics aimed at key stakeholders.
Objectives
The PR strategy had the following objectives:
• To raise awareness of the KOC and its athletes

• To improve the public image of sport in Kuwait
• To recognise relationships with existing partners
• To highlight the need for sponsorship
These objectives incorporate the concepts of strategic positioning in the market,

diffusion, communication and motivation to be involved with the organisation—
objectives that are ideally suited to a PR campaign. In addition, the KOC had the
advantage of being able to play a dominant role in special events such as the Olympic
Games, world championships and Continental Games, and this campaign made the
most of this market advantage. Thus, the PR strategy successfully used and reinforced
the benefits and position of the KOC in relation to its competition.
Targets
The campaign had four main targets:
• Potential KOC sponsors: Unfortunately, there was no main sponsor for the
Kuwaiti athletes at the Athens Games. Thus, the KOC used the Games as an
opportunity to raise awareness of the need for sponsorship. The Games showed
how sponsors might benefit from a relationship with the KOC by highlighting
the media attention that the Games initiated.
• Viewers and spectators: Media played a major part in keeping viewers in Kuwait
informed about the events of the Games. This raised awareness of the KOC
and of sport in general. The Kuwaiti press sent four journalists to the Athens
Games to ensure good overall coverage of the event. This coverage resulted
in an effective review of the Games, which raised the image of sport in the
country.
• Public: The main public target was the general public in Kuwait. The aim of the
PR strategy in relation to this group was to raise awareness of sport in general,
which occurred as a result of worldwide attention on the Games.
(continued)
• Existing partners: The Public Authority for Youth and Sports (PAYS) sponsored
the Kuwaiti delegation financially as well as materially, contributing towards
the costs of travel, accommodation and expenses. They worked in partnership
with the state airline, Kuwait Airways Corporation. The Games provided the
opportunity for the airline’s support to be recognised.
Relationships and Media Chosen

Two types of relationships were developed with the targets of the communication
plan. First, diffusion was important in order to inform targets about the work of
the KOC and its athletes, to raise awareness of sport within the country and to raise
awareness of the need for sponsorship. The televising of the Games and the work
of the journalists at the Games allowed these objectives to be met. In addition, the
Internet allowed greater dissemination of the activities of the Games. Moreover,
the KOC and PAYS brought out publications and guide books in dual languages
in commemoration of the Games in order to satisfy the growing interest of the
public.
Second, in order to attract sponsorship and to recognise the work of existing

partners, relationships of personalisation and social bonding had to be created.
This was done effectively using the delegation that attended the Athens Games.
Each of the 57 official delegates was required to promote Kuwaiti sport. In addition,
attendance as part of the delegation was considered to be recognition of the role
played by PAYS, leading to good PR between the KOC and PAYS.
In addition to the work done by the delegation and the mass media, the following
provided opportunities to reinforce the objectives of the PR campaign.
• Special events: Certain events provided the opportunity to promote the KOC
and its objectives, including the Olympic Games, Continental Games, Islamic
Solidarity Games, Pan Arab Games, West Asian Games, Afro-Asian Games and
Gulf Countries Council Games.
• Athlete relations: Relationships between the KOC and the athletes were
developed at preevent meetings, warm-up camps, championships and test
trials.
• Hospitality: The KOC offered hospitality at executive meetings, meetings of

the OSOs, meetings of the delegation and meetings of the volunteers in order
to reinforce the PR objectives.
• Internet: The West Asian Games 2003 website and the KOC website provided
an opportunity for PR.
• Publicity: The objectives of the PR campaign were also communicated in the

quarterly periodical published by the KOC, the monthly magazine published
by PAYS and a 145-page bilingual publication brought out in commemoration
of the 2004 Olympic Games by the KOC.
• Journalism: The objectives of the KOC were supported by daily coverage of

sport in the Arabic and English language dailies.
—— G ——
The approach adopted by the KOC aimed to draw all stakeholders towards a
common goal. The PR campaign integrated a number of diverse activities in one
unified strategy to raise awareness of the KOC’s activities, its athletes and the country
itself. This is the hallmark of successful PR management. The Olympic Games of
Athens 2004 created communication between the KOC and its targets and therefore
helped the organisation meet the objectives of its communication strategy.
Section 5.4
Managing Sponsorship
Sponsorship is a marketing strategy that pursues commercial and corporate objec-
tives, exploiting the direct association between an organisation, brand or product
with another organisation’s brand or personality. It implies a commercial transaction
between the various parties involved. This transaction can involve the exchange
of funds, but more commonly it involves an exchange of goods or services as value
in kind (VIK). This section discusses the factors involved in seeking and managing
sponsorship in OSOs. It will begin by considering why sponsors might wish to be
involved in sponsorship arrangements, which will be followed by a consideration of
the process to follow when seeking sponsorship. The section ends with a presenta-
tion of the Philippine Amateur Swimming Association’s sponsorship plan.
Reasons for Sponsorship

Analysis and understanding of sponsorship mechanisms are crucial in order to be
able to manage sponsorship strategically. This knowledge will allow you to identify
and select sponsorship opportunities, to define an action plan for seeking sponsor-
ship and to assess the plan’s impact on your targets. Basically, sponsorship is the
match between a sponsored entity and a sponsor. The sponsored entity could be
a sport organisation, team, athlete or event, whilst the sponsor could be a brand,
organisation or product. For example, the Olympic Games have a number of key
sponsors, such as Coca-Cola. As another example, the Olympic stadium in Sydney is
now known as the Telstra Stadium after this telecommunications company bought
the naming rights in 2002. In order to manage sponsorship effectively, you need to
know why sponsors might consider supporting your OSO.
Photo courtesy of the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of

Kazakhstan.
Signage of sponsors at the Central Asian Equestrian Championships, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 2003.
Associations Created by Sponsorship Arrangements

A sponsorship arrangement leads to three types of associations that arise as a
result of the characteristics and images that are associated with the two entities.
These associations can be an OSO’s values, such as fair play and respect; perceived
quality; and other characteristics, such as the Olympic rings. Sponsorship creates
associations that are specific to the sponsor, associations that are common to both
entities and associations that are specific to the sponsored entity. For example, table
5.8 presents the characteristics that are associated with the Olympic Committee of
Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations (OCS-ASF) and Le Coq Sportif, one of
its sponsors.
The interaction between the sponsor and the sponsored combines the emotions
provoked by the sponsored entity with those evoked by the sponsors. This repeated
interaction reinforces existing images of the two entities or generates new ones. The
three processes (figure 5.6) that can result from this interaction are as follows.
• Transfer of associations and characteristics of the sponsored entity to the sponsor:

For example, Le Coq Sportif might hope to transfer OCS-ASF associations, such
as that of elite performance, to its brand.
• Reinforcement of the common associations and characteristics between the sponsor
and the sponsored entity: Le Coq Sportif is likely to want to reinforce the following
values associated with the OCS-ASF: tradition, quality, sense of accomplishment
and an exciting life.
• Transfer of associations and characteristics of the sponsored entity to the sponsor:
The OCS-ASF might be interested in transferring the images associated with
Le Coq Sportif, such as ambition, innovation and enjoyment.
Table 5.8 Associations Created by the Interaction Between OCS-ASF

and Le Coq Sportif
Common to OCS-ASF Specific to
Specific to OCS-ASF and Le Coq Sportif Le Coq Sportif
Features and Top sport event and Know-how Clothing for competi-
associated results Quality tion and leisure
characteristics High performance Well managed Innovation
Sport for All Tradition Enjoyment with top
Slovenia Sense of accomplish- sports and recre-
True friendship ment ational products
Courage An exciting life Ambitious
Fair play Ambition Serious
Respect Responsibility Imaginative
Logo with national Capability Le Coq logo
symbols and Olympic
rings
Associations transferred
from sponsor to OSO
OSO Sponsor
1 2 3
associations associations
Associations transferred
from OSO to sponsor
Figure 5.6 Reinforcement and transfer

E3592 Olympic Solidarityof associations between an
Figure 5.6, 276572 OSO andR1
DeniseL a sponsor. Where
the associations overlap (2), existing images are reinforced.
There needs to be a match between the associations that each entity can offer
and the associations that are required by each entity. For example, Samsung claims
to sponsor the Olympic Games because the Games represent the company’s values:
peace, humanism, courage and challenge.
Sponsor Objectives
Sponsors take part in sponsorship arrangements in order to achieve specific objec-
tives. These objectives fall into two categories: commercial and corporate. Commer-
cial objectives relate to activities that improve the function and profitability of the
sponsor organisation. In many cases, they are the main reason why organisations
get involved in sponsorship. Table 5.9 outlines the commercial objectives of the
sponsorship arrangement between the OCS-ASF and its sponsors.
Table 5.9 Commercial Sponsorship Objectives

Objectives Examples
To demonstrate the Mura, an official supplier of the OCS-ASF, provided quality
quality and perfor- clothing for travel and gatherings for all Olympic teams and all
mance of products and events. At the same time it supplied clothing for some of the
services (sponsoring of OCS-ASF member federations.
credibility)
To increase brand SKB Bank advertised the Visa Olympic card for the Olympic
awareness team during Athens Olympics. For promotion it used OCS-ASF
athletes and promoted the card on giant panels, printed media
and the seats of all Adria Airways planes, the national air carrier
and sponsor of the OCS-ASF.
To reinforce or change Sports lottery linked one of its lottery tickets to the OCS-ASF
its public image and promoted it in the media using OCS-ASF symbols and ath-
letes. It intended to raise its image as the top lottery of top Slo-
venian sport.
To stimulate the sales The investment management company Istrabenz invited its
force (emulation spon- best salespeople to the Mediterranean Games, where they
sorship) were treated at VIP level, met athletes and top managers, and
enjoyed the competition atmosphere.
To develop Adriatic, an insurance company, organises a yearly picnic with
business-to- sport activities for all its business partners. At the same time
business athletes, other sponsors and representatives of other OCS-ASF
relationships stakeholders are invited. The event is a perfect opportunity for
informal gathering, new contacts, and promotion of Adriatic
and the OCS-ASF.
To generate goodwill OCS-ASF in cooperation with its partner research company,
and a positive attitude Mediana, produces yearly research showing that companies
towards the brand that support the OCS-ASF and sport in general have better
image recognition by the general population than other suc-
cessful companies that are not using sponsoring as a marketing
tool.
Corporate objectives, however, aim to communicate company values both exter-

nally and internally through sport. They make it possible to moderate negative per-
ceptions held by the public since involvement in social causes allows the sponsor to
demonstrate its capability to take into account the human dimension of society and
to redistribute part of its benefits in order to enhance people’s lives. Thus, by being
involved in sponsorship for corporate objectives (table 5.10), companies enhance
both their social and political synergies.
Sponsors combine corporate and commercial objectives in order to achieve their

goals. Thus, a company entering into a sponsorship arrangement can increase its
brand awareness, stimulate its distribution network, increase its market share and
create a feeling of pride amongst its partners. In addition, the hospitality aspect of
sponsorship arrangements is important for companies because it provides them
with an attractive opportunity to invite clients, suppliers, prospects and partners
to high-profile events. Indeed, the opportunity to create a social bond using these
events often exceeds the cost of the commercial transaction.
Table 5.10 Sponsorship Objectives Associated With Corporate Goals

Objectives Examples
To demonstrate the OCS-ASF and SKB started their collaboration in 2003 with
company’s citizenship a scholarship programme. The programme targets young
and its involvement promising athletes with lower socioeconomic status in dif-
in social causes ferent regions across the country.
To promote the Iskra, a highly specialised company in the production of
company culture, electronics, supported a young disabled athlete at Athens
to reinforce 2004. The athlete was also a successful student and poten-
internal cohesion tial employee. Since the company employs some staff with
and to stimulate disabilities, she was a motivation for them and other people
staff motivation with disabilities.
Managing the Sponsorship Programme

Knowing why sponsors might wish to be involved in sponsorship arrangements
will help you plan your sponsorship programme. However, due to the complexity
of the mechanisms and the various parties involved, sponsorship is not easy to
manage and requires a programme of activities as outlined in figure 5.7. You need
to take these factors into account in order to manage your sponsorship programme
effectively.
Return on investment (ROI) assessment
Packages and
customised proposal
Marketer
FIT Sponsor
Rights
owner
Contribution (cash,
value in kind)
Activation programmes including relationship-marketing based programmes
E3592
Figure 5.7 Olympic Solidarity
Operational Figure 5.7,sponsorship.
model for managing 276575 DeniseL R3-alw R4-dawns
Sponsorship Packages
Sponsorship depends on the fact that each party can deliver something that has
value for the other. When this is the case, both parties can agree on an exchange
of money, services, products or rights. The most valuable commodity of many
OSOs is the rights that they control (as discussed in section 5.1), since sponsors
are likely to want to be associated with the image of the organisation. Once
this exchange has been agreed upon, the transaction should be formalised in a
contract that includes an agreement on terms, conditions, and time and place
of the exchange. This is the sponsorship arrangement as outlined in section 5.1.
An example of an NOC sponsorship agreement may be found on the IOC’s NOC
Extranet.
In order to put this arrangement in place, you will need to develop packages
that are attractive to potential sponsors. This, however, is not as easy as it sounds.
It is often difficult to develop an offer that satisfies the generic expectations of
sponsors, such as exposure and hospitality, but also is personalised to a specific
sponsor’s expectations. You have to balance the number of sponsors in each cat-
egory, their return on investment and your capability to deliver a quality service
to each one.
Sponsorship packages require you to identify the type and number of sponsors
you want. This allows you to offer different benefits to different sponsors, but it
also lets you target your sponsorship activities towards what you need. There is no
single rule for type and number of sponsors, but it may be difficult to manage more
than three categories of sponsors. For example, apart from the IOC TOP partners,
the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG) had a three-
tiered sponsorship programme: the Team Millennium Olympic Partners, the Sydney
2000 Supporters and the Sydney 2000 Providers. SOCOG aimed to attract a certain
number of sponsors in each category.
You then need to consider the elements that are to be common to all packages.
These elements relate to the intangible elements of the offering, such as heritage,
values, image and positioning, and to the tangible elements, such as the way of com-
municating and its impact. In order to tailor packages to different sponsors, each
package should also contain customised elements, such as hospitality opportunities
or exclusiveness.
Identifying Potential Sponsors

Once sponsorship packages have been developed, these can either be marketed
directly or through a marketing agency. The purpose of this marketing is to iden-
tify a sponsor who is likely to be interested in your sponsorship offer and who is
compatible with the mission and objectives of the OSO. This requires a diagnosis
of the fit between the sponsored organisation and the potential sponsor. If the diag-
nosis demonstrates that the following criteria cannot be met, then it is appropriate
to give up the process and seek another sponsor. The criteria for evaluating fit are
as follows:
• A match between the characteristics associated with your organisation and the
potential sponsor
• Acceptability of this association to the stakeholders of the two parties
• Compatibility between the sponsor’s marketing and communication objectives
and what can be achieved by the programme
• Coherence between the objectives and values of an event’s stakeholders and the
sponsor’s targeted stakeholders (when seeking sponsorship of an event)
These criteria allow appropriate sponsors to be targeted.
Value of Sponsorship Packages

The decision of how much sponsorship to seek is often difficult because it is hard
to place a financial value on what an OSO has to offer a sponsor. When considering
the value of packages, a decision on price requires a complex arbitration between
three components.
• The OSO itself, including its strategy, objectives, positioning, market power
and cost of the services delivered to the sponsors
• The potential sponsors, including reference price, perceived value and ratio of
price or quality
• Environment and competition, including economic situation and competitors’
pricing policies
When negotiating the value of the package, you should be concerned with the
amount to be contributed as cash and the amount to be contributed as VIK. Although
cash may seem more desirable, it often causes problems with security and account-
ability. In addition, many sponsors find it more economic to provide VIK. Examples
of VIK include equipment, team uniforms and travel. It is also important to give
attention to how payments will be made, when they will be made and what might
happen if the sponsor has to withdraw from the arrangement. Finally, it is necessary
to be aware of what your competitors could offer the sponsor. You need to make
sure that you do not overvalue or undervalue your offer.
Brand Activation
The initiatives that expose the sponsor’s brand to the target audience are known
as “activations”. In order to achieve the objectives of sponsorship and to create the
desired associations, you and your sponsor need to develop opportunities that expose
the sponsor’s brand to the stakeholders targeted by the sponsorship. For example, a
basketball contest organised for teenagers, in partnership with a funding sponsor,
provides emotional and social benefits such as fun, excitement and being part of the
event, as well as raising the image of the sponsor amongst those involved. Activations
provide the target audience with a positive experience that is both related to the
sponsor’s brand and connected with the sponsored entity. Activation programmes
use a mix of media (presented in section 5.3), such as public relations, publicity,
direct marketing and events.
Activation programmes are particularly essential for sponsors of the Olympic

Games because their brand is not exposed in competition areas. Consequently, acti-
vation strategies aim to make the sponsor active, rather than passive, for the target
audience. For example, when a brand is promoted by a poster around a stadium, it
is passive; however, when the brand is in the hands of the consumers and providing
a tangible benefit, such as a water bottle, cap or T-shirt, it is active and more likely
to make a lasting impact on the target.
An activation strategy adopted by Le Coq Sportif in Slovenia was to develop a

national track suit in the prescribed national colours for Slovenian athletes taking
part in the Athens Games. After the Olympics, the company continued this strategy
by offering to supply products for NFs competing worldwide. The success of the
strategy was indicated by interest in other products, which led Le Coq Sportif to
start to produce clothing elements such as T-shirts and polo shirts using the Slove-
nian Olympic brand.
Assessment of Return on Investment

Finally, in order to ensure continued sponsorship, the arrangement must be perceived
as providing value to the sponsor. This will require an assessment of the return
on investment (ROI) on behalf of the sponsor. ROI should be evaluated by assess-
ing hard benefits, such as media exposure, number of participants and number of
spectators, because these are indicators of the exposure the sponsor has received.
Soft benefits, such as organisation awareness, image and perceived quality are also
important because they allow assessments of the quality of the exposure. Assessing
ROI will benefit the OSO as well since the organisation can demonstrate the value
of its sponsorship packages to existing sponsors as well as to potential sponsors.
After signing a contract with a sponsor, you may feel satisfied and think that the
pressure of work will decrease. However, the most challenging phase of sponsorship
is about to begin: You now have to deliver the expected service to the sponsor. In
order to do so, you should focus on the principles discussed in section 5.2 and aim
to meet the sponsor’s expectations of quality.
Key Recommendations
c Work with your Board to identify any associations your OSO has that might
be attractive to a sponsor.
c Target your sponsors according to a potential fit based on quality of the
match, acceptability, communication, marketing objectives and target audi-
ence.
c Develop a range of packages that can be customised to meet the needs of
sponsors.
c Structure your sponsorship packages in order to provide a return on invest-
ment to the sponsor.
There is little argument about the importance of sponsorship to most OSOs. The
sponsorship plan of the Philippine Amateur Swimming Association offers a good
example of a well-developed approach to sponsorship.
Illustration 5.4
Sponsorship Plan of the Philippine Amateur Swimming
Association
The Philippine Amateur Swimming Association (PASA) is the national governing
body for aquatic sport in the Philippines. Formed in 1962, the association oversees
swimming, diving and water polo. In the near future, it will also oversee synchronised,
open-water and fin swimming. As a nongovernmental organisation, PASA has
always been dependent on the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) and sponsors
for the funding of activities and international competitions. Government funds are
naturally limited and are not always reliable, and budget cuts from the PSC caused
PASA to look elsewhere for support. In the past, PASA had been sponsored by
the Bank of Commerce, and it currently has a long-term relationship with Arena,
a swimwear manufacturer, for equipment supplies. However, for PASA to move
forward it needed additional partners and funding, and this required the creation
of a sponsorship plan.
Methodology
The development of the sponsorship plan involved thorough research. Interviews
were carried out with
• the aquatic disciplines, in order to establish what water polo and diving required
from sponsors to ensure that a plan could be developed to meet all the needs
of PASA;
• other national sport associations, in order to establish how successful sports
have attracted sponsorship;
• the Singapore Swimming Association, in order to identify what another
swimming association in the region had done in the area of sponsorship;
and
• past sponsors, in order to establish satisfaction with the arrangement and to
establish future intentions.
Sponsorship Plan
As a result of the research, PASA initially decided to focus on swimming because it
was the most well-known and popular sport. For swimming, two potential offerings
were identified:
• The Philipinas Youth Cup (PYC) , an age-group programme that required short-
term event sponsorship
• Team Beijing ’08, sponsorship aimed at the middle term and that would be
applicable to all of the disciplines
(continued)
Types of Sponsors
PASA decided to lead with the sponsorship of the PYC because it realised that
most sponsors were more likely to commit initially to short-term sponsorship. It
was thought that once success had been demonstrated with this package, sponsors
would be more likely to commit to a longer relationship with PASA. Sponsors of the
PYC were categorised as Gold, Silver or Bronze depending on the amount given in
sponsorship. Sponsors were expected to contribute either cash or VIK depending
on the organisation. For example, PASA approached travel companies to assist with
travel costs, a timing company to help with timing equipment, and a number of
food and beverage companies. These companies were identified because of the fit
between what their operations could offer and what PASA required.
Sponsorship Package
The plan set out the costs of the sponsorship packages. The Gold package cost
approximately US$19,000, the Silver approximately US$13,000 and the Bronze
approximately US$8,000. In return, sponsors received several benefits in terms of
marketing rights, publicity and hospitality. The benefits of being a Gold sponsor of
the PASA series are outlined here:
• Top billing as the Gold sponsor in all event merchandising materials, such as
posters, streamers, flags and leaflets
• Sampling rights in all event venues
• Selling rights in all venues where selling was allowed
• Playback of the brand’s TV or radio ads in all events (minimum of 10 times)
• Display of 10 of the brand’s streamers or A-frames around the central pool
deck where the competitions were staged
• Logo on registration forms, invitation letters and the finals’ meet program
• Acknowledgement in press releases as a Gold sponsor
• Logo inclusion in the PASA website
• Logo inclusion on backstroke flags in pools and on awards backdrop
• Logo on T-shirts of all swimmers, meet officials and timers
• Company logo etched in all medals and certificates
• Inclusion of one full-page ad in the finals’ meet program
• Brand-name inclusion in all event communications
• Live acknowledgement during the actual event
• VIP seating for 10 company representatives during all meets
• Representative to be invited during all awarding ceremonies
• Special feature article with photo caption showing company officials and all
winners after the finals
—— G ——
The sponsorship plan developed by PASA shows how a small OSO can take a
pragmatic approach to obtaining sponsorship. Through careful research, PASA
identified what it had to offer and what was a priority for the organisation, and
then it packaged its offerings to attract sponsors with differing amounts to invest.
In addition, PASA increased the number of competitions making up the PYC to
increase potential exposure and thus make the event more attractive to sponsors.
This was particularly successful and led Arena to offer PASA a substantial increase
in sponsorship.
PASA targeted sponsors by approaching organisations that were linked with sport
and healthy eating or that could contribute significantly with VIK. This link makes
it easier for sponsors to see why they should become involved. Although the OSO
desired long-term relationships with sponsors, it initially focused on short-term
sponsorship, which is often easier to sell to sponsors, with the intention of building
the relationships in the longer term.
Section 5.5
Developing and Managing
a Marketing Strategy
In order for an OSO to have effective marketing, it needs a marketing strategy. This
strategy will guide the marketing activities of the organisation and direct resources
and activities towards achieving the marketing objectives. The process followed is
the same as the strategic planning process outlined in chapter 2; however, a mar-
keting strategy is a functional strategy in that it is developed in order to direct the
work of the marketing function towards the strategic objectives.
This section discusses the procedures to follow in developing a marketing strategy,

beginning with the process of market diagnosis. This is followed by a presentation of
the techniques required to analyse the operating environments and then the strategic
marketing decisions that need to be made. The section ends with an illustration of
the information that the Lesotho National Olympic Committee used to develop its
marketing strategy.
Market Diagnosis
Before developing a marketing strategy, you need to diagnose your market in order to
identify what the market is, whom you should be targeting, and who your competi-
tors are and what position they have within the market. This diagnosis will provide
information that will allow you to set appropriate marketing objectives and allocate
resources accordingly.
The Marketplace
The starting point of market diagnosis is to define your marketplace so that you
understand the market in which your organisation is operating. For example, is it
the sport market in general, or is it the market of a specific sport? An OSO may
determine that it is operating in the health and fitness market, or it may simply view
itself as being in the ball sport market. Once this decision is made, you will be in a
position to obtain information in order to answer the following questions:
• What is the size of the current and potential market?

• How can the organisation benefit from being in this market?
• Is this market changing?
• Which are the key factors of success?
Market Segmentation
Once you have a clear picture of the market within which your organisation oper-
ates, you should then collect information about your customers or stakeholders. In
most situations, stakeholders are not homogeneous, and it is important to analyse
stakeholder characteristics in order to divide stakeholders into groups that allow you
to target your marketing activities. The division of a market into different homo-
geneous groups of stakeholders is known as “market segmentation”, and its various
steps are presented in table 5.11.
In order for a segment to be worth targeting, it should meet the following crite-
ria:
• Measurable: It is possible to get information about the segment and analyse

it.
• Substantial: The segment is large enough to be worth considering.
• Pertinent: The segment relates to the organisation’s objectives.
• Durable: The segment does not change quickly.
Table 5.11 Segmentation Process

Steps Method and tools Variables
Analysis of Selecting criteria in order to Geographic (rural, city, national,
markets identify homogenous groups international), demographic
of stakeholders (gender, age, income), behavioural
(loyal, nonloyal) and psychological
(expectations, values) criteria
Data collection Existing data (database, Stakeholders’ characteristics, behav-
on potential reports) iours, expectations and perceptions
segments
Surveys (interviews, question-
naires)
Description of Gathering information for Other variables such as purchasing
segments each segment patterns or lifestyle values
Competitor Analysis
The next stage of market diagnosis is an analysis of the organisation’s competitors.
This analysis allows you to identify other organisations that may appeal to your
stakeholders. Competitors are those organisations with services that may attract
customers or funding away from your services. For example, a swimming federation
may consider its competitors to be other sport federations because they compete for
resources from the same funding bodies, or its competitors might be private swim-
ming schools that offer swimming lessons that compete with those promoted by
the federation. Competitor analysis requires you to collect the type of information
outlined in table 5.12, which presents a limited competitor analysis for a basketball
club hoping to attract the teenage market.
Table 5.12 Competitor Analysis for a Basketball Club

Competitors
Service expected providing the same Strengths and Competitive
by teenagers service weaknesses strategy
To improve skills All sports Basketball has a Differentiate on the
and technique well-developed basis of the quality
coaching system. of staff and coach-
It is easy to find a ing structure.
club. Some tech-
niques are hard to
learn.
To belong to a All team sports Basketball is a team Differentiate on the
group sport and is usually basis of clubs and
part of a large club. team size.
To have fun All ball sports and The image of bas- Differentiate on the
the entertainment ketball is fun and basis of image and
industry is associated with a lifestyle.
trendy lifestyle.
Market Position
Finally, it is necessary to decide where your services are positioned in the competi-
tive market that you have identified. The position of a service is the way consum-
ers perceptually place it in the market on the basis of important attributes, such
as quality, image, cost and services. For example, a stakeholder is aware of the dif-
ference in importance between national championships, world championships and
the Olympic Games without this having to be stated by OSOs. As another example,
when teenagers are looking to take part in a sport that they feel will make their life
exciting, they may consider basketball to be more exciting than volleyball but less
exciting than beach volleyball.
Knowledge of the organisation’s position in the market allows you to determine

how competitive you are in the market, how your services are perceived by stake-
holders and what the stakeholders expect of those services. Position can be assessed
using the following steps:
• Identifying the organisation’s competitors

• Identifying stakeholders’ expectations and the level of importance they assign
to those expectations by asking stakeholders to rank each competitor on each
expectation
• Situating the organisation’s current position in relation to others
Market diagnosis ensures that you are fully aware of the market within which
your organisation operates. This allows you to focus on the subsequent environmental
analysis that underpins the marketing strategy.
Environmental Analysis
The process of environmental analysis has been discussed in chapters 1 and 2, so
at this point it is only necessary to highlight what is important when carrying out
an analysis for marketing purposes.
Internal Analysis
Internal analysis for marketing purposes focuses on two aspects: an analysis of the
OSO’s brand strength and a review of the organisation’s marketing mix. The first
section of this chapter defined a brand as the organisation’s name, image, and asso-
ciations with that name and image. Brand equity can be considered as the brand’s
set of characteristics that give an added or lesser value to the OSO’s services. In
order to develop a marketing strategy, the strength of the brand equity needs to be
evaluated so that you can use the brand in the best way possible to achieve market-
ing objectives. Ferrand and Torrigiani (2005) have developed a framework that may
aid in the evaluation of an OSO’s brand equity and thus may be a useful tool when
carrying out internal analysis. Table 5.13 outlines how the brand of the French Vol-
leyball Federation (FFVB) can be evaluated across a number of dimensions.
It is also necessary to assess the organisation’s current marketing mix of strengths

and weaknesses. The marketing mix comprises the components of the service that
the OSO uses to promote, sell and deliver its offerings. The marketing mix of an OSO
includes the seven components outlined in table 5.14, which shows the diagnosis of
the marketing mix of a gymnastics federation.
External Analysis
In the marketing framework, external analysis involves an examination of relevant
marketing elements outside the OSO’s internal environment. In order to carry out
an external audit for marketing purposes, the dimensions presented in table 5.15
should be considered. This will provide information on opportunities and threats
that might affect the organisation.
Strategic Marketing Decisions

The process of information gathering presented previously makes it possible for you
to make the four main decisions regarding your market:
Table 5.13 Brand Equity Dimensions of the FFVB

Dimensions
of brand Variables FFVB
Stakeholders Number, characteristics, 106,000 members
influence, relationships 46% women
1,729 clubs
Olympic sport
Few sponsors
Average media exposure
Foundations Heritage, vision, values, Heritage: educative sport
identity
Vision: French volleyball renewal will
bring high standards
Values: a sense of accomplishment, stimu-

lation, honesty, friendship and humanism
Identity: innovation, organisation and

conquest
Protection Name, symbol, trademark Beach volleyball is a registered trademark
Knowledge Awareness, image, posi- Weak awareness
tioning Conservative
High-level sport
Experience Satisfaction, perceived Stakeholders are globally satisfied
quality
The FFVB is perceived as not meeting its
clubs’ expectations
Relation- Loyalty and relational Stakeholders are loyal, but it is difficult to
ships aspects (functional, emo- recruit new ones
tional, sociocultural and
psychological benefits) FFVB is mainly delivering functional ben-
efits (competition, training)
• Which segments will you target?

• Which competitive advantage will you maintain or develop?
• How should you position your organisation in the marketplace?
• Which marketing strategy will you use?
Which Segments?
As outlined earlier, market segmentation should be based on the characteristics out-
lined in table 5.11. Once you have determined what your market segments are, such
as youth, adult, leisure or elite, you should then assess which segments to target. A
useful tool for doing this is the General Electric/McKinsey nine-cell portfolio, which
is presented in figure 5.8. This tool requires you to assess your market segments on
the basis of two factors: segment attractiveness and organisation competitiveness.
Table 5.14 Diagnosis of the Marketing Mix of a Gymnastics Federation
Dimension Strengths Weaknesses
Products Training dedicated to top athletes No development programmes
based on rhythmical gymnastics
Development programmes for
competition and leisure
Price Low membership fee that offers Same as competitors
value for money
Place Distribution of gymnastics No national partnership
through a club network
Local partnership with schools

Promotion Communication throughout club Weak communication plan
network focused on teenagers
Processes Efficient planning for top athlete Focused on top athletes
training
People New professional management Staff expertise is specifically
related to gymnastics
Qualified coaches
Physical Large number of sport facilities Sport facilities belong to local
evidence authorities
Sport facilities are built for compe-

tition, not for participation
Table 5.15 External Analysis of the Marketing Variables

of a Tennis Federation
Dimensions Variables Current situation
Market Size, how the market oper- Traditional sport that has a stable
ates, barriers to entry, key number of members.
success factors (KSF)
Leisure sport market is growing.
KSF are that the sport is easy to access,

has a strong social base, receives good
media exposure and has a positive image.
Consumers Segmentation, expecta- Segments are competition and leisure.
and stake- tions, unfulfilled needs
holders Both segments want to belong and to
have fun.
Competitors Strategies, goals, brand The leading sports are soccer, basketball
equity, marketing policy and volleyball.
Strong brand equity dimensions exist

(awareness, image and stakeholders).
Positioning Relevant dimensions used It is positioned as a fun, clean and educa-
for positioning, positioning tive sport.
related to stakeholder seg-
ments
264
High
Ta
rg ete
Segment attractiveness ds
eg
me
Se nts
lec
tiv
Average
es
eg
me
nts
Do
n’t
go
Low
Weak Average High
OSO competitiveness
Figure 5.8 Segment attractiveness–competitiveness

E3592 Olympic matrix. DeniseL
Solidarity Figure 5.8, 276581 R2-alw
Reprinted, by permission, from A. Ferrand and L. Torrigiani, 2005, Marketing of Olympic sport organisations (Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics), 81.
Segment attractiveness can be assessed by the following criteria:
• Fit with organisation mission: Does the segment reflect the organisation’s objec-
tives for sport participation or elite athletes?
• Segment size: How many individuals are in each segment?
• Level of involvement in sport: Are the individuals casual, regular or elite partici-
pants?
• Buying power and expenditure related to sport: How much revenue can each seg-
ment bring into the organisation?
• Trend for the future: Is there growth or decline in involvement with the organi-
sation?
• Perceived quality of services: Does the segment perceive the OSO to offer services
of acceptable quality?
• OSO capability to improve perceived quality: Can the OSO improve its quality to
meet the expectations of the segment?
• OSO positioning in the marketplace: Can the OSO attract stakeholders away from
competitors?
OSO competitiveness can be assessed on the basis of the following:
• The existence of direct and indirect competitors

• The competitors’ capability to satisfy targeted segment expectations
• The financial risk involved in targeting a particular segment
If your OSO competed well against rivals in these areas, it would rate high. If the
OSO were unable to compete against rivals, it would rate low. Assessment of the
organisation in terms of these two factors will allow you to decide where to place
your services on the nine-cell portfolio.
This portfolio develops three types of segments, which can help you make deci-
sions about the groups you want to target:
• Targeted segments: These are segments that the OSO ranks highly on both dimen-
sions and have an excellent profit (social or financial) potential. Targeted seg-
ments are a priority for an OSO. For the FFVB, these segments would include
local authorities, teenagers, physical education teachers and officials.
• Don’t go segments: These are segments that rank low on both dimensions and
have poor prospects. These segments should not be targeted by the OSO. For
the FFVB, these would be teenagers already heavily involved in other sports.
• Selective segments: These are segments that have average attractiveness and
average competitiveness, high attractiveness and low competitiveness, or low
attractiveness and high competitiveness. Although these segments are not a
priority for an OSO, they do offer additional groups for targeting. For example,
the FFVB could target major sponsors and national media if it were looking to
extend its market.
Which Competitive Advantage?

Marketing strategies should create at least one competitive advantage for your
organisation. A competitive advantage arises because certain characteristics or
attributes of the services are superior in relation to the most direct competitors. A
competitive advantage exists when an OSO is able to deliver the same benefits as
competitors but at a lower cost, or when it can deliver benefits that exceed those
of competing offers. Developing a competitive advantage requires you to under-
stand stakeholders’ expectations and to deliver a service that has better value than
your competitors’ services. Competitive advantage can be created by a variety of
factors, such as service quality, membership cost, ease of access to services and
image of the organisation in relation to others. Once the competitive advantage of
the organisation has been determined, it then needs to be marketed through the
positioning process.
Which Position?
Your position in the market provides an answer to the stakeholders’ question, “Why
should I get involved with this organisation?” When stakeholders are looking for a
particular service, the OSO’s position in the market will suggest whether or not it
is a potential supplier of that service. Your organisation’s position relates to several
factors, including competitive advantages, exclusivity, credibility as a provider, and
coherency with technical (know-how), financial and human resources.
Which Strategy?
The final aspect of a marketing strategy is to determine the strategic direction in
which to focus marketing activities. The information gained from the strategic mar-
keting process can be used to answer the following questions:
• Do your current offers have potential for growth in your current market?
• Are there other markets for your existing offers?
• Is it possible and profitable to conceive new offers for your current market?
• Is it possible and profitable to conceive new offers for new markets?
Answering these questions allows you to decide which of the following strategies
to pursue.
Market Penetration Market penetration occurs when you market more of your
existing products and services to your existing market segments. This strategy seeks
to increase market share with the current portfolio of offerings. Because services
are not altered, market penetration has the least risk of all methods of expansion.
Opportunities include the following:
• Encouraging existing stakeholders to buy more of your services, such as encour-

aging event spectators to join the organisation
• Encouraging stakeholders who are buying competitive offers to switch to your
services, such as recruiting new members from those who are interested in
sport in general
• Encouraging nonusers within the segment to buy your offerings, such as
recruiting new members from those who have not previously been interested
in sport
Market Development Market development is the strategy of marketing your exist-

ing portfolio in a new market, which is a tactic adopted by many professional sports
that recruit new fans from abroad. The service remains the same, but it is marketed
to a new audience, such as a new geographic territory.
Development of Offerings This involves marketing a new product or service to

existing customers, such as providing a membership card with discounted products
and services from the OSO’s sponsors. Existing products can be improved, or if the
OSO has sufficient resources, new services can be developed to match other expec-
tations of existing customers.
Diversification Diversification is where you market completely new products to

new customers, such as the arrangement reached by the OCS-ASF and SKB Bank
to market a new Visa card.
The process of market diagnosis allows you to make strategic marketing decisions,
which in turn leads to the development of a marketing strategy. This strategy guides
the marketing function’s contribution to achieving the organisation’s objectives and
is therefore an important part of the management of an OSO.
Key Recommendations
c In consultation with your Board, assess the strengths and weaknesses of the
organisation’s brand equity and marketing mix.
c Analyse your market and monitor your competitors’ position.
c Determine the various market segments and analyse their attractiveness to

the organisation.
c Develop at least one competitive advantage and position it in your targeted
stakeholders’ minds.
c Identify the marketing strategy you are going to pursue and put in place
plans to achieve it after gaining approval from your Board.
The following illustration considers the development of a marketing strategy that

was carried out by the Lesotho National Olympic Committee.
Illustration 5.5
Sport Marketing Plan:
Lesotho National Olympic Committee
The Lesotho National Olympic Committee (Lesotho NOC), which also functions
as a Commonwealth Games Association of Lesotho, is a volunteer organisation
based in the capital city of Maseru, Lesotho. It is a member of both the IOC and
the Commonwealth Games Federation. Most of the organisation’s administrative
work and other sport development ventures are funded by the IOC. This committee
prepares athletes through NFs for participation in the Commonwealth and Olympic
Games. All the NFs in Lesotho are affiliated with the Lesotho Sports and Recreation
Commission (LSRC) and Lesotho NOC. In order to raise awareness of the organisation
and to increase funding, a marketing plan has been developed.
Market Diagnosis
In order to define the market, the Lesotho NOC collected the following
information.
Demographic Environment
The population of Lesotho was estimated at 2,207,954, with the following age
structure:
Under 15 years of age: 39% with male–female ratio of 1.01

15 to 64 years: 56% with male–female ratio of 0.93
65 years and above: 5% with male–female ratio of 0.73
Total population sex ratio was estimated at 0.95 male–female, meaning there are
more females than males in the total population, but under age 15 there are more
males.
Geographic Environment
Most of the population is distributed along the Western border between Lesotho
and South Africa, Lesotho’s only neighbour. Because of the country’s terrain, there
has been a tendency to develop sport facilities in the lowland towns only.
Photograph: Dirk Schwager Thaba Productions.

Lesotho’s geography has influenced where sport facilities are built.
Psychographic Environment
Football, athletics and the national form of netball have been the traditional sports
practiced in Lesotho. However, the introduction of new sports has met with so much
interest amongst youth that some join as many as five sports at a time, waiting until
they are older to choose one sport to focus on.
Behavioural Environment
Because parents often have little or no involvement in their children’s sport activities,
it is difficult for NFs to get athletes to pay joining fees or buy training outfits.
Therefore in most sport activities competitors seldom have team uniforms. Another
contributing factor is the lack of sport equipment in local shops. Only those who
have access to South African shops get proper training outfits.
However, parents often encourage their children to participate in sport,

irrespective of what sport they go for, because sport provides a sanctuary from
drug abuse and other unwanted behaviour. Selection for national teams is also
welcomed because of the benefits of travel and allowances.
(continued)
Competitive Environment
In Lesotho, all boys grow up playing football, and when they get older and stop
playing, they still stick with football as armchair spectators, making football the
greatest competitor for other sports. The assistance provided by FIFA to most
African and Asian football federations has made football even stronger. In addition,
attracting sponsorship to sports other than football is difficult.
Other forms of competition are churches, cultural activities and music festivals.
Lesotho is a religious country, and many parents want their children to attend
church services on weekends, which often conflicts with sport participation. Cultural
activities and music festivals are another form of competition for sport because they
attract the same participants on the same days of the week.
Environmental Analysis
The analysis of the market led to the creation of the SWOT analysis outlined in
figure 5.9.
Most sport activities are concentrated in the Poor sport facilities

capital city and in a few other towns, which Poor management practices by various
means the target population is geographically stakeholders in sport
contained
Poor media coverage to most parts of the
The community is looking for outlets to which country
they can take their children who are in danger
of social disasters such as drug abuse and the Poor community involvement in sport
HIV/AIDS pandemic No sport goods industries
Renewed government interest in sport and Poor financial resources
recreation and thus an increase in the sport Lack of entertainment during sport activities
budget
Investment in coach education by both the
Lesotho NOC and government
Partnership with schools in sport development
Potential for sponsorship by business
High altitude of Lesotho, which could be used Football and volleyball, which seem to be more
to attract world-class athletes to train in popular than other Olympic sports in the
Lesotho country
Proximity to the Republic of South Africa, South African football, which is particularly
which provides competition opportunities attractive to most Lesotho males
Competitor complacency Television, which covers politics and not sports
Good road network throughout the country Lack of legislation on tax rebates on sport
Sports more attractive to youth, in particular sponsorship
girls Church activities, music festivals and cultural
festivals
Figure 5.9 SWOT analysis of the Lesotho NOC.

Marketing Objectives
From this analysis the following objectives were developed:
• Encourage involvement of parents in sport activities so that sport is seen as

family entertainment.
• Make the sports interesting enough to attract businesses to sponsor
activities.
• Make the sports interesting enough to attract media attention.
• Make the sports interesting enough to retain athletes in one sport to promote
consistency.
• Improve the image of the NFs, which in turn will improve the image of the
Lesotho NOC.
Marketing Strategies
The marketing strategies aimed to improve the image and functioning of NFs, which
in turn would improve the image of the Lesotho NOC. The strategies adopted a
market development approach.
There were two groups of NFs in this plan. Group 1 included athletics, boxing,
netball, gymnastics and table tennis. These sports can be practiced anywhere
without necessarily building new facilities. Group 2 included basketball and squash,
sports that require specific facilities. The plan was to use national teams to carry
out coaching clinics in identified regions around the country. Particularly important
were the two medal winners of the Commonwealth Games of Kuala Lumpur 1998
and Manchester 2002.
Group 1 followed a programme that allowed every district to be visited, and group
2 went to districts where there were relevant facilities. In addition, the following
strategies were employed to address the other marketing objectives:
• Night games were encouraged for all sports during the weekdays so that
weekends could be left for coaching clinics. This also avoided competing for
spectators with other sports.
• National team players accompanied coaches during coaching clinics in order
to interact with the young athletes.
• Media were trained about all sports so that they developed the knowledge
necessary to report confidently.
• Parents were encouraged to be present during coaching clinics so that they
could also learn about the sport. Incentives were provided for those who
attended.
• Media, parents and sponsors were given special treatment for attending
activities of the national team, such as practice sessions, test or practice matches,
and international games.
• Schools whose students were selected for national teams were given special
treatment during match days.
(continued)
• The people’s love for cultural activities and music was used to attract them to
sport activities. Pregame, break and postgame entertainment helped make
the activities more interesting for spectators.
The strategic marketing plan that set out these activities contained objectives to
show how each goal was to be accomplished. It also showed how resources, both
financial and human, were allocated and monitored.
—— G ——
The strategic marketing plan of the Lesotho NOC was developed in a systematic
and planned manner. By following the process outlined in this chapter, this OSO has
been able to develop plans to market sport both inside and outside of Lesotho.
The following case study applies many of the points covered in this chapter to the
Olympic Committee of Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations. The purpose of
this case study, like others in previous chapters, is to demonstrate how the material
covered in the chapter is applicable to OSOs. Although your organisation may not
be the same type of OSO, the case study will highlight how the concepts covered
in this chapter can be put into practice.
Case Study 5
Marketing of the Olympic Committee
of Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations
The Olympic Committee of Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations (OCS-ASF) is
an umbrella sport organisation in Slovenia, consisting of 60 NFs, 90 regional sport
federations and 13 federations in the areas of sport science and recreation. The
organisation is responsible for the majority of sport in the country, from elite sport
to Sport for All. The marketing department has a key role to play in the OCS-ASF;
it is responsible for obtaining financial support, communicating with the business
community and serving other departments’ needs.
c What the OCS-ASF Markets

The OCS-ASF composite logo is the symbol that represents the Olympic spirit with
certain characteristics of the Slovenian identity (table 5.16). This symbol is a registered
trademark of the OCS-ASF. The slogan “Unity makes strength” symbolises the efforts
that are common to sport and business and is used to promote the Olympic team to
sponsors. The values and image of the OCS-ASF are attributes that reflect business
tendencies for constant improvement in the market.
Table 5.16 OCS-ASF Logo, Slogan, Values and Image
Logo
Slogan “Unity makes strength.”
Sense of accomplishment
Ambition
True friendship
Values Capable (competent, effective)
Honest
Respectful
Sense of belonging
Top athletes
Top sports results
Image
Fair play
Determination
c Managing the Quality of the Offering

The OCS-ASF marketing department works closely with stakeholders to ensure
that it is meeting their expectations. The following information shows how the
department aims to deliver services that are perceived as high quality.
• Tangible elements: These include well-trained personnel, up-to-date

technology and well-presented communication materials.
• Reliability: A reliable marketing system allows informed and consistent decision

making, consistent care of selected athletes and professional performance of
tasks.
• Responsiveness: This includes willingness to offer assistance to member

federations and athletes and to provide prompt and accurate service.
• Assurance: This includes well-informed and courteous OCS-ASF staff, reliability

and the ability to convey trust and confidence.
• Empathy: This helps result in an individualised approach to OCS-ASF

stakeholders and their needs.
c Marketing Communication Strategy

The marketing department communicates actively with the business community.
Table 5.17 outlines the communication strategy used by the OCS-ASF to communicate
the dimensions of its brand equity to key stakeholders.
(continued)
Table 5.17 Communication Goals, Objectives and Tactics

Brand Ministry of
equity Existing Potential General Education
dimensions sponsors sponsors NFs public and Sport
Stakehold- Yes Yes Yes No Yes
ers: build-
ing and
reinforcing
the rela-
tionships
Founda- Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
tions of
OCS-ASF:
history,
vision,
values,
identity
Knowledge: Image Image Image Awareness Image
awareness Image
of OCS-ASF,
image of
OCS-ASF
Experience: Satisfac- Perceived Satisfac- Perceived Perceived
satisfaction and quality tion and quality quality
tion with perceived perceived
services, quality quality
perceived
quality
Relation- Commu- Commu- Communi- Communi- Communi-
ship: func- nication nication cation rein- cation rein- cation rein-
tional, reinforces reinforces forces the forces the forces the
emotional, all benefits all benefits functional emotional functional,
sociocul- of the rela- of the rela- benefits of and socio- emotional
tural and tionship tionship the rela- cultural and socio-
psychologi- tionship benefits of cultural
cal benefits the rela- benefits of
tionship the rela-
tionship
Nature of Person- Personali- Person- Diffusion Person-
the rela- alisation sation alisation alisation
tionship and social and social and social
with the bonding bonding bonding
target
Tactic Push Push and Push Push and Push and
pull pull pull
In order to achieve its communication objectives, the OCS-ASF communication

strategy is based on several media, such as the following.
• Publicity with advertising: The OCS-ASF, in cooperation with partners,

produces weekly TV and radio transmissions. These promote Sport for All
events, top athletes and IOC events, and they have space for advertising,
which is used by sponsors or the OCS-ASF.
• Printed materials: These are targeted at member federations, athletes, media,

sponsors and other stakeholders.
c Managing Sponsorship
Sponsors are selected according to compatibility with the values of the OSO, available
categories, expectations of the OCS-ASF and the sponsor, and the benefits for both
sides. The OCS-ASF has a structured system of sponsorship.
• Sponsor of the Olympic team: This is the most important group of business
partners and is similar to the TOP partners of the IOC. Sponsors sign long-
term contracts and have exclusivity. This category is limited to a maximum
of 25 companies. Sponsors are the only partners associated with the Olympic
team.
• Partner of the Olympic Committee: The partner category is divided into three
groups. Golden partners make a yearly contribution that is half of that made by
the sponsors, Silver partners contribute a quarter of the sponsor contribution,
and Bronze partners contribute a tenth of the sponsor contribution.
• Donor of the project: Donors provide products, services or financial

contributions to improve services to athletes. Donors cannot advertise their
activities, but they can donate 0.3% of their annual budget, which reduces
their net profit and thus their tax.
c Developing and Managing a Marketing Strategy

The OSC-ASF has a well-developed marketing strategy, which began with the
process of environmental auditing and led to the identification of the competitive
advantages outlined in table 5.18.
This led to the development of the strategies shown in table 5.19 for the OCS-
ASF from 2006-12. The new markets and services will add value to existing offers
and existing markets.
(continued)
Table 5.18 Factors Likely to Create a Competitive Advantage

Factors Characteristics
Perceived qual- Meeting stakeholder expectations
ity of the offer
Delivering quality services that meet stakeholder expectations
OCS-ASF performance: financial, social, managerial and sport

results
Price Reasonable pricing of the services offered to the business com-
munity compared with that offered by other sporting organisa-
tions
Flexibility: ability to adapt the cost of programmes to meet the

needs of the business community
Communication Well-developed communication strategy and an appropriate
communication mix
Sales and distri- Accessibility via all communication channels and new media
bution network
Availability via well-trained staff
Reactivity: quick response to and immediate servicing of part-

ner needs
Personalisation: individual approach to the needs of partners

by having a contact person responsible for a particular field or
programme
Expertise: good internal transfer of knowledge and awareness

of relevant trends in the environment
Intangible ele- Image: communication activities that monitor and improve the
ments OCS-ASF image
The OCS-ASF position in the market is high in the minds of

stakeholders
Geographic ter- Size: Slovenia is a small country, which makes communication
ritory easier
Located in Central Europe, which makes accessibility to compe-

tition and sponsors easier
Knowledge Awareness: The OCS-ASF is a well-recognised and respected
and relation- brand, perceived as a partner of business
ship
Stakeholders have a positive attitude towards the organisation
Table 5.19 Market Strategies for 2006-12

System of benefits such as independent discount when adver-
Market tising in partner media, appearance of logo on all printed and
penetration other audiovisual media, including Internet
Market New services of OCS-ASF marketing company
development
Regular 30 minutes of TV advertising once a week
An improved website
Offer Linking of the OCS-ASF’s network with new electronic tools
development that reach all partners, NFs and regional federations
Evaluation of newspaper exposure for all business partners
Evaluation of sponsorship programme with reports for partners
Event organisation together with NFs
Diversification Travel and accommodation services
Merchandising
—— G ——
As you can see from this case study, the marketing of the OCS-ASF is based
on the principles outlined in this chapter. It has a number of trademarks in its
logo, slogan, values and image that it uses well for marketing purposes. These
trademarks are attractive to sponsors of the organisation, who in particular
wish to be associated with the image and values of the OCS-ASF. The OSO has
a comprehensive communication plan that targets all key stakeholders, building
relationships and presenting strategies for facilitating stakeholder engagement
with the organisation. Services are of an acceptable quality, and the OCS-ASF has
a clear strategy for marketing that was developed by a process of environmental
auditing, SWOT analysis and strategy selection.
Although the OCS-ASF is a medium-sized NOC, OSOs of all sizes can implement
the same practices and strategies. One of the benefits of marketing is that its
principles are as applicable to small, volunteer-run OSOs as they are to large NOCs
or IFs that employ professional staff. What changes with the size of the organisation
is the scale of the process. Smaller OSOs may have fewer stakeholders, less detailed
communication and sponsorship plans, and a simple marketing strategy based
solely on market penetration. What is important is that the marketing of the OSO
is carefully planned and managed and takes account of everything the organisation
has to offer.
Chapter 6
Organising a
Major Sport Event
Objectives © GETTY / LEE Christopher

• Decide whether organising a sport event is appropriate for your organisa-
tion.
• Identify the main phases involved in organising the event.
• Identify the main tasks involved in running the event.
• Develop an appropriate legal and operational framework for the event.
• Identify and manage the human resources needed to organise the event.
• Identify the facility resources needed to organise the event.
• Schedule, follow up on and evaluate the use of these resources.
279
A sport event is a social gathering that brings together a large number of people
and activities on the occasion of a competition. It may also be covered by the
media. Because sport events are held at a specific point in time, a project plan with
clear tasks and timelines can be developed. This plan involves four basic steps:
1. Design phase: Conceptualising, designing and organising the event from the
original idea to the bid to hosting the event
2. Development phase: Developing and setting up the event
3. Implementation phase: Running the event during the course of training and
competition
4. Dissolution phase: Closing the event after the competition
These four phases will be discussed in this chapter since they define the activities
involved in organising an event.
Organising a sport event is

• an essential objective for a large number of Olympic Sport Organisations
(OSOs);
• the provision of a product or service that must satisfy a variety of stakehold-

ers;
• a way of developing the OSO’s image;
• a way of mobilising human resources before, during and after the event; and
• a process involving risk management, including human-, financial- and sport-

related risks.
For an event to be successful, it must be integrated from the start into the middle-
and long-term development strategy of the OSO. Without adequate advance planning,
the event will certainly become a one-off activity that is outside the overall strategic
objectives of the organisation.
To understand the risks and opportunities associated with an event, you must
understand the characteristics of events that will affect an organisation. First, events
are unique, nonrepetitive and specific, even events that are held regularly, such as
the Olympic Games. This means that although an OSO can learn lessons from the
staging of previous Games, it cannot stage the event in exactly the same manner.
Events must be completed by a fixed date, which requires a customised and meticu-
lous planning process. Organising events is challenging because success depends on
the combination and interdependence of several elements and activities.
organising a major sport event 281
Events are affected by numerous unknown contingencies, such as athlete participa-

tion, participation of the public, public contributions, sponsorship involvement and
obtaining of permits. They are also susceptible to conditions outside the OSO, such
as weather, environment, politics, society, media, security and transport. OSOs that
stage events operate under significant limitations, such as having a scrupulous respect
for the rules of the sport, observing the regulations of the event owner (e.g., the IOC
or an IF) and fulfilling the technical conditions required by the sports. Although
often seen as constraints, these characteristics also provide many opportunities for
establishing relationships and allow organisers to later exploit the success of the
project and contacts and partnerships made during the event.
Finally, it is important to have a broad understanding of the event in order to

better shape its identity, to define the spirit you want it to have whilst also mastering
its organisation. Every sport event is unique, and branding the project can help an
organisation establish the event and make the most of the event’s unique identity.
Sport events can be classified as
• global, such as the Winter Olympics, or local, such as national champion-

ships;
• popular, such as a fun run, or elite, such as the Commonwealth Games;
• sport related, such as Grand Prix Athletics, or promotional, such as a taster

event for new participants;
• unidisciplinary, such as national swimming championships, or multidisci-

plinary, such as the Olympic Games; and
• single site, such as a club’s championship, or multisite, such as the Paralym-

pics.
Once the identity of the event is defined, you will be able to identify the areas
that may be open for expansion, such as the possibility of including other cultural
and celebratory activities during the main event. It is important, however, that these
activities do not confuse people about the image of the event or make organisation
of the event excessively complicated.
The goal of this chapter is to identify the operational principles an OSO should
use to successfully organise a sport event. In this chapter, the following questions
will be considered:
• Why organise a sport event?

• How can the organisation of a sport event be structured?
• What is involved in organising a sport event?
• What human resources are needed to organise a sport event?
• What facilities are needed to organise a sport event?
These questions will be addressed in the five sections of this chapter, and then they
will be further illustrated by a case study of a regional event, the 2005 Mediter-
ranean Games in Almería, Spain.
Note that this chapter does not address two key questions: What financial resources
need to be mobilised and managed, and what should be done about promoting the
event? Of course, these questions should also be considered in the planning of an
event, and the principles outlined in chapters 4 and 5 should be part of the event
organisation process.
Section 6.1
Deciding Whether
to Organise a Sport Event
Organising competitions is an integral part of the mission of NOCs, NFs and regional
sport leagues. However, even at the bidding stage, events require resources in order
to prepare the bid and determine the human, financial and organisational risks for
an OSO. These risks have to be balanced against the opportunities that staging an
event provides, such as improved or enhanced reputation, more or stronger partner-
ships, and development of the organisation or the sport.
Ideally, the decision to organise a particular sport event should be part of the
OSO’s overall strategy, meet the strategic objectives of the organisation and fall
within the resources available. OSOs should only bid for an event after they have
established why they wish to bid. Indeed, you need to be clear about how organising
a particular event will help attain your strategic goals. This section considers the
objectives that can be met by staging an event, which might provide a reason for
starting the bidding process. It highlights the risks involved in organising an event
and goes on to consider the evaluation process that the French Badminton Associa-
tion went through in order to decide whether to bid to stage the World Badminton
Championships.
Goals to Be Achieved by Staging an Event

From the perspective of a deliberate strategic decision, there are three main goals
that can be achieved by organising a sporting event:
• To challenge talented athletes
• To raise the profile of the sport
• To further the development of the discipline
Challenging Talented Athletes

Organising a major event is a way of challenging your most talented athletes and
allowing them to prepare comfortably at home for elite competition. It often makes
it possible for athletes to participate in the event without having to go through quali-
fication rounds and allows an OSO to mobilise popular support behind a national
team. This may be an important tactic for teams or athletes who would not normally
qualify for major competitions.
© IOC
Hosting even small events such as Olympic Day Runs should be carefully considered and planned.
Pictured here is the Olympic Day Run in Iran.
Raising the Profile of the Sport

Hosting a sport event can increase the visibility of a sport that receives little or no
coverage from the media. It can also maintain the visibility of a sport that has an
existing media profile. An event gives an OSO the opportunity to work with local
groups and partner companies, thus raising its profile in the local community. Orga-
nising an event thus can be a tool for both external and internal communication,
providing a chance for the OSO to collaborate with its members and with national
and international sport authorities, communities and government. Consequently,
the profile of the sport will be raised.
Developing the Sport

Staging events helps OSOs develop by providing the opportunity to improve and
increase infrastructure, perpetuate and develop partnerships, and generate new
resources. Organising a competition can be a way to ensure the satisfaction of pri-
vate and institutional partners.
Increasing the professionalism of the OSO to ensure that the event’s organisation
is technically sound makes it easier to take advantage of the aftermath of the event.
At the national level, organising a major event can encourage cohesion and exchange
amongst the NF, regional leagues and local clubs. It can also improve the status of
the individuals involved in staging an important and unifying event. Organising
these events often results in an increase in demand for a sport and a desire to join
clubs. For example, the successful staging of a national championship often leads
to increased interest in the sport within the host city. This means that the NF and
its clubs must be organised to welcome new participants. They must have enough
equipment and a sufficient number of quality training programmes to handle the
increase in demand after the event.
Organising an event can benefit an OSO in several ways. It can improve the
organisation’s promotional and financial performance, it can increase the number of
members and the quality of sport results, and it can even highlight an OSO’s socio-
economic contributions. For example, publicity about basketball tournaments held
in schools highlights how an NF is working with young people. Finally, some sport
federations have achieved a number of developmental and organisational benefits
from the organisation of one key event. For example, the French Tennis Federation
organises the Roland Garros tournament, which has allowed the federation to pay
for professional improvements to its tennis development system and its training
programmes for elite athletes.
Risks Involved in Organising a Sport Event

Organising a sport event involves certain risks both during and after the event. The
risks include a difficulty for the organisation to establish itself as a technically and
financially credible candidate for future events if the event goes badly, an inability
to organise and control the technical and financial difficulties involved in staging
the event, and a difficulty in taking advantage of the aftermath of the event, such
as dealing with an increase in new members or working with new sponsors or other
partners.
The conditions involved in organising a major sport event may reveal organisa-
tional, financial or human resources dysfunctions in the OSO, which could precipi-
tate a crisis. For these reasons, before the bidding process begins, event organisers
should attempt to guarantee the success of the project by performing a preliminary
study of the risks, objectives and conditions for success, before, during and after the
event. This means that the benefits of staging the event need to be clearly identified
and that managers should carry out a risk assessment (see chapters 1 and 4) before
deciding to proceed.
Key Recommendations
c Clearlydefine the benefits to be achieved by holding an event.
c Make sure that these benefits become expressed as objectives for the event.
c Carry out a risk assessment before deciding to hold the event.
c Ensure that you have the full support of the Board before proceeding.
The following illustration shows the process the Fédération Française de Bad-
minton (French Badminton Federation) went through in order to gauge whether it
should submit a bid to organise a world championship.
Illustration 6.1
Deciding Whether to Bid:
Fédération Française de Badminton
The Fédération Française de Badminton (FFBA, French Badminton Federation) was
created in 1979 and is a rapidly growing organisation, with almost 100,000 members.
Compared with other NFs in France, the FFBA is an organisation of medium size. The
FFBA is active in sport programmes in schools and universities; in fact, badminton
is the second most popular school sport after athletics.
However, this federation has won very few international competitions. No French
man or woman has won a world championship. The FFBA has almost no international
representation; for example, it has no major appointment in Badminton Europe or
the International Badminton Federation. In order to overcome these weaknesses,
the FFBA determined that an event strategy was a logical step. This strategy involved
organising a large competition, or creating a strategic development plan centred
on competitions. It was felt that this strategy would raise the profile of the FFBA,
leading to appointments at the international level. What follows is the evaluation
process that the FFBA went through when deciding whether to bid to hold the
World Badminton Championships.
Objectives
The event strategy had two main objectives. The first was to build an identity and
reputation for the sport so that badminton would become known as a sport in its
own right, improving its image as a leisure activity. It was perceived that badminton
was not well known by the general public and was almost completely ignored by
the media. It was thought that the media attention associated with holding a major
event could be used to develop a badminton culture in France. The second objective
was to seek financial partners to aid in development. Seeking financial partners was
important because a significant increase in membership brought about by an event
would require the organisation to hire and train additional staff. This would have
been difficult within existing resources. This objective of the event strategy was to
lighten the burden of an increase in membership through strategic partnerships.
Organisational and Technical Feasibility of the Project

The FFBA had limited previous experience organising major competitions. With
the exception of one international tournament, the French Open, the FFBA had
never organised an international event. However, the organisation’s experience
with the French Open, a showcase for French badminton (10,000 spectators over 5
days), was encouraging. The organisation of the event was technically sound, with
a steadfast team of salaried permanent employees and experienced volunteers led
by an effective director. Therefore the FFBA considered it feasible for the OSO to
organise an international event.
(continued)
Criteria for Deciding Whether to Proceed

The FFBA considered a number of criteria when deciding whether to bid to hold
the World Badminton Championships. The information generated from their
considerations allowed the OSO to make an objective final decision.
The Bid
In order to complete the bid, a group of experts analysed the requisite technical
conditions, such as sport facilities, transport, accommodations and meals, and
created a projected budget. The FFBA would have been required to make certain
guarantees in its bid application, which would have been judged on criteria covering
these areas:
• The projected budget, which had to show the involvement of institutional and
private partners
• Spectator interest
• Technical conditions
• Organiser’s experience
• Means of access through international transport
• Accommodation and catering plans
• How the organiser planned to promote its discipline using the event
Financial Risk
Finances are always an issue for OSOs, and they are particularly important when
staging an event because they are a constant threat to the success of the event. The
FFBA examined the budgets and financial results of the last three World Badminton
Championships that had been held, and it became clear that media and related
major production expenses accounted for a large part of the organisers’ financial
concerns. Given that the cost of televising the championships was the responsibility
of the organiser but that the rights belonged to the IF, the FFBA perceived that there
was a significant financial risk to holding the event.
Creating an Image
The FFBA wanted raised visibility and an improved image from media coverage of
the event. In addition, if the FFBA were to organise the championships, it expected
to mobilise existing partners and to create new partnerships with the IF, sponsors,
clubs and communities. However, creating an image is an arduous task, and the
FFBA was aware that it would need to create its own image for the event so that it
did not have to depend on the goodwill of the media. In addition, once television
coverage had been obtained, the task of standardising the image of badminton
would have to take place to ensure that it would show at its best on television.
Finally, the national athletes’ performance was also an essential factor in meeting
the objectives of fame and image. Thus, the staging of the World Badminton
Championships would not automatically lead to the creation of a good image for
badminton in France.
Final Decision
The FFBA made sure that the objectives it would meet through staging the event
fell within its development plan, and studies were conducted on the feasibility of
the project, its impact on the federation, and the risks and opportunities involved.
The analysis of benefits and risks was carried out thoroughly to ensure that the
federation had an appropriate understanding of the stakes involved so that it
could make an educated decision. After reviewing the results of the cost–benefit
and risk–opportunity analyses, the FFBA felt that it had the resources to stage the
World Badminton Championships.
However, in terms of whether the FFBA should submit a bid or not, analysis
showed that, although the FFBA had the resources to hold the championships,
it did not necessarily have the required political support. As mentioned at the
beginning of the illustration, the FFBA had no representatives in the IF and had no
track record of organising major international events. These key weaknesses led the
FFBA to decide that the IF was unlikely to view their bid favourably, and therefore
it was not worth pursuing the bid to stage the World Badminton Championships.
Instead, the organisation used the event strategy to reinforce its main tool for
communication, the French Open, and decided to return to the bidding process
once better institutional support was established.
—— G ——
This illustration shows the value of a detailed analysis of the benefits and risks
associated with bidding for an event before proceeding to develop a bid. In this
instance, although the FFBA was confident that it could successfully hold the World
Badminton Championships, there was a substantial risk that resources spent on
developing a bid would be wasted. The FFBA used the analyses that had been
carried out in order to make an objective decision on whether to attempt to host
the championship.
Although your OSO may never be involved in a bidding process, the activities
carried out by the FFBA and the information generated to decide whether to bid
are applicable to all types and sizes of events. It is important for OSOs to determine
the objectives of the event, the benefits it will bring and the risks the organisation
faces by staging it. A poorly run event brings more problems to an OSO than the
benefits brought by a well-run event, so objective analysis is essential. The size and
importance of the event should make no difference whether detailed analysis is
carried out.
Section 6.2
Legal and Functional Structures
Organisers of sport events need to develop an organisational structure that ensures
that the event runs smoothly and is a success. This is a two-stage process and in
many cases begins with the creation of a bid committee. If the bid to hold the event is
successful, an organising committee must then be established. The primary concern
of the organising committee should be to provide a solid frame of reference for all
individuals and partners involved in organising the event. However, it is important
that this structure be flexible enough to respond to developing requirements, and
this is why organisers sometimes change organisational structures during different
phases in the event process.
There are three aspects to developing an organisational structure. The first aspect
is political and legal. The goal here is to gather the people involved in the project and
divide responsibilities amongst them to guide their activities. That means deciding
on a legal entity and then creating the legal structure that will drive the project.
The second aspect is functional and involves creating operational units and assign-
ing them tasks and functions that will ensure the success of the event. The final
aspect is coordination. The adopted structure must allow work of individuals and
the operational units to be coordinated in order to achieve the event objectives.
This section considers how event committees can be structured and focuses
on legal and administrative functions. It suggests different structures that can be
adopted and concludes with a discussion of the organisational structure of the 2003
South Pacific Games.
Legal and Political Aspects of Organisational Structure

The organiser of a sport event does not always own that event. Often sport compe-
titions belong to another institution, such as the IOC, IF or NF. The owner institu-
tion entrusts the management of the event to an organising institution, such as the
IOC awarding the Olympic Games to be staged by an Organising Committee of the
Olympic Games (OCOG) in the host city. Written regulations are usually established,
or a contract might even be drawn up to outline the rights and obligations of the
two partners.
Who Organises the Event?

There are two possible scenarios. The first is that the institution that owns the
sport event handles the organisation of the event by mobilising its own resources.
This is the most common scenario for smaller events, and often the OSO that cre-
ates the tournament, competition or championship organises the event at its own
risk. Alternatively, the owner institution asks for bids to stage the event and then
delegates the hosting of the event to a third party, such as a city, sport group or pri-
vate commercial group. The host institution then forms the organising committee
as dictated by the owner institution’s written regulations. The organiser’s first task
is to establish the legal entity that will be the owner institution’s legal partner and
will handle the practical organisation of the event.
Photo courtesy of Kyang-Ok Kim, Korean Olympic Committee.

Members of the Rio de Janeiro 2007 Pan American Games Organising Committee inspect a venue
to make sure it complies with the standards of the IF.
Types of Legal Entity

There are two possible methods of establishing a supporting legal entity. The first
involves using an existing legal entity, such as a sport club or federation. The best
thing about this option is its simplicity; there is no need to create and then later
dissolve a new entity. The host OSO is also the organising institution, and it can
control the project as long as it remains within the bounds of the authority delegated
by the owner. The sport bodies assigned to manage the project are already in place,
and the essential resources already exist within the host organisation.
For the vast majority of competitions where sport organisations are the only ones
involved, this legal structure will suffice. However, the simplicity of this structure
also has its drawbacks, such as dealing with a multisport event or world champion-
ship or when significant financial or operational risks are involved for the OSO. In
this situation, the organisers may consider creating a new, legally autonomous entity
with a specific task of handling the practical organisation of the event.
Although this solution may be more difficult to put in place, it also has certain
advantages. The first is that it creates transparency of relationships amongst the
people involved with the project. The more numerous and diverse these individuals
are in character or objectives, the more it becomes necessary to create a unifying
legal structure. Indeed, this structure will ensure that partners, such as government,
sponsors and clubs, are affiliated with the decision-making body and are legally
engaged in the organisation of the event.
The second advantage relates to the autonomy and transparency of the man-
agement of the event. The quantity of materials and resources to be used for the
event can quickly necessitate the creation of a specific legal structure. Setting up
an autonomous legal entity will avoid confusion when it comes to responsibilities,
especially human resources and material and financial resources. For example, a
separate structure will outline the tasks that people have to do specifically for the
event rather than as part of their day-to-day activities. This will allow for a more
transparent management that separates the host institution’s regular activities from
the special activities related to organising a particular event.
Creating a specific structure also affects the legal capacity of the new organisa-
tion. This entity has its own identity with a name and an address, which is needed
to facilitate communication. The resources assigned within the institution belong
to the legal entity and can be managed within a unique budgetary structure. All
contractual relationships created during the organisation of the event can be made
in the name of the legal entity. This entity will also have recourse to legal action to
ensure that its ethical, intellectual and commercial rights are being respected (see
chapter 5).
The responsibilities related to the organisation of the event will fall on the new
legal entity without affecting its constituent organisations. This creates safer condi-
tions for participating organisations to deal with any incidents that cause damage
to goods or people because of activities associated with the event. It also provides
a framework for dealing with economic and management difficulties because it
separates the financing and management of the event from the other activities of
the involved organisations.
There are, however, procedural limitations in creating a legal structure. These

limitations, which depend on national legislation, may affect how the group is formed,
its eventual dissolution and the management of its obligations, such as accounting
and taxes. Procedural limitations may also affect the external or internal systems of
control to which any legal entity is accountable. Whatever legal structure is chosen,
it must take account of any relevant procedural limitations within national laws.
Types of Legal Structure

Once the legal entity has been determined, the legal structure of the host organisa-
tion can be chosen. Various solutions are available depending on the national legal
structures already in place, and organisers can usually choose from a few traditional
options.
The first option depends on the host’s objective, which could either be for profit
or not for profit. The for-profit option is mostly used for recurring sport competitions
that generate significant financial revenue, such as professional circuits or profes-
sional championships like the Formula One circuit. For sport events that happen
periodically, such as regional championships or the Olympic Games, a not-for-profit
structure is a better solution. This is because the organisers are different for each
event, and the goal is of a promotional or business nature. Simply achieving a finan-
cial balance is the economic criteria for success, rather than profit.
The second option depends on the private, public or mixed nature of the legal
structure being used. Organisers rarely opt for a solely public legal structure except
in countries where the state plays a major role. For major sport events where invest-
ments by public groups play an important role, mixed group structures including
legal entities from both private and public law tend to be the norm.
Once the structure has been decided, the conditions for participation and decision
making need to be defined in the host’s statutes. The statutes identify the members
of the group. When it comes to bidding or organising committees, there are often
different families:
• The sport family, meaning the relevant local, national or international sport
organisations
• The local, regional or national public groups who will be associated with the
event and whose participation is indispensable even as early as the bidding
phase, such as a government that owns the land on which an event will be
held
• The economic partners, or public or private companies that will be involved
in financing or organising the event, such as sponsors
• The civil society, which includes members who may not participate in organis-
ing the event but whose presence and endorsement validate the organisation,
such as professional organisations and unions
The statutes should also specify the makeup of the decision-making and admin-
istrative bodies as well as the scope of their activities. This body is often called the
Board of Directors and should consist of representatives from the groups outlined
previously. It is essential for this body to include representatives from all groups
affected by the staging of the event, which ensures that the body has the authority
to make decisions about the organisation of the event. When the event is important
and requires permanent and professional personnel to see it through, the Board of
Directors makes the strategic decisions involved in developing the programme, pass-
ing the budget and authorising major contracts, and it is the overriding authority
for activities related to the event. Everyday decisions are left to the executive body
and general management.
The executive body is responsible for carrying out the Board’s advice and deci-
sions. It stands to reason that this body should be directed by the president of the
Board, who is also its legal representative. The statutes can also provide for other
political bodies, such as special commissions or committees. Normally made up of
experts, these bodies generally have a consultative or advisory role, defining and
following up on particular parts of the programme. In this way they support the
activities of the Board of Directors.
Functional Aspects of the Organisation

A legal structure is not enough to ensure the organisation of an event; operational
needs must also be met. Setting up a functioning organisation involves dividing
roles and their associated tasks amongst complementary and coordinated divisions
or departments. These departments will act under the guidance of the legal bodies,
especially the executive body. However, the people who direct these departments
should be given the authority to make decisions that allow the departments to carry
out their functions.
The functional organisation can be represented in an organisation chart. Creating

a functional organisation chart depends on the tasks to be accomplished, as well as
on the people who will be responsible for those tasks. No universal model exists,
however, because every event has different requirements.
The organiser’s first objective is to define the group’s functional needs, which
will vary depending on whether it is a bidding or organising committee. They will
also vary depending on the different phases of the event organisation process. The
functions required to organise an event are discussed in more detail in the follow-
ing section.
Once the functions have been defined and classified, responsibilities must be
assigned. This requires decision-making centres and the delineation of command
and control paths. A number of different structures are available to event organis-
ers in order to do this.
A divisional structure breaks the organisation chart into basic units that are highly
decentralised and that create products or services. These units may be divided based
on their activity (sport activities or other activities). They can also be divided based
on geography, such as the different sites used during the competition (figure 6.1).
Each entity is more or less autonomous; coordination amongst entities is ensured
through general rules governing all activities.
Games
organising
committee
Swimming Athletics
facility facility
manager manager
Protocol Protocol
Catering Security Officials Catering Security Officials
and VIPs and VIPs
Figure 6.1 A divisionalE3592

structure.
Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.1, 276601 DeniseL R2-alw
A functional structure is the traditional form adopted by many OSOs and is

similar to the structure presented in figures 6.2 and 6.3. The Board is at the top of
the structure and below it, the decision-making centre (general management) has
direct control of the different divisions, departments or services that fill the vari-
ous functions that have been identified. These entities can be further divided into
subfunctions. This type of structure is centralised and hierarchical.
A matrix structure tends to combine the advantages and disadvantages of the

two structures already described. As shown later in this chapter, in figure 6.10, the
organisation chart can take the form of a double-entry table, with the administrative
functions on the x-axis crossing the different production and service entities on the
y-axis. The goal is to ensure the line of command and control by allowing resources
to be more easily allocated to project teams.
Finally, organisers must decide whom to entrust with carrying out these functions.
As a general rule, the organiser’s core responsibility, the operational organisation of
the event, falls directly on the organising committee. However, certain functions
can be outsourced, or entrusted to an outside service provider. Service tasks, such
as accommodation, catering and transport, are the functions most often outsourced.
The service provider responds to a formal request by the organiser, according to
written criteria. These criteria should then be defined in a contract between the
organising committee and the service provider. In addition, commercial functions,
such as finding funding and sponsors, promotion and external communication, may
be entrusted to specialised companies. Finally, audit and control functions may also
be outsourced.
Key Recommendations
c Decide whether a separate legal entity is required.
c Put in place a legal structure that ensures accountability for the event but
offers some protection against the risks of the event.
c Ensure that the Board of Directors is representative of all appropriate
groups.
c Identify all tasks required to stage the event and allocate these to functional
areas.
c Put in place the most appropriate structure to assist with the success of the
event and ensure that it allows accountability to the Board.
c Decide what work can be outsourced to other organisations.
The following illustration presents examples of the legal and functional structures
that were put in place for the 2003 South Pacific Games.
Illustration 6.2
Organisational Structure of the 2003 South Pacific Games
The South Pacific Games are multisport competitions that are held every 4 years and
that conform to the principles of the Olympic Charter and the organisational guides
of the IOC. In 2003, Suva, the capital of Fiji, welcomed the XII Games. A total of 22
countries sent 4,000 athletes and officials to compete for more than 300 medals in
32 sports. Around 3,000 volunteers participated in the organisation of the event.
More than 50 media organisations covered the event, reaching an audience of 3
million people. Every day, 20,000 spectators followed the competitions.
Legal Identity
As with many international sport events, there was a difference between the
proprietary aspects of the event and the organisational one. The South Pacific Games
Council (SPGC) is the owning body of the Games. It was created for this purpose and
its composition, mission and organisation are defined in a charter, which also outlines
how the decision-making body should be formed and its makeup. The members
of the SPGC are independent amateur sport organisations (the sport family) that
may also double as NOCs or Territorial Olympic Committees and are constituted in
22 countries or territories in the South Pacific. Each organisation is represented by
a maximum of three people.
The SPGC is administered by a Board consisting of a President, Secretary,

Treasurer and the immediate past President. The first three cannot be residents
of the host country of the next Games and must be residents of three different
countries or territories. They comprise the Executive Committee of the SPGC. The
Charter also provides that the SPGC work through committees charged with making
recommendations and proposals. An Organising Committee for Games and Mini-
Games exists as a permanent committee of the SPGC. It is led by a President, Secretary
and Treasurer appointed by the next host country or territory of the Games, and
their appointment must be approved by the SPGC. Their sole function is to ensure
the effectiveness of the organisation of the Games, under the authority of the
Executive Committee.
Legal Structure
The SPGC Charter provides that the honour of hosting the South Pacific Games
be conferred on the national or territorial amateur sport body of the designated
country or territory. In this case, the Fiji Association of Sports and National Olympic
Committee (FASANOC) became the host of the event. This body delegated its
responsibility to a separate, not-for-profit legal structure: the South Pacific Games
Organising Committee (SPGOC). The SPGOC, working in collaboration with its
national or territorial amateur sport body, was fully responsible for the organisation
of the Games, always subject to the approval of the SPGC, the event owner.
The SPGOC comprised a decision-making authority, the SPG Board, which was
made up of representatives of the event family. The Board consisted of the President,
Secretary and Treasurer of FASANOC, in compliance with the SPGC Charter. It also
included two representatives of the Fiji government and the mayor of the host city
of Suva. In this way, all the local authorities who were to be affected by the event
had a say in its organisation. The SPGOC’s executive power under the Charter was
conferred on the President of FASANOC, the de facto president of the organising
committee. The SPGC, and by its authority the SPGOC, had the last word on the
conduct of the Games.
Functional Aspects
The executive power of the SPGOC was divided into eight departments and then into
subdivisions, which are outlined in figure 6.2. The divisions resulted in a traditional
functional structure that contained all of the main functions required for an event;
for example, the Board and the Directors were responsible for the management
and coordination function. Note, however, that most of the required functions
spanned departments. For example, aspects of the operational sport function were
dealt with by the games coordination department and the sports department. The
service function was delivered by the host city department, the venue department
and the village operations department.
This structure was chosen because of the event size. If all tasks associated with
each function had been allocated to one department, the workload would have been
unmanageable, and communication would have been poor. The risk of the event
failing would have been greater because the failure of one department could have
put the entire event in jeopardy. Thus, the structure chosen for the SPGOC grouped
specific expertise into departments, provided for a greater division of workload and
spread the risk of the event not being organised in time.
Once the Games began, the structure and departmental responsibilities changed
to reflect the implementation phase of the event. For the duration of the Games,
all operational services were assembled under the Main Operations Centre (MOC)
to assure coordination in an operational centre. The structure adopted was still
functional; however, note that in figure 6.3 there was no longer a department
responsible for sponsorship and marketing. Once the Games began, the need for
sponsors was over, the image was determined, the torch relay was complete and
the technology was in place. Although merchandising as a function still remained,
it was now part of the commercial department. In addition, the functions of the
sports department and the support services department changed significantly.
—— G ——
This illustration shows how important it is to establish the right legal identity
for an event. The SPGC has an identity that is separate from the 22 countries and
territories that have an interest in the South Pacific Games. This separate identity
protects these OSOs from risk if something should go wrong with the Games.
(continued)
296
SPGOC
Opening/Closing Ceremony Chairman Arts/Cultural Festival
Director Director Director Director

Director Director Director Host City
Sponsorship Support Games Village Games
Commercial Sports Venue Representative
and Marketing Services Operations Coordination
Finance Sports Secretary Volunteers Building and Government Venue Municipal

coordinator grounds liaison management services
and
Legal competition Sponsorship Transport
management Village Statutory Construction Municipal
security body liaison facilities
Technical
Ticketing officials Accreditation
Torch relay
Village IT Government/ Venue Image and

Procurement services VIP protocol security look of city
Medal Medical
policy/ ceremonies Media
Procedures management
Accomodation Government Venue Host city
operations
facilities and procurement protocol
manual Sports personnel
protocol Merchandising
(NOC) Ocenia
services centre
Government
Image and liaison
creativity customs
IOC Info/PR
immigration
patronage army
Technology Quarantine/
Student
LTA
involvement
Security
Catering
Village
medical
Figure 6.2 SPCOG structure. E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.2, 276602 DeniseL R4-alw

Chairman
Dr. Robin Mitchell
Director Director Director Director Director Director

Director Director
Games Support Commercial Administration Ceremonies Games Village
Venue Sports
Services Coordination Operations
Venue Sport Workforce Finance Technology Ceremonies Government USP

management volunteers protocol Village
Medical Sponsor Host Entertainment

Operational Uniforms services broadcaster Government Suva
integration Brand services Grammar
protection Customs School Village
Doping Cultural Agriculture
Accreditation MOC centre Immigration
Spectator administration Sukuna Park
services Merchandising Cathedral
NOC services Secondary
Arrivals/ Government/ School Village
departures Chef de SCC venues
Press Civic centre, VIP transport
Risk Missions
operations Language meeting Foreshore
management
services Bowling Club, Technical
Transport Albert Park VIP Officials
Catering, liaison Village FIT
Out of Suva
cleaning, waste Sports Ticketing venues:
management, protocol Vatowaga, operations Nausori,
overlay Samabula, Lautoka, Airports Corpus Christi
Tamayua Pacific Port of Suva College Media
Medal venues Tradeshow Harbour Village
Laucala ceremonies Tau’s Kiddies
Sports City liaison Park
(continued)
Training
venues Functional areas Venues
ORGANISING A major sport event
Figure 6.3 Operating structure for theE3592 Olympic Solidarity

Games. Figure 6.3, 276603 DeniseL R6-alw
297
The creation of an organising committee as a legal structure is also important

because it allows each organising committee to consist of local representatives
who are directly affected by each Games. In this case, the SPGOC is made up of
representatives from key members of the sport family. It also has a clear decision-
making and administrative body, and the Chair has direct control over the functions
required to stage the event. The structure also has the flexibility to change for the
implementation of the event, and once again the Chair maintains direct control of
all functions. Such flexibility is important in the organisation of all types of sport
events.
Section 6.3
Organising the Sport Event
Although sport events come in different sizes and can take many forms, the staging
of nearly all successful events goes through the same phases. This section considers
the four phases: design, development, implementation and dissolution of the event.
It outlines the basic functions involved in organising a sport event and discusses
how these tasks should be scheduled. The section concludes with a discussion of
the phases of the World Athletics Championships held in Paris in 2003.
Phases of an Event
As mentioned at the outset of the chapter, sport events can be divided into four
major phases, which need to be scheduled: design, development, implementation
and dissolution.
Designing the Event

The design phase is the starting point. If you are required to compete to organise
an event, this first phase may be carried out at the same time as developing the bid.
As a first step, it is essential to analyse the feasibility of the project. This can be
done by questioning what the event will bring to the OSO whilst at the same time
examining how the event fits within the OSO’s strategy and priorities. The main
objectives are to see if the event is economically viable, if it answers a true need
and if it appeals to a variety of audiences and partners. Second, the conditions for
operational feasibility of the event must be estimated, defined and put in place. This
will result in the project being semifinalised in an event regulations document that
should be as detailed as possible.
Developing the Event

The second phase involves planning the tasks to be achieved in order to efficiently
prepare for the success of the event. At this stage, it is especially important to exam-
ine how work is being performed in relation to previously defined time, cost and
quality constraints and then make any necessary adjustments. At the end of this
phase, tests can be carried out in actual operating conditions, such as rehearsals
for opening ceremonies or test competitions, to ensure that everything is ready for
the event.
Implementing the Event

Once the event has begun, it will need to be efficiently and successfully guided.
This is the role of the event leader, who must ensure the success of the event. The
leader has to identify and anticipate any problems that could have a negative impact,
and in the case of potential or actual problems, the event leader and the event team
must analyse the cause of the situation and implement possible solutions.
Dissolution After the Event

The event is over. All that is left to do is to analyse the efficiency of activities, evalu-
ate the results achieved, dissolve the team and determine what lessons have been
learned for the future. It is possible that the organising committee will also have to
report on the success of the event to key stakeholders. In some instances, such as
the Olympic Games, organising committees have to pass on the lessons they have
learned to the next committee.
Tasks to Be Accomplished
Figures 6.4 through 6.8 on pages 300 to 304 present the tasks involved in staging an
event, showing where they fall in the event schedule with regard to the four phases
of the event. The length of each box varies depending on how long the task takes,
and some tasks cannot be tackled until the previous task has been completed.
Function 1: Management and Coordination

This function affects the following areas: budget estimates and financial engineer-
ing; functional organisation, hierarchical structure and personnel management; task
planning, follow-up and adjustment of tasks; and legal and regulation issues. Figure
6.4 shows how some of these functions are only part of the design phase, such as
identifying budgets and setting financial control, whilst others, such as general
coordination, continue through all four phases. Evaluation and learning from the
event are a substantial part of the fourth phase. They are essential in order to see
if the event met its objectives for the OSO and other stakeholders.
Design Development Implementation Dissolution
Budget estimates and financial engineering
Studying different financing options

Budget estimates; studying the requirements for financial balance; commission-specific budgets
Controlling expenses and revenue, anticipating treasury needs, consolidation
Budgetary follow-up and adjustment (performance indicators)
Financial balance sheet: control; measuring discrepancies with the projected budget; financial analysis
Functional organisation, hierarchical structure and personnel management
Functional breakdown, setting up a functional organisation chart (division, department, commissions)

Defining the hierarchical structure; each entity’s areas of intervention and responsibility
Defining the human, material and financial needs of each functional entity
Defining the position profiles; recruiting managers; dividing up work, authority and access to information
Optimising resources; formalising tasks and limitations to be respected through contracts
General coordination; follow-up; adjustment; managing structural change
Organising a kick-off meeting (final guidelines for each person’s roles, motivating partners)
Mobilising and following up on personnel (motivation, relational issues, excess work)
Measuring what portion of the fixed objectives has been achieved, at both the quantitative and qualitative levels
Capitalising on past experiences, difficulties encountered, solutions implemented
Archiving project information, methods and tools used
Task planning, follow-up and adjustment
Identifying the key tasks in the project (cost/deadline/quality limitations, workload, results)
Organising tasks together; performing a feasibility study and making changes with regard to event deadlines
Designing a preliminary schedule (key dates) and then an individual work plan
Facilitating the project’s smooth operation; following up; negotiating selected deadlines and other amenities
Following up on how tasks are linked; anticipating problems that could cause delays
Measuring the ability to meet established deadlines in order to improve the organisation of future events
Managing legal and regulation issues
Taking the legal and regulation changes that could affect the organisation of the event into account
Notifying authorities of the event
Signing agreements with public organisations in the areas of security and traffic control
Setting up the conditions necessary for approval of the site and obtaining sport bodies’ consent
Managing the issues related to user protection, insurance, access management, hygiene and security
Measuring the efficiency of established mechanisms; thanking partners
Figure 6.4 Management and coordination. The shaded boxes corresponding to each task indicate the time
span in which the task E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.4, 276604 DeniseL R5-alw
takes place.
300
Function 2: Managing Sport Operations

This function ensures that the event actually happens. It puts in place the plans of
the management and coordination function, and its activities involve everything
from evaluating the human and material resource requirements to appraising the
work performed by personnel, including setting up competition spaces and warm-up
areas. As shown in figure 6.5, this particular function has tasks that span all four
phases of an event, from designing the competition to meet the technical require-
ments to thanking those involved for the work they have done.
Designing competitions that respect the regulations of the event owner and the federation authorities
Evaluating the necessary logistical resources (referees/umpires, panel of judges, escorts)

and materials (timekeeping, posting)
Organising and setting up practice spaces that meet regulation and security size requirements
Identifying the conditions for entering and participating in the sport programme (level for selecting athletes)
Communicating with different potential audiences (nations, federations, teams, sport participants)
Defining the conditions for transport, reception, accommodation and catering for athletes and delegations
Setting up areas for training, rest, medical assistance, communication between athletes and the media
Welcoming athletes and delegations, coordinating the

competitions, managing disputes and posting sport results
Developing the entertainment elements (opening

ceremony, smaller events, handing out medals and awards)
Facilitating anti-doping control, coordinating volunteers

Organising the handing out of awards; communicating sport results to the press
Thanking and commending salaried and volunteer workers for the work they have done
E3592
Figure 6.5 Managing sport Olympic Solidarity
operations. Figure 6.5, 276605 DeniseL R4-alw
Function 3: Secretarial, Administrative and Management Work

As shown in figure 6.6, this function includes administrative and secretarial tasks,
but it also involves financial relations with service providers, accounting, ticketing
management and additional services. This function plays an important supporting
role for the other functions, occurring in all phases of the event. The secretarial
tasks of communicating with the public and key stakeholders, managing mail, and
record keeping are vital to the success of the event.
Secretarial and administrative
Reminding personnel of their assigned role and functions

Responding to requests for information from the public; managing mail
Answering the telephone, directing people to the correct department and resource people
Providing logistical support for other departments (handling invitations, accreditations, mailings, thank-you notes)
Participating in receiving and informing the public and designated partners; managing the number of entries
Thanking people for the work accomplished
Management
Business relations with service providers
Contacting service providers and suppliers (hotel industry, catering, transport)

Requesting and studying comparative estimates; formalising the collaboration conditions; writing up contracts
Managing and following up on the services provided
Accounting
Daily upkeep of accounting records; relations with suppliers, clients and partners
Handling pay slips, invoices and tax declarations
Budgetary follow-up of expenses and revenue; creating and analysing summary documentation
Ticketing and additional services

Evaluating the potential market with the marketing department; preparing offers for the public and partners
Mobilising various broadcast networks in order to sell seats
Communicating with target audiences; setting up promotional activities as sales change
E3592
Figure 6.6 Secretarial, Olympic Solidarity
administrative Figure 6.6,
and management 276606
work. DeniseL R5-alw
Function 4: Logistics
This function has limited tasks in the design phase, and these tasks can be divided
into two main areas. As can be seen from figure 6.7, the first involves setting up
the facilities to be used for the event, with security being the number one priority
for all audiences. This occurs during the development phase, when the infrastruc-
ture of the event is put into place. The second main area of work for this function
involves managing and maintaining amenities during and after the event, with the
dismantling or transferring of facilities being of key importance.
Setting up spaces for practice, work, communication, reception
Defining the event guidelines; planning activities

Security
Marketing and communication
Media and television
Sport activities
Direction, administration and management
Managing and maintaining amenities during and after the event
Ensuring that the event runs smoothly at the

operational level; carrying out scheduled activities
Accompanying and following up on services delivered

by all outside service providers (sound, activities)
Breaking down facilities and coordinating with subcontractor teams

Evaluating how the logistical functions operated; measuring the quality of the services that were subcontracted
Figure 6.7 Logistics.

Function 5: Promotion and Sales
As can be seen from figure 6.8, the promotion and sales function deals with market-
ing, communication and media partnerships. This function includes the following
tasks, which require substantial work in the design phase of an event:
• Setting up a marketing strategy for the event

• Defining a communication strategy and a media action plan
• Researching, managing, following up on and initiating partnerships
Planning tasks is an essential aspect of organising a sport event. Even if the

planning is based on precise event regulations and on the organisers’ past experi-
ence, which gives them greater insight and responsiveness, planning is essential for
ensuring that the unique characteristics of each sport event are taken into account
and for adapting to the inevitable unexpected challenges.
Setting up a marketing strategy for the event
Gathering and analysing key data related to the market, the competition and the environment
Market segmentation
Targeting
Defining a position
Giving an operational form to strategic choices
Coming up with, selling and following up on business propositions
Defining a communication strategy and a media action plan
Identifying targets—analysing the image of the event

Defining specific communication objectives
Developing appropriate messages and choosing media outlets
Researching resources and partnerships
Creating a media action plan
Welcoming and managing the media
Controlling and adjusting activities
Researching, managing, following up on and initiating partnerships
Creating a marketing kit

Identifying potential partners
Making contact with the right person
Following up and ensuring that appropriate and visible support and reception spaces are set up
Greeting and personal escorting of partners
Debriefing with partners—measuring the fallout, thanking partners
Figure 6.8 PromotionE3592

and sales.
Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.8, 276608 DeniseL R6-alw
Key Recommendations
c Ensure that the event is well designed and developed before trying to imple-
ment it.
c Make sure that the Board is committed to the design of the event.
c Plan to follow through all four phases. Good design is essential, as is com-
plete dissolution of the event.
c Schedule all tasks to occur in a timely manner.
c Evaluate the event objectives once the event is over.
In the following illustration, you can see the phases that the 2003 World Athletics
Championships followed. The event organisers took a step-by-step approach that led
to the successful staging of the event.
Illustration 6.3
The 9th World Athletics Championships: Paris 2003
The World Athletics Championships are one of the major events owned by the
International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). France was chosen to
organise the 9th World Athletics Championships in 2003, where they were held in
the Stade de France, the national stadium of France. It was the third largest world
sport event in terms of spectators, following the Olympic Games and the FIFA World
Cup, and included 2,000 athletes, 210 delegations and 400,000 spectators.
Organising the World Athletics Championships involved the four phases outlined
in figure 6.9. This illustration, however, focuses on the middle two phases, planning
and operations. Although the terminology is different, it is possible to see how each
phase in this event fits within the framework presented in this chapter.
Bidding Phase
France was awarded the opportunity to organise the World Athletics Championships
following a successful bidding phase, for which a project team was established. The
IAAF accepted the bid and the project moved to the planning phase. As part of this
process, the conceptual design of the event was established.
Planning Phase
This phase involved planning the functional and operational organisation of the
event. The following tasks were carried out:
• An inventory of the financial, marketing and administrative tasks needed in

organising the event was taken.
• An organisation chart and hierarchical structure was created and senior
managers, such as Directors, Assistant Directors and Project Leaders, were
recruited.
Framework
phases
Bidding
Planning
Operations
Closure
Figure 6.9 Steps in organising the 9th World Athletics Championships: Paris 2003.
E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.9, 276609 DeniseL(continued)
R1
• Responsibilities and roles for each department were established.

• Tasks to be accomplished by the different departments and their associated
deadlines were defined.
• Budgets established during the bidding process were adjusted.
A functional structure had to be created from the start of the project. It comprised
five departments, corresponding to the organisational activities for the event. The
general management was responsible for all these departments.
Once the legal structure was identified, conditions had to be created to allow
for the efficient operational management of each event site. The main steps in this
process included the following:
• Defining a structure for each site, evaluating the resources required, and revising
the operations, rules and procedures manual for how each site functioned.
• Examining and then presenting the functional aspects (marketing, finance)

established for each event site.
• Planning the tasks to be accomplished for each site in order to find operational
solutions to questions raised by the event’s organisation. A clearly identified
manager coordinated each task.
Operations Phase
A few months before the event, the World Athletics Championships adopted a
site-based organisational structure that created the matrix structure outlined in
figure 6.10. Functional managers were given the responsibility for a site or for
the functional operation of a site. A main operations centre was established for
general coordination. This centre acted as a decision-making authority, able to bring
together an emergency public service team in the event of emergency situations,
such as fires or security alerts.
Main operations centre
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5

Stade de Athletes’ Official Accreditation Reception Other
France Village hotels centre area sites
Dept. 1
General management
Dept. 2
Dept. 3
Dept. 4
Dept. 5
Figure 6.10 Matrix structure adopted for the operations phase.

1. Planning
2. Operational phase
phase
Functional
Organisation by site
organisation
Figure 6.11 Site schedule.

1 Setup Installing structures, technological setup, power
when carrying out an event.
2 On-site reception, installation and verification of facility improve-

Move in
ments and technological equipment, signage and decoration
Rental by contract: Period of use of the site formalised by signing an ageement with the
owner outlining the conditions for use (site inventory at move-in and move-out)
Period during which the team migrates amongst the dedicated sites
3 Migration
and spaces in order to fulfil the established functional missions
Period of final training sessions and rehearsals, facility

4 Preevent
checks, tests and final preparation meetings
5 Event
All equipment is dismantled and

6 Move out moved from the site
Site recon-
7 Restoration
stitution

the operating steps for each site. Figure 6.11 shows the major phases and timelines
in site setup. This ensured that the event was efficiently guided, which is essential
This led to the creation of a site schedule. When the organisational structure
(continued)
changed, the planning manager had to fine-tune the general schedule and detail
organising a major sport event
307
Closure Phase
After the event, the functional organisation returned to close down operations. Only
the administrative and finance departments continued their mission. They finalised
the budget, closed all accounts, dismissed the organising committee, placed salaried
workers back in their previous organisations and wrote the final report.
—— G ——
The staging of the 2003 World Athletics Championships was a carefully planned
project that followed the series of phases outlined in this chapter. Note that
the planning of the championships was part of the design phase as well as the
development phase. This is important because initial work on how the event will
run is expected in a bid. Also note that the organisation moved into the operations
phase before the implementation of the championships. This allowed practice events
to be held and systems and procedures to be tested before the main event. It also
allowed athletes to train at the venues before the event. Finally, evaluation was an
essential part of the dissolution of the event.
All events, no matter what type or size, should be organised systematically. This
requires moving through the four phases of design, development, implementation
and dissolution. You may choose different terminology for the phases that your
event moves through; however, the tasks involved will be similar to those that have
been presented here.
Section 6.4
Managing Human
Resources for a Sport Event
Along with facilities and finances, human resources, in particular volunteers, are
indispensable elements in the organisation of any sport event. Therefore, the man-
agement of human resources is critical to event organisation. In this section we will
examine the key elements involved in managing the human resources of an event,
with a particular focus on volunteers. The section begins by outlining the processes
that should be followed, which is followed by a discussion of how to identify and
recruit the necessary human resources. The chapter goes on to consider how to
mobilise and motivate human resources and ends with an illustration of how the
2005 Winter Universiade mobilised a large volunteer workforce.
Organising and Scheduling Human Resources Management

As with all human resources management (HRM), a number of activities are required
to organise the human resources needed for a sport event. The following principles
should be familiar to you from chapter 3. They are discussed briefly here and then
expanded upon more fully later in the chapter. Remember that the short-term nature
of most events and their reliance on volunteers will present several challenges for
the management of human resources.
Determining Human Resources Requirements

This involves reviewing the list of tasks to be accomplished in order to see what
human resources will be needed to accomplish those tasks. This list should even-
tually be included in the regulations of running the event. Human resources can
be selected from the volunteer or salaried members of the organisation in charge
of organising the event, available volunteers, temporary workers from associated
organisations, the general public, or personnel from outside service providers.
Recruiting
Organising an event is a unique operation that requires specific human resources.
Organisers must recruit the people needed to make the event run smoothly. First,
the people in charge of developing and coordinating the organisation of the event
and associated tasks must be recruited. Then, if necessary, specialised contractors
should be hired. Finally, organisers must begin the long process of recruiting vol-
unteers, who are essential to the operation of the event.
Training
The organisation of sport events is different every time, and therefore it is often
difficult for organisers to find people with the requisite knowledge for staging the
event. The goal of training is to ensure that people who have been recruited will
be able to fulfil their assigned duties to the best of their ability. Training is also an
opportunity to communicate the culture of the event and to encourage team spirit
and a sense of belonging for everyone involved.
Motivating
The goal is for organisers to have a team of people who are striving for the success
of the event, people who are motivated to succeed in the challenge of organising the
competition. Organisers should use the methods outlined in chapter 3 to motivate
their people throughout the event.
There are three goals of internal communication: to facilitate comprehension and
advanced planning so as to avoid problems and make improvements, to share infor-
mation with the event team throughout the process, and to encourage individual
participation and involvement. Instead of proceeding in a series of uncoordinated
steps, it is recommended that organisers adopt an internal communication strategy
that outlines the objectives of communication and how these can be met. The steps
involved in this process were discussed in chapter 5.
Managing Personnel
It is necessary to manage personnel in accordance with current legislation. This
includes making agreements with those who provide personnel for the project;
negotiating, preparing and executing contracts with service providers; drafting
contracts for salaried employees and letters of commitment for volunteers; writing
administrative statements; and dealing with insurance issues.
Scheduling Human Resources Activities

It is important to establish a plan for each point mentioned previously. Every plan
should include the associated objectives of the activity; the human, material and
financial resources needed to meet those objectives; a schedule; the name of the
person in charge; and the methods and milestones for evaluation.
After identifying the areas that need to be considered in HRM, it is essential

that organisers create a timeline of all tasks to be accomplished, because the event
takes place within a very specific period of time. This scheduling process will allow
the organisers to specify how long activities will take, how tasks overlap, what are
pivotal periods and what coordination is needed. Once complete, this schedule will
become a point of reference for everyone involved in the project. In the Gantt chart
presented in figure 6.12, the beginning and end of each activity is represented by the
shaded areas, which gives everyone a clear picture of the tasks to be accomplished
and their associated deadlines.
Determining Human Resources Requirements

Human resources requirements depend on the nature and size of the event. For events
requiring a more formal organisation, the event organiser will receive a set of event
recommendations that will serve as a guide by itemising the services needed. For
example, the regulations of the International Federation of University Sports outline
the organising committee’s obligations to participants, competitors and officials.
These can be seen on the organisation’s website (www.fisu.net).
For events with less formal organisation, all requirements should still be identified,
so it is important to rely on similar past experiences for this process. However, these
requirements should be tied to the objectives established by the organising commit-
tee. For example, an objective of organising a federation championship could be to
make young people more aware of the sport. This objective could be met by hosting
a parallel event for schoolchildren, which would require additional personnel.
Tasks/months –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 Event +1 +2
Recruiting
Training
Motivating
Communication
Administration
Figure 6.12 Schedule E3592 Olympic

of human Solidarity
resources Figure 6.12, 276612
activities. DeniseL R2-alw
There are a number of steps that an event organiser should follow when deciding
on the types of human resources that are required. Note that these activities should
be carried out in an ethical and equitable manner and within the legislation of the
country.
Start With the Required Services

The traditional method of establishing requirements is to start with services needed
to satisfy different target groups, such as athletes, officials, spectators, VIPs and
media. The services required will be in the areas of reception, security, catering and
transport. All tasks related to the practical organisation, such as setting up stands,
cleaning, transporting materials and managing the event, should be included (see
section 6.3).
Create an Organisation Chart

Creating an organisation chart will enable organisers to specify which human
resources will be allocated to each function, area or task. The organisation chart
presents the organisation’s unique hierarchical structure. This structure may also
be defined in a document that provides directives and guidelines.
Create Detailed Position and Job Descriptions

A qualitative position description outlining the required qualifications should be
created for each position. These position descriptions can be accompanied by job
descriptions for each function, which should include a description of the position,
the tasks associated with the position, the qualifications and knowledge required,
and a candidate profile. In addition, position descriptions may also define procedures
and directives to be followed.
This creation of position descriptions means that operational reference documents

must be created. For example, site operation guides could outline the operating
procedures to follow during a crisis. Creating these documents is an example of
the kind of tasks that can be carried out in advance to ensure the success of the
event. Each document needs to be linked to the position and job descriptions and
to provide some kind of operational support, such as communication channels and
expected behaviour.
An operational summary document should be created from these components.

Organisers often find that a table, such as table 6.1, works well for this because
it lists both the tasks to be accomplished and the corresponding human resources
requirements. Since requirements will vary depending on the phase of the event,
they should be included in a daily schedule, which makes the process even more
complicated.
Table 6.1 Operational Summary

Human Number Number Total
Functions Service Service for resources of people of days days
Reception Customised VIP sports Hosts 3 5 15
reception stand; people Announcer 2 5 10
activities/events Public 1 5 5
Entrance Check-in Sportspeople Federation 3 6 18

official
Accreditation Delegation Official 2 2 4
Media
Ticketing Spectators Counter clerks 8 5 40
Project Developing and Project team 5 20 100

manage- carrying out
ment project tasks
Identify Human Resources

Once requirements for human resources have been identified, inventory should be
taken of the people at the organisation’s disposal. This will let organisers identify
any gaps to fill. Organisers then need to look for additional resources to use, such
as volunteers. These volunteers could be members of a federation’s sport clubs;
people from certain segments of society that may be interested, such as students;
or individuals from the general public, if necessary. Along with these volunteers,
organisers will need to recruit contractors for specialised positions, such as legal or
financial positions. These personnel could be provided by partner companies, local
government, or salaried employees from contracted service providers. The key is for
organisers to find capable and reliable people to fill the important roles.
Recruiting Human Resources

The number of people mobilised depends on the phase of the event. Organisers must
know how many people they need at any given time and keep track of input and
output to avoid either mobilising resources unnecessarily or finding themselves short
of resources. Thus, a focus on recruiting resources as well as keeping track of losses
is of the utmost importance. Organisers will need to establish individual contracts,
manage remuneration and expense reimbursements, and notify the appropriate
departments and authorities of any required human resources.
Prepare to Recruit
As discussed earlier, organisers should start with position profiles and job descrip-
tions to clarify what is needed. These descriptions usually contain the following
elements: title, function, responsibilities, initiative, position on the organisation
chart, relationship to other team members, relationship to the outside, technical
qualifications, languages spoken and personal qualities. Recruitment information
should be primarily shared using specialised methods, such as an internal newslet-
ter or intranet site, in order to reach a specific audience. A communication system
that is not targeted can cause problems during the selection process, leading to
inappropriate applicants, too many volunteers or the wrong people contacting the
organisation about positions.
Recruiting Volunteers
The recruitment of volunteers is necessary for most events, and volunteer pro-
grammes have become an essential component in organising any large sport event.
Several issues should be taken into account when seeking to use volunteers in the
staging of an event:
• When should you begin recruiting volunteers? For large events, such as the Olym-
pic Games, recruitment may begin with the bid to host the Olympic Games.
London began calling for volunteers on a website, www.volunteer2012.com, as
soon as it became a candidate city. Alternatively, volunteers for smaller events
may not be needed until the actual event begins, and therefore recruitment can
be left until much later.
• How should you go about recruiting volunteers? Organisers will need to decide how
to find and attract volunteers as well as the process volunteers will go through
to be considered, such as application and background check. Volunteers can be
recruited in the traditional way using CVs, application letters and interviews.
• What kind of legal agreement should you establish with volunteers? You might
like to draw up letters of agreement that are signed by volunteers. You will
certainly need to provide volunteers with details of employment that outline
expected duties, expected behaviour and technical details like insurance
arrangements.
Training Human Resources

It is rare for organisers to have human resources with all the skills needed for orga-
nising a sport competition, so training will need to fill the gaps. Organisers should
take into account the availability of individuals, especially volunteers, and any
associated expenses when planning training activities.
For large events, organisers often create a training package, which could include,
for example, a general event module, a mission module and a site or team module.
This system allows everyone involved to learn the values and symbols associated
with the event, to know and understand resource allocation goals, to learn how they
as individuals fit within the team or site, and to understand the operational details
of the mission. Each module may involve a day or half-day of training activities.

Volunteers are an integral part of most sport events and require recruitment, training and
motivation.
Motivating Human Resources

Once human resources have been recruited for an event, it is important that they
are motivated in an appropriate manner. Event managers need to ensure that they
have allocated people with the right skills to each task and that everyone knows
what has to be done. Once this is in place, it then becomes important to motivate
people to perform to the best of their ability.
Factors in Motivation
Motivation first relies on every person’s involvement in the event, which is a product
of both the drawing power of the event and a sense of belonging to a team. It also
depends on the understanding and consideration given to each person. Organisers
can be demanding and ask a lot of the people involved, but in return they must be
interested in what participants are doing and encourage and thank them regularly.
Motivation is also a product of leadership style. A clear hierarchical structure can
work with either a participative management style, such as a delegation style, which
works well when competent and experienced managers are involved, or with a more
controlled style, which works well for people with little autonomy or experience.
It is necessary for the general management and functional managers to continue

motivating the team. Managers must keep the central objective in mind whilst also
adapting to new challenges, modifying individual responsibilities, avoiding fatigue
and apathy, and managing pressures. It is important to know what people’s expec-
tations are, especially volunteers, because a simple interest in the event will not be
enough. For example, organisers could ascertain the motivation of each participant
through a questionnaire or during the recruitment process, as shown in the illustra-
tion at the end of this section.
Motivating volunteers is particularly important because they are not reliant on

the organisation for their income. Therefore, should they become demotivated,
they can simply walk away from the event. This could clearly cause problems if
the event is heavily reliant on volunteer support. Fortunately, however, volunteers
are often motivated by straightforward factors, such as a uniform, a pin badge, free
meals, access to the competition and the possibility of meeting elite athletes. These
factors should not be beyond even the smallest event. However, if you are staging
a large event, table 6.2 shows the key factors for success in a volunteer programme
for large events.
Table 6.2 Successful Volunteer Management

Factors for
success Objectives Approach Tools
Rely on past Reveal the key Make a list of good practices. Relationships amongst
experience. factors for suc- organisers
cess. Fix past mistakes.
Interviews
Ensure that Facilitate Start with a clear and effi- Model organisation chart
each site is understand- cient organisational system.
organised in ing for all Instruction guide
the same way. involved. Use the same level of quality
and the same values.
Accurately Plan ahead in Use past experience. Functions broken down by
evalu- the best condi- position
ate human tions. Plan during the operational
resources phase. Job descriptions
requirements.
Use communi- Avoid not Use position profiles. OSO magazine
cation that is being able to
targeted and fulfil require- Open communication to Websites
controlled. ments. sport arenas.
Media
Integrate a long-term strat-
egy, such as to create new Government
vocations for sport leaders.
Companies
Use rigorous Avoid prefer- Process should be based on Application file

selection and ential treat- the right profile for the posi-
appointment ment. tion, availability and motiva- Selection and appoint-
process. tion. ment interview
Provide train- Prepare all Explain global vision and cul- General module
ing that is cus- individuals for ture of the event.
tomised and their mission. Mission module
mandatory. New recruits are effective
right away. Site module
Focus on quality of service

and team spirit.
Factors for
success Objectives Approach Tools
Provide appro- Mobilise Train the management team Managing volunteers
priate, quality human to customise its management module (brief, debrief,
management. resources. style. encourage and thank
them, and hold them
Provide motivation via par- responsible)
ticipation in an exceptional
project. Remind people of the
overall project, symbols
Management is based on and values
involvement and human
qualities.
Use good Encourage Picture communication as Letters
internal com- cohesion. ascending, descending and
munication. lateral. Website
Standard forms
Meetings
Establish a Reinforce a Pay close attention to the Rules to be respected for
dress code that feeling of dress code, which conveys the dress code are func-
is consistent belonging and the organisation’s image. tional, recognisable (can
and attractive. recognition. be worn after the event)
and uniform (the same for
everyone)
Provide recog- Ensure that Take care of accommodation, Services provided by part-
nition, motiva- volunteers catering and transport. ners
tion and com- feel acknowl-
fort. edged. Organise celebrations. Allow volunteers to
attend some portion of
the event
Participation in the closing

evening
Relationships Between Volunteers and Salaried Employees

The relationship between volunteers and salaried personnel inevitably affects how
sport events operate. Tension can form between the two groups, and organisers who
ignore this may see conflicts arise just when the success of the operation most relies
on team cohesion. Managers must strive to unify individuals and create a team spirit
founded on a common goal. A successful event is the unifying factor that should serve
as a point of reference for all members of the team. Organisers must use everything
at their disposal to achieve this goal. This means emphasising the complementary
nature of individual roles as well as mutual respect. The slogan “Turn volunteers
into professionals and professionals into volunteers” is a good example of the path
to follow. In certain high-performance events, such as national championships, the
status of individuals falls by the wayside compared with the importance of dividing
up roles and responsibilities. Each person has a role to fill, and standards do not
differentiate between volunteers and professionals.
Regular, precise and appealing communication that conveys the image and values
associated with the event will help mobilise resources. Internal communication also
plays an important role in integrating volunteers and salaried workers through group
activities, be they of a training, informative or celebratory nature. When the event
takes place over several days, an internal magazine can be used to inform, honour or
thank team members. For large events, information is often communicated through
a regularly updated website, the advantage being that it is always accessible. Intranet
systems can also help organisers customise information and communication, even
with volunteers.
If communication is important before the event, it becomes crucial during the

event. The goal is to be able to reach everyone involved in organising the event as
quickly as possible. Large organisations define communication channels in advance
using formalised procedures outlined in precise documents. Depending on the
budget available, organisers can use modern or more traditional methods of internal
communication. In addition, organisers should hold meetings at the beginning and
end of each day or each competition in order to conduct the necessary briefing and
debriefing.
Evaluation and Follow-Up

Event organisers must ensure that they have recruited the appropriate people. This
means that they need to evaluate the procedures they have followed in relation to
the people they have chosen. This evaluation will highlight where people are doing
a great job and where they need additional training. It will also identify areas where
there is either too much or not enough work to do. Evaluation and follow-up are
important so that organisers make the best of their human resources.
Continual Follow-Up
The larger and more complex the project, the more important it becomes that evalu-
ation and follow-up be organised and scheduled. Indeed, although organisers must
remain focused on the objective by adhering to the organising plan and schedule,
they also must factor in the unexpected and analyse how the project is going. As
far as managing human resources goes, organisers can use traditional elements,
such as appraisals and discussion groups, but it is important also to identify any
dissatisfaction caused by inappropriate resource allocation. Finally, it is necessary
to motivate the people involved by seeking them out and having them participate
in group events. Follow-up requires formal events scheduled in advance, as well as
a focus on daily activities.
Final Evaluation
The postevent phase is important and may be difficult to accomplish if it is not
planned from the beginning. Indeed, people’s motivation drops significantly once
the event is over. Thoughts are elsewhere and people go back to their daily lives or
become involved in new projects. Of course there will be less activity surrounding
the project once the event is over, but it is essential that organisers maintain a small
team for a few days following small events and for several months following large
ones. This will allow the activities outlined in the following list to be completed.
It might be a good idea to include new people on this team who did not participate
in the previous phases of the project and whose energy and objectivity are at their
peak.
This period has several objectives:

• To thank all of the event’s stakeholders and individually thank each participant,
by post for example. This is especially important for maintaining the motiva-
tion of volunteers who you may want to be involved in future projects.
• To gauge the satisfaction of the people involved in organising the event by using
a questionnaire or carrying out interviews with key people.
• To help redeploy the project’s salaried employees to enable them to find new
jobs.
• To capitalise on experience, data and know-how in order to create a foundation

for organising future events that is well established and relevant. This requires
collecting, processing, classifying, analysing, expanding and organising the data
to be kept.
• To finalise contracts with salaried employees, service providers and other enti-
ties before they lead to disputes.
• To manage the financial and accounting issues related to human resources.

People are an essential factor in organising a successful sport event. Human
resources should be managed just as the project as a whole should be managed, by
keeping limitations in mind, such as event regulations, budget and space restrictions.
However, room should also be left for the independence and initiative that are so
vital to the success of the event.
Key Recommendations
c Identify the human resources requirements of the event.
c Break the requirements into paid staff, contract workers and volunteers and
recruit the required number of each.
c Ensure that you allocate the right people to the right tasks.
c Motivate volunteers by understanding why they have volunteered for the

event.
c Manage your human resources in a fair and equitable manner.
The following illustration shows how a large volunteer workforce can be mobilised
in order to stage a successful event.
Illustration 6.4
Management of Volunteers at the Winter Universiade
Innsbruck/Seefeld 2005
The Universiades, multisport world games for university students, were created in
1959. In 2005, Innsbruck, Austria, hosted this event, which saw more than 1,500
athletes from 50 countries participate.
Organisation
The human resources team comprised seven paid staff who were recruited 2.5 years
before the 2005 event. Between 13 and 20 more people were recruited from 18
months to 6 months before opening day. Not included in this count are the personnel
of companies that provided services since they were not part of the human resources
gathered by the Organising Committee.
The Design and Management Committee (management and coordination

function) identified 95 functions and subfunctions that needed to be planned,
organised, budgeted and staffed for the event to occur successfully. The first
estimate of volunteers needed to cover the event was 1,000 people; however, a
more detailed day-by-day estimate, shown in figure 6.13, revealed a need for 770
people per day on the busiest days. A safety margin of approximately 10% to allow
for time off, absences and illness was employed, which led to the recruitment of
850 volunteers.
Note that the number of volunteers required did not stay the same throughout
the organisation of the event. The majority of volunteers were required once
precompetition activities started, with a drop-off in numbers as the event closed.
This is usual for events and highlights why volunteers are so important. It would
be impossible to recruit paid staff to work for the length of the event and then
leave the organisation. Furthermore, the employment legislation of many countries
would make this impossible.
900
800
Number of volunteers
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Days
Figure 6.13 Volunteers required

E3592 Olympic for the event.
Solidarity Figure 6.13, 276616 DeniseL R1
(continued)
Scheduling the Event’s Volunteers

In order to ensure that organisers did not under- or overrecruit, the Organising
Committee analysed the schedule of volunteer resources. Table 6.3 presents the
tasks that were entrusted to volunteers, the responsibilities the tasks represented
and the allocation of human resources to each task over the course of the event.
Table 6.3 Schedule of Volunteers

Maximum number Team Persons/
of volunteers leaders day
Job type Specification required per day required total
Worker Timing and results 22 2 264
Video and sound 5 1 720
Temporary 40 4 331
infrastructure
Advertising 15 2 240
Opening ceremony 15 2 75
Side events – –
Access control Accreditation 9 1 154
Access control 70 6 1,130
Administration Team 134 47 3,350
FISU 53 1,219
Pool 5 4 125
FISU hotel – –
Catering General catering – –
VIP catering – –
Driver Pool driver 20 2 340
Transport 5 1 95
coordination
Information Accommodation 15 1 279
Schools 14 1 116
Hospitality 20 1 180
Info service 21 2 315
IT IT 20 1 340
support

Maximum number Team Persons/
of volunteers leaders day
Job type Specification required per day required total
Medical Doping control 10 1 110
General medical care 3 1 42
Media Print and Internet 26 1 338
Media operations 18 2 234
Press operations 9 1 135
Sports Alpine skiing 40 1 560
Cross-country skiing 15 1 210
Figure skating 12 1 72
Ice hockey 18 1 216
Nordic combined – –
Snowboarding/skier- 30 1 282
X
Skeleton – 1 –
Ski jumping 15 1 20
Speed skating 8 1 270
Short track 5 1 80
Head office Inventory manage- 5 1 135
ment
Finance 4 64
Medal ceremonies 10 2 110
Head office 28 1 532
Total 97 12,683
(continued)
There are a number of points to note about this schedule. First, the training of
volunteers was included in the schedule. This ensured that all volunteers received
the required training. The schedule also included jobs that did not require volunteer
support, perhaps because these jobs were carried out by contracted organisations
or because paid personnel performed the tasks. It is important to identify all event
tasks in order to make sure that no job is forgotten, even if not all tasks will be
performed by volunteers. Finally, the table shows the number of volunteers needed
at the start of the event. Although in this case the number is the same as the
maximum number needed, it is useful to know how many volunteers are required
overall before the event commences.
Recruiting and Mobilising Volunteers

The organisers of the 2005 Universiade decided to target the Innsbruck student
population in their effort to recruit volunteers. In order to do this, they carried
out a questionnaire aimed at the student population, from which it appeared that
55% of those surveyed were interested in participating in the event. Their primary
motives for getting involved in the event were as follows:
• To have contact and involvement with people from different countries and
cultures (social motive)
• To have the opportunity to make contacts and get experience that would be
useful to a future career (professional motive)
• To be part of the organising team for the event (organisational motive)
• To feel useful in helping others and the organisation (altruistic motive)
• To test their worth, strengths, weaknesses and limits (challenge and self-
diagnosis motive)
• To be rewarded and recognised for participation (remuneration motive)
A programme of action for getting the community of volunteers motivated

before and during the event was established. Table 6.4 gives examples of the social
activities that were developed for the volunteers during the event.
—— G ——
This illustration shows how volunteers can be targeted, motivated and used
effectively to stage a large event. It is worth noting that the event organisers
identified why students might become volunteers before beginning to recruit. This
allowed the organisers to put together a programme of activities that ensured that
volunteers’ motives were met. The organisers also had a clear idea of how many
volunteers were required and carefully scheduled those requirements against the
tasks required to stage the event. This systematic planning of the voluntary human
resources meant that there was less risk of over- or underrecruitment, which resulted
in a more effective use of human resources.
Table 6.4 Social Activities for Volunteers

Daily Volunteer lounge Getting together, relaxing, warming up
Music, DJs
Volunteer pin board
Feedback Daily feedback from team leader

Volunteer radio and Volunteer of the day, funny stories, impres-
CommUNITY 2005 sions, what’s going on
Party Election of Miss and Mr Presenting candidates on the pin boards and
CommUNITY 2005 the official website
CommUNITY 2005 Party for the CommUNITY 2005: speeches by
Games-time clubbing important personalities, presentation of Miss
and Mr Community 2005
Source: Schnitzer 2004.
Section 6.5
Organising Amenities, Sites and Spaces
Organising a sport competition requires a large quantity of materials, facilities and
amenities, some of which are sport related and others not. The first point of identify-
ing these needs occurs at the event design phase and involves defining requirements,
or taking a systematic inventory of the facilities and amenities needed to organise
a successful competition. To do this, organisers refer to
• the sports and technical regulations of the relevant federations,

• the regulations specific to the contest being organised, and
• local legislation and regulations concerning the security of public venues in the
country in which the competition takes place.
At the same time, organisers take a preliminary inventory of the resources avail-
able. This preliminary review is one of the steps in deciding whether to bid for the
event.
However, sport events are part of the greater society, and other people are involved
in addition to athletes. As the number of people involved increases, sport competi-
tions can go from being local events to global events, like the Olympic Games. In
order to ensure a successful sport event, organisers must therefore consider much
more than just the facilities and amenities that are specific to the event. Organisers
should focus on what are known as the three circles of a sport event (figure 6.14)
when considering the amenities, sites and spaces they need for an event.
Environment
Auxiliary sites
Sport zone
Figure 6.14 TheE3592

three Olympic
circles ofSolidarity
a sport event.
Figure 6.14, 276619 DeniseL R1
In this section the focus will be on amenities and facilities rather than on consum-
able materials. The section begins with a consideration of the areas of the sport zone,
which is the heart of any sport event. It will look at what is required as auxiliary
sites and then assess the impact of events on the environment. It concludes with an
illustration of planning the facilities, sites and spaces for the 2007 Pan American
Games.
Sport Zone
The first circle is the heart of any sport event. This is the sport zone, the area pre-
pared for the competition. Event organisers should have full and complete authority
within the sport zone; however, in order to mobilise this zone, organisers must pay
attention to the contractual arrangements governing the loan or rental of the prem-
ises. These arrangements specifically define the area to be used, any improvements
made by the owner of the facilities, the dates, the length of time and the cost of use.
The sport zone can be further subdivided in specific areas.
Competition Grounds and Areas

These areas represent a central zone that can only be accessed by competitors, judges
and officials. The guidelines for these areas, such as dimensions, signage, access and
any specific improvements, will be defined in the regulations of the NFs and IFs
that govern the relevant disciplines. The details and requirement to stick to these
guidelines will depend on the level of the sport competition and its audience.
Public Facilities
The sport zone also includes areas for spectators. Organisers of sport events find that
taking the public into account is difficult. They must strike a balance between having
a large-capacity stadium that will guarantee the commercial success of the event,
and dealing with limitations imposed by security, marketing needs and the intended
legacy of the stadium. These limitations arise from the regulations imposed by the
event owner and by the stadium owner, who is also expected to respect the rules of
public order that guarantee the hygiene and security of public establishments.
Photo courtesy of VANOC.

In addition to following local building regulations, facilities must adhere to the guidelines of NFs
and IFs. Shown here are workers constructing the sliding track for the Vancouver 2010 Olympic
Winter Games.
Service Facilities and Amenities

Sport zone facilities should include spaces that have been specifically equipped for
the following:
• Personal hospitality, such as locker rooms, bathrooms, warm-up rooms or spaces,

treatment rooms and infirmaries.
• Security, such as clearly marked public access, restricted access for competitors
and referees, first aid posts and evacuation routes.
• Promotion and commercialisation of the event, such as a press and media room,
spaces reserved for sponsors and announcers, shops and eating spaces. Public
hospitality facilities vary according to the nature of the sport event. Stands are
usually fixed, but they can also be movable, removable or temporary.
Holding Competitions in Nondedicated Spaces

Many sport events are held in locations that are not permanently dedicated to the
sport. In this case, defining the sport zone proves to be more difficult, particularly
when sport events take place on public roads, such as cycling, driving and foot road
races. These events are subject to specific rules requiring the advanced approval of
public authorities. The perimeter of the sport zone can be represented physically
with barriers or ribbons, or symbolically with signs, signals or the presence of
marshals. In addition, temporary facilities may also be required, such as staging,
which will help to define the sport zone. Routes or circuits on public roads require
specific security measures and access restrictions. These issues are generally cov-
ered by the regulations of the appropriate sport federations, which are available to
the organisers.
Auxiliary Sites for a Sport Event

In addition to the sport zone, an event will require auxiliary sites. Auxiliary sites
are mostly dedicated to welcoming and housing participants and are included in the
second circle of the event. The importance given to these sites depends on several
factors:
• Length of the sport event, which will help define the accommodation limita-
tions
• Number of people participating in the competition
• Size and demographics of the audience
• Expectations of the people supporting the event, as outlined in the regula-
tions
• Organiser’s commitment to the quality of the hospitality.
There are, however, certain auxiliary areas that are common to most events.
Event Headquarters and Administration Site

These are amenities that the organisation will use throughout the event. Mostly
used for administration, they can include offices, meeting rooms and storage spaces.
The size of this area will depend on the different phases in the organisation of the
event, which may be problematic since the implementation phase requires many
more people than the design phase.
Reception Sites for Sport Delegations

This is the starting point for welcoming competitors and their delegations. These
sites may be the same as the accommodation sites, with access being granted only
to delegations. However, for major events, reception sites are usually at airports and
railway stations. Organisers usually know in advance the locations, arrival dates
and times and number of sportspeople and delegation officials, thanks to advanced
registration to the competition. Welcoming delegations is often a good task for vol-
unteers. The delegations’ transfer to the accreditation and accommodation sites will
also need to be organised.
Accreditation Sites
The accreditation site for delegation members is often a sensitive area in the recep-
tion process as levels of accreditation dictate the access that delegates have to areas
such as the sport zone and VIP hospitality. Accreditation means that different cat-
egories of participants, such as competitors, trainers, medical personnel, delegation
officials and members of the international sport authorities, will have different rights
to different areas, and often delegates will want greater access than their accredita-
tion level allows. During accreditation, delegations are often also asked to pay any
remaining expenses for accommodation and catering.
Although organisers try to obtain information in advance, the accreditation time

is often an opportunity for delegation members to express particular requests. This
is the first official contact between the delegations. The organising committee hands
out various official passes that may include photographs of the cardholders. A dedi-
cated and appropriately equipped site is needed for this process.
Accommodation Sites
Accommodation sites are often hotels and if so, are managed by hotel personnel. The
organising committee simply makes use of these sites. Depending on the length, size
and audience of the event, mobilising hotel capacity can be extremely important.
The organiser is expected to ensure enough capacity and must reserve in advance
the hotels and rooms to lodge and feed participants, particularly the following:
• Sport delegations made up of sportspeople, training personnel and officials

• Members from the body of judges and referees for the competitions
• Members of the sport family, such as members of the relevant international
sport authorities and other guests
• Accredited journalists and technicians from the media
• Organisation members and salaried and volunteer personnel
As far as welcoming the public goes, the organiser can recommend certain hotels
and tour operators. This can lead to economic partnerships between these businesses
and the organising committee.
Other Sites Hosting Various Activities

The organisation may secure various other sites for
• cultural activities;
• meetings, such as conferences and assemblies of international sport authorities
usually held during major competitions;
• auxiliary sport areas or training facilities; and
• amenities for the media or for sponsors to take advantage of the event, such as
a village for sponsors and partners.
Athlete Village
The concept of the athlete village has been developed and successfully implemented
during a number of Olympic Games. When a sport event brings delegations together
for a long time, such as one or two weeks, it is usual to have the sportspeople live
together in one location. The primary objective is to encourage the values of frater-
nity, universality and friendship that sport represents. Having people stay in one
village also has other advantages. Creating a well-defined and protected zone assists
in security and rule enforcement, as well as transport efficiency. The village also
allows various services to be offered as a package, such as personal care, medical
care, leisure activities and shops.
Links Between Sites

For events like the Olympic Games or world championships, links are required
between multiple sites. In order to overcome the logistical problems that this creates,
event organisers are starting to become innovative in their design of the sport zone
and the auxiliary spaces. Many event organisers have grouped different sites into
clusters in order to limit moving the public around. For example, aquatics venues
and accommodation for swimmers and spectators may be in one geographical loca-
tion. In many cases, this requires building spaces that will remain after the event
(event legacy) and therefore subsequently have to be used for future sport events or
by the host community.
The second idea involves optimising the links between the different sites through
high-performance transport networks. Mass transit networks can be used, and
organisers may also mobilise fleets of vehicles for moving sportspeople and offi-
cials around. In some instances, dedicated traffic lanes may be created, such as the
Olympic lane that will be part of London 2012. The quality and performance of
the transport services are an important consideration in applications to host major
sport events.
Environment of a Sport Event

The third circle of a sport event is the environment in which the various sites are
located. Organisers must keep this in mind during every step of the project because
a sport event is likely to disturb the environment in which it takes place. From the
design phase, the project must be defined so as to quell any concerns or suspicions
about problems the event might cause and to gain the support of all those who are
affected.
Protecting the Environment of a Sport Event

The potential challenges that the competition can cause to its environment and the
steps taken to deal with these challenges throughout the phases of the event should
be recorded. An influx of people into a single location can cause various problems,
such as noise, increased traffic, chemical pollution, water shortages and increased
waste. An analysis of bids for major sport events shows the importance that protect-
ing the environment is given today. The candidates to organise the Olympic Games
are required to include auxiliary programmes for public awareness, prevention and
protection of the environment.
Sustainable Development in Organising Sport Events

The concept of sustainable development was adapted for sport events by the IOC and
developed by certain national committees. It involves ensuring the development of
sport and sport organisations whilst respecting the interests of future generations,
with a concern for an economic and reasonable utilisation of resources. Intrinsic to
this concept is the idea of legacy, which is what the event will leave behind once it
has been completed. Host candidates must highlight the benefits that organising a
certain sport event will have for local populations, such as improving housing, creat-
ing facilities that are new and useful to society and improving mass communication
and transport resources.
Dismantling or Reconverting Sites and Amenities

Amenities are dismantled during the dissolution phase of the event, but dismantling
should be planned for from the design phase. This process involves restoring all
event facilities, sites and spaces to a usable state. Organisers should consider how
local populations will use the facilities and sites built for the occasion. Presented
here are a few of the questions organisers should ask to ascertain the ecological,
economic and social effects a sport event may have:
• Will the event have a negative or a positive, temporary or lasting effect on

environmental quality?
• Will the developments be converted for use by the local population? If so, have
the transfer of responsibility and the operational expenses been accounted
for?
• Does the project require a new road infrastructure?
• Has the event’s impact on drainage, water treatment and waste collection and
treatment been taken into account?
• Will the event improve local accommodation?
• Will the event reinforce the identity and image of the host territory?
By focusing on the three circles of a sport event, organisers can take a complete
account of the amenities, sites and spaces required by an event. Of key importance
is the need to consider environmental issues in the design and development of an
event. Unfortunately, this circle of an event is often neglected, particularly when
organising small events. Organisers must be aware of the impact of the event on
the local environment, even when no significant changes are made to it, such as the
building of new facilities or transport links.
Key Recommendations
c Be clear about the technical requirements of the sport zone.
c Try to avoid the need for the mass movement of athletes and spectators.
c Ensure that the environment is not negatively affected by the event.
c Plan for the event’s legacy during the design phase.
c Make sure that the legacy is beneficial to the local community.
The following illustration shows how the facilities, sites and spaces for the 2007
Pan American Games were planned, as well as how the legacy of the event was
taken into account.
Illustration 6.5
Facilities, Sites and Spaces for the
Rio de Janeiro 2007 Pan American Games
The Pan American Games are organised every 4 years, in the year preceding the
Olympics. Rio de Janeiro is the site of the 2007 Games, with 5,500 athletes, 2,000
team officials, 42 countries and 34 sports. And for the first time in 2007, the Para
Pan American Games occur immediately after the Pan American Games. A total of
1,300 athletes and 700 members of delegations are expected to participate in 10
different sports in the Para Pan American Games. The same sites and installations
for sport and housing are used for both the Pan American Games and the Para Pan
American Games, thus guaranteeing the highest level of quality for the Games as
well as economising on space and cost. The apartments of the Village are adapted
to meet the needs of athletes with disabilities.
Environment
The mayor of Rio de Janeiro, César Maia, and the president of the Brazilian Olympic
Committee, Carlos Arthur Nuzman, specified that the events be concentrated at
the Barra da Tijuca district. This is due to its flat topography, with areas that are
easily adaptable for the Games and accessible by a good network of roads. This
area was less developed than the centre of the city and was therefore in a position
to benefit significantly from the amenities, sites and spaces required by the Pan
American Games.
One of the advantages of the Barra da Tijuca district is its ability to concentrate
about 60% of the competition sites and the Pan American Village within the same
10-kilometre circle, thus easing traffic problems and reducing transportation
requirements. The organisation of the 2007 Games was viewed as an opportunity for
the host city to develop new facilities and respond to future needs in this area.
Figure 6.15 presents the site plan and shows how the various sites for housing
and competitions are grouped in four clusters, two of which are described here.
The central and most important cluster in Barra da Tijuca includes the three housing
sites. The competition sites are grouped around the four main clusters; the public
can easily move from one to another. These groupings were planned in this way to
facilitate communication and promote a festive mood typical of a great international
sport event.
Figure 6.15 Rio 2007 Pan American Games site plan.
(continued)
Auxiliary Sites
The Pan American Village is located on a site 420,000 metres square in Barra da
Tijuca. Inside the Village, the major routes are walkable, but an internal transport
system facilitates movement around the Village. The Village is encircled by green
space to ensure pleasant and quiet surroundings for the athletes. The project was
developed to meet the directives of the IOC concerning Olympic villages, and it was
planned with a maximum of comfort and security. A permanent facility was projected
to have medical services available 24 hours a day. The units were designed with one
to four rooms, and beds took athletes’ size into account. The restaurant has the
capacity to serve 4,000 people at a sitting, and athletes can enjoy many leisure and
relaxation activities made available to them. The official hotel is the residence for
the officials of the sport and their guests.
The Riocentro Convention Centre houses the Main Press Centre (MPC) and the
International Broadcasting Centre (IBC). They occupy approximately 15,000 square
metres of the PoloRio Cine & Vídeo, a facility built during the 1980s. The Riocentro
Convention Centre is also a venue for sport events. Located 7 kilometres from the
centre of Rio, the Riocentro Convention Centre has a large car park for cars and
television trucks, making movement to and from the centre relatively simple.
Sport Zone
The second cluster, Maracanã, mainly consists of two sport complexes. The first,
the Maracanã Sports Complex, was an existing facility managed by the state
authority, which contains three of the main sport venues. The Maracanã Stadium
is the venue for the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the football finals.
The Maracanãzinho Arena accommodates the volleyball competition, and the Júlio
Delamare Aquatic Centre accommodates the water polo competition.
The second complex, the João Havelange Sports Complex, was built for the 2007
Games. It includes the João Havelange Stadium, the site of athletics competition.
This complex is situated 13 kilometres from the Pan American Village; however, La
Linha Amarela, an expressway, allows easy and quick access to Barra da Tijuca.
—— G ——
The amenities, sites and spaces required by the 2007 Pan American Games came
from a mix of existing facilities and newly built facilities. The choice of Barra da
Tijuca as the main base for the Games is excellent because it offers the space to
build new facilities designed to provide a positive legacy and also benefit the local
community through the construction of new transport links. The organisers made
good use of existing sites, such as the Media and Communication Centre, which
was based in an existing media facility with adequate parking. New facilities, such
as the João Havelange Sports Complex, were planned and built with a postevent
purpose in mind.
ORGANISING A major sport event 333
The main legacy of the Games, however, will be the Pan American Village. The
houses and apartments in the Village were sold to local buyers before the Games
began and thus the housing available in Barra da Tijuca is expected to increase
significantly in quantity and quality. In addition, there is an additional social benefit
in that those interested in purchasing accommodation were offered low-interest
mortgages. It is hoped that such mortgages will allow many people who could not
otherwise afford housing to benefit from the legacy of the 2007 Pan American
Games. This illustration shows how a major event can make a fundamental difference
to its host environment by leaving a positive legacy.
The following case study applies many of the points covered in this chapter to the
organisation of a regional event: the Mediterranean Games. Although your organisa-
tion may be concerned with much smaller events, the case study will highlight how
the concepts covered in this chapter can be put into practice.
Case Study 6
Organising the
Mediterranean Games: Almería 2005
The Mediterranean Games are competitions involving the athletes of the NOCs of
the Mediterranean Basin. The Mediterranean Games take place every 4 years, during
the post-Summer Olympic year, and the XV Mediterranean Games took place in
Spain, in Almería, Andalusia, in 2005.
Photo courtesy of COJMA 2005.
The opening ceremony of the 2005 Mediterranean Games.
(continued)
c Deciding Whether to Organise the Event

The bid process began in 1990, when the city of Almería considered bidding for the
2005 Mediterranean Games. At the local level, the main objective to be achieved by
holding the Games was to improve the future of the city. The event was perceived
to transcend sport and to become the catalyst for the transformation of an entire
region.
In 1995, an independent study introduced the Sports Infrastructure Strategic

Scheme, which highlighted Almería’s qualifications and ability to organise the
Mediterranean Games. The scheme outlined the benefits and risks associated
with holding the event and allowed the city to decide to proceed with developing
the event. Almería’s bid was presented at the International Committee for the
Mediterranean Games (ICMG) Assembly in Bari, Italy. Officially designated by the
Comité Olímpico Español (COE, Spanish Olympic Committee) with the support of
the Senate, Parliament, government of Andalusia and Secretary of State for Sport,
Almería was declared by the ICMG as the venue for the XV Mediterranean Games
on 28 April 1999.
c Legal and Functional Structures

The ICMG is the body responsible for coordinating each set of Games and for choosing
the host city for the next Games. The guiding body is the Executive Committee, which
represents 12 countries. The ICMG meets periodically in the city that is organising
the next Games. The Mediterranean Games are the exclusive property of the ICMG,
which holds all rights related to any organisation, exploitation, broadcasting and
reproduction associated with the Games.
The project began with a contract between the ICMG and the host city. This
contract defined the organiser’s conditions and limitations and its associated
rights and powers. The city of Almería and the COE then created a separate legal
structure called the Comité Organizador de los Juegos Mediterráneos Almería 2005
(COJMA, Organising Committee of the Mediterranean Games Almería 2005). These
three organisations were jointly responsible for all agreements contracted by one
or all of them that concerned the organisation or course of the Games, including
financial agreements.
Legal Framework
As outlined in figure 6.16, the basic structure of the Mediterranean Games consisted
of three committees: the Organising, Standing and Technical Committees. The
decision-making structure of the COJMA reflected that of most major events. The
Organising Committee brought together all parties involved in the organisation of
the Games and defined the relevant COJMA objectives. An elected official from the
host city presided over this committee.
The Mediterranean Charter is the authoritative document for the Mediterranean

Games and defines the applicable rules and operating principles of the Games. It
contains the key elements and concepts for this regional and multisport event:
encouraging solidarity amongst people, spreading Olympic ideals, reinforcing
friendly ties amongst athletes and promoting sport in the Mediterranean Basin.
Functional Structures
The operational aspects of the Games were delivered by the Technical Committee,
which carried out the instructions of the decision-making bodies: the Organising
Committee and the Standing Committee. Consideration of figure 6.17 shows that
the Technical Committee adopted a functional structure, which included all of the
functions discussed in this chapter.
International Committee for the Mediterranean Games (ICMG)
Organising Committee of the Mediterranean

Games Almería 2005 (COJMA)
Standing COJMA Technical

Committee Committee
Figure 6.16 Legal and administrative structure.
Chief Administrative
Executive Support Office
Chief
Executive’s
Office
Mediterranean
Village
Operations and Promotion and International

Sports services Infrastructure communication Technology relations and
methods protocol
Figure 6.17 Structure of the COJMA 2005 Technical Committee.

(continued)
Managing Areas of Activity Through Subcontracting

Organising an event as large as the Mediterranean Games is a complex task and
requires skills and resources not always at the disposal of organisers. The COJMA
chose to subcontract the following activities to other specialised groups:
• Management of the results of the Games and accreditations for the event
was handled through a contract with the company MSL-Sportec.
• Internal transport for the Games was awarded to the company Enatcar, in
association with other transport companies.
• The search for and administration of partners, an important process
in maintaining a balanced budget for the Games, was awarded to the
multinational company Carat Sport.
• Catering for the event was awarded to the company Sodexho.
• With respect to internal security at the Games, security companies with sworn-
in security guards were mobilised.
This subcontracting meant that these functions could be carried out by people with
the appropriate expertise and that the COJMA did not have to employ people with
this expertise or train staff or volunteers to carry out these functions.
c Organising the Event

The staging of the Mediterranean Games in Almería involved three major
organisational and operational phases in addition to the final phase of closing
and evaluating the Games and the Organising Committee. Figure 6.18 shows the
similarity between the phases traditionally used in organising major events (design,
development, implementation and dissolution) and those defined for the Games
in Almería. The main difference is that the execution phase included the Games
preparation period, not just the Games themselves. This is similar to what occurred
in the organisation of the 9th World Athletics Championships and is helpful because
it allowed practice events to be held and systems and procedures to be tested before
the main event. It also allowed athletes to train at the venues before the event.
Planning Phase (2000-01)

This phase was similar to the design phase and involved formalising the project to
an almost-final state. The phase included the following:
• Determining the organisational structure, choosing the technical sport

commissions and designing the functional organisation chart
• Determining financial conditions, developing the COJMA 2005 financing
conventions, developing facility financing conventions, developing sponsorship
and marketing plans, and starting the search for sponsorship
Organising the XV Mediterranean Games Almería 2005
2000 2001
Planning phase 2002 2003
Development phase 2004 2005
Programme execution phase
Course of the XV Closure and

Mediterranean evaluation
Games phase
24 June 2005 - 3 July 2005
Figure 6.18 Organisation schedule

E3592 Olympic of the
Solidarity Games.
Figure 6.18, 276625 DeniseL R2-alw
• Promoting the event to all partners, including the administrations of Andalusia

and Spain and media and businesses; deciding on the COJMA’s graphical
identity, creating the website and designing the mascot; and defining and
implementing the sport events programme
• Precisely defining the tasks to be accomplished and their deadlines in a
document called the “Overall Guiding Plan”, which was presented in the form
of a Gantt chart
• Mobilising a team around the Project Leader, including nominating members
of different committees and recruiting Managers, Assistant Managers,
Coordinators and Staff Assistants
• Designing the programme and facilities, developing plans for new facilities
and creating the cultural programme
Development Phase (2002-03)

The development phase involved these steps:
• Constructing important infrastructure, including competition facilities, the

Mediterranean Village, highways and residential housing
• Signing bid contracts for subcontracting and partnership contracts
• Making progress on the promotional campaign, particularly outside Almería,
in Andalusia, and at the domestic and international level
• Making organisational adjustments in response to preliminary evaluations,
such as modifying the COJMA Technical Committee, which went from four
to seven general management departments as the event developed
• Recruiting volunteers, which was a fundamental element of this phase
(continued)
Programme Execution Phase (2004-05)

This phase combined aspects of the development and implementation phases
discussed in the third section. Activities included the following:
• Testing the facilities and preparing volunteer and professional teams before
the start of the Games
• Selling tickets
• Continuing to promote the Games in participating countries
• Ensuring the efficient operation of the event during the Games period
The COJMA conducted a series of tests during the programme execution phase
that allowed the staff in charge of each sport to gain organisational experience and
to evaluate the operation of the facilities as well as the technical resources used to
carry out the Games. Following this, the Games involved 10 days of competition.
As outlined in figure 6.19, a total of 27 disciplines affiliated with 25 sports were
represented in the XV Mediterranean Games.
Closure and Evaluation Phase (2005)

At the end of the Games, as part of the dissolution phase, the COJMA was required
to publish an official report in French, English and Arabic on all aspects of the
event’s organisation, including verified evaluations and accounts. The documents
had to be submitted to the ICMG for approval before being released. The COJMA
also gave 50 free copies to the ICMG as well as a copy to each of the ICMG’s NOC
members and the relevant IFs.
c Managing Human Resources

The organisation of the 2005 Mediterranean Games was entrusted to personnel
who were represented in the functional organisation chart (figure 6.17) and who
fell under the authority of the chief executive (COJMA Director). During the Games,
COJMA staff and volunteers were supported by Spanish security forces and personnel
from the region, emergency services, and the Red Cross. The human resources plan
outlined in the bid relied mostly on the support of volunteers specifically trained
for the event; therefore, this part of the case study will focus on activities involving
the volunteers.
Volunteer Programme
In Andalusia, there is a law for volunteers that defines their areas of responsibility.
According to this legal framework, a volunteer is a person who undertakes a
voluntary action. This definition requires that the following conditions be met:
• The activity is of general interest.

• The completion of the activity is the result of a decision that the individual
has taken freely.
• The task is carried out in a manner that is responsible and not
remunerated.
• The activity takes place within a framework of specific programmes.
June July
Sport Discipline Gender 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 Facility Municipality
Opening Ceremony 24 Mediterranean Stadium Almería
Aquatics Swimming M/W 24 25 26 27 28
Water Polo M 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 Las Almadrabilias Sports Centre Almería
Archery M/W 28 29 30 Emilio Campra Youth Stadium Almería
Athletics M/W 29 30 01 02 Mediterranean Stadium Almería
El Ejido Sports Hall El Ejido
Basketball M/W 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01
Las Norias Sports Hall
Lyonnaise
Boules Boules M 27 28 29 30 Bullring Almería
Petanque M/W
Boxing M 27 28 29 30 01 02 La Juventud Sports Hall Almería
Canoe-kayak Flat water M/W 25 26 Cuevas del Almanzora Canal Cuevas del Almanzora
02 Road Race Course
Cycling Road M 29 Time Trial Course Almería
Equestrian sports Endurance Mixed 26 Almería Equestrian Club
Jumping Mixed 29 01 Almería Equestrian Club Almería
Fencing M/W 25 26 27 Máximo Cuervo Sports Hall Aguadulce (Roquetas de Mar)
Football El Ejido Stadium El Ejido
Antonio Peroles Stadium Roquetas de Mar
M 24 25 26 27 28 29 01 03 Vicar Stadium Vicar
Juan Rojas Stadium Almería
Mediterranean Stadium (final) Almería
Golf M/W 27 28 29 30 Mediterranean Village Golf Course Almería
Gymnastics Artistic M/W 25 26 27 28 Mediterranean Sports Palace Almería
Rhythmic W 01 02 Diputación Sports Hall Almería
Handball M 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 Infanta Cristina Sports Hall Roquetas de Mar
W 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 Vicar Sports Hall Vicar
Judo M/W 28 29 30 01 Rafael Florido Sports Hall Almería
Karate M/W 25 26 Rafael Florido Sports Hall Almería
Rowing M/W 30 01 02 Cuevas del Almanzora Canal Cuevas del Almanzora
Sailing M/W 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 Club de Mar Almería
Shooting M/W 25 26 27 28 29 Mediterranean Games Shooting Centre Gádor
Sports for the Athletics M/W 29 30 Mediterranean Stadium
disabled Swimming M/W 25 Las Almadrabilias Sports Centre Almería
Table tennis M/W 29 30 01 02 03 Máximo Cuervo Sports Hall Aguadulce (Roquetas de Mar)
Tennis M/W 29 30 01 02 03 Almería Tennis Club Huércal de Almería
M 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 Diputación Sports Centre
Volleyball W 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 Los Angeles Sports Hall
Volleyball Méditeranéen Sports Palace (F)
Beach El Palmeral Beach Volleyball
M/W 24 25 26
Volleyball Stadium Almeria
Weightlifting M/W 25 26 27 28 29 30 University Sports Hall Almería
Wrestling Greco-Roman M 26 27 Huércal de
Freestyle M/W 28 29 30 01 Huércal de Almería Sports Hall Almería
Closing Ceremony 03 Mediterranean Stadium Almería
Final Competition
Figure 6.19 Competition schedule.

E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 6.19, 276626 DeniseL R4 75% dawns R6-kh
(continued)
Recruitment
The recruitment campaign began in 2002 and succeeded in mobilising 6,000
volunteers, which exceeded the COJMA’s goal of 4,500 people. David Bisbal, an
Almerían singer who is very popular in Spain and South America, was the image of
the recruitment initiative, with the slogan “I am the first volunteer. Join us.” Five
weeks after the recruitment campaign began, 3,000 people had signed up.
Roles Filled by Volunteers

The first volunteers to be mobilised were the expert volunteers. These volunteers
already had some kind of experience managing sport events. Figure 6.20 shows
the roles filled by volunteers in the Mediterranean Games and the corresponding
percentages of volunteers involved.
Sponsorship Infrastructure Volunteer

2% 3% assistance
1%
Medical
2%
Greeting
spectators
Promotion 9%
5%
Media
5%
Technology
8% Sports
30%
Transport
7%
Accommodation
6%
Security
Protocol 11%
11%
Figure 6.20 Volunteer roles.

It is apparent that volunteers were involved in all aspects of the Games.

Understandably, the largest percentage of volunteers worked with the various
sports, and many worked in key support functions such as sponsorship, media and
security. It would appear that volunteers not only performed most of the functions
organised by the COJMA but also supported the tasks that had been contracted
out.
Preparing to Recruit
A general catalogue of profiles of volunteer positions was created for the first time
within the framework of organising the Mediterranean Games. As recommended in
section 6.4, each job description listed the position title, the assigned responsibilities,
the volunteer profile, the centre of operations and the associated department
within the COJMA’s Technical Committee. As an example, table 6.5 presents the
job description for a Protocol Assistant.
Volunteer Training Programme

All volunteers have the right to receive the information, training and support
necessary to carry out the roles and tasks assigned to them. Following this principle,
the COJMA developed a training programme for all volunteers to meet the following
objectives:
• To create a feeling of active participation and involvement in the project of

organising the Games
• To provide access to quality training services that are advanced, innovative
and flexible
• To facilitate the dissemination, updating and development of knowledge
within the network of 2005 volunteers
• To facilitate communication amongst COJMA volunteers
• To gain the loyalty of the 2005 volunteers through access to an exclusive
informational plan
Table 6.5 Job Description for a Protocol Assistant

Centre of Associated
Position Responsibilities Profile operations department
Protocol Reception at Advanced level Official hotel NOC Relations
Assistant the Protocol in foreign lan-
Office at the guages (English,
official hotel French or Arabic)
and knowledge
of protocol
(continued)
This programme took an innovative form that consisted of online training, and the
vast majority of volunteers were trained over the Internet. The rest were regularly
assembled for training days that required them to be in attendance. The contents
of the training programme covered five thematic blocks corresponding to the five
colours of the Mediterranean star, the logotype for the Almería Mediterranean
Games:
• Green referred to general aspects of volunteering

• Blue referred to the Mediterranean Games and the Mediterranean spirit
• Red referred to the Almería 2005 project and its organisational structure
• Black referred to themes involving the city and province of Almería
• Yellow referred to first aid and security activities
The training package created for the 2005 Games contained the three aspects
outlined in section 6.4. It included information on the event, information on
its mission and information specific to the volunteer’s team. In addition, the
training programme allowed the volunteers to learn the values and symbols of the
event, to understand how they fit into the organisation, and to understand the
operational details of the event. This resulted in an effective and efficient voluntary
workforce.
c Amenities, Sites and Spaces

The XV Mediterranean Games Almería 2005 were staged at a central location, the city
of Almería, as well as at six sport sites and two cultural sites. The spatial organisation
of the Games can be considered using the three circles of a sport event.
Sport Zones
The sport sites were El Ejido (football and basketball), Vícar (handball and football),
Roquetas de Mar (handball, table tennis, fencing and football), Húercal de Almería
(wrestling and tennis), Gádor (shooting) and Cuevas del Almanzora (rowing and
canoeing and kayaking). The cultural sites were Adra and Vera. The other sport
competitions took place in existing facilities within the capital.
A total of 27 sport stadiums were used during the Games, among which the
Mediterranean Stadium and the Mediterranean Sports Palace stand out. Both of
these facilities are located on the Vega de Acá Complex. The Mediterranean Stadium
was the main construction project completed for the Mediterranean Games. It
housed the athletic competitions and the competitions for the para athletics, the
football final, and the opening and closing ceremonies. In terms of legacy, the
stadium, designed as a multifunctional facility, now serves as a conference and
exhibition hall and is the future site of the Mediterranean Museum.
Auxiliary Facilities
In addition to the artistic gymnastics and volleyball competitions, the Mediterranean
Sports Palace held a variety of support facilities. This new facility included spaces
essential to running the Games, such as the VIP lounge, press room, organisation
offices, anti-doping control office, federation area and volunteer lounge. It also has
a covered athletic track, which meant that athletic competitions could take place
on a covered surface.
The Village included 1,052 apartments and individual houses. The Multipurpose
Building, which housed all of the services for the Mediterranean Village and covered
more than 7,500 square metres of construction, included organisational offices,
accreditation offices, dining halls, leisure rooms and rooms for religious services,
as well as gyms for the athletes’ personal training. Following the Mediterranean
Games, the building now serves as an exhibition and conference centre, and it is a
supplement to the services provided by hotels constructed in El Toyo, adding to the
offering of tourist and residential apartments.
Environmental Impact
Sport events of this size inevitably have an impact on the cities that host them.
Constructing or equipping large-capacity sport facilities, accommodations for
athletes, and ad hoc communication systems all affect the locality. In order to
protect the environment, and in accordance with legislation passed by both Spain
and the European Union, all projects for Almería 2005 underwent a study to evaluate
their environmental impact. The organisation of the 2005 Games also followed the
recent Olympic sustainable sport movement to protect the environment and was
supported by an environmental action plan. All of this reflects best practice in the
management of amenities, sites and spaces.
—— G ——
This case study shows how the staging of a major event needs to take into account
the principles discussed in this chapter. Although the Mediterranean Games is a
large event, most of the phases followed by the COJMA are also applicable for
smaller events. All events require careful planning and a management structure.
Venues will need to be identified, and although there may be no legacy involved, it
is important to consider the circles of the event. All events require a sport zone and
auxiliary facilities, even if these are limited in size. All events have an environmental
impact, which may simply be the impact of car parking on the local community or
increased use of public transport. Human resources will be needed to stage the
event and these should be planned carefully. Planning the human resources for an
event is arguably more important if the event is small since it may attract limited
numbers of volunteers. The size of an event makes little difference to the process
followed in staging that event.
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345
Index
Note: The letters f and t after page numbers indicate figures and tables, respectively.
A auditing accounts 195-196

accommodation sites 327 auxiliary sites
accounting for finances accommodation sites 327
auditing accounts 195-196 accreditation sites 326-327
financial record keeping 192-195 athlete village 327
managing risk with legal documentation defined 324f, 326
190-192, 196f-197f event headquarters 326
receipts of transactions 194 links between 328
accreditation sites 326-327 Mediterranean Games example 342
action plans Pan American Games example 332
content of 85t reception sites for sport delegations 326
developing 86
OSO objectives and 84 B
partnerships and 87t Badminton Federation, French 285-287
Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth balance sheet 167, 203, 205, 206t
Games Association (SOCGA) 88t-90t Barbados Olympic Association (BOA) staff
Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 104- handbook
105t description of BOA 114
activation, brand 255-256 formalising hours of work 116-117
administrative and secretarial tasks 302f formalising positions and responsibilities
advantage, competitive 116
defined 266
formalising relationships 116
factors likely to create 276t
formalising remuneration conditions 117-
advertising 226. See also marketing
118
agreements
general rules and regulations 119-120
advertising 227-228
purpose of 115
licensing 228
bidding on organising a world championship
sponsorship 228, 230-231
284, 285-287
Amateur Swimming Association (ASA)
bidding phase
balance sheet 206t
operating statement 203, 204t-205t defined 305
amenities, sites, and spaces example of 305
auxiliary sites 326-328 Board members
environment of a sport event 328-329 conflict management by 154-156
Mediterranean Games example 342-343 effectiveness of 30
Pan American Games example 329, 330-333 key functions of 12
sport zone 324f-325 in organisational hierarchy 14f, 15
three circles of a sport event 323, 324f risk management and 29-33
analysis, SWOT role in governance 27-29
defined 73f-75 as stakeholders 70
examples of 75-76f, 101f strategic plan and 64, 66t, 67
annual budget 179, 180t brand, defined 222
Argentine Olympic Committee brand activation 255-256
prospecting strategy of 229-230 brand equity 262, 263t
sponsorship agreements of 230-231 British Olympic Association (BOA)
assets goals and purposes of 20
cash 171 people of 20-22
defined 167 structure, roles, and responsibilities of 18,
value in-kind 172 19f
athletes, challenging talented 282 British Swimming 176-177
athlete village 327 budget expenditure and control 183
auditing, environmental 46-47 budget income 182-183
347
348 index
budgeting D
compiling a budget 178-179 decision making 147, 148f
defined 177 deficit 167
in Ecuador Olympic Committee 183, 184- delict or tort 5
189t diagnosis, market
types of budgets 179-182 competitor analysis 261t
defining your marketplace 260
C
market position 261-262
Canadian Olympic Committee 17f
market segmentation 260t
capital budgets 182t
purpose of 259
capital expenditure 167
centralisation 13 diagnosis, OSO environment
change, management of Cyprus National Olympic Committee
environmental auditing and 46-47 example 75-76f
examples of change 45 defined 70
resistance to change 48-49 identifying stakeholders 70-72
South African sport and 52-54 internal and external analysis 72-75
success in 50-52 key recommendations for 75
change team 50 diffusion 242, 244t
communication skills 149-151 directors and officers liability insurance (DOLI)
communication strategy, marketing 190
choice of media 244t-245 diversification 267
defined 240 divisional structure 292f
impact of 245t-246 don’t go segments 266
objectives 241-242 dress code 316t
Olympic Committee of Slovenia example E
273-275 economic factors
process of developing 241f description of 4-5
tactics 243-244 example of 9
targets 241, 242-243 Ecuador Olympic Committee 183, 184-189t
competition grounds and areas 324 electronic management in OSOs
competitive advantage extranets 41
defined 266 forms of 39
factors likely to create 276t
implementation of 42
competitor analysis 261t
internal communication and 40
confidentiality of information 201-203
Internet as interface 39, 40
conflict management
Oceania National Olympic Committees
example of 154-156
example 43-45
need for 152
organising OSO development and 41
timing of intervention 153
questions to ask about 41-42
strategy for 153
shared networks and 39
conflicts of interest 191-192
employment contracts 110
consultants, outside 65, 66t
contracts employment law 6
advertising agreements 227-228 environmental auditing 46-47
licensing agreements 228 environmental diagnosis of the OSO
contracts, employment 110 Cyprus National Olympic Committee
control and evaluation example 75-76f
barriers to evaluation 93-94 defined 70
French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking identifying stakeholders 70-72t
evaluation criteria 95-97 internal and external analysis 72-75
how to evaluate 90-91f key recommendations for 75
performance indicators and 91, 92-93 Zimbabwe Olympic Committee example 99-
of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 101f
106 Estonian Olympic Committee (EOC) 35-36
corporate governance 22, 23. See also evaluation and control
governance of OSOs barriers to evaluation 93-94
cost estimating 174 French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking
culture, organisational evaluation criteria 95-97
change and 47 how to evaluate 90-91f
description of 23-24 performance indicators and 91, 92-93
currency conversion 195 of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC)
Cyprus National Olympic Committee 75-76f 106
index 349
event, phases of receipts 194

design 298 retrievable records 192, 193
development 299 financial reporting project, Swiss Olympic
dissolution 299 Association
implementation 299 classification codes for 213, 214t-215t
Mediterranean Games example 336-338 data collection for 211, 213
World Athletics Championships example GAAP implementation in Swiss Gymnastics
304, 305f-308 Association 217-218
event management generally accepted accounting principles
bidding on World Badminton (GAAP) and 193-194, 210-211
Championships 284, 285-287 project limitations 216
coordination and 299-300f project strengths 217
logistics 303f time frame and process for 212f
managing sport operations 301f flag, emblem, and anthem 16, 17f
promotion and sales 303-304f formalisation, defined 14
risks involved in 284 formalising hours of work 116-117
secretarial, administrative and management formalising positions and responsibilities 116
work 302f formalising relationships 116
tasks to be accomplished 299-304 formalising remuneration conditions 117-118
three goals achieved by 282-284 formal training 140
World Athletics Championships example French Badminton Federation 285-287
304, 305f-308 French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking
Executive Board (FFCK) 95-97
conflict management by 154-156 French Volleyball Federation (FFVB) 262, 263t
effectiveness of 30 functional aspects of the organisation
key functions of 12 divisional structure 292f
in organisational hierarchy 14f, 15 matrix structure 293, 306f
risk management and 29-33 South Pacific Games example 293, 294-298
role in governance 27-29
as stakeholders 70 G
strategic plan and 64, 66t, 67 Gambia National Olympic Committee (GNOC)
expectations, stakeholder 233-234f 157-162t
expected quality 232f General Assemblies, purpose of 16
expert skills 25 General Assembly members
extranets 41 as stakeholders 70
strategic planning and 64, 67
F generally accepted accounting principles
filing systems, Web-based 39 (GAAP)
financial evaluation and reporting defined 193-194
balance sheet 203, 205, 206t for Swiss OSOs 210-218
evaluation 198-199 goals achieved by organising events 282-284
operating statement 203, 204t-205t goals and purposes of OSO 17
of Palestinian Rowing Federation (PRF) 207- governance of OSOs
210 Board’s role in 27-29
reporting 199-203 checklist 33-35
financial management corporate governance 22, 23
Board chair and 164 Estonian Olympic Committee (EOC)
defined 164 example 35-36
key definitions in 167 organisational culture and 23-24
of Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee politics and 26
(PNGOC) 168-170 power and 25-26
treasurers and 165 risk management and 29-33
financial management cycle 165-167 South African sport and 52-54
financial planning. See also budgeting grant writing 183
assets and 171-173 grounds, competition 324
in British Swimming 176-177
defined 170 H
key concepts in 173-175 handbook, Barbados Olympic Association staff
financial prudence and risk management 30 description of BOA 114
financial record keeping formalising hours of work 116-117
currency conversion 195 formalising positions and responsibilities
generally accepted accounting principles 116
(GAAP) 193-194 formalising relationships 116
350 index
handbook, Barbados Olympic Association staff J

(continued) job descriptions
formalising remuneration conditions 117- example of 111t
118 formalising positions with 110
general rules and regulations 119-120 roles, responsibilities, and 15
purpose of 115 sport events and 311
hours, work 111-112, 116-117 volunteers and 341t
human resources management (HRM)
auditing and 46 K
defined 108 Kuwait Olympic Committee (KOC) 247-249
developing HRM strategy 120-128
for Gambia National Olympic Committee L
(GNOC) 157-162t learning organisations 143
key recommendations for 114 legal and political aspects of organisational
organising 109-120 structure
recruitment and motivation 128-137 Mediterranean Games example 334
skills for 146-157 South Pacific Games example 293, 294-298
training 137-146 types of legal entity 289-290
types of legal structure 290-291
I who organises event? 288
indemnification and waivers 192, 196f-197f legal documentation and risk management
informal training 140 190-192
information and communication technology legal factors
(ICT) in OSOs 5-6
description of 37, 39-42 in Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee
in Oceania National Olympic Committees (TTOC) 10
(ONOC) 43-45 legal risks 31
information management Lesotho National Olympic Committee 268-272
electronic management 39-42 liability 167. See also risk management
good information 38-39 liability, waivers of 192, 196f-197f
in Oceania National Olympic Committees liability insurance, directors and officers 190
(ONOC) 43-45 licensing 226
in Olympic Council of Malaysia (OCM) 60 licensing agreements 228
use of information in OSOs 37-38 liquidity 167
infrastructure 89t, 172 listening skills 150-151
inspirational dream 68, 69t logistics 303f
insurances 190-191 logos 225
integrated marketing communication (IMC)
choice of media 244t-245 M
communication objectives 241-242 macroenvironment 71f
communication tactics 243-244 management, change
communication targets 241, 242-243 environmental auditing and 46-47
defined 240 examples of change 45
impact of communication strategy 245t-246 resistance to change 48-49
process of developing 241f South African sport and 52-54
intellectual property 6, 31 success in 50-52
internal communication 316t, 317 management, financial. See also budgeting
internal recruitment 130t, 131f Board chair and 164
International Accounting Standards Board cycle 165-167
(IASB) 194 defined 164
International Federations (IFs) 3f key definitions in 167
International Olympic Committee (IOC) of Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee
founding of 3 (PNGOC) 168-170
website 3 treasurers and 165
Internet domain names 225 management, quality
Internet use 39, 40 expected quality 232f
intranet 40 gap between expectations and perceptions
intrinsic rewards 132, 133-134 236-237f
Iran, Olympic Day Run in 283 importance of 231
Iraq, National Olympic Committee of 13, 14f key recommendations for 237
index 351
Olympic Committee of Slovenia example Olympic Committee of Slovenia example

273 275-277
perceived quality 232f, 235-236 strategic marketing decisions 262-267
Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee market penetration 267
(ROSC) example 238-240 market portfolio
stakeholder expectations and 233-234f Argentine Olympic Committee 229-231
stakeholder satisfaction and 233 defined 223, 224t
management, risk market segmentation 260t
annual reports and 33 mascots 225f
assessment of risks 29, 30-31 matrix structure 293, 306f
insurances 190-191 Mediterranean Games, 2005
quantifying risk 31 amenities, sites and spaces 342-343
waivers of liability 192, 196f-197f competition schedule 339f
management, strategic deciding whether to organise 334
action plans 84-90 functional structures 335f
control and evaluation 90-97t human resources for 338, 340f-342
cycle 62f legal and functional structures 334
defined 62 mascot 225f
diagnosis of OSO environment 70-76f opening ceremony of 333
as five-step process 62f organising 336-338
key recommendations for 67 recruitment 340-342
Peak Performance Framework for 68, 69t subcontracting and 336
preparation for 63-69t microenvironment 71f
steps of strategic planning 97t-98t mission
vision, values, mission and strategic defined 78
objectives 77-84 of NOCs 15
of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 98- questions for developing a 78-79
106 social concerns in 79-80
marketing strategic objectives and 81
current offerings 222-224t of Swiss Swimming Federation 80f
defined 220 motivation at work
four challenges in 220 defined 132
key recommendations for 229 intrinsic rewards and 132, 133-134
quality of offerings and 231-240 volunteers and 134-137
of services 221-222
N
sponsorship and 249-259
National Federations (NFs) 3f
marketing communication strategy
National Olympic Committee of Albania 144-
choice of media 244t-245
146
communication objectives 241-242
National Olympic Committees (NOCs) 3f
communication tactics 243-244
nature of Olympic Sport Organizations (OSOs)
communication targets 241, 242-243
core elements 11
defined 240
goals and purposes 17
impact of 245t-246
Olympic Committee of Slovenia example people 11, 12-15
273-275 resources 11
process of developing 241f rules, tasks, roles and responsibilities 15-16
marketing rights structural change in an NOC 18-22
New Zealand Olympic Committee (NZOC) 68,
categories of marketing activity 226
69t
contracts and 227-228
NOCs. See National Olympic Committees
defined 224
nondisclosure agreement 202
legal position 226
not-for-profit structure 290
limitations on activities due to rights of third
parties 226 O
Olympic Charter limitations 227 objectives, strategic
trademarks 224, 225 defined 81-82t
marketing strategy example of 84
environmental analysis 262 Oceania National Olympic Committees 43-45
of Lesotho National Olympic Committee offerings
268-272 core and peripheral 223
market diagnosis 259-262 defined 221-222
352 index
offerings (continued) Olympic Sport Organizations (OSOs), nature of

expectations of 233-234f core elements 11
identifying 222 goals and purposes 17
listing 222 people 11, 12-15
portfolio assessment and 223-224t resources 11
quality of 231-232 rules, tasks, roles and responsibilities 15-16
stakeholders and 223t structural change in an NOC 18-22
offerings, quality management of operating environment of OSOs
expected quality 232f economic factors in 4-5
gap between expectations and perceptions illustration of 7-10
236-237f legal factors in 5-6
importance of 231 Olympic Movement and 2, 3f
key recommendations for 237 political factors in 4
Olympic Committee of Slovenia example operating statement
273 defined 203
perceived quality 232f, 235-236 example of 204t-205t
Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee operational summary 311, 312t
(ROSC) example 238-240 opportunities and threats
stakeholder expectations and 233-234f defined 73f, 74
stakeholder satisfaction and 233 examples of 76f, 101f
office hours 111-112, 117 organisation, an
office rules and regulations defined 11
employment contracts 110 people in 11, 12-15
remuneration conditions 112-113t resources of 11-12
staff handbook example 114-120 rules of 11, 15-16
work hours 111-112, 116-117 three core elements of 11
Olympic Council of Malaysia (OCM) 54, 55-60 organisational culture
Olympic Movement 3f change and 47
Olympic rings 2, 3, 224, 225 description of 23-24
Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) organisation chart
defined 11 divisional structure for 292f, 293
governance of 22-36 formalising relationships with 111
information management in 37-45 human resources requirements and 311
management of change in 45-54 matrix structure for 293, 306f
nature of 11-22 operating structure and 297f
operating environment of 2-10 South Pacific Games Organising Committee
Olympic Sport Organisations, governance of (SPGOC) 296f
Board’s role in 27-29 organising a sport event
checklist 33-35 bidding on World Badminton
corporate governance 22, 23 Championships 284, 285-287
Estonian Olympic Committee (EOC) logistics 303f
example 35-36 management and coordination 299-300f
organisational culture and 23-24 managing sport operations 301f
politics and 26 phases of an event 298-299
power and 25-26 promotion and sales 303-304f
risk management and 29-33 risks involved in 284
South African sport and 52-54 secretarial, administrative and management
Olympic Sport Organisations, information work 302f
management in tasks to be accomplished 299-304
electronic management 39-42 three goals achieved by 282-284
good information 38-39 World Athletics Championships example
in Oceania National Olympic Committees 304, 305f-308
(ONOC) 43-45 OSOs. See Olympic Sport Organisations
in Olympic Council of Malaysia (OCM) 60 OSO environment, diagnosis of
use of information in OSOs 37-38 Cyprus National Olympic Committee
Olympic Sport Organisations, management of example 75-76f
change in defined 70
environmental auditing and 46-47 identifying stakeholders 70-72t
examples of change 45 internal and external analysis 72-75
resistance to change 48-49 key recommendations for 75
South African sport and 52-54 Zimbabwe Olympic Committee example 99-
success in 50-52 101f
index 353
OSO governance phases of an event

Board’s role in 27-29 design 298
clear delineation of governance roles 26, 33 development 299
Estonian Olympic Committee (EOC) dissolution 299
example 35-36 implementation 299
governance controls 27, 33-34 Mediterranean Games example 336-338
governance improvement 27, 34 World Athletics Championships example
governance processes 26, 33 304, 305f-308
member responsiveness and 27, 34 Philippine Amateur Swimming Association
organisational culture and 23-24 (PASA) sponsorship plan 257-259
politics and 26 plans, action
power and 25-26 content of 85t
risk management and 29-33 developing 86
size of the Board and 28-29 OSO objectives and 84
South African sport and 52-54 partnerships and 87t
stakeholder involvement and 29 Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth
overheads 167 Games Association (SOCGA) 88t-90t
Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 104-
P 105t
Palestinian Rowing Federation (PRF) 207-210 political factors 4
Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee power and governance 25-26
(PNGOC) problem solving 148-149
financial management principles for 168- professionalisation 14
170 profit and loss account 167
vision, values, mission, and strategic project budgets 180, 181t
objectives of 83-84 promotion and sales 303-304f
Peak Performance Framework (PPF) public relations strategy. See also marketing
aspects of 69t communication strategy
strategic planning and 68, 78 choice of media 244t-245
people. See also personnel management in OSO; Kuwait Olympic Committee (KOC) example
stakeholders 247-249
as core of organisation 111 stages of planning 240-241f
individual identities 12
roles and formal positions of 12-15 Q
stakeholders 15 Qatar National Olympic Committee (QNOC)
perceived quality 232f, 235-236 134-137
performance indicators (PIs) quality management of OSO offerings
defined 91 expected quality 232f
French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking gap between expectations and perceptions
95-97 236-237f
milestones 91 importance of 231
using 92-93 key recommendations for 237
personalisation 242, 244t Olympic Committee of Slovenia example
personality and power 25 273
personnel for a sport event perceived quality 232f, 235-236
evaluation, follow-up, and 317-318 Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee
internal communication and 316t, 317 (ROSC) example 238-240
motivating 314-316t stakeholder expectations and 233-234f
organising and scheduling 308-310f stakeholder satisfaction and 233
recruiting 312-313, 322 quantifying risk 31
required services 310 R
training 309, 313 receipts of transactions 194
volunteer management 315t-316t, 319f-322 reception sites for sport delegations 326
personnel management in OSO record keeping, financial
defined 108 currency conversion 195
developing HRM strategy 120-128 generally accepted accounting principles
for Gambia National Olympic Committee (GAAP) 193-194
(GNOC) 157-162t receipts 194
organising 109-120 retrievable records 192, 193
recruitment and motivation 128-137 recruitment
skills for 146-157 defined 129
training 137-146 evaluating human resources needs 129t
354 index
recruitment (continued) key recommendations for 237

importance of 128 Olympic Committee of Slovenia example
internal 130t, 131f 273
procedures 131-132 perceived quality 232f, 235-236
strategies 130t Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee
remuneration conditions 112-113t (ROSC) example 238-240
reporting, financial stakeholder expectations and 233-234f
balance sheet 203, 205, 206t stakeholder satisfaction and 233
evaluation 198-199 sites, amenities, and spaces
operating statement 203, 204t-205t auxiliary sites 326-328
of Palestinian Rowing Federation (PRF) 207- environment of a sport event 328-329
210 Mediterranean Games example 342-343
reporting 199-203 Pan American Games example 329, 330-333
reserves 167 sport zone 324f-325
resistance to change 48-49 three circles of a sport event 323, 324f
revenue expenditure 167 sites, auxiliary
rewards, intrinsic 132, 133-134 accommodation sites 327
rings, Olympic 2, 3, 224, 225 accreditation sites 326-327
risk management 31 athlete village 327
risk management and governance defined 324f, 326
annual reports and 33 event headquarters 326
assessment of risks 29, 30-31 links between 328
quantifying risk 31 Mediterranean Games example 342
risk management and legal documentation Pan American Games example 332
conflicts of interest 191-192 reception sites for sport delegations 326
insurances 190-191 size, Board 28
waivers of liability 192, 196f-197f size, organisational 13
risk register 32t skills for managing human resources
Romanian Olympic and Sports Committee communication skills 149-151
(ROSC) 238-240 conflict management 152-157
rules decision making 147, 148f
of NOCs 15-16 problem solving 148-149
organisations and 11, 15 time management 151-152
rules, office slander and libel 6
employment contracts 110 social activities for volunteers 323t
remuneration conditions 112-113t social bonding 243, 244t
staff handbook example 114-120 sociocultural factors 4
work hours 111-112, 116-117 South African Sports Confederation and
Olympic Committee (SASCOC) 53
S South Pacific Games, 2003 293, 294-298
salary policy 112-113t spirit, organisation’s 68, 69t
sales and promotion 303-304f sponsoring, defined 226
scheduling human resources activities 310f sponsors
secretarial, administrative and management objectives of 251-253t
work 302f as stakeholders 70
segment attractiveness–competitiveness matrix sponsorship
265f associations created by 250-251t
service facilities and amenities 325 brand activation 255-256
service offerings defined 249
core and peripheral 223 Olympic Committee of Slovenia example
defined 221-222 273-275
expectations of 233-234f operational model for managing 253f
identifying 222 packages 254, 255, 258
listing 222 Philippine Amateur Swimming Association
portfolio assessment and 223-224t (PASA) sponsorship plan 257-259
quality of 231-232 return on investment (ROI) and 256
stakeholders and 223t, 233-234f sponsorship agreements 228
service offerings, quality management of sport event
expected quality 232f amenities, sites and spaces for 323-333
gap between expectations and perceptions classification of 281
236-237f deciding whether to organise 282-287
importance of 231 defined 280
index 355
human resources for 308-323 satisfaction of 233

legal and functional structures of 288-298 service offerings related to 223t
Mediterranean Games case study 333-343 as targets for marketing 222
sport event, phases of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 99-
design 298 100
development 299 standardisation of tasks 14
dissolution 299 statutes 15-16, 291
implementation 299 strategic control and evaluation
Mediterranean Games example 336-338 barriers to evaluation 93-94
World Athletics Championships example French Federation of Canoeing and Kayaking
304, 305f-308 evaluation criteria 95-97
sport event management how to evaluate 90-91f
bidding on World Badminton key recommendations for 94
Championships 284, 285-287 performance indicators and 91, 92-93
coordination and 299-300f of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC)
logistics 303f 106
managing sport operations 301f strategic management cycle 62f
promotion and sales 303-304f strategic management process
risks involved in 284 action plans 84-90
secretarial, administrative and management control and evaluation 90-97t
work 302f defined 62
tasks to be accomplished 299-304 diagnosis of OSO environment 70-76f
three goals achieved by 282-284 as five-step process 62f
World Athletics Championships example key recommendations for 67
304, 305f-308 Peak Performance Framework for 68, 69t
sport event personnel preparation for 63-69t
evaluation, follow-up, and 317-318 steps of strategic planning 97t-98t
internal communication and 316t, 317 vision, values, mission and strategic
motivating 314-316t objectives 77-84
organising and scheduling 308-310f of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) 98-
106
recruitment of 312-313, 322
strategic objectives
required services and 310
defined 62f, 81-82t
training of 309, 313
example of 84
volunteer management 315t-316t, 319f-322
strategic plan. See also strategic management
SPORTS acronym 91
process
sport zone
developing a 64-69t
competition grounds and areas 324
reasons for implementing 63-64
defined 324f
strengths and weaknesses
Mediterranean Games 342
defined 73f, 74
Pan American Games 332 examples of 76f, 101f
public facilities 324 surplus 167
service facilities and amenities 325 Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth Games
staff handbook, BOA Association (SOCGA) 88t-90t
description of Barbados Olympic Association Swiss Gymnastics Association (SGA) 217-218
(BOA) 114 Swiss Olympic Association financial reporting
formalising hours of work 116-117 project
formalising positions and responsibilities classification codes for 213, 214t-215t
116 data collection for 211, 213
formalising relationships 116 GAAP implementation in Swiss Gymnastics
formalising remuneration conditions 117- Association 217-218
118 generally accepted accounting principles
general rules and regulations 119-120 (GAAP) and 193-194, 210-211
purpose of 115 project limitations 216
Stakeholder Interest-Control Matrix 72t project strengths 217
stakeholders time frame and process for 212f
defined 15 Swiss Swimming Federation (SSF)
expectations of 233-234f, 235t, 236 mission of 80f
goals of 17 values of 79f
identifying 70-72 SWOT analysis
involvement of 29 defined 73f-75
market segmentation and 260t examples of 75-76f, 101f
356 index
symbols of OSOs vision, values, mission, and strategic objectives

examples of 225f, 272, 273t key recommendations for 82
trademarks 224, 225 mission 78-81
of Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee
T (PNGOC) 83-84
threats and opportunities
strategic objectives 62f, 81-82t
defined 73f, 74 vision and values 78, 79f
examples of 76f, 101f of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC)
three-tier controlling and reporting structure 102-104
201f volunteers
time management 151-152
at Mediterranean Games 338, 340f-342
trademarks
motivations of 134-137, 315
defined 225
recruitment of 313, 322
protection of 224
salaried employees and 316
training
social activities for 323t
evaluation of 142 as stakeholders 70
for Gambia National Olympic Committee successful management of 315t-316t
(GNOC) 161 at Winter Universiade 319f-322
for Mediterranean Games 341-342
for National Olympic Committee of Albania W
144-146 waivers of liability 192, 196f-197f
needs 138-139t weaknesses and strengths
plan 140-141t defined 73f, 74
purpose of 137 examples of 76f, 101f
for sport event 313 Winter Universiade 319f-322
transparency work hours 111-112, 116-117
confidentiality versus 202t workload and change 49
defined 201 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 4, 45
Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee World Athletics Championships, 9th
(TTOC) bidding phase 305
economic factors in 9 closure phase 308
legal factors in 10 operations phase 306
operating environment of 7 planning phase 305-306
political factors in 8 site schedule 307f
sociocultural factors in 9
Z
U Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC)
United States Olympic Training Center waiver action plans of 104-105t
and release of liability 196f-197f control and evaluation of 106
diagnosis of environment in 99-101
V
planning process in 98-99t
value framework (Peak Performance
SWOT analysis of 101f
Framework)
vision, values, mission, and strategic
aspects of 69t objectives of 102-104
strategic planning and 68, 78 zone, sport
values
competition grounds and areas 324
banners communicating 77
defined 324f
of Papua New Guinea Olympic Committee Mediterranean Games 342
(PNGOC) 83 Pan American Games 332
strategic planning and 78 public facilities 324
of Swiss Swimming Federation 79f
of Zimbabwe Olympic Committee (ZOC) service facilities and amenities 325
103
visibility of a sport 283
About the Contributors
Amar Addadi, MA, is President of the International Committee

for the Mediterranean Games (ICMG). Addadi holds a CAPEPS
(physical education teacher qualification) and an Executive Mas-
ters in Sports Organisation Management (MEMOS) and has been
Director of Classes for management training at the National Sports
Centre in Algiers and Director of Performance Sport at the Ministry
of Youth and Sports. Addadi was Secretary General of the Comité
Olympique Algérien (Algerian Olympic Committee) for several
mandates. He was Chairman of the ICMG Technical Commission from 1987 to
2003, Chairman of the Candidature Evaluation Commission for the 2005 and 2009
Mediterranean Games, and a member of the Executive Committee in 2001. He has
been President of the ICMG since 2003.
Gérard Barreau, MA, is a professor at the Institut National du

Sport et de l’Education Physique (INSEP, National Institute for Sport
and Physical Education) in Paris. He obtained a DESS (master’s
degree) in sport law and economics and a DEA (master’s degree) in
sport culture. Barreau has worked as director or general manager
for several local and national sport organisations and has written
several articles and books about management of sport organisations
and especially about legal matters. He teaches sport law and sport
management in INSEP, in several French universities and in the MEMOS in French.
Today he runs the sport management course of the INSEP Degree, the vocational
training programme organised by the French Sport Ministry.
Emmanuel Bayle, PhD, is a professor at the University of Bour-

gogne in Dijon, France, and a MEMOS tutor. He earned a PhD in
management and a master’s degree in management as well as a
master’s degree in law and economics of sport from the University
of Limoges. Bayle has taught sport management for 10 years at
Lyon and Limoges Universities. He was a researcher in the Centre
for Sport Law and Economics at the University of Limoges from
1994 to 2000 and worked in the Comité National Olympique et
Sportif Français (French National Olympic and Sports Committee) from 1993 to 1994.
Bayle has written several articles and three books on sport management, including
Strategic and Performance Management of Olympic Sport Organisations.
357
358 about the contributors
Laurence Boyer Collas, MA, is a professor at the Institut National

du Sport et de l’Education Physique (INSEP, National Institute for
Sport and Physical Education) in Paris. She has a master’s degree
in urban sociology from the School of Higher Studies in Social
Sciences (EHESS), a master’s degree in urban development and
a master’s degree in management from the Institute of Business
Administration (IAE). As a specialist in issues related to informa-
tion systems, survey methodologies and the statistical treatment
of data, she has held the position of researcher at the Ministry of Youth and Sports
for eight years. At INSEP, Boyer Collas is responsible for sport organisation manage-
ment training for high-level athletes and has contributed to the organisation of the
MEMOS programme in French. She is a representative of the National Observatory
of Careers in Sport and Organised Activities (ONMAS).
Laurent Boyer, MA, is a professor at the Institut National du

Sport et de l’Education Physique (INSEP, National Institute for
Sport and Physical Education) in Paris, where he teaches in the
sport management programme. Boyer holds a master’s degree in
sport management from the University of Paris Sud Orsay. For 10
years he has been manager of the data bank on the socioeconomic
aspects of sport at the Ministry for Youth and Sports in France. In
this capacity, he has designed information systems and models to
aid in decision making. At INSEP and various other universities he teaches strategy,
marketing and project management. Boyer works as a consultant on development
strategies for sport organisations (NOCs and National and International Federations).
He is the director of the MEMOS programme in French and for several years has
been involved in the MEMOS programme in English.
Andreu Camps Povill, PhD, obtained a PhD in law from the

University of Barcelona in 1992 and a master’s degree in sport law
and economics from the University of Limoges in 1990. Camps
graduated in physical education from INEFC-Barcelona (Univer-
sity of Barcelona) in 1985. Since then, he has been teaching at
the National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia at the
University of Lleida. He specialises in legislation, organisation
and marketing of sport. In 2004 he was elected as General Direc-
tor of INEFC. Camps is a mediator at the Court for Arbitration of Sport (CAS). He
is a MEMOS tutor and one of the academic directors of the MEMOS in Spanish,
launched in November 2005.
Jean Camy, PhD, is professor emeritus at the University of Lyon,

France. He obtained a PhD in sociology in 1981. Camy has been
teaching sport sociology and human resource management in Lyon
and, as an invited professor, in several European and American
universities. He has completed research on the organisation and
development of Olympic Sport Organisations in various countries
about the contributors 359
and written more than 10 books in those areas. With European and international
sport organisations, he has initiated programmes responding to their staffs’ needs.
Camy was the first Director of the MEMOS programme, created in 1994 with the
support of the IOC, and contributed to the conception of the Advanced Sport Man-
agement Courses, to which this manual corresponds.
Jean-Loup Chappelet, PhD, is a professor of public management

at the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)
associated with the University of Lausanne. He was elected
IDHEAP Director in 2003. He obtained a PhD from the University
of Montpellier, France, and an MSc from Cornell University, New
York. In the 1980s, he worked as Head of the IOC IT Department.
He joined IDHEAP in 1993 after six years of management consult-
ing in a Big Four firm. Chappelet specialises in sport management
and sport policy with a particular emphasis on the organisation of Olympic Games
and other sport events. He has written several books on sport organisations and is
on the editorial boards of three sport management journals. Chappelet has been the
MEMOS Director since 1999.
Packianathan “Chella” Chelladurai, PhD, has taught at the

University of Madras in India, the University of Western Ontario
in Canada, and Ohio State University in the United States. Chella
has authored 5 books and more than 85 research articles on sport
management and sport psychology. He is the first recipient of
the Earle F. Zeigler Award from the North American Society for
Sport Management and the first recipient of the Merit Award for
Distinguished Service to Sport Management Education from the
European Association of Sport Management. Chella has tutored in MEMOS ever
since its inception. He obtained a BCom and DPE from the University of Madras,
an MA from the University of Western Ontario and an MASc and PhD in manage-
ment science from the University of Waterloo in Canada.
Mark Clark, MBE, MA, is a Sport for Development consultant. He

obtained an LLB with honours from the University of Edinburgh
in 1996. A solicitor and notary public specialising in intellectual
property and technology law in the UK and India, he acted for the
Scottish Premier Football League, the Rangers Football Club and
the Scottish Rugby Union. Clark served in Iraq from June 2003
to June 2004, working to restart youth and sport activities and
re-establish the Iraqi Ministry of Youth & Sport and sport institu-
tions, including a new National Olympic Committee of Iraq (NOCI). Clark was a
consultant to the NOCI from July 2004 to July 2005 and an advisor to the Iraqi team
at the Athens 2004 Olympic Games. He was awarded an MBE for service in post-
conflict reconstruction of Iraqi sport. A graduate of MEMOS VIII in 2005, Clark
subsequently worked in the Democratic Republic of Congo. He currently works in
Papua New Guinea, designing a Sport for Development initiative for AusAID.
Joan Duncan has been President of JDI Consulting, a profes-

sional management consulting firm specializing in not-for-profit
organizations, since 1988. Duncan’s experience includes physical
education teacher, numerous management roles in municipal rec-
reation and executive director of a national sport organization. She
has experienced the Canadian sport system as an athlete, parent,
volunteer and employee and has worked with many National
Olympic Committees, Sport Councils and government agencies in
Southern Africa, the Caribbean and Sri Lanka, particularly in the areas of capacity
building and using sport as a tool in human development. Duncan was President of
Commonwealth Games Canada and currently serves on the Board of Directors of
the International Lifesaving Federation and the Halifax 2014 Commonwealth Games
Bid Society. She lectures in the MEMOS Strategic Management Module.
Alain Ferrand, PhD, has been Head of the Sport Management

Department at the University of Lyon since 1991. He is an associ-
ate professor at Scuola Dello Sport (Comitato Olimpico Nazionale
Italiano, CONI—Italian National Olympic Committee) at the Uni-
versity of Turin and collaborates with the French national training
and educational centre for top athletes (INSEP). He is in charge of
the MEMOS in French, and he and Luiggino Torrigiani are both in
charge of the English MEMOS module on sport marketing. Ferrand
has experience with the marketing issues of National Olympic Committees, National
Federations and sport clubs around the world. He has written several books and
scientific articles on marketing of sport organisations and is on the editorial boards
of two sport management journals.
Ghassan Haddad, MAT, is a DC Teaching Fellow in Washington,

DC, where he is also completing a master’s degree in teaching at
Trinity University. He received a MEMOS degree from Claude
Bernard University at Lyon in 2003. His project—Toward a Sustain-
able Palestinian Rowing Federation: Sport as a Tool for Develop-
ment—fostered important debate on changes in Palestinian sport
policy. From 2002 to 2004 Haddad consulted for the Palestinian
Olympic Committee, the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and Islamic University of Gaza, helping develop the first sport management
diploma offered by a Palestinian university. He is a 2004 PARC Fellowship recipient
for his research on the history of Olympism in the Mandate for Palestine. Haddad
worked for four years in marketing and design and holds a bachelor’s degree in art
history and interdepartmental programs from the University of Rochester in New
York.
Ian Henry, PhD, is professor of Leisure Policy and Management

at Loughborough University, UK. He is Director of the Centre
for Olympic Studies and Research, established as a partnership
between the university and the British Olympic Foundation in
2004. Henry obtained a PhD from Loughborough in 1987 and
an MSc in recreation management from the same university in
1976. In 1974 he earned a BA in English and philosophy from the
about the contributors 361
University of Stirling. His research interests include transnational and comparative

sport policy, sport and multiculturalism, gender equity, and Olympic policy and
management. Henry has worked on policy projects for the European Union, the
Council of Europe, the IOC and a variety of national sport governing bodies. He is
currently responsible for the research project module of the English MEMOS.
Nicos Kartakoullis, PhD, is Director of the Centre for Leisure,

Tourism and Sports Research and Development and a faculty
member in the School of Business at Intercollege, Cyprus. He
served as Director General of the Cyprus National Olympic
Committee for nine years. Since 2000 he has been involved with
the Sport Administrators Programme of Olympic Solidarity. He
received his BSc degree with honours form Michigan State Uni-
versity, holds three postgraduate degrees (MA in education, MSc, MBA) and earned
his PhD from the University of Southampton, UK. Kartakoullis served as Chef de
Mission for the Cyprus delegation to the Atlanta and Sydney Olympic Games. He
has been honoured by Michigan State University and by the House of Commons
of Canada.
Marie Leroux, MSc, is the Human Resource Director of the

Comité National Olympique et Sportif Français (French National
Olympic and Sports Committee). She is also in charge of the train-
ing, employment and qualification issues for the French NOC.
Leroux has three master’s degrees: in labour law from the Univer-
sity of Paris II, in sport law and economics from the University
of Limoges, and the MEMOS. She is also President Delegate of
EASE (European Association of Sport Employers) and manages a European project
on the implementation of the social dialogue in the sport sector for the European
Commission.
Denis Musso, MA, is a professor at the Institut National du Sport

et de l’Education Physique (INSEP, National Institute for Sport
and Physical Education) in Paris. Since 1992, he has managed the
Sport Law Economics and Management Department, which estab-
lished research, counselling and training. He tutors in MEMOS
on a regular basis. In 1988 he earned a master’s degree in sport
law and sport economics from Limoges University. Musso has
been a board member of the European Association for Sport Management since
1998. Musso’s interests are elite and professional sport. In 2000 he delivered for the
French government a report on the situation of professional sport in France. He is
a member of the legal commission of both the French Basketball League and the
French Rugby League.
Dick Palmer, CBE, MEd, FRSA, began his career as a physical

education teacher. He moved into sport management, becoming
Secretary General of the British Universities Sports Federation. In
1975 Palmer was appointed Deputy Secretary General of the British
Olympic Association and in 1977 Secretary General, a post he held
for 20 years until his retirement in 1997. During that period he was
Chef de Mission of the British teams at 10 Summer and Winter
Olympic Games. For many years Palmer has been an advisor to the International
Olympic Committee and Olympic Solidarity, especially regarding sport management.
He is actively engaged in MEMOS and the Sport Administrators Programme. He
was Technical Director of the successful London Olympic bid for the 2012 Games.
Palmer was Vice President of the European Olympic Committees and was a member
of the ANOC Executive Board for many years. In addition, he has served on the
IOC’s Games Co-ordination Commissions for Atlanta, Sydney and Athens.
Damjan Pintar, MA, is a graduate in physical education from

the University of Ljubljana and has a postgraduate degree in sport
management (MEMOS). As a Marketing Director of the Olympic
Committee of Slovenia, Association of Sports Federations (1998
to 2006), he developed an efficient model of Olympic marketing
for small countries. Currently he is General Director of the Unior
Turizem Company, which owns ski resorts, spas and sport cen-
tres in Slovenia. Pintar is an advisor of marketing matters for the
Olympic Committee of Slovenia and the Slovenian Olympic Academy and provides
marketing assistance to other NOCs through Olympic Solidarity’s NOC Exchanges.
As an invited lecturer, he participated in numerous sport marketing seminars and
helped several NOCs to develop their marketing. In Slovenia, he currently works
as a part-time lecturer on sport marketing in the faculty of sport of the University
of Ljubljana.
Leigh Robinson, PhD, is a lecturer in sport and leisure manage-

ment at Loughborough University, UK. A graduate in physical edu-
cation from the University of Otago, New Zealand, she obtained her
PhD from Loughborough University in the area of quality manage-
ment and municipal sport facilities. Her principal research interest
is the management and measurement of performance, quality and
governance in Olympic Sport Organisations. She works with public
and voluntary organisations in order to improve performance and
organisational change and is a member of England’s Amateur Swimming Association’s
Board. She has been a tutor for the MEMOS programme since 2002.
Luc Vandeputte, MSc PE, ExMA, has a master’s degree in physical

education from the Université Libre de Bruxelles and an executive
master’s in general management from the Solvay Business School.
He also specialised in sport management at the Belgian Olympic
Academy. Vandeputte developed the FISU (International Univer-
sity Sport Federation) world headquarters in Brussels and was
involved in supervising the organising committees of 20 biennial
world championships and more than 18 World University Games.
He culminated his FISU career as Director of the Summer World University Games.
In 2002 Vandeputte established his own international consultancy and founded the
Brussels European Sport Management Centre (BESMaC), a centre of excellence in
sport management at the Solvay Business School, ULB. He is Executive Director
of the Executive Programme in Sports Business Management and specialises in
sport governance, value-driven management and e-management. Vandeputte joined
MEMOS as a tutor in 2002.

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Managing

Edited under the leadership of the

Copyright © 2007 by Olympic Solidarity

Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Copies of this publication are available to National Olympic Committees

United States: Human Kinetics Australia: Human Kinetics

Canada: Human Kinetics New Zealand: Human Kinetics

Chapter 1 Organising an Olympic Sport Organisation . . . . . . . 1

Section 1.1 Operating Environment of Olympic Sport Organisations . . . . . . . 2

Section 1.2 Nature of Olympic Sport Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Section 1.3 Governance of Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Section 1.4 Information Management and Information Technology . . . . . . . 37

Section 1.5 Management of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 2 Managing Strategically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Section 2.1 Preparing for the Strategic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Section 2.2 Diagnosis of the OSO Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Section 2.3 Vision, Values, Mission and Strategic Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Section 2.4 Action Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Section 2.5 Control and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Chapter 3 Managing Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Section 3.1 Organising Human Resources Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Section 3.2 Developing a Human Resources Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Section 3.3 Recruiting and Motivating Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Section 3.4 Developing Human Resources Through Training . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Section 3.5 Developing Skills for Managing Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . 146

Chapter 4 Managing Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Section 4.1 Good Financial Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Section 4.2 Financial Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Section 4.3 Budgeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Section 4.4 Accounting for Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Section 4.5 Evaluation and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Chapter 5 Managing Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Section 5.1 What Can We Market? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Section 5.2 Managing the Quality of the Offering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Section 5.3 Developing a Marketing Communication Strategy . . . . . . . . . . 240

Section 5.4 Managing Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Section 5.5 Developing and Managing a Marketing Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Chapter 6 Organising a Major Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Section 6.1 Deciding Whether to Organise a Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Section 6.2 Legal and Functional Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Section 6.3 Organising the Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Section 6.4 Managing Human Resources for a Sport Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Section 6.5 Organising Amenities, Sites and Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Amar Addadi, MA Joan Duncan

Barbados Olympic Association Inc. Lesotho National Olympic Committee

Jean Camy Nicos Kartakoullis

To achieve such an ambitious task, a collaborative process was undertaken to gather

• Organising an OSO by understanding its environment, internal structure and opera-

The general orientation of the book is that management is composed of techniques

Photo courtesy of Jan Kossen

T he effective management of Olympic Sport Organisations (OSOs) requires the

© IOC / JUILLIART Richard

Your Organisation’s Operating Environment

Olympic Museum TOP partners,

E3592 Olympic Solidarity Figure 1.1, 275210 DeniseL R4-alw

Figure 1.1 The Olympic Movement.

Government policy significantly affects the operation of OSOs. The attitude of

A significant economic factor is the level of competition an organisation faces,

Impact of the Operating Context

Support staff 1 Support staff 2