[Document title]

[Document subtitle]

tshawe isaac [Date] [Course title]

 RESULT%

Student number(s): 2 1 9 0 1 3 4 2 1

Surname and initials: MOTHIBI ID

Programme: B Eng Tech (Mechanical Engineering)

Module name: Thermofluids II

Module code: M T F 2 1 A

None 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graduate
Attribute (GA)
assessment:

Practical/Assignment
0 0 0 1
number:

Group number: 0 0 0 8

Due date: 2 0 2 3 0 3 0 9

Lecturer: Mrs M Rheeder

DECLARATION OF OWN WORK:

I, Isaac Dichabe Mothibi, student number 219013421, hereby declare that the
content of this assignment/project is my own work, as defined and constituted in
the Rules and Regulations of the Central University of Technology, Free State
(Please consult the Programme Guide of the Department).

Signed: ______dichabe mothibi__________________________

Date: _09/03/2023_______________________________
Contents
List of equations ................................................................................................... 4

List of figures ........................................................................................................ 5

List tables ............................................................................................................. 6

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 7

Nomenclature ....................................................................................................... 8

Abstract ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Introduction........................................................................................................... 9

Objectives............................................................................................................. 9

Theory ................................................................................................................ 10

Apparatus ........................................................................................................... 21

Procedure ........................................................................................................... 23

Experimental data .............................................................................................. 26

Calculations ........................................................................................................ 27

Results ............................................................................................................... 30

Discussion ...................................................................................................... 32

Conclusion.......................................................................................................... 32
List of equations
(1) Electrical Power ............................................................................................ 14
(2) Heat Transfer Rate ....................................................................................... 14
(3) Electrical Power = Rate of Heat Transfer ...................................................... 14
(4) Rate of Heat Transfer ................................................................................... 16
(5) Thermal Conductivity .................................................................................... 16
(6) Thermal Conductivity .................................................................................... 17
(7) Thermal Conductivity with heat loss .............................................................. 17
(8) Heat Loss ...................................................................................................... 17
List of figures
Figure 1:Heat Energy Transfer Between Hot and Cold Substances. Adopted from
(Çengel, et al., 2017) .......................................................................................... 10
Figure 2: Conduction, Convection and Radiation. Adopted from (Helmenstine,
2012) .................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 3: Thermal Conductivity of Air. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023) ............... 13
Figure 4: Thermal Conductivity of Carbon Dioxide. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)
........................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5: A Bar of Circular Cross-section Conducting Heat. Adopted from
(Rheeder, 2023) ................................................................................................. 15
Figure 6: Linear Temperature Gradient. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)............ 15
Figure 7: Good and Bad Thermal Conductors. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023). 16
Figure 8: Trend of heat loss in correlation with temperature difference (T1 - Ta).
Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023). .......................................................................... 18
Figure 9: Calibrated chart of heat loss estimation for testing with brass, copper and
aluminium specimens. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023) ...................................... 18
Figure 10: Schematic Diagram Showing the Comparative Cut-bar Technique .. 19
Figure 11: TD1002 heat transfer experiments base unit .................................... 21
Figure 12: A zoomed in middle section of the apparatus .................................... 22
Figure 13:Connect the Cold Water supply and Drain ......................................... 23
Figure 14:Fit the specimen middle section ......................................................... 24
Figure 15: a graph for aluminium........................................................................ 29
Figure 16:a graph for aluminium......................................................................... 29
Figure 17: a graph of copper .............................................................................. 30
Figure 18: a graph of cooper .............................................................................. 30
List tables
Table 1: A list of symbols used in this lab report .................................................. 8
Table 2: Thermal Conductivity of a Selection of Materials at Room Temperature.
Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023). .......................................................................... 12
Table 3: Sample results of k value (using two different measurement methods) 20
Table 4: showing selected parts on the heat transfer base unit apparatus ......... 22
Table 5: Blank Results Table.............................................................................. 25
Table 6: Experimental dimensions ..................................................................... 26
Table 7: Experimental data for Aluminium specimen ......................................... 26
Table 8: Experimental data for stainless steel specimen .................................... 27
Table 9: Experimental data for copper specimen ............................................... 27
Table 10: Temperature converted to (K) for Aluminium ...................................... 27
Table 11: Temperature converted to (K) for Copper ........................................... 28
Table 12:Temperature converted to (K) for Stainless steel ................................ 28
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my fellow student for partaking in this experiment in the lab.
Furthermore my deepest gratitude goes to Mrs M Rheeder for her relentless effort
in helping students to the success of their lab reports.
Nomenclature
Table 1: A list of symbols used in this lab report
Introduction
Heat transfer is widely used in the operation of many different systems and
devices. In a variety of situations, temperature can be maintained, increased, or
decreased using heat-transfer principles. Several fields, including automotive
engineering, the thermal management of electronic devices and systems, climate
control, insulation, materials processing, chemical engineering, and power station
engineering, utilise heat transfer techniques.

The movement of heat energy through a material as a result of its internal

temperature gradient is known as thermal conduction. It always moves from one
area with a higher temperature to one with a lower temperature. Since both liquids
and gases exhibit significant convective heat transmission, a solid is selected for
the pure conduction experiment. In this experiment, we’ll investigate the flow of
heat along a solid bar with a consistently circular cross section. You can determine
the material's thermal conductivity by measuring the temperature differential
across the bar at a specific power rating. The estimated thermal conductivity's
experimental value will next be compared to the material's known thermal
conductivity.

Objectives
This laboratory experiment aims to assess thermal conductivity by using the
principles of heat movement. This will be done by observing the metals bar's heat
transfer from one end to the other. And calculate the material's thermal conductivity
using the data collected.

More detailed the experiment will:

 Calculate the thermal conductivity of three metal rods, then compare the
result to the theoretical value.
 To demonstrate how heat moves uniformly along a solid bar of consistent
size and composition
 Demonstrate how various materials in contact can impact linear heat
transfer.
  Illustrate how the experimental conductivity of the substance in a solid bar
can be computed. Lastly demonstrate how the use of thermal paste
improves thermal connections

Theory
Heat Transfer by Conduction, Radiation and Convection

According to (Rheeder, 2023) Heat Transfer by Conduction, Radiation and

Convection. The kinetic energy of modules in a substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
when they vibrate or move about is referred to as heat or internal energy.
Temperature enhances kinetic activity (the molecules move faster). When a hot
substance comes into contact with a colder substance, the kinetic activity is
transferred through the contact point. Energy is transferred from the molecules in
the hotter substance to the molecules in the cooler substance. The colder
substance warms up as the hotter stuff cools. Heat passes from the hotter (heat
source) to the cooler (heat sink) substance until the two materials attain
equilibrium. The kinetic energy of modules in a substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
when they vibrate or move about is referred to as heat or internal energy.
Temperature enhances kinetic activity. Electrical Power, Heat Quantity and Heat
Transfer Rate Linear Heat Conduction

Figure 1:Heat Energy Transfer Between Hot and Cold Substances. Adopted from (Çengel,
et al., 2017)

Heat is transferred from one body to another via three different mechanisms:
conduction, convection, and radiation. The majority of real-world heat transmission
employs elements of all three. Figure 2 show a real life example of these 3
mechanisms at work.
Figure 2: Conduction, Convection and Radiation. Adopted from (Helmenstine, 2012)

Thermal Conductivity (k) of Common Materials

Certain materials conduct heat better than others; their composition influences the
rate of heat transmission. Thermal conductivity is the name given to this
phenomena (k). It is the rate at which heat energy moves over a unit length of a
material with a unit cross-sectional area (Helmenstine, 2012).

Table 1 below shows the thermal conductivity of various popular materials; note
that metals (electrical conductors) have better conductivity at the same
temperature than most other materials (electrical insulators). This implies a
connection between electrical and thermal conductivity (Rheeder, 2023).
Table 2: Thermal Conductivity of a Selection of Materials at Room Temperature. Adopted
from (Rheeder, 2023).
Figure 3: Thermal Conductivity of Air. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)

Figure 4: Thermal Conductivity of Carbon Dioxide. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)

Electrical Power, Heat Quantity and Heat Transfer Rate

Under ideal conditions, the electrical power provided to the heater throughout each
experiment provides a direct and precise value of the heat energy that it emits or
conducts. The electrical power into the heater is the product of the voltage and current
supplied to it, hence:

𝑊 =𝑉×𝐼 (1)

Heat quantity (Q) is a unit of energy that is commonly expressed in Joules (J). A
rate of heat transfer, or Q/t, is the quantity of heat energy transported in a given
time. To simplify the equations, a mark is placed above the symbol Q, as shown:

𝑄 (2)
𝑄̇ =
𝑡

The unit of electrical power (Watt) is also a measurement of the rate of energy
transfer (one Joule per second), hence:

𝑊=𝑄 (3)

This demonstrates that the rate of electrical energy provided to the heater equals
the rate of energy (heat) transfer from the heater.

Linear Heat Conduction

Consider a bar of circular cross-section as shown in Figure 5 below. According to

the second rule of thermodynamics, heat transfer must follow the motion of hotter
bodies to cooler ones. In the image below, we can see that this cylindrical object
has two stated temperatures T1 and T2, and if T1> T2, heat will be transmitted
from T1 to T2.
Figure 5: A Bar of Circular Cross-section Conducting Heat. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)

Linear Temperature Gradient

The linear temperature gradient is an important property of a heat conductor; it is

essentially a relationship between the temperature change and the corresponding
unit of length, and the gradient obtained from this relationship is inversely
proportional to the material's conductivity; a good conductor has a low temperature
gradient, and vice versa.

Figure 6: Linear Temperature Gradient. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)

 A good thermal conductor has a low temperature gradient.

 A bad conductor (or insulator) has a high temperature gradient.
Figure 7: Good and Bad Thermal Conductors. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023).

Linear Thermal Conductivity Equations

Thermal conductivity is a measure of how rapidly heat energy moves through a

unit length of a unit cross-sectional area. Hence, for the solid bar with a circular
cross-section shown in Figure 5, the equation contains the cross-section area (A)
and the length between the two recorded temperature.

𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 (4)
= 𝑘𝐴
𝑡 𝐿

To calculate the thermal conductivity of a material, the equation must be rearranged to

give:

𝑄𝐿 (5)
𝑘=
𝐴𝑡(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

The units of thermal conductivity are J.s-1m-1K-1. However, as 1 Joule per second is equal
to a Watt, it is more useful to write as W.m-1K-1. Q/t = 𝑄̇ = W may be substituted, hence:
 𝑄𝐿 𝑊𝐿 (6)
𝑘= =
𝐴𝑡(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

Please keep in mind that these equations are based on ideal conditions in which all heat
transmission occurs by conduction and no heat is lost to the surroundings via convection
or radiation (Rheeder, 2023).

However, the real heat transmission rate in the Q Specimen is less than that in the hot
bar supplied by the electrical heater. This is due to heat loss due to the restricted thickness
of the thermal insulation of the bars, as well as heat dissipation through the gaps with no
insulation at the interface between the hot bar and the specimen. As a result, sufficient
heat loss should be imparted to the specimen to achieve a more accurate k value. The
equation is now:

(𝑊 − 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 )𝐿 (7)
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Note: Thermal conductivity equations employ material dimensions, however it is a
measure of material qualities regardless of shape or size. A large piece of steel, for
example, has the same thermal conductivity as a small piece of steel.

Q loss is calculated using a basic heat loss calculation method from a horizontal insulated
hot cylindrical bar placed in a stationary air environment where heat loss is primarily due
to radiation and natural convection. Given a maximum temperature measured in the bar
T1 and an ambient temperature Ta, heat loss is computed as follows:

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑎 (8)
𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
1
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑅𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 +
ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟

Where:

𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is the thermal resistance of the insulation material

𝑅𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 is the thermal resistance of the jacket tube

ℎ𝑟 is the air-side heat transfer coefficient due to radiation

ℎ𝑐 is the air-side heat transfer coefficient due to convection

The heat loss percentage can be generalised using air properties at ambient temperature
(thermal conductivity, density, specific heat, viscosity, Prandtl number, expansion
coefficient), thermal conductivity and thickness of the insulation material (Rockwood glass
fibre) and jacket material (aluminium tube). For the TD1002aMkII, a Tecquipment heat
loss chart for brass, copper, and aluminum has been prepared; it may be found in the
results section (figure 9).

Figure 8: Trend of heat loss in correlation with temperature difference (T1 - Ta). Adopted
from (Rheeder, 2023).

Figure 9: Calibrated chart of heat loss estimation for testing with brass, copper and
aluminium specimens. Adopted from (Rheeder, 2023)
The heat loss behaviours seen in stainless steel tests are notably different. The
higher heat loss in the TD1002aMkII is due to the low thermal conductivity of
stainless steel. This restricts heat passage through it, causing the hot bar to
overheat. In this situation, the heat loss equation should be used to calculate heat
loss for each power level evaluated.

Refer to the results analysis section for sample specific results of heat loss
calculations dot the stainless steel specimen.

Figure 10: Schematic Diagram Showing the Comparative Cut-bar Technique

The following is the energy balance for the cut-bar method of determining thermal
conductivity:

𝑄̇𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 = 𝑄̇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × (1 − 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 )

Substitute:

∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐿
By rearranging the previous equation, the thermal conductivity of the specimen is
calculated:

𝐴ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × ∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

𝑘𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 = 𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × × × (1 − %𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 )
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 × ∆𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝐿ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟

For TC1002aMkII, Aspecimen = Ahotbar; Lspecimen = Lhotbar, so equation becomes

∆𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑘𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 = 𝑘ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × × (1 − %𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 )
∆𝑇𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

Thermal conductivity measurement utilizing the comparative cut-bar method is

totally possible thanks to the TD1002a MkII's hot bar and specimen fitted with two
and three thermocouples, respectively. Table 2 shows a sample results of thermal
conductivity tests using both the cut-bar technique and the absolute technique.

Table 3: Sample results of k value (using two different measurement methods)

Apparatus
An interchangeable center piece is part of a solid brass bar with a circular cross
section that is used in this experiment. The base plate it mounts on has a clear
diagram of the experiment's layout. There are two thermocouples and an electric
heater in the first brass section (heat source). Two more thermocouples are located
in the second brass piece, which also has a small water-cooled chamber (heat
sink). The calculation of thermal conductivity is made possible by the three
thermocouples in each center portion (Anon., 2023).

Connecting to sockets on the Heat Transfer Experiments Base Unit (TD1002),

which also provides the cold water input and drain for the heat sink, the electric
heater and thermocouples measure heat transfer (Anon., 2023).

The cooling water flow is turned on, and the heater power is adjusted until the
experiment finds equilibrium. The temperatures are then recorded as the heat
transmits along the bar. The results should closely match the theory for only basic
linear conduction since insulation surrounding the bar lowers heat loss through
convection and radiation. (Heat loss can also be conveniently calculated using a
pre-established TecQuipment chart and table.) (Anon., 2023)

2
3 6
5

7
8
9

Figure 11: TD1002 heat transfer experiments base unit

Table 4: showing selected parts on the heat transfer base unit apparatus

No Parts name
1 Temperature and Power display
2 Switch on/off
3 Power Control

4 Power output to heater

5 Thermostats couples
6 VDAS-F hardware
7 Heater

8 specimen
9 cooler

Figure 12: A zoomed in middle section of the apparatus

Middle section have interchangeable bars of different materials

Bar material: Brass (type CZ121), Copper (type C101) Aluminium (type 6082) and
Stainless Steel.

Bar size: 45 mm thick, 30 mm diameter, 0.000707 m2 cross sectional diameter

Thermocouple positions: 15 mm equally spaced centres.

Procedure
Installation Method:

 The Base Unit was supplied already assembled.

 The Base Unit was put on a workbench.
 A suitable hose and clips was used to connect the cold water incoming and
drain connections of the Base Unit to the cold water supply and drain.

Note: Clean cold water was used. To achieve best results, the cold water supply
was between 5°C and 15°C (not too cold and not higher than room temperature).
Because if the water was at higher temperature, then thermal equilibrium was
going to be reached.

 For supply of electricity the electrical cable was connected to the base
 Afterwards the electrical supply was turned on for the supply of the cold
water supply and any leaks were fixed immediately.
 The optional experiment (TD1002a MkII) was fitted onto the base unit
 At this point the base unit was ready for the experiment to commence

Figure 13:Connect the Cold Water supply and Drain

To Fit an Experiment:

 Another pair of students Ensured that the Base Unit has was assembled
and is ready for an experiment to be fitted.
 Base Unit and its heater switch were switched off
 The was experiment onto the front of the Base Unit. A thumbscrews was
used to hold it in position.
 The two pipes that supply water were checked to see if they are connected
in the correct way
 The thermocouples were connected to the sockets on the Base Unit
(matching the correct numbers). Switch on the Base Unit. Turn the heater
control to minimum and switch on the heater.
 The specimen was fitted in the middle section using the heat transfer paste

Figure 14:Fit the specimen middle section

 Thermometer was used to check the local ambient air temperature for
reference.

The findings will be influenced by the local temperature as well as the cold water
inlet temperature. Be certain that the experiments are carried out in a location with
a constant ambient temperature and a constant temperature cold water supply.
The results of TecQuipment are based on a standard room temperature of around
20°C and a cold water supply temperature of between 10°C and 15°C.

 water outlet valve was opened allow water to flowing, then the heater was
switched on and set to 30 Watts power.
  The temperatures was allowed to stabilise before recording from T1 to T7.

Table 5: Blank Results Table

 A blank table similar to table 4 was created to record the data

 For best results the experiment repeated more than once with heater
powers greater than 30 W.

Hazards

The thermal paste is non-toxic and non-hazardous, but it is difficult to remove from
hands and clothing, so use appropriate gloves, have a pair of tissues or an old
cloth on hand to wipe away any excess paste, and keep the paste away from the
skin and clothing.

Useful notes

 two students did the experiment per recoding of each specimen. One
student was recording the results, while the other controls the experiment.
 the thermal paste was applied to both sides of the replaceable middle
section. Using appropriate gloves, it was pasted uniformly throughout the
surface, making sure there are no air bubbles.
 For accurate temperatures readings the apparatus was allowed to stabilise
before taking results. This is when the experiment reaches “thermal
equilibrium” and it took at least 30 minutes.
Experimental data
Table 6: Experimental dimensions

specimen Length Diameter

Aluminium rod 102 mm 18 mm
Stainless Steel rod 64 mm 25 mm
Copper rod 38 mm 25mm

Table 7: Experimental data for Aluminium specimen

Table 8: Experimental data for stainless steel specimen

Table 9: Experimental data for copper specimen

Calculations
Table 10: Temperature converted to (K) for Aluminium

Experiment:
Middle section material: Aluminium
Ambient temperature: 20℃ (293K)
Power (W) 𝑇1 (°𝐾) 𝑇2 (°𝐾) 𝑇3 (°𝐾) 𝑇4 (°𝐾) 𝑇5 (°𝐾) 𝑇6 (°𝐾) 𝑇7 (°𝐾)
20 311.5 308.1 309.1 306.0 303.3 299.2 295.6
30 313.8 317.9 313.7 310.0 306.8 302.0 297.6
40 333.1 328.6 321.4 316.6 312.6 306.5 301.0
 50 345.4 337.4 330.9 325.2 320.2 312.8 306.0
60 358.3 348.7 339.2 332.4 326.4 317.5 309.5
Distance 0 0.015 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090
from 𝑇1 (m)

Table 11: Temperature converted to (K) for Copper

Experiment:
Middle section material: Copper
Ambient temperature: 20℃ (293K)
Power (W) 𝑇1 (°𝐾) 𝑇2 (°𝐾) 𝑇3 (°𝐾) 𝑇4 (°𝐾) 𝑇5 (°𝐾) 𝑇6 (°𝐾) 𝑇7 (°𝐾)
20 306.8 303.3 301.0 300.1 299.2 296.3 293.2
30 318.5 313.3 309.7 308.3 307.0 302.5 298.0
40 327.7 321.0 316.5 314.8 313.0 307.6 301.9
50 337.7 329.5 324.1 321.9 319.8 312.2 306.2
60 349.0 339.5 332.9 329.9 327.2 317.9 309.7
Distance 0 0.015 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090
from 𝑇1 (m)

Table 12:Temperature converted to (K) for Stainless steel

Experiment:
Middle section material: Stainless steel
Ambient temperature: 20℃ (293K)
Power (W) 𝑇1 (°𝐾) 𝑇2 (°𝐾) 𝑇3 (°𝐾) 𝑇4 (°𝐾) 𝑇5 (°𝐾) 𝑇6 (°𝐾) 𝑇7 (°𝐾)
20 320.3 318.6 313.7 304.3 295.2 288.7 287.4
30 350.9 347.8 339.0 321.7 305.2 292.3 290.1
40 358.2 354.5 344.5 324.8 306.2 293.2 290.8
50 377.3 372.9 360.6 336.4 313.6 296.0 293.0
60 387.3 382.3 368.4 341.2 315.6 297.5 274.1
Distance 0 0.015 0.030 0.045 0.060 0.075 0.090
from 𝑇1 (m)
Graphs
340
A graph of temperature vs ditance
330

320 y = -3,1179x + 321,3

temperature(K)

y = -5,3321x + 338,44
310

y = -2,5464x + 314,87
300

290 power 20W

power 30W
280
power 40W

270
0 0,015 0,03 0,045 0,06 0,075 0,09
distance (m)

Figure 15: a graph for aluminium

distance vs temperature
370
360 y = -7,9143x + 364,8
350
temperature(K)

340
330
320
power 50W
310
y = -6,3607x + 350,86
300 power 60W
290
280
270
0 0,015 0,03 0,045 0,06 0,075 0,09
distance in (m)

Figure 16:a graph for aluminium

 distance vs temperature
360
350
y = -5,9571x + 353,27
340
temperature(k)

330 y = -4,7643x + 340,69

320
310
300 y = -2,0214x + 308,07 y = -3,8464x + 330,03
290
280
270
260
0 0,015 0,03 0,045 0,06 0,075 0,09
distance(m)

power 20W power 30W power 40W power 50W Power 60W

Figure 17: a graph of copper

distance vs temperature
450
400
350
y = -20,071x + 418,34
temperature(K)

300
y = -6,3214x + 329,31 y = -11,686x + 367,74
250
200 y = -27,404x + 400,5

150
100
50
0
0 0,015 0,03 0,045 0,06 0,075 0,09
distance(m)

power 20W power 30W power 40W power 50W power 60W

Figure 18: a graph of cooper

Results
Table 13: final results of cooper

Electrical power Thermal Thermal Thermal

W conductivity conductivity conductivity
(W/m.K) without (W/m.K) without (W/m.K)
heat loss heat loss (THEORETICAL)
20 680,272 625,170 353 to 386
30 680,272 634,467
40 699,708 658,776
50 711,913 678,026
60 693,107 664,459

Table 14:final results of stainless steel

Electrical power Thermal Thermal Thermal

W conductivity conductivity conductivity
(W/m.K) without (W/m.K) without (W/m.K)
heat loss heat loss (THEORETICAL)
10 33,094 26,277 16
20 36,288 31,735
25 39,964 35,808
30 39,079 35,406
35 40,584 37,129

Table 15: final results of aluminium

Electrical power Thermal Thermal Thermal

W conductivity conductivity conductivity
(W/m.K) without (W/m.K) without (W/m.K)
heat loss heat loss (THEORETICAL)
20 413,793 374,069 205 to 237
30 521,739 484,521
40 545,454 514,909
50 560,748 534,056
60 562,500 537,938
Discussion
According to the practical experiment, the power setting has a significant influence
on the gradient of heat transfer because, when we look at our experimental results,
we see that when the electric power is at its highest, it releases a high temperature
transfer and when the electric power is at its lowest, the heat transfer also becomes
low. As a result, we may claim that electric power is directly proportional to material
heat transfer. We can also see that the temperature decreases with each setting
and will continue to decrease until it reaches an equilibrium condition.

The various ways for determining the conductivity of a material using practical
experiments range substantially, and even the findings produced from one
methodology differ from the others. The first equation was employed without
accounting for heat loss during the operation, implying that heat is only transferred
via conduction and no heat is lost via convention or radiation. Determine thermal
conductivity without measuring heat low, which can greatly decrease power
measurement errors.

Sources of error:

 Improper amount of Heat Transfer thermal paste.

 Using room temperature tap for water instead of using a chiller.
 Error in device calibration.
 Error in placing the specimen in the proper place.

Conclusion
Finally, with the same power input, each of the three materials shows a different
temperature drop, with steel having the largest drop, followed by copper and brass.
Higher temperature dips in tests indicate that the material has a lesser thermal
conductivity. Errors in the tests that cause materials to have different thermal
conductivity from a typical value suggested that there may be irregularities in the
materials tested that incur high thermal contact resistance, causing thermal
conductivity values to fluctuate higher than expected, as discovered when testing
stainless steel. This can be remedied by using thermal paste to guarantee there
are no spaces between the materials, resulting in a much better readout.
Bibliography
Anon., 2023. tecquipment. [Online]
Available at: https://www.tecquipment.com/linear-heat-conduction-experiment

Çengel, Y. A., Cimbala, J. M. & Turner, R. H., 2017. findamentals of thermal fluid
science. New York City: Published by McGraw-Hill Education.

Helmenstine, A., 2012. sciencenotes.org. [Online]

Available at: https://sciencenotes.org/heat-transfer-conduction-convection-
radiation/
[Accessed 08 March 2023].

Rheeder, M., 2023. MTF21A Lab Guide, Bloemfontein : s.n.

Appendix
Sample calculations
Conversion from ℃ → °𝐾

36.1+273=309.1K

Aluminium

Area

𝜋
𝐴= × (0.018)2 = 0.00025 𝑚2
4

Heat conduction (electrical power)

𝑄̇ = 𝑊 = 20

Length

𝐿 = 0,6 − 0,3 = 0,3 𝑚

Thermal conductivity without heat loss

𝑊𝐿 20 × 0,03
𝑘= = = 413,793 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0.00025 × (36.1 − 30.3)

Thermal conductivity with heat loss

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑎 = 38,5 − 20 = 18,5℃

Using 18,5℃ 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 9,6% using figure 14

𝑊𝐿 (20 − 9,6% × 20) × 0,03

𝑘= = = 374,069 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0.00025 × (36.1 − 30.3)

Stainless steel

Area

𝜋
𝐴= × (0.025)2 = 0.00049 𝑚2
4

Heat conduction (electrical power)

𝑄̇ = 𝑊 = 10
Length

𝐿 = 0,6 − 0,3 = 0,3 𝑚

Thermal conductivity without heat loss

𝑊𝐿 10 × 0,03
𝑘= = = 33,094 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0,00049 × (40,7 − 22,2)

Thermal conductivity with heat loss

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑎 = 47,2 − 20 = 27,3℃

Using 27,3℃ 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 10,3% using figure 14

𝑊𝐿 (10 − 10,3% × 20) × 0,03

𝑘= = = 374,069 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0.00049 × (40,7 − 22,2)

Cooper

Area

𝜋
𝐴= × (0.018)2 = 0.00049 𝑚2
4

Heat conduction (electrical power)

𝑄̇ = 𝑊 = 20

Length

𝐿 = 0,6 − 0,3 = 0,3 𝑚

Thermal conductivity without heat loss

𝑊𝐿 20 × 0,03
𝑘= = = 680,272 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0.00049 × (28,0 − 26,2)

Thermal conductivity with heat loss

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑎 = 33,8 − 20 = 13,8℃

Using 13,8℃ 𝑄̇𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ≈ 8,1% using figure 14

𝑊𝐿 (20 − 8,1% × 20) × 0,03

𝑘= = = 625,170 𝑊 ⁄𝑚. 𝑘
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 0.00049 × (28,0 − 26,2)