WEEK 1 - INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

What is Research?

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and
analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines.
Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive framework; to assemble a body of
substantive knowledge and findings for sharing them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further
inquiries.

If you would like further examples of specific ways different schools at Hampshire think about research, see:

School Definitions of Research

What is "research" that needs to be reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at Hampshire before
proceeding?

For the purpose of the IRB, research should be reviewed by the IRB only when human subjects are involved and the term
research should be considered under a more narrow definition. Specifically, when the researcher is con ducting research
as outlined above AND has direct interaction with participants or data linked to personal identifiersLinks to an external
site., it should always fall under the purview of the IRB. Even if you have not directly collected the data yourself, as the
researcher your research may fall under the purview of the IRB.

In reviewing such research the IRB is concerned with the methodology of data collection in the "field" (e.g. collection,
experimentation, interview, participant observation, etc.) and the use of that data, rather than the broader validity of
the hypotheses or research questions themselves or the quality of inferences that may result (unless, of course, the
research methodologies severely compromise the data collection and data usage directly).

What if I am using information that is already available?

If you are doing research that is limited to secondary analysis of data, records, or specimens that are either publicly
available, de-identified, or otherwise impossible to be linked to personal identities, you may still need IRB ap proval to do
your project. Sometimes a data use agreement between the researcher and the data custodian may still be required to
verify that the researcher will not have access to identifying codes. It is this "de -linking" of data from personal identifiers
that allows the IRB to make this determination. Regardless, you should submit an IRB proposal so the IRB can determine
whether your project needs IRB review, and if so, the type of review required.

The Process of Conducting Research

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be
something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the
desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is
childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do
this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational
knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study,
 the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of
childhood obesity

What is Research?

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analy sis and
interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic
disciplines.
Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive framework; to assemble a body of substantiv e
knowledge and findings for sharing them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further inquiries.

If you would like further examples of specific ways different schools at Hampshire think about research, see:

School Definitions of Research

What is "research" that needs to be reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at Hampshire before proceeding?

For the purpose of the IRB, research should be reviewed by the IRB only when human subjects are involved and the term researc h
should be considered under a more narrow definition. Specifically, when the researcher is conducting research as outlined abov e
AND has direct interaction with participants or data linked to personal identifiersLinks to an external site., it should always fall under
the purview of the IRB. Even if you have not directly collected the data yourself, as the researcher your research may fall u nder the
purview of the IRB.

In reviewing such research the IRB is concerned with the methodology of data collection in the "field" (e.g. collection,
experimentation, interview, participant observation, etc.) and the use of that data, rather than the broader valid ity of the
hypotheses or research questions themselves or the quality of inferences that may result (unless, of course, the research
methodologies severely compromise the data collection and data usage directly).

What if I am using information that is already available?

If you are doing research that is limited to secondary analysis of data, records, or specimens that are either publicly available, de-
identified, or otherwise impossible to be linked to personal identities, you may still need IRB approval to do your project. Sometimes
a data use agreement between the researcher and the data custodian may still be required to verify that the researcher will n ot have
access to identifying codes. It is this "de-linking" of data from personal identifiers that allows the IRB to make this determination.
Regardless, you should submit an IRB proposal so the IRB can determine whether your project needs IRB review, and if so, the type
of review required.

The Process of Conducting Research

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be something th e
agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recre ation
trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a lo cal problem
and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation. To do this, the
researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the
problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these
studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the
programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death
rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for D isease
Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps
the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a
strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the p rocess, the
researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed.
The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the
example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and
could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self -confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of
these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined.
The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will
improve the individual's health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description of the study. These ite ms
need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is
reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for
the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual's health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental,
emotional, or spiritual health.

For this study, the individual's health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical healt h may also be defined and measured
in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weigh t,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more
manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts mor e
understandable to the reader.

Step 5: Define the Population

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee evaluations, programs, financial
status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examin e a
specific group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific
geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the
group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve in the
study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the
researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second,
the population identifies the group that the researcher's efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the
researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that the
results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the
study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and resource s.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire
study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program.
This plan is composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are address ed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the
researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the
sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to
12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the
walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how
the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensure s that
the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the
study.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The collection of data is a critical
step in providing the information needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of
data—whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of
words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be
collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the pers on
walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are ne cessary to
determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables,
the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.

Step 8: Analyze the Data

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research p rocess culminate in this final step. The researcher
finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specif ied how
the data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed
and summarized in a manner directly related to the research questions.

In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were t aken
at the first meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets o f data
will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for each
individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences
are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide
valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.

As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific research process requires you to dedicate
time and effort to the planning process. You cannot conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limite d or the
study is done at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or conclusions that
are not of any value to the organization.

*** This is an excerpt from Applied Research and Evaluation Methods in Recreation.

WEEK 2 - RESEARCH DESIGN INTRODUCTION

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to
shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships
among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are used frequently in social science research and especially
in survey studies. Quantitative hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher makes about the expected
relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples.
Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about the population
from a study sample. Hypotheses are used often in experiments in which investigators compare groups. Advisers often
recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a
study will take. Objectives, on the other hand, indicate the goals or objectives for a study. They often appear in
proposals for funding, but tend to be used with less frequency in social and health science research today. Because of
this, the focus here will be on research questions and hypotheses.

Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question:

Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________
(dependent variable), controlling for the effects of ______ ___ (control variable)? Alternatively, a script for a quantitative
null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental
groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable) . Guidelines for writing good quantitative
research questions and hypotheses include the following.
 • The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches. The
researcher may compare groups on an independent variable to see its impact on a dependent variable.
Alternatively, the investigator may relate one or more independent variables to one or more dependent
variables. Third, the researcher may describe responses to the independent, mediating, or dependent
variables. Most quantitative research falls into one or more of these three categories.
• The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory and the specification of
research questions or hypotheses that are included in the theory.
• The independent and dependent variables must be measured separately. This procedure reinforces the
cause-and-effect logic of quantitative research.
• To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the hypotheses
build on the research questions (discussion follows). Choose the form based on tradition, recommendations
from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction about outcomes.
• If hypotheses are used, there are two forms: null and alternative. A null hypothesis represents the
traditional approach: it makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant
difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is, “There is no difference (or relationship)”
between the groups. The following example illustrates a null hypothesis.

Example 7.3 A Null Hypothesis An investigator might examine three types of reinforcement for children with autism:
verbal cues, a reward, and no reinforcement. The investigator collects behavioral measures assessing social interaction
of the children with their siblings. A null hypothesis might read,

There is no significant difference between the effects of verbal cues, rewards, and no reinforcement in terms of social
interaction for children with autism and their siblings.

• The second form, popular in journal articles, is the alternative or directional hypothesis. The investigator
makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing this prediction on prior literature and studies on
the topic that suggest a potential outcome. For example, the researcher may predict that “Scores will be
higher for Group A than for Group B” on the dependent variable or that “Group A will change more than
Group B” on the outcome. These examples illustrate a directional hypothesis because an expected
prediction (e.g., higher, more change) is made. The following illustrates a directional hypothesis.

Example 7.4 Directional Hypotheses Mascarenhas (1989) studied the differences between types of ownership (state-
owned, publicly traded, and private) of firms in the offshore drilling industry. Specifically, the study explored such
differences as domestic market dominance, international presence, and customer orientation. The study was a
controlled field study using quasi-experimental procedures.

Hypothesis 1: Publicly traded firms will have higher growth rates than privately held firms.

Hypothesis 2: Publicly traded enterprises will have a larger international scope than state -owned and privately held
firms.

Hypothesis 3: State-owned firms will have a greater share of the domestic market than publicly traded or privately held
firms.

Hypothesis 4: Publicly traded firms will have broader product lines than state owned and privately held firms.
Hypothesis 5: State-owned firms are more likely to have state-owned enterprises as customers overseas.

Hypothesis 6: State-owned firms will have a higher customer-base stability than privately held firms.

Hypothesis 7: In less visible contexts, publicly traded firms will employ more advanced technology than state -owned and
privately held firms.

(Mascarenhas, 1989, pp. 585–588)

 • Another type of alternative hypothesis is nondirectional—a prediction is made, but the exact form of
differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, less) is not specified because the researcher does not know wha t can
be predicted from past literature. Thus, the investigator might write, “There is a difference” between the
two groups. An example follows which incorporates both types of hypotheses:

Example 7.5 Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses Sometimes directional hypotheses are created to examine the
relationship among variables rather than to compare groups. For example, Moore (2000) studied the meaning of gender
identity for religious and secular Jewish and Arab women in Israeli society. In a national probability sample of Jewish and
Arab women, the author identified three hypotheses for study. The first is nondirectional and the last two are
directional.

H1: Gender identity of religious and secular Arab and Jewish women are related to different sociopolitical social orders
that reflect the different value systems they embrace.

H2: Religious women with salient gender identity are less socio-politically active than secular women with salient gender
identities.
H3: The relationships among gender identity, religiosity, and social actions are weaker among Arab women than among
Jewish women.

• Unless the study intentionally employs demographic

variables as predictors, use no demographic variables (i.e., attitudes or behaviors) as independent and dependent
variables. Because quantitative studies attempt to verify theories, demographic variables (e.g., age, income level,
educational level, and so forth) typically enter these models as intervening (or mediating or moderating) variables
instead of major independent variables.

• Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to easily identify the
major variables. This calls for repeating key phrases and positioning the variables with the independent first
and concluding with the dependent in left-to-right order. An example of word order with independent
variables stated first in the phrase follows.

Example 7.6 Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses

1. There is no relationship between utilization of ancillary support services and academic persistence for non -
traditional-aged women college students.
2. There is no relationship between family support systems and academic persistence for non -traditional-aged
college women.
3. There is no relationship between ancillary support services and family support systems for non -traditional-
aged college women.

REVIEWING LITERATURE
A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books, journals, reports, abstracts, and
other reference materials. The following information may be collected:

1. Background information about the problem and related concepts.

2. Theories that explain the existence of the problem and the possible connection between certain factors
and the problem
3. Data that confirms the existence and seriousness of the problem
4. General and specific findings of studies related to the problem
5. Recommendations for further study given in related studies
Why Review Literature?

A review of related literature is a must in research. The following are some of the obvious reasons;

1. It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem

2. It helps justify the need for studying a problem.
3. It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study
4. It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study
5. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and
operationally define study variables
6. It helps formulate and refine research instruments
7. It provides lesson for data analysis and interpretation.

When to Start Reviewing Related Literature?

While the research problem is still being conceptualized, the researcher must already start reviewing literature. In
identifying and defining the research problem, the researcher must be able to show evidences that the problem really
exists and is worth investigating.

It is important that the researcher knows what is already known about the problem or what earlier researchers have
found about it and what questions still need to be answered before the research questions or objectives are finalized.

Theories which the researchers use to explain the existence of a research problem and us ed as bases in analyzing
relationships between variables can be generated from reference books on theories or from related studies.

The researcher therefore, must have already read adequate literature at the start of the research activity.

What Materials to Review?

1. General References

Examples are indexes, reviews and abstracts

2. Primary Sources

Examples are researches found on published journals.

3. Secondary Sources

Publications where authors cite the works of others. Examples are books, encyclopedias. Secondary sources are good
references for overview of the problem.

Steps In Literature Review

1. Review the precise definition of the research problem. Note the key variables specified in the study
objectives and hypothesis.
2. Formulate “search terms” (key words or phrases)

Problem: Adolescents’ Perceptions on the Effect of Punishment on Self-Esteem

and Academic Performance”

Search term: “punishment and learning”, “self-esteem and performance”

 3. Using indexes of general references, serach for relevant primary and secondary sources guided by the
search terms.
4. List in a note of index card the bibliographical data of the pertinent information selected as follows:
5. Author
6. Title
7. name of publication
8. date of publication (include place and date)
9. pages of the article

5. Read the selected reading materials, take note and summarize key points.Prepare a note card for easy
retrieval and classification. In taking note, be as brief as possible but include all relevant information which
you can use in your full review, such as : the problem, the objectives, and hypotheses, the major
findings, and

ETHICS OF RESEARCH AND INFORMED CONSENT

As researchers, we are bound by rules of ethics. For example, we usually cannot collect data from minors without
parental or guardian permission. All research participants must give their permission to be part of a study and they must
be given pertinent information to make an “informed” consent to participate. This means you have provided your
research participants with everything they need to know about the study to make an “informed” decision ab out
participating in your research. Researchers must obtain a subject’s (and parents’ if the subject is a minor) permission
before interacting with the subject or if the subject is the focus of the study. Generally, this permission is given in
writing; however, there are cases where the research participant’s completion of a task (such as a survey) constitutes
giving informed consent. Research participants have the right to refuse to participate without penalty if they wish. Each
university that receives federal funds (and most do) must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) that reviews all
research conducted at the university. Therefore, anyone doing research associated with the university must submit and
receive IRB approval before beginning research. Even if the research is except from a full review by the IRB, an
Exemption Form must be filed and approved by the Department chair and submitted and reviewed by the IRB.
Researchers are bound by a code of ethics that includes the following protections for subjects

1. Protected from physical or psychological harm (including loss of dignity, loss of autonomy, and loss of self -
esteem)
2. Protection of privacy and confidentiality
3. Protection against unjustifiable deception
4. The subject must give voluntary informed consent to participate in research. Guardians must give consent for
minors to participate. In addition to guardian consent, minors over age 7 (the age may vary) must also give
their consent to participate.

NOTE: Voluntary informed consent means that the person involved should have legal capacity to give consent; should be
so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud,
deceit, duress, over reaching, or other ulterior form of constraints or coercion; and should have sufficient knowledge
and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved as to enable her to make an understanding and
enlightened decision. This latter element requires that before the acceptance of an affirmation decision by the
participant there should be made known to her the nature, duration, and purpose of the experiment; the method and
means by which it is to be conducted; all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and the effects upon
her health or person which may possibly come from her participation in the experiments.

The consent form subject sign should cover the following main points:

1. It should tell the participants what they are being asked to do, by whom, and for what purpose.
 2. Participants must know the identity of the researcher, his or her affiliations if any, and whom to contact for
information if they have problems with the research process. This not only includes contact information for
the researcher, but also contact information for the university IRB.
3. It should inform the participants of any risks they might be taking by participating in the research.
4. It should inform the participants what rights they have in the process, particularly the right of review of
material and the right to withdraw from the process.
5. It should indicate whether or not participants’ names will be used in the study, whether any other names will
be used, or whether pseudonyms will be substituted.
6. It should indicate how the results of the study will be disseminated and whether participants can expect to
benefit in any way, monetarily or otherwise, from participating in the study.
7. It should indicate that participants are free to participate or not participate in the research without prejudice
to them.
8. In the case of children, it must be signed by the child’s legal guardian. Children cannot be expected to give
total informed consent.
9. The consent form should be written in the second person (e.g., “You have the right to …”) and in easy to
understand language.

WEEK 3 - INTRODUCTION TO THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Essence of Qualitative Research

The essence of qualitative research is to identify the characteristics and structure of phenomena and events examined in thei r
natural context. Subsequently, these characteristics are brought together to form a mini theory or a conceptual model.
Conducting qualitative research requires an ‘open’ attitude in order to understand how others experience their situation.

Sampling
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger
population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it
may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sampling.aspLinks to an external site.

What Is Population?

In statisticsLinks to an external site., a population is the entire pool from which a statistical sampleLinks to an external site. is
drawn. A population may refer to an entire group of people, objects, events, hospital visits, or measurements. A population c an
thus be said to be an aggregate observation of subjects grouped together by a common feature.

Unlike a sample, when carrying out statistical analysis on a population, there are no standard errors to report —that is, because
such errors inform analysts using a sample how far their estimate may deviate from the true population value. But since you a re
working with the true population you already know the true value.

What Is a Sample?

A sample refers to a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is a subset containing the characteristics of a
larger populationLinks to an external site.. Samples are used in statistical testing when population sizes are too large for the test
to include all possible members or observations. A sample should represent the population as a wh ole and not reflect any bias
toward a specific attribute.

Collection Techniques
Biography. A biography is the story of events and circumstances of a person's life, written by someone other than that person.
... Good biographers will research and study a person's life to collect facts and present the most historically accurate, multi-
faceted picture of an individual's experiences as possible.

Phenomenology. Variants of phenomenology and data collection While the aim of phenomenological research is to describe
the everyday world as we immediately experience it, variants of phenomenology highlight different dimensions. Methods are
contested. Descriptive phenomenologists inspired by Husserlian ideas (e.g. Giorgi, 2009) would attempt to study ‘essences of
phenomena as they appear in consciousness’. In contrast, hermeneutic researchers following Heidegger and othe rs engage
more explicitly interpretive approaches (e.g. van Manen, 1991) exploring a person’s sense of self, space, time, embodiment an d
relations with others in a less essentialist way. In Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (Smith et al, 2009) we find
another hermeneutic variant – one which is more idiographic in intent, focused as it is on the individual’s cognitive, linguistic,
affective and physical being. Of the many methods of collecting qualitative data available, some

Grounded Theory. Grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data. The theory is “grounded” in actual data, which
means the analysis and development of theories happens after you have collected the data. It was introduced by Glaser &
Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.. However, it’s use isn’t limited to qualitative studies; it is a general method
that can be applied to many areas of research.

To start the grounded theory process, you should:

1. Identify the area of interest.

2. Avoid preconceived theories and focus on the data only.
3. Use theoretical sensitivity.— an awareness of subtle messages and meanings in data.

Research stops when you have reached theoretical saturation: the point where you have sampled and analyzed your data until
you have exhausted all theories and uncovered all data.

Grounded theory commonly uses the following data collection methods

• Interviewing participants with open-ended questions.

• Participant Observation (fieldwork) and/or focus groups.
• Study of Artifacts and Texts

The general theory can be broken down into two parts: methods and products.

Methods

Grounded theory provides qualitative researchers with guidelines for collecting and analyzing data. Although there are
“probably as many versions of grounded theory as there were grounded theorists” (Dey, 1999), all of the versions have the
following aspects in common (Charmaz, 2006):

1. Coding (labeling and categorizing) from collected data instead of relying on theories not grounded in data.
2. Social processes are discovered in the data.
3. Abstract categories are constructed inductivelyLinks to an external site..
4. Categories are refined using theoretical sampling.
5. The gap between coding and writing is bridged with analytical memos.
6. Categories are integrated into a theoretical framework.

In order to say that your research is based in grounded theory you must follow the explicit, sequential guidelines. Employing
just one or two methods does not make the study “grounded.”
Data analysis should happen at the same time as data collection. In other words, you shouldn’t wait until all your data is
collected before analyzing it; these methods should be fluid and change if your data uncovers a new theory or potential
direction. This type of concurrent data analysis and data collection is often referred to as constant comparative analysis
and theoretical sampling.

Coding should be line by line, open coding: read through data several times, creating summaries for the data using
preliminary labels. Axial coding is used to create conceptual families from the summaries, followed by selective
coding which turns the families into a formal framework with a variable that includes all of the collected data.

Ethnography
What is ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a study’s participants in
their real-life environment. Ethnography was popularized by anthropology, but is used across a wide range of social
sciences.

Within the field of usability, user-centered design and service designLinks to an external site., ethnography is used to
support a designer’s deeper understanding of the design problem – including the relevant domain, audience(s),
processes, goals and context(s) of use.

The aim of an ethnographic study within a usability project is to get ‘under the skin’ of a design problem (and all its
associated issues). It is hoped that by achieving this, a designer will be able to truly understand the problem and
therefore design a far better solution.
Methods associated with ethnography

Anthropological ethnographers often live amongst a group/society for a year or more, in order to learn about them. This
fully immersive, long-term ‘live and work’ approach to ethnography has not proven popular within the field of usability.

Part of the reason may involve cost, but it is also the case that anthropologists and usability practitioners are interested
in different things. Anthropologists use ethnography in an attempt to fully understand as much as possible about an
entire society. Usability practitioners are usually only interested in learning information that will support their reasoning
on a specific design problem.

Ethnography can help investigate very complicated or critical design challenges. A good researcher is essential when
observing and/or interacting with target audiences in their real-life environment.

Case Study. The most common techniques used to collect data for case studies are:

• personal interviews.
• direct observation.
 • psychometric tests.
• archival records.

Personal Interviews - A personal interview survey, also called as a face-to-face survey, is a survey method that is
utilized when a specific target population is involved. The purpose of conducting a personal interview survey is to
explore the responses of the people to gather more and deeper information.

Direct Observations - Direct observation, also known as observational study, is a method of collecting evaluative
information in which the evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment with out altering that
environment.

Psychometric Tests - Psychometric tests are a standard and scientific method used to measure individuals' mental
capabilities and behavioral style. Psychometric tests are designed to measure candidates' suitability for a role based on
the required personality characteristics and aptitude (or cognitive abilities).

Cognitive ability tests assess abilities involved in thinking (e.g., reasoning, perception, memory, verbal and
mathematical ability, and problem solving). Such tests pose questions designed to estimate applicants' potential to use
mental processes to solve work-related problems or to acquire new job knowledge.

Archival Records - 'Archival records' connotes documents rather than artifacts or published materials, although
collections of archival records may contain artifacts and books. Archival records may be in any format, including text on
paper or in electronic formats, photographs, motion pictures, videos, sound recordings.

WEEK 4 - INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE DATA

Qualitative Data Analysis Procedure

Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview transcripts, notes, video and audio recordings,
images and text documents. Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the following five categories:

1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioral data to classify, summarize
and tabulate the data.

2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by respondents taking into
account context of each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other words, narrative
analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data by researcher.

3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written tex t.

4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several stages such as familiarization,
identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.

5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an analysis of a single case to
formulate a theory. Then, additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the theory.
Qualitative data analysis can be conducted through the following three steps:

Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes. Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a
short phrase that represents a theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles. A wide range of non -
quantifiable elements such as events, behaviors’, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.

There are three types of coding:

1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to make sense of it.
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories of codes.
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through connecting the categories.
4. Coding can be done manually or using qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo, Atlas ti 6.0, Hyper
RESEARCH 2.8, Max QDA and others. When using manual coding you can use folders, filing cabinets, wallets
etc. to gather together materials that are examples of similar themes or analytic ideas. Manual method of
coding in qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as labor-intensive, time-consuming and outdated.

In computer-based coding, on the other hand, physical files and cabinets are replaced with computer based directories
and files. When choosing software for qualitative data analysis you need to consider a wide range of factors such as the
type and amount of data you need to analyze, time required to master the software and cost considerations. Moreover,
it is important to get confirmation from your dissertation supervisor prior to application of any specific qualitative data
analysis software.

The following table contains examples of research titles, elements to be coded and identification of relevant codes:

Research title Elements to be coded Codes

Born leaders
Born or bred: revising The Great Man theory
Made leaders
of leadership in the 21st century Leadership practice
Leadership effectiveness

Wholly-owned subsidiaries

A study into advantages and disadvantages of Joint-ventures

various entry strategies to Chinese market Franchising

Market entry strategies Exporting

Licensing

Philanthropy
Impacts of CSR programs and initiative on Supporting charitable courses
brand image: a case study of Coca-Cola
Company UK. Activities, Ethical behavior
phenomenon Brand awareness
 Brand value

Viral messages
An investigation into the ways of customer
relationship management in mobile marketing Customer retention
environment
Tactics Popularity of social networking sites

Qualitative data coding

Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships. Unlike quantitative methods., in qualitative data analysis there
are no universally applicable techniques that can be applied to generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking skills of
researcher plays significant role in data analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative study can be repeat ed to
generate the same results.

Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify common themes, patterns and relationships
within responses of sample group members in relation to codes that have been specified in the previous stage.

Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data interpretation include the following:

• Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and phrases most commonly used by
respondents, as well as, words and phrases used with unusual emotions;
• Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of interview/focus
group/observation/any other qualitative data collection method with the findings of literature review and
discussing differences between them;
• Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the issue was not mentioned by
respondents, although you expected them to be mentioned;
• Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to phenomena from a different area and
discussing similarities and differences.

Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage you need to link research findings to hypotheses or research aim and
objectives. When writing data analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order to
highlight major themes within findings and possible contradictions. It is important to note that the process of qualitative
data analysis described above is general and different types of qualitative studies may require slightly different methods
of data analysis.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH EXAMPLE

A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviewsLinks to an external site. which
generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing
their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings and so
on, can be considered qualitative data.

Data Analysis
Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of
empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

DATA ANALYSIS CYCLE

Key Features
Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses
her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is
predefined or taken for granted.

Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and
other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher
about their lives.

The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data, without the active participation of the researcher, no data
exists.

The design of the study evolves during the research, and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses.

For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality, it is subjective and exist only in reference to the observer.
Theory is data driven, and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations

Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large -scale data sets.

The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data
and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity.
For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate
qualitative studies. Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor
can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with any confidence

The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult and
expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to interpret qualitative data, and great care must be taken when doing
so, for example, if looking for symptoms of mental illness.
Strengths

Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider's view of the field. This allows the researcher to
find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.

Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects and dynamic
processes.

Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which are a reflection of social reality (Denscombe,
2010).

Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as
she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable,
thereby gaining new insight.