ISSN 2394-7357

International Journal of Novel Research in Civil Structural and Earth Sciences

Vol. 8, Issue 2, pp: (12-31), Month: May - August 2021, Available at: www.noveltyjournals.com

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY OF RIVERS
STATE (MONIER CONSTRUCTION
COMPANY)
EZIKWAS KEBIN THANKGOD
PhD Aspirant in Limkokwing University of Creative Technology. PhD in Management

Abstract: Construction knowledge management is a wide area of study filled of a lot of information that has not
been properly shared in the process of construction projects in the Construction industry and organizations in
Nigeria and Rivers State in particular, which in turn affect the performance and growth of the industry in terms of
quality, time and cost. This research work is aimed at investigating the mode of practicing knowledge sharing in
the local construction firms in Rivers State Nigeria and Monier Construction Company (MCC) as a case study.
The aim is to provide a platform that will enhance the current best practice of knowledge sharing, to face the
challenges of meeting the client desire and customer satisfaction.
A total of one hundred (100) questionnaires were distributed to Architect, Quantity Surveying, Engineers, Builders
and other experts across Monier Construction Company (MCC). The method of analysis employed is descriptive,
because descriptive is a transformation of raw data in a form that make them easy to understand. The software’s
used to support this descriptive analysis are, Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.0, it was used
to analyze the data for mean score, frequencies and percentage test method. Microsoft excel 2007 was also used to
plot bar graphs and pie charts to show the findings and averaging index techniques.
The results revealed that Monier Construction Company currently adopts the traditional method of knowledge
sharing which is not an efficient and effective approach in sharing knowledge among its employees. The
questionnaire revealed that face-to-face interaction, site meeting, internal training, project briefs and monitoring
and coaching are confirmed as the main means of sharing knowledge, best practice and experiences of experts and
engineers in the construction companies and in Monier Construction Company Rivers State, Nigeria. This suggests
that the social interaction between the Project Managers, Architects, Quantity Surveyors, Engineers, experts and
other professionals working in the construction companies are very important for effective knowledge sharing
practices to foster project planning and scheduling. Hence This research work recommends that head of the
construction organizations and industries in charge of projects should encourage engineers and experts to share
knowledge and experiences to improve the quality of project delivery, working morale and innovation in
the construction organizations.
Keywords: Knowledge Management (KM), Monier Construction Company (MCC), Knowledge Sharing,
Organizations, Construction, Rivers State, Nigeria.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of the Study
All over the world construction industry has played a significant role in contributing to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of both developed and underdeveloped countries. The reason for this dynamic nature of the construction industry is
based solely on growing demand for quality by clients, complexity of construction projects, advancement in technology
and introduction of new innovations amongst others.
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In Nigeria, the construction industry has played a dominant role in contributing to the national GDP since 1960s to 1990s,
accounting for about 70% of the GDP (Planning Committee on the National Construction Policy, 1989). It is imperative
that construction firms take up challenges in this new era of global competition to boost their productivity level by
effectively utilizing all departments or units in the construction industry to play their own role to improve on the growth
of the industry and keep on the development. [4]
As the Nigerian economy begins to progress further, the demand for housing, basic amenities, and infrastructure begins to
increase. As the nation progress towards becoming a developed nation by the year 2025, the construction industry would
play an important role in this development process.
Following these increasing demands, the construction industry needs to satisfy and champion the changes inherent in
construction demands and development stages. The local construction industry distinguishes itself from other industries
by having a slower rate of technological development and lower productivity because of its inability to meet up demand
and keep pace with the momentum generated by trending development programs. Several researchers have criticized the
local construction industry for its low competence level, low demand, consistent low productivity and poor performance
over the years for its lack of innovation and inability to employ a more diverse workforce (Olomolaiye, 1987; Aniekwu,
1995; Okuwoga, 1998; Adeyemiet al.; 2005). This has reduced its contribution to the national economy to a mere 1% of
the GDP in 2002 (AfDB/OECD, 2004). [4]
Adnan (2002) stated that the construction industry is a driving force that activates a nation’s physical development by
initiating projects from conceptualization to realization. The conceptualization and realization of projects can bring about
benefits to the nation and its people, thereby satisfying the demands and growth of the national economy. Over the years
construction industry has been defined by many researchers such as Wells (1995) who described construction as the
creation of physical infrastructure, superstructure and related facilities. Abdullah (2004) described the construction
industry as a sector of a nation’s economy which constructs, alters, repairs, and demolishes buildings, civil engineering
works and other related structures. The construction industry equally includes the assembly and installations of on-site
prefabricated material components and building services.
The construction industry is a work place that is dominated by heuristics. Masqood (2006) noted that construction firms
operating within the industry refer to perform their project management tasks based on their past experiences, rather than
a textbook approach. The construction industry requires a lot of intellectual knowledge which can be usable by
construction firms operating within the industry to add value, innovation, competitiveness and improve their future project
performance. Kamara et al. (2002) stated that the cost of attracting, recruiting, and retaining talented employees is
expensive. In coming years, the construction industry is expected to lose a large chunk of its skilled and knowledgeable
workforce which adds further complications to the industry. At the moment there is no single strategy available to
accommodate problems that arise in construction industry. One of the most efficient and effective tools for strengthening
the construction industry organizational competitiveness is through best practice knowledge management and sharing.
The construction firms operating within the industry use knowledge management (KM) to create, identify, share the
knowledge best practices, lesson learnt and experiences within the organization. Construction firms without defined goals
and unique deliverables would probably lead to difficulty in efficiency in recording, and capturing project knowledge. The
significance of knowledge management in construction industry has been accepted and has been proven to enhance the
performance of project success.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Knowledge management is responsible for selection, evaluation, and implementation of knowledge and information
strategies aimed at creating an environment within a firm to supports work with both external and internal knowledge in
order to improve efficiency and performance. The implementation of knowledge management strategies involves all
people, product, the firm itself and technological instruments needed to improve the firm’s wide level of competencies
and ability to learn.
Krogh (2000) expressed that knowledge management has made the definition of knowledge sharing less wide as it
involves basically a processes of acquiring a person’s or firm’s knowledge and expertise distributing it to wherever it may
be needed to produces better results and performance for the person or firm.
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Nelson, et al (1993) expressed that the study of knowledge sharing is the means by which an organization acquires
internal and external knowledge, and successfully implementing knowledge sharing involves a vast learning processes
rather than a basic communication process, as knowledge must be locally relevant and adapted to suit the incumbent
organization (Nelson and Rosenberg 1993). In addition, sharing of knowledge involves the conversion of the types of
knowledge which explicit and tacit knowledge and vice versa, while the knowledge is distributed between the
organization, individuals and back Wang (1999).
Knowledge has always been a crucial factor in organizations and the success of an organization or firm is a function of
how much the organization is able to create, distribute, transfer, imitate and utilized knowledge assets Nonaka and
Takuchi (1995). A study has shown that when employees leave a firm, they leave with more than 70% of their knowledge
and between 30% to 40% of those employed to replace them spend their time looking for new knowledge LPCUBE
(2003). [15]
However, if knowledge sharing has been implemented, then related or same problems do not need to be done all over
again, especially problems in construction industries. Nowadays, knowledge sharing within firms is gaining more
attention and acceptability as more and more firms are becoming more aware of the importance of knowledge transfer and
distribution.
Dougherty (2007) in his work argued that the construction industry is not doing enough in utilizing and formalization of
knowledge in comparison to other industries such as pharmaceuticals and automobile etc, he gave reasons for this failure
to that of word of mouth and personal contact which is still influential within the industry. Rooke et al. in 2005 further
noted, knowledge is passed on by individuals and it might but it not properly captured, documented or recorded and when
new employees acquire knowledge by observing or being given instructions by these experienced individuals.
There is a significant relationship between knowledge sharing and the efficacy of best practices in the construction
industry, particularly in the construction firms of Rivers State Nigeria. Also, the modes of Knowledge Sharing are Vital to
add value to this relationship.
1.2 Aim and Objectives
This study is aimed at investigating the mode of practicing knowledge sharing in the local construction firms in Rivers
State Nigeria. This aim is to provide a platform that will enhance the current best practice to face the challenges of
meeting the client desire and customer satisfaction. In order to accomplish the aim of this study, the following objectives
are formulated:
a) To determine the current status of knowledge sharing practices in planning and scheduling processes in the local
construction firms in Rivers State, Nigeria.
b) To identify the most frequent means used in knowledge sharing practices within scheduling and planning process
in the local construction firms in Rivers State, Nigeria.
c) To reveal the importance of managing knowledge sharing and the roles of individuals and firms in the implementation
in the local construction industry in Rivers State, Nigeria.
d) To suggest a way-forwards for improvement in the management of planning and scheduling process in the local
construction industry in Rivers State, Nigerian by developing a suitable best practice approach that will utilize
information technology.
1.3 Research Questions
In order to address the aim and objective of the study, the following research questions provide the basis for this study.
Main Question,
a) What is the approach for sharing knowledge practices in the four areas of project planning for the construction firms in
the Rivers State Nigeria?

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Secondary Question,
b) What are the organizational structure, functions and responsibilities of the construction firms?
c) How to share knowledge practice availability and usability, distribution methods, content and layout between industry
and stakeholders?
d) What are the selection criteria, and best practice suitable for utilization?
e) How to ensure the process of continuous improvement by the firm effectively?
f) What are the success factors and possible barriers for utilization of knowledge sharing practices?
1.4 Scope of the Study
This study is focused on one company which the result can be generally applicable to the to the entire local construction
industry. Monier Construction Company (MCC) is a taken into consideration for this study because is a firm that act as
main contractors in construction projects operating in Rivers State Nigeria. The studied areas of the firm are the building
and civil engineering departments which comprises of Project managers, M-E Engineers, Architects and Quantity
Surveyors, that are equally responsible for planning and scheduling of construction projects as it cuts across every
management task in a project from conceptualization to finish.
All in all, the study is conducted in order gather descriptive information concerning how practices can be shared within a
construction firm. From this study awareness can be created within construction firms of the importance of knowledge
management and sharing across its employees based on data provided by practitioners and experts within a more
knowledge intensive setting.
1.5 Research Methodology
Figure 1.1 shows the stages of implementation of this study. This research design is divided into two phases. Phase one
accommodates the aims and objectives, research problems, research scope and relevant literatures. Phase two consists of
accommodate the structured questionnaires distributed to the respondents in the selected firm and the analysis of the
returned questionnaires to achieve the aims and objective of this study, with the way forward and conclusion reached.
1.6 Significance of the Study.
This Study is important because it attempts to link relevant knowledge sharing concept and contents with the construction
industry, especially the construction firms of Rivers State Nigeria. It also affirms the need for a research survey of the
Nigeria construction firms vis-a-vis project management principles.
1.7 Thesis Organization
The thesis organization is divided into the following six chapters which together constitute the research progress of this
work and gives the reader a brief overview of on what the main content of each chapter is.
Chapter One- Introduction- This chapter discusses the introduction to the study, the background of the research problem
and the scope of the research study. Research questions are formulated and relevant research aims and objectives are
presented. A suitable methodology was selected in order to achieve the objectives of this study.
Chapter Two- Knowledge Management in Construction Industry- in this chapter Knowledge Management in construction
industry is reviewed to present an explicit knowledge of the research study. It deals with the introduction to knowledge,
understanding knowledge management, previous work on Knowledge management, and current concepts, tools in
handling Knowledge management issues. The main topic revolves around best practices -what they are, what adopting
best practices leads to, factors for a successful initiative and other issues related to the notion of best practices.
Chapter Three- Planning and Scheduling of Construction Projects- This chapter presents the planning and scheduling and
its relevance in implementing knowledge management. It looks into the selected research strategy, a brief background
explanation of the investigated and barriers to planning and scheduling.
Chapter Four – Research Methodology- This chapter presents the methods that will be used for raw data collection to
support this research.
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Chapter Five–Data Analysis and Finding – This chapter presents the results and opinions of the respondents at MCC firm
in Rivers State. A structured questionnaire is to assess the applicability of the knowledge sharing in construction planning
and scheduling proposed as well as the findings inherent in the study.
Chapter Six- Conclusion and Recommendations- In this chapter a comparative analysis and possible means of looking
into future work that will support the firm as well as areas of improvement and the knowledge management feedback
from respondents is evaluated.

2. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

2.0 Introduction
To survive in a competitive knowledge economy, it is imperative that firms needs to do more in forecasting tomorrow
than yesterday and constantly looking out on new ways to correct and prevent problems and make continuous
improvement to achieve business sustainability. Knowledge management makes sense to first organize what people know
as a division and then to share it, which led to a whole host of cultural issues.
Alavi and Zack (1999) in their work stated that knowledge management highlights the importance of a sharing culture in
order to support and foster knowledge management focus. In fact Knowledge Management (KM) focuses on different
alternatives of sharing and storing the knowledge of individuals as a way of improving the competency, speed, efficiency
and profitability of an organization.
Qunitas, et al. (1997) define knowledge management as a means of managing all knowledge continuously to meet various
requirements in an organization. Coleman (1999) defines knowledge management as an umbrella term for a wide variety
of interdependent and interlocking functions which comprises of knowledge creation, knowledge valuation and metrics,
knowledge mapping and indexing, knowledge transport, storage and distribution, and knowledge sharing. Gurteen (1998)
comprehensively defined knowledge management as an emerging set of organizational design and operational principles,
processes, organizational structures, applications and technologies that helps knowledge workers to dramatically leverage
their creativity and ability to deliver business value.
Knowledge management implementation enables an organization to learn from its corporate memory, share knowledge,
and identifies competencies in order to become a forward thinking and learning organization. Researchers such as
Kamara, et al. (2002) and Love, et al. (2003) highlighted the benefits of knowledge management to the growth of
organizations if successfully implemented as it is evident in producing innovation, reducing project time, improving
quality and customer satisfaction. According to Siemieniuch, et al. (1999) noted that organization’s intangible assets can
be used properly to create value, with both internal and external knowledge being leveraged to the benefit of the
organization if knowledge management is been implemented successfully.
In the construction industry, knowledge management can improve communications within teams, and provide more
informed knowledge by sharing best practice documents, lessons learned, project management and system engineering
methodologies, examples of review packages, and the rationale for strategic decisions. Kaklauskas, et al. (2005)
distinguish such knowledge management benefits as productive information use, activity improvement, intelligence
enhancement, intellectual capital storage, strategic planning, flexibility acquisition, best practice gathering, success
probability enhancement and productive collaboration.
There is no precise definition of knowledge management within the construction industry. However, Egbu (2004) in his
work describes knowledge as an important resource for construction organizations due to its ability to provide market
leverage and contributions to organizational innovations and project success. The idea of knowledge as a competitive
resource within project-oriented industries is a concept shared by various researchers such as: Nonaka and Takeuchi,
Egbu and Botteril, and others.
Braf (2000) split the definition of knowledge into two parts and defined them as Explicit and Tacit Knowledge. Polanyi
(1950) defined tacit knowledge with an old saying that “People know more they can tell”. Sanchez (2005) refined the
work of Polanyi by defining tacit knowledge as rooted into actions, procedures, ideas, values and emotions and this type
of knowledge only exist in the human body. Simard and Rice (2007) state that the greater the degree of tacit knowledge,
the harder the knowledge is to share.
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While explicit knowledge is objective, rational and can easily be documented, Little et al (2005) stated that explicit
knowledge is knowledge that can easily be communicated to others in form of verbal or written language and examples of
explicit knowledge are books, manuals and formulas. Both forms of knowledge are important for organizational
effectiveness and growth. Mohamed and Anumba (2006) finally argue that tacit knowledge is mainly associated with the
construction industry which calls for a knowledge management mechanism to be set aside.
2.1 Concept of Knowledge Management
If organizations seek to effectively implement knowledge management, Davenport and Prusak (1998) maintained that
there must be a shared implication of the terminology which they presented as three levels of knowledge. Firstly, they
define data as discrete and objective facts about events without placing it in any context. Secondly they defined
information as contextual, categorized, calculated, corrected and condensed combinations of data embodied as a message
between a sender and receiver. And finally, they combined information with experience and got the feelings of individuals
which in turn create knowledge.
The concept of knowledge management is summarized using the systems approach generally adopted by many
researchers, as shown in figure 2.1.below.

Source: Laura (2008). [5]

Figure 2.1 Concept of Knowledge Management
The above systems approach is further explained in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Concept of Knowledge Management. [11]

To enable us distinguish between data, information and knowledge as a concept of knowledge management as
summarized in the table 2.1, we look into the work of Meadow (2002) as he defines data as raw facts, strings of
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elementary symbols such as letters or digits. According to Drucker (2001) stated that data can be transformed into
information when it’s put into some context, with respect to relevance and purpose but with or without experience.
Boisot (1998) noted that knowledge builds upon information that is extracted from data. Bouthillier and Shearer (2002)
argues that knowledge is different from information because it is predictive and can be used to direct action while
information merely is data in context which have the static characteristic.
2.2 Knowledge Management Processes
Alvavi, et al. (2001) stated that knowledge management concepts existing in different literature differ considerably in
terms of numbers and labeling of process rather than the underlying knowledge management concepts. It is important to
review the work of Grant (2005) which distinguishes between two key processes, namely the generation of new
knowledge and the effective application of new and existing knowledge. Ruggles (1998) looked at it from another
perspective and defines eight processes presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Knowledge management process

Source: Siti (2012). [15]

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2.3 Knowledge Creation

Dave et al. (2009) stated that knowledge can be created in an organization with continuous interaction among individuals
and a continuous conversion from tacit into explicit knowledge by individuals, supported by the organization. Nonaki et al
(1995) presented a model of knowledge conversion named SECI as shown in figure 2.2 below and it has become the main
source of reference in the area of knowledge management.

Source:Nonaka’s Spiral Knowledge (Vilalba, 2006). [9]

Figure 2.2: Knowledge Creation
2.3.1 Socialization
Little et al. (2005) defined socialization as the process of converting new tacit knowledge through shared experiences.
This can be achieved through sharing and experiences, observing, imitating and brainstorming without criticism. Firms
often take advantage of the tacit knowledge embedded in other parties such as contractor or even other quantity surveyors
by interacting with them. Shared value is created through a process of socialization, whereby a common identity and
collective interpretations of reality are formed.
2.3.2 Externalization
The process of converting tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge is defined as Externalization, which can be achieved
through writing, creating metaphors and modeling.
2.3.3 Combination
Combination is a conversion process which referred to forms of explicit knowledge which are conveyed through email,
documents, database, meetings and briefing. This involves the collecting of relevant knowledge, distributing and editing
or processing to make it more usable to user.
2.3.4 Internalization
Ray, et al. (2005) described Internalization as the process of embodying explicit knowledge into tactic. Through
Internalization explicit knowledge created is shared within an organization and converted into tacit by individuals.

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2.4 Knowledge Sharing

Knowledge sharing is one of the core blocks of knowledge management. Probably it is the important aspect of knowledge
management. Dalkir (2005) noted that knowledge sharing is denoted as the edge to create knowledge which contributes to
the increase in employees’ performance and harnessing innovation. Grant (1996) stated that knowledge sharing is a
key to the success of knowledge management in theory and practice. Jashapatra (2004) maintained that knowledge
sharing is a set of commitments that involves the exchange of information and knowledge among the other employees
in an organization.
2.4.1 Role of Individuals in Knowledge Sharing
Nonaki (995) noted that in the process of knowledge sharing, individuals in an organization serve as knowledge
generator and knowledge receptor and this knowledge is generated by exchanging their ideas and experience through
socialization. For instance, employee one is made to know a problem faced by a fellow employee two and employee one
has the solution to the problem. Employee one may share or may not share the knowledge with employee two. It is up to
employee one to share the knowledge with the employee two. The example shows that individuals serve as the driving
force behind the process of knowledge sharing.
Nonaka et al. (1995) added that, knowledge sharing will not be successful within an organization without the
involvement of humans. In this case it important to understand factors that influence individuals to share knowledge.
2.5 Conceptual Framework of Knowledge Sharing
This section describes the concept of knowledge sharing to further understand this research assignment.
2.5.1 Social Cognitive Theory, Constructs and Knowledge Sharing
The social Cognitive Theory is a social learning theory. Bandura (1989) introduced this theory and defined individual
behavior as dynamic, reciprocal or interactive network of personal factors, behavior and the surroundings. This theory
postulates that the combination of the three human behavior factors breed to a formulation of a certain outcome and
expectation that lead to a decision.
These allude to the fact that individuals consider a combination of factors that are personal, social and
environmental to make decisions on either to exhibit a certain behavior or not. Bandura went further to argue that the
mind of an individual is an active tool which guides one’s steps towards formulating expectations, abilities and outcomes.
Altruism also has a linkage with Social Cognitive Theory in that individuals look at the psychological benefits before
getting involved in sharing their knowledge. Even though an altruistic person may be seen recognized as unselfish, a
study conducted by Honeycutt, (1981) argues that an altruistic person gains a kind of control over the recipients.
However an altruistic individuals can act based on his own interest while social cognitive theory also argue that an
individual’s ability to exhibit certain behavior is based on some certain factors which may be personal goals.
2.5.2 Social Exchange Theory, Constructs and Knowledge Sharing
Blau (1964) stated that the social exchange theory is one of the models used in explaining knowledge sharing behavior
and he added that Social exchange is based on the behavior of individuals, outcomes or benefits, environment and the
interpersonal network between individuals. In other words the Social exchange Theory strives to use relationships or
exchanges as cost benefit analyses. In this way people will strive to maximize profit and minimize cost in their own way.
The social Exchange Theory maintains that individuals may not be involved into certain activities unless they see a
positive outcome. This is not in any way a commodity exchange but it can be a mental assumption of positive outcome in
knowledge sharing and in a way individuals will not share their knowledge when they perceive activities as mere
costs, but will intend to share it when positive returns are expected.
2.5.2.1 Trust
Fox (1974) stated that trust is the focal point of every relationship within the organization. Dyer et al. (1998) noted that
with trust people tend to take risk with the intention of full participation with the other individual without causing any
harm.
According to Nonaka and Tekeuchi (1995), trust among individuals in and out of an organization contributes to

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improvement in knowledge sharing. Kalantzis and Cope (2003), in their work they added that interpersonal trust is
directly proportional to knowledge sharing. People will be motivated to share their knowledge when they perceive that
other individuals are honest, trustworthy, and reliable. Higher trust will make individuals not think of any future negative
occurrence on the activities and will share their knowledge.
2.5.2.2 Altruism
Chattopadhyay (1999) saw altruism as a behavior that costs one individual and benefits another. Altruism is a costly
activity that profits others (However, some individuals may share their experience and knowledge with others without
thinking of the benefit he or she may gain from it. From the definitions above, it can be seen that individuals within
an organization may share their knowledge unselfishly.
2.5.2.3 Mutual Reciprocity
Davenport and Prusak (2008) stated that mutual reciprocity is one of the key enablers of knowledge sharing. Blau
(1964) described reciprocity as an actions that are contingent on rewarding reactions from others and that cease
when these expected reactions are not forthcoming. And Kelley, et al. (1978) added that individuals involved in virtual
teams would share their knowledge when they perceive a commensurate behavior from the other individuals.
It was established that knowledge sharing within organizations is enhanced through reciprocity shown by other
individuals. Chiu et al. (2006) finally added that reciprocity has a positive significant relationship to knowledge sharing
behavior. Mutual reciprocity is about cost and benefit. In the context of knowledge sharing, the donor of the
knowledge will decide whether the recipient possesses potential of giving back a positive outcome.
2.5.2.4 Self Efficacy
Bandura (1997) described self efficacy as a people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of
action. It not based on the skills one possess but with judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses.
Elias et al. (2010) conducted a study on self efficacy and added that it influences individuals’ adjustment behavior.
This shows that an individual’s behavior of sharing his or her knowledge may be influenced by his or her self efficacy.
Figure 2.3 below shows the conceptual framework of this knowledge sharing concepts as follows:

Figure 2.3: Knowledge sharing framework.

2.6 Knowledge Sharing Culture
Stoddart (2001) stated that for knowledge sharing to work, organizations first have to have a culture that open and accept
sharing and he further argue that knowledge sharing can only work if the culture of the Organization promotes it. De Long
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et al. (2000) conducted a study which they showed that culture influence knowledge sharing by as much as 80%. To
effectively develop organization knowledge sharing culture, there must be need to change the culture of the organization
strategy, structure, support mechanism, management development, communication, trust, motivation and learning.
These approaches are all based on the fundamental premise that it is the responsibility of the management to play an
important part in motivating her employees toward a knowledge sharing culture.

Source: Lisa Low (2010). [14]

Figure 2.4: factors that facilitate the development of Knowledge Sharing
2.6.1 Strategy
Scarbrough (1998) remarked that the most valuable employee is one who becomes a source of knowledge and actively
shares that knowledge with other people. In this context, arguably, one of the most important items for the effective
sharing of knowledge is a clear and conscious knowledge strategy. In some organizations they adopt the codification
strategy which is central on the computer. Knowledge is carefully codified and stored in the databases, where it can be
accessed and used easily by anyone in the organization.
In other organizations, knowledge is built around an individual who developed it and is shared mainly through direct
person to person contacts. Hassan et al (2001) stated that the primary reason of using the computers in organizations is to
help people communicate knowledge not to store it; which is known as personalization strategy. Scarbrough (1998) and
Gross (2001) show that involvement of managers in knowledge sharing is important in the sense that a leader is usually
viewed as a charismatic person who is prepared to take risks and brings about long term changes in people attitudes,
behaviors and culture (Adair, 1988). Leadership plays an obvious role to the managerial skills in developing organization
knowledge sharing culture.
2.6.2 Structure
The knowledge infrastructure is an important part of organizational structure. Knowledge Infrastructure is the sum of
those organizational structures and guidelines, as well as technical and non-technical employees, of which the
organization has in their disposal. These structures, guidelines and expertise support learning process within the
organization. Gareth (2004) maintained that with these infrastructures organizations goals are reached in the most efficient
way.
Organization structure and processes should be designed in ways that will foster and encourages knowledge sharing
among the employees through teamwork. Organization structure is way of fostering the constant growth of employees or
individuals in an organization to make their knowledge, their information, their capacities and their attitude productive. It
is widely acknowledge that increased employees responsibility leads to increased quality.
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2.6.3 Support Mechanism

Information technology (IT) has been closely associated to knowledge management and knowledge sharing. The reason is
stated by McCampbell et al. (1999) that IT provides platform not only for storage and access of information but also for
communication. Therefore to actualize the concept of knowledge sharing culture, organization should put emphasize on
their IT infrastructure and tools such as mail, telephone, facsimile, Internet, Intranet, e-mail with pictures reference, video
conferencing, and telephone conferencing.
Smith (2001) argues that the availability of information technology tools (software) play important roles in knowledge
management. It is imperative that the application of project management software, software for technical estimation and
CAD software are useful for construction organization learning and sharing efforts. Egan (1998) stated that the
construction industry involves several disciplines with a complex network of communications between these disciplines.
Similarly, the entire construction supply chain demands a supporting document management system to communicate,
capture and record the information. The application of decision support system and standardized IT solution are therefore
beneficial in distributing knowledge within the industry. Shattow (1996) concluded that information technology is
obviously a supportive mechanism and an important resource for successful innovation.
2.6.4 Management Development
Fisher (1989) stated that the involvement of many organizations in a particular project provides a strong basis for conflicts
during the construction process, partly due to domain of consensus, accessibility of information, interdependency of tasks,
and individual performance. Mumford, et al. (1997) added that tolerance of conflict and the handling of conflicts
constructively are values that support creative and innovative behavior in organizations.
The way in which an organization handled mistakes and promote safety standard will determine if their employees feel
free to act creatively and innovatively in their knowledge sharing effort. Brodtrick (1997) noted that mistakes can be
ignored, covered up, used to punish someone or perceived as a learning opportunity and he added that if staffs are
encourage discussing their mistakes openly and seek help, it can promote a knowledge sharing and learning culture.
2.6.5 Communication
Communications can be described as a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a
common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. By developing more effective communication networks, organizations
strive to create more willing and effective coordination of diverse activities.
In a study conducted by Watson Wyatt Worldwide (1998) it noted that poor communication was found to be the reason
for a generally low level of trust between managers and employees in most organizations.
2.6.6 Trust
Geoffrey (1997) noted that without high trust, organizations will not fully exploit their potential assets and that no
knowledge management strategy will succeed, unless organizations care about the knowledge that exists within their
organizations and have their employees at heart; only then will knowledge sharing culture thieve.
2.6.7 Motivation
Robbins (1993) saw motivation as the “willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals by a way of
recognizing the efforts of and satisfying her employees. The way a company rewards its employees contributes heavily to
their satisfaction and retention. This is because individuals understand that in exchange for their effort and commitment,
the organization will develop them and reward them for their work. And this is an important way of attracting, retaining
and tapping knowledge workers as stated by Ching and Yang (2000).
2.6.8 Learning
Trevor (1992) stated that learning is being able to use information that is remembered through understanding its relevance
to people experience. People are motivated to learn when they recognize that they can benefit personally from the
learning.
Learning is very important to people who want to develop their skills. Senge (1990) has defined organization learning as
the process through which managers seek to improve organization members’ desire and ability to understand and manage
the organization and its environment so that they make decisions that will profit the organization.

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2.7 Summary
In essence Knowledge Management is in essence an organizing principle which lays the foundation for capturing the
potentials of possessed knowledge within an organization. To make the most of the organizations recourses and enhance
knowledge sharing, it is important to acknowledge that it is about managing both technology and people in order to
provide a profitable knowledge environment. Knowledge sharing tools aim to do something useful by structuring people,
information technology and knowledge content.
One challenging issue with organizations in procurement policies and procedures is the way they should expand their
knowledge to enable them to deliver commendable services and promote knowledge sharing for the growth of the
industry, benefits of the stakeholders, and also the community or society where the construction projects are developed
and completed.
3. PLANNING AND SCHEDULING OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
3.0 Introduction
This chapter covers the introductory planning and scheduling in construction industry, the traditional methods that are
being applied, the barriers affecting in the preparation of planning and scheduling of projects in the construction industry
and the application of knowledge management as a new movement to improving best practice results for the industry and
society as well.
3.1 Construction Planning and Scheduling
Hendrickson (1998) stated that construction planning and scheduling can follow two simultaneous paths that are described
and summarized in Figure 3.1. The two paths are:
a) Cost -orientation: This involves direct and indirect cost control.
b) Scheduling-orientation: This involves time management and resource consumption definition.

Source: Hendrick (1998). [12]

Figure 3.1: Alternative emphasis in construction planning (Hendrickson 1998)
Construction scheduling is rooted in construction planning. It deals with more specific factors such as maintenance of task
precedence (resulting in critical path scheduling procedures), or efficient use of resources over time (resulting in job shop
scheduling procedures). However in most complex projects, cost-oriented and scheduling-oriented planning are
considered.
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3.2 Definitions of Construction Planning and Scheduling

For the past 30 years or so much of the construction work have been carried out based on planning which falls mainly into
the category of what is called as classical planning paradigm. If we critically look into may literatures on construction
industry, project management or any other industry one can find that at least one chapter is talking about planning, as it is
one key area of study.
However, not one of these literatures give a precise definition of planning, independently of the particular formalism of
application. One can define a pure planning task by looking from the different viewpoints according to its applicability in
the related fields.
Arikan, et al.(2004) described planning as trying to anticipate what will happen and devising ways of achieving the
set of objectives and targets, he added that in planning concept there are always objectives to be reached in future. It
is obvious that there an extensive research has been done on planning but researcher’s views often seem to differ from one
other.
Looking from the work of Arikan and his colleagues above, there are few conclusions that can be drawn, in alignment
with the objectives of a construction project, as follows:
a) To complete the construction within the specified time (duration).
b) To complete it within the budget, (with a profit).
c) To complete it in compliance with technical and administrative specifications.
Mubarak (2005) states that project planning works for several functions such as: cost estimating, scheduling, project
control, safety management, and others. Arikan et al. (2004) maintained that the main purpose of planning is to provide
the primary duties of the manager, namely, direction and control. Secondly, they added that planning is to organize all the
relationships and information systems among the many parties involved in the construction project. They finally added
that the objective of planning is to enable project control and forecasting.
Smith (2002) emphasized the importance of careful and continuous project planning in the success of a
realization of a project and he also added that the activities of engineers, designers, producers, suppliers, workers and
contractors, and their resources must be integrated in line with the objectives of contractor. Oberlender (2000)
concurred with Smith that planning coordinates all works of the construction to reach a completed quality project.

Source: Anonymous (www.google.com)

Figure 3.2: Overview of construction Planning
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Mubarak (2005) asserted that scheduling concentrates on the timing and sequence of operations in the project
planning process. The difference between Planning and Scheduling is that, project planning deals with issues such as
what is going to be done, where, how and when? Project scheduling covers the issue of how it should be done.
Trauner, et al. (2009) supported Mubarak’s assertion and described project schedule as a written or graphical
representation of the Contractor’s plan for completing a construction project that emphasizes the elements of time
and sequence. He further stated that the project schedule should display all the construction tasks from conception to
finish of the project within the expected time and sequence in logical order.
The construction schedule is one of the most powerful management tools at the service of the construction manager. A
properly planned and realistic schedule that takes into account as many variables as possible will aid in the smooth
progress of a construction project, alert the construction manager when the project is about to run into unforeseen
circumstances and help make needed adjustments. In order to keep the project running smoothly the plan must have some
degree of ownership from everyone who will have to live by it. Else there would be risk of having employees and
subcontractors who will not bring output.
Construction schedule is prepared by the scheduler or planner. On the process of preparing a schedule, the scheduler may
meet with seek the intellect of experts such as estimator, manager, superintendent, sub-contractor, architect, engineer,
owner, and materials' suppliers. These experts may need to study the contract, drawings, specification, and probably
conduct site reconnaissance and they equally need to have ideas on manpower and productivity. Jon, et al. (2002) stated
that it is imperative that a scheduling consultant in charge of construction projects strive to work develop a trusting
relationship with the different participants to develop in order to work hand in hand to foster a plan and project schedule.
Proper scheduling provides the best opportunity for a well coordinated and well-sequenced project to deliver on time and
within budget. This is because a well-coordinated and well-sequenced project is some worth difficult to achieve and the
task of scheduling is depicted in Figure 3.3 below.

Source:anonymous (www.google.com)
Figure 3.3: Overview of construction scheduling
As indicated above, it is obvious that construction project planning and scheduling are the key elements of a successful
construction project management. Planning and scheduling are closely related to achieve good construction project
management.
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3.3 Benefits of Construction Work Schedule

The primary purpose of a construction scheduling is to outline the progress expected of a construction project in a
timeline that is most efficient and cost effective as possible. This is done by various means which include:
a) The original conceptual plan can help determine the feasibility of the project and give an idea of the estimated cost of
the project.
b) It serves as a reasonable, understandable document upon which contractors and subcontractors can make realistic bids
on the project.
c) It makes binding agreements with subcontractors. When a subcontractor signs the agreed-upon construction schedule,
they are committing to meeting its terms.
d) It gives the owner of the project a realistic timeline by which he can expect his project to be completed. It lays out the
sequence of events and the process that will be followed by the construction Company and subcontractors, making it
easier for him to monitor.
e) It serves as a map and scheduling tool for the project manager, who can use it to schedule work crews, time deliveries
and equipment rentals and monitor the progress in case of needed changes.
f) It becomes a daily, weekly and monthly benchmark of the actual progress on the project as the construction
subcontractors and crew leaders enter finished jobs and concerns.
g) It serves as a base plan for any changes that might have to be made due to unforeseen circumstances, unexpected
delays (or completion ahead of schedule – it can happen!), or owner changes and additions.
h) When coupled with communication and project management software, it is an effective, efficient way to track
progress, and flag trouble spots before they become critical.
i) It serves as documentation of work completed as the concerned parties sign off on agreed upon completion.
j) In the event of dispute or questions, it can serve as legal documentation of the actual history and events of the
construction.
k) After project completion, it can serve as a guide in future projects through post-completion analysis.
3.4 Traditional Construction Planning and Scheduling Tool
According to Fox, et al. they noted that scheduling and planning did not receive serious attention as it is today not till
1980.The advantages to using a complete construction planning and scheduling technique include: immediate field
updates such as realistic revisions, input from those actually completing the work and a stronger investment in completing
the work according to schedule and on time.
The use of internet access onsite and within to the construction schedule and communication capabilities give the project
leadership the tools they need to provide adequate construction supervision that is responsive and decisive. The most
common traditional technique used is the Gantt or bar chart for smaller projects, but as the cost of the projects increases
and becomes more demanding organizations tends to go for critical path technique or artificial intelligent based
techniques.
3.4.1 Gantt Charts
Callahan, et al. (1992) defined bar charts as a collection of activities listed in a vertical column with time represented on a
horizontal scale. Bar charts describe durations, start time and finish times of a particular project or activities in a
chronological order.
Prior to Henry L. Gantt, planning and scheduling were undertaken without a formal procedure or method. Henry
developed the Gant chart during World War I which is now commonly referred to as bar chart. This tool is more because
of its simplicity, easy to prepare and has a clearly understandable format but they equally have limitations.
Wickwire, et al. (2003) gave a detailed list of disadvantages of the limitations of the tool which include:
a) Size limits a bar chart in what it can graphically present.
b) Bar charts do not show the interrelationships or interdependencies of one bar to another.
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c) Bar charts do not show the available float or contingency time, nor can they show the delay impact of one bar
on another.
d) Bar charts are not capable of accurately distributing or controlling manpower and project costs.
e) Adding more detail to the bar chart makes it harder to read, understand, and maintain.
Callahan, et al. (1992) finally added that bar charts cannot show the logical relationships among activities and that when
there are continuous relationships between many activities, a bar chart becomes difficult to prepare schedule
correctly.
3.4.2 Critical Path Method (CPM)
Between the years 1958 to 1961, the Critical Path Methods was developed by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours Company in
conjunction with UNIVAC Applications Research Center of Remington Rand. This technique was first implemented
in construction projects in 1961. However, in project management, the Critical Path Method (CPM) is a planning,
scheduling and controlling tool which if properly implemented it will speed up the completion of projects on time.
Wickwire, et al. (2003) described CPM as a graphic representation of the planned sequence of activities that shows the
relationship between elements used in a project. Before this technique was used it was introduced as planning as a
planning tool which was later improved on with additional functions which appeared as proving delay claims and this
function is as a result of CPM been capable of showing the picture of the project and changes.
3.4.3 Knowledge Management Method
As the construction industry continues to experience a change in paradigm to adopt new ways to improve competitiveness
by adopting a proper scheduling and planning method which uses good practices, advanced construction techniques and
optimize resource utilization. Egbu et al. (2002) emphasized the need of knowledge management which is about
mobilizing the intangible assets of an organization, which are of greater significance in the context of organizational
change than its tangible assets, such as Information Technology (IT). They further added that information technology (IT)
should be understood less in its capacity to store explicit information and more in its potential to aid relationship among
individuals.
The systematic capture and coordination of knowledge makes it easier to share and re-use knowledge so that it can be
create cordial relationship among its employees. Egbu at al.(2005) stated that without doubt knowledge management
improve competitiveness in the process of planning and scheduling if awareness is created within the organization. He
identified various potential benefits of KM as follows:
3.4.4 Neural Network technique
Neural Network (NN) methods are traditionally used for forecasting, classification, pattern recognition and data mining
and very small number of applicability have been found in the planning and scheduling processes. In planning and
scheduling neural networks approach can be used for the purpose of optimizing the process. In normal cases it can be used
for predictive scheduling as in the reactive scheduling because it quite sensitive to changing conditions. In cases when
there are changes in the condition of scheduling and planning then neural network is necessary to be incorporated in the
design to address the changing situation. In planning and scheduling neural network uses the following scheme for
problem solving by decomposing the main problem which is:
a) Choose a variant for every job.
b) Choose a resource for every job.
c) Choose a time slot for jobs and resources.
3.4.5 Fuzzy-Logic Method
The fuzzy logic introduced Dr. Lofti Zadeh in the 1960 has been applied here to provides the possibility in order to cope
with the incompleteness and dynamic behavior of scheduling and planning. Applying the different fuzzy sets, linguistic

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variables and fuzzy rules (inferences engines), allows representation of the ambiguous formulated knowledge. The
following types of information can be represented efficiently by using this artificial intelligent method.
a) Uncertain values for the scheduling parameters e.g. process time.
b) Vague specifications of preferences, e.g. preferences between various kinds of alternatives.
c) Uncertain definition of the due date and durations of the jobs etc
The following steps are carried out when representing imprecise information.
a) First the scheduling data is transformed into a knowledge representation for the fuzzification. The uncertain
knowledge is represented by the linguistic variables such as, very low, low, high, very high etc.
b) The actual processing is done based on the fuzzy scheduling knowledge by using the rules along with the integration
of fuzzy arithmetic. These are stored in the knowledge base of fuzzy controller.
c) Final step is transforming the fuzzy scheduling decisions into the crisp scheduling data for determining the concrete
knowledge
3.5 Responsibility for Schedule Preparation
In order to meet the requirements of a particular construction plan there must be an agreement of the owner, construction
manager, sub-contractors and designers. From the above reason it is important that the owner or construction manager to
have the support of every major player in the project during the design stages of the construction schedule. During the
early stages of the bidding process it pays to be open to suggestions and communication. Because better communication
allows the plan to be refined based on the experience and capabilities of those who have tackled similar work in the past.
This kind of communication creates the free will for every subcontractor who makes a successful bid has a realistic stake
in the project because they feel they helped define the tasks and timetable. Without proper communication updating the
planning and schedule regularly becomes a time wasting effort in their minds.
3.5.1 The Clients / Owners
These people fund the construction project and own the completed facilities. The owner is assisted by consultants who, in
turn, specify the scope of the construction project. In some cases the owners tend to specify the detailed layout of the
facility, the type of materials to be used and all that.
The owner is assisted by some of the parties described below. And, depending on the technical expertise of his or her own
staff, he or she may inspect the project work from conception to completion. The golden rule in the construction process
is "He who has the gold makes the rules." As the owner controls the purse strings, he or she dictates the kind of contract
that will be used and selects the other parties to the project.
3.5.2 The Construction Manager
This person is employed by the owner with result of his experience in an organization to perform predesigned planning, to
help select the designer, to help select contractors, and to perform post-contract award functions which he is paid for.
When an owner contracts the services of a construction manager as his agent, the construction manager is primarily
responsible for the overall planning and scheduling of the project. The construction manager may prepare an overall
detailed master schedule for the project.
3.5.3 The Designers
They may be the employees of an architect or engineering organization. They design to satisfy the need of the owner
utilizing all building standards and codes necessary. The designer may be retained by the owner to act as his or her
representative in inspecting the project work, to review and approve materials that the contractor proposes to use in the
work, to review and recommend contractor requests for progress payments, and to perform other functions on behalf of
the owner.

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3.5.4 The Contractor and Sub-contractors

These are individuals or firms that are responsible for performing construction work for an owner in return for a contract
fee. Contractors may fall into the category of prime contractors and subcontractors. Prime contractors have a contractual
relationship with the owner while subcontractors have a contractual relationship with the prime contractor or with another
subcontractor.
General contractors are prime contractors who contract to perform ail of the required work, possibly excluding some
specialty items such as electrical and mechanical work that the owners desire to contract directly with the specialty
contractors. The contractor or subcontractor has a certain task to perform, either personally or by use of his staff such
function as home office or field functions.
3.5.5 The Design-Build Firm
The term is usually reserved for organizations that perform both design and construction functions, but such an
organization may also perform planning functions.
3.6 Sources of Planning Work Schedule
There are many methods employed in project planning and scheduling. Traditionally, planning and scheduling used to
take the table form which comprises from a date list, starting or completed information, which are provided by the
management. Regardless of the methods adopted, the decisions made will require the collection of data on materials,
machineries, equipments, manpower, finance and time which are explained briefly below.
3.6.1 Construction Materials
In the process of planning and scheduling, the measurement of quantities by the quantity surveyors from building plans
and specifications can be summarized to determine the particular quantity and types of materials that is needed for a
construction project. The material availability should be obtained from experience material suppliers.
3.6.2 Machineries and Equipments
For safety procedures to be adequately adhered to, the machineries and equipment which are needed in a construction
project will depend on the appropriate type and the method of scheduling and planning required. The delivery time must
be made available after the machinery or equipment has been selected such as cranes, cement mixers, steel bar cutter and
steel bar, bending machines for structural works are required during the execution of the work scheduling. This process is
necessary to prevent machineries from staying idle, which may increase cost.
3.6.3 Labor and Manpower
Labor and manpower are valuable assets in construction projects. Without labor, a project can become abandoned and the
contract may be terminated by the contractor. However, labor should be taken into account during planning and
scheduling in order to ensure the participation of the labor which is include skilled work force is utilized to the maximum
level.
3.6.4 Finance
The allocation of finance must be properly utilized for the cost of the supply of construction materials, labor and
machineries. In the case of financial difficulties it must be resolved to ensure that the construction project can be carried
out smoothly.
3.6.5 Time
Time is the most important element which must be carefully monitored and taken into consideration on the process of
planning and scheduling. The owners will normally check for starting dates, completed dates during the contract
submissions by the contractors.
The time require for the construction materials to be delivered to site should be monitored and must be on time on a
specified schedule date. This will reduce wastage, cost and fulfill workers demand. A proper understanding of the project
requirements will enable a more effective and efficient materials handling at site.
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3.7 Summary
With the aid of new technological advances today, it is possible to allow everything from instant communication to actual
web camera supervision of the job site. The ability to update and make changes as soon as new information is available
reduces delays and allows everyone to make the best use of their time. To take full advantage of the capabilities of
construction schedule and project planning methods knowledge management can be adopted to foster a team attitude that
encourages everyone to get fully involved to take ownership of the plan.
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