Anno Mundi

Anno Mundi (from Latin "in the year of the

world"; Hebrew: ‫לבריאת העולם‬,
romanized: Livryat haOlam, lit. 'to the
creation of the world'), abbreviated as AM
or A.M., or Year After Creation,[1] is a
calendar era based on the biblical
accounts of the creation of the world and
subsequent history. Two such calendar
eras have seen notable use historically:
Since the Middle Ages, the Hebrew
calendar has been based on rabbinic
calculations of the year of creation from
the Hebrew Masoretic Text of the Bible.
This calendar is used within Jewish
communities for religious purposes and
is one of two official calendars in Israel.
In the Hebrew calendar, the day begins
at sunset. The calendar's epoch,
corresponding to the calculated date of
the world's creation, is equivalent to
sunset on the Julian proleptic calendar
date 6 October 3761 BC.[2] The new year
begins at Rosh Hashanah, in Tishrei.
Anno mundi 5783 (meaning the 5,783rd
year since the creation of the world)
began at sunset on 25 September 2022
according to the Gregorian calendar.[3]

The Byzantine calendar was used in the

Eastern Roman Empire and many
Christian Orthodox countries and
Eastern Orthodox Churches and was
based on the Septuagint text of the
Bible. That calendar is similar to the
Julian calendar except that its reference
date is equivalent to 1 September 5509
BC on the Julian proleptic calendar.
A Jewish gravestone using the Year After Creation (Anno Mundi) chronology, found just outside the Rotunda of
Thessaloniki[1]

Calendar Today

Hebrew 21 Adar 5783

Gregorian 14 March 2023

Julian 1 March 2023

Inscription in Ballybough Cemetery, Ireland, indicating Anno Mundi 5618 (AD 1857)

While both calendars reputedly counted

the number of years since the creation of
the world, the primary reason for their
disparity lies in which underlying biblical
text is chosen (the Earth seems to have
been created roughly around 5500 BC
based on the Greek Septuagint text, and
about 3760 BC based on the Hebrew
Masoretic text). Most of the 1,732-year
difference resides in numerical
discrepancies in the genealogies of the
two versions of the Book of Genesis.
Patriarchs from Adam to Terah, the father
of Abraham, are said to be older by as
much as 100 years or more when they
begat their named son in the Greek
Septuagint[4][5] than they were in the Latin
Vulgate,[6] or the Hebrew Tanakh.[7] The net
difference between the two major
genealogies of Genesis is 1,466 years
(ignoring the "second year after the flood"
ambiguity), 85% of the total difference.
(See Dating creation.)

There are also discrepancies between

methods of dating based on the text of the
Bible vs. modern academic dating of
landmark events used to calibrate year
counts, such as the destruction of the First
Temple—see Missing years (Jewish
calendar).

Jewish tradition
During the Talmudic era, from the 1st to
the 10th centuries CE (38th - 48th
centuries AM), the center of the Jewish
world was in the Middle East, primarily in
the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and
Syria Palaestina. Jews in these regions
used Seleucid Era dating (also known as
the "Anno Graecorum (AG)" or the "Era of
Contracts") as the primary method for
calculating the calendar year.[8] For
example, the writings of Josephus and the
Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid
Era dating exclusively, and the Talmud
tractate Avodah Zarah states:

Rav Aha b. Jacob then put this

question: How do we know that
our Era [of Documents] is
connected with the Kingdom of
Greece at all? Why not say that
it is reckoned from the Exodus
from Egypt, omitting the first
thousand years and giving the
years of the next thousand? In
that case, the document is really
post-dated! Said Rav Nahman:
In the Diaspora the Greek Era
alone is used. He [the
questioner] thought that Rav
Nahman wanted to dispose of
him anyhow, but when he went
and studied it thoroughly he
found that it is indeed taught [in
 a Baraita]: In the Diaspora the
Greek Era alone is used.[9]

Other epochs: 3760 BCE

Occasionally in Talmudic writings,

reference was made to other starting
points for eras, such as Destruction Era
dating,[a] being the number of years since
the 70 CE destruction of the Second
Temple, and the number of years since the
Creation year based on the calculation in
the Seder Olam Rabbah of Rabbi Jose ben
Halafta in about 160 CE.[10] By his
calculation, based on the Masoretic Text,
Adam and Eve were created on 1st of
Tishrei (Rosh Hashanah Day 1) in 3760
BCE,[11][12][13] later confirmed by the
Muslim chronologist al-Biruni as 3,448
years before the Seleucid era.[14] An
example is the c. 8th-century CE Baraita of
Samuel.

In the 8th and 9th centuries CE, the center

of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to
Europe, so calculations from the Seleucid
era "became meaningless".[8] From the
11th century, anno mundi dating became
dominant throughout most of the world's
Jewish communities, replacing the
Seleucid dating system.[8][15] The new
system reached its definitive form in 1178
when Maimonides completed the Mishneh
Torah. In the section Sanctification of the
Moon (11.16), he wrote of his choice of
Epoch, from which calculations of all
dates should be made, as "the third day of
Nisan in this present year ... which is the
year 4938 of the creation of the world" (22
March 1178).[16] He included all the rules
for the calculated calendar epoch and their
scriptural basis, including the modern
epochal year in his work, and establishing
the final formal usage of the anno mundi
era.

The first year of the Jewish calendar, Anno

Mundi 1 (AM 1), began about one year
before creation, so that year is also called
the Year of emptiness. The first five days
of Jewish creation week occupy the last
five days of AM 1, Elul 25–29. The sixth
day of creation, when Adam and Eve were
created, is the first day of AM 2, Rosh
Hashanah (1 Tishrei). Its associated
molad Adam (molad VaYaD) occurred on
Day 6 (yom Vav) at 14 (Yud Daled) hours
(and 0 parts). A year earlier, the first day of
AM 1, Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), is
associated with molad tohu (new moon of
chaos), so named because it occurred
before creation when everything was still
chaotic—it is also translated as the new
moon of nothing. This is also called molad
BaHaRaD, because it occurred on Day 2
(yom Beis), 5 (Hei) hours, 204 (Reish
Daled) parts (11:11:20 pm[17]). Because
this is just before midnight when the
Western day begins, but after 6 pm when
the Jewish calendrical day begins
(equivalent to the next tabular day with the
same daylight period), its Julian calendar
date is 6–7 October 3761 BCE (Gregorian:
6–7 September 3761 BCE or
−3760).[18][19][20]
Greek tradition

The inscription over the Bevis Marks Synagogue, City of London, gives a year in Anno Mundi (5461) and Anno Domini
(1701).

The Septuagint was the most scholarly

non-Hebrew version of the Old Testament
available to early Christians. Many
converts already spoke Greek, and it was
readily adopted as the preferred
vernacular-language rendering for the
eastern Roman Empire. The later Latin
translation called the Vulgate, an
interpretative translation from Hebrew and
other Greek sources, replaced it in the
west after its completion by St. Jerome c.
405, Latin being the most common
vernacular language in those regions.

Earliest Christian chronology

The earliest extant Christian writings on

the age of the world according to the
biblical chronology were therefore based
on the Septuagint, due to its early
availability. They can be found in the
Apology to Autolycus (Apologia ad
Autolycum) by Theophilus (AD 115–181),
the sixth bishop of Antioch,[21] and the Five
Books of Chronology by Sextus Julius
Africanus (AD 200–245).[22]

Theophilus presents a detailed chronology

"from the foundation of the world" to
emperor Marcus Aurelius.[21] His
chronology begins with the biblical first
man Adam through to emperor Marcus
Aurelius, in whose reign Theophilus lived.
The chronology puts the creation of the
world at about 5529 BC: "All the years from
the creation of the world amount to a total
of 5,698 years."[21] No mention of Jesus is
made in his chronology.

Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the

writings of the Church Fathers on this
subject are of vital significance (even
though he disagrees with their
chronological system based on the
authenticity of the Septuagint, as
compared to that of the Hebrew text), in
that through the Christian chronographers
a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical
chronographers[b] is preserved:

An immense intellectual effort

was expended during the
Hellenistic period by both Jews
and pagans to date creation, the
flood, exodus, building of the
Temple ... In the course of their
studies, men such as Tatian of
Antioch (flourished in 180),
Clement of Alexandria (died
before 215), Hippolytus of Rome
(died in 235), Sextus Julius
Africanus of Jerusalem (died
after 240), Eusebius of Caesarea
in Palestine (260–340), and
Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted
their predecessors, the Graeco-
 Jewish biblical chronographers
of the Hellenistic period, thereby
allowing discernment of more
distant scholarship.[23]

The Chronicon of Eusebius (early 4th

century) and Jerome (c. 380,
Constantinople) dated creation to 5199
BC.[24][25] Earlier editions of the Roman
Martyrology for Christmas Day used this
date,[26] as did the Irish Annals of the Four
Masters.[27]
Alexandrian era

The Alexandrian era, which was conceived

and calculated in AD 412, was the
precursor to the use of the Byzantine era.
After the initial attempts of Hippolytus,
Clement of Alexandria, and others the
Alexandrian computation of the date of
creation was calculated to be 25 March
5493 BC.[28]

The Alexandrian monk Panodorus

reckoned 5,904 years from Adam to AD
412. His years began on 29 August, which
corresponded to the First of Thoth, the first
day of the Egyptian calendar.[29] Annianus
of Alexandria, however, preferred the
Annunciation style for New Year's Day, i. e.,
25 March, and shifted Panodorus' era by
circa six months to begin on 25 March.
This created the Alexandrian era, whose
first day was the first day of the proleptic[c]
Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29
August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical
year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC.

This system presents in a

masterly sort of way the
mystical coincidence of the three
main dates of the world's
history: the beginning of
Creation, the Incarnation, and
the Resurrection of Christ. All
these events happened,
according to the Alexandrian
chronology, on the 25th of
March; furthermore, the first
two events were separated by
the period of exactly 5500 years;
the first and the third one
occurred on Sunday – the sacred
day of the beginning of the
Creation and its renovation
through Christ.[30]
Dionysius of Alexandria had earlier
emphatically quoted mystical justifications
for the choice of 25 March as the
beginning of the year:

25 March was considered to be

the anniversary of Creation
itself. It was the first day of the
year in the medieval Julian
calendar and the nominal vernal
equinox (it had been the actual
equinox at the time when the
Julian calendar was originally
designed). Considering that
Christ was conceived at that
 date turned March 25 into the
Feast of the Annunciation which
had to be followed, nine months
later, by the celebration of the
birth of Christ, Christmas, on 25
December.

Church fathers such as Maximus the

Confessor and Theophanes the Confessor,
and chroniclers such as George Syncellus
adopted the Alexandrian Era of 25 March
5493 BC. Its striking mysticism made it
popular in Byzantium, especially in
monasteries. However, this masterpiece of
Christian symbolism had two grave
problems, namely historical inaccuracy
regarding the date of the Resurrection as
determined by its Easter computus,[d] and
its contradiction of the chronology of the
Gospel of Saint John regarding the date of
the Crucifixion on Friday after the
Passover.[30]

Chronicon Paschale

A new variant of the World Era was

suggested in the Chronicon Paschale, a
valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of
the world, composed about the year AD
630 by some representative of the
Antiochian scholarly tradition.[30] It dates
the creation of Adam to 21 March 5507
BC.

For its influence on Greek Christian

chronology, and also because of its wide
scope, the Chronicon Paschale takes its
place beside Eusebius, and the chronicle
of the monk Georgius Syncellus[31] which
was so important in the Middle Ages; but
in respect of form it is inferior to these
works.[32]

Adoption of Byzantine era

The Byzantine Anno Mundi era was the

official calendar of the Eastern Orthodox
Church from c. AD 691 to 1728 in the
Ecumenical Patriarchate. By the late 10th
century the Byzantine era, which had
become fixed at 1 September 5509 BC
since at least the mid-7th century
(differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian
date, and by 2 years from the Chronicon
Paschale), had become the widely
accepted calendar by Chalcedonian
Christianity. The Byzantine era was used
as the civil calendar by the Byzantine
Empire from AD 988 to 1453, and by
Russia from c. AD 988 to 1700.

The computation was derived from the

Septuagint version of the Bible, and placed
the date of creation at 5509 years before
the Incarnation, which was later taken to
mean 5509 BC when conversions to the
Christian era were desired. With a new
year date of September 1, which coincides
with the beginning of the Orthodox
liturgical year, its epoch became 1
September 5509 BC (Julian), and year AM
1 thus lasted until 31 August 5508 BC. The
"year of creation" was generally expressed
in Greek in the Byzantine calendar as Etos
Kosmou, literally "year of the universe".
Western church

Western Christianity never fully adopted an

Anno Mundi epoch system, and did not at
first produce chronologies based on the
Vulgate that were in contrast to the
Eastern calculations from the Septuagint.
Since the Vulgate was not completed until
only a few years before the sack of Rome
by the Goths, there was little time for such
developments before the political
upheavals that followed in the West.
Whatever the reasons, the West eventually
came to rely instead on the independently
developed Anno Domini (AD) epoch
system. AM dating did continue to be of
interest for liturgical reasons; however,
since it was of direct relevance to the
calculation of the Nativity of Jesus (AM
5197–5199) and the Passion of Christ
(AM 5228–5231). For example, Bede in his
World-Chronicle (Chapter 66 of his De
Temporum Ratione, On the Reckoning of
Time), dated all events using an epoch he
derived from the Vulgate which set the
birth of Christ as AM 3952.[33][34][35] In his
Letter to Plegwin, Bede explained the
difference between the two epochs.[36]

In popular culture
In 1990, heavy metal band Black Sabbath
wrote and recorded the song "Anno Mundi"
for the opening track of Tyr, their fifteenth
studio album. Drawing parallels between
the creation of the world and the present
day, vocalist Tony Martin has elaborated
on the inspiration behind it: "In the year of
the world, people are all trying to save the
planet, or they say they are trying to save
the planet, but really it’s just talk and
everything carries on the same until the
world destructs. Almost every line is a
question, to which there is an answer, but
like a questionnaire, everybody’s answer
will be different", he wrote.[37]

See also
Anno Lucis
 Chronology of the Bible

Dating creation

Epoch (reference date)

References

Notes

a. Avodah Zarah, tractate 9 (http://www.hala

khah.com/zarah/zarah_9.html) Footnote:
"The Eras in use among Jews in Talmudic
Times are: (a) ERA OF CONTRACTS [H]
dating from the year 380 before the
Destruction of the Second Temple (312–1
BCE) when, at the Battle of Gaza, Seleucus
Nicator, one of the followers of Alexander
the Great, gained dominion over Palestine.
It is also termed Seleucid or Greek Era [H].
Its designation as Alexandrian Era
connecting it with Alexander the Great
(Maim. Yad, Gerushin 1, 27) is an
anachronism, since Alexander died in 323
BCE — eleven years before this Era began
(v. E. Mahler, Handbuch der judischen
Chronologie, p. 145). This Era, which is
first mentioned in Mac. I, 10, and was
used by notaries or scribes for dating all
civil contracts, was generally in vogue in
eastern countries till the 16th cent, and
was employed even in the 19th cent,
among the Jews of Yemen, in South
Arabia (Eben Saphir, Lyck, 1866, p. 62b).
(b) THE ERA OF THE DESTRUCTION (of
the Second Temple) [H] the year 1 of
which corresponds to 381 of the Seleucid
Era, and 69–70 of the Christian Era. This
Era was mainly employed by the Rabbis
and was in use in Palestine for several
centuries, and even in the later Middle
Ages documents were dated by it. One of
the recently discovered Genizah
documents bears the date 13 Tammuz
987 after the Destruction of the Temple —
i.e. 917 C.E. — (Op. cit. p. 152, also
Marmorstein ZDMG, Vol. VI, p. 640). The
difference between the two Eras as far as
the tens and units are concerned is thus
20. If therefore a Tanna, say in the year
156 Era of Dest. (225 C.E.), while
remembering, naturally, the century, is
uncertain about the tens and units, he
should ask the notary what year it is
 according to his — Seleucid — era. He will
get the answer 536 (156 + 380), on adding
20 to which he would get 556, the last two
figures giving him the year [1] 56 of the Era
of Destruction."

b. Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275–194 BC)

represented contemporary Alexandrian
scholarship; Eupolemus, a Palestinian Jew
and a friend of Judah Maccabee, writing in
158 BC, is said to have been the first
historian who synchronized Greek history
in accordance with the theory of the
Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the
1st century BC, a world chronicle had
synchronized Jewish and Greek history
and had gained international circulation:
Alexander Polyhistor (flourishing in 85–35
 BC); Varro (116–27 BC); Ptolemy priest of
Mendes (50 BC), who is cited by Tatian
(Oratio ad Graecos, 38); Apion (1st century
AD); Thrasyllus (before AD 36); and
Thallus (1st century AD) – all cited
chronicles which had incorporated the
dates of the Noachite flood and the
exodus. (Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. "Biblical
Chronology in the Hellenistic World
Chronicles". in The Harvard Theological
Review, Vol.61, No.3 (July 1968), pp. 451–
452.

c. A calendar obtained by extension earlier in

time than its invention or implementation;
it is denominated the "proleptic" version of
the calendar.
 d. In the commonly used 19‐year Easter
moon cycle, there was no year when the
Passover (the first spring full moon, Nisan
14) would coincide with Friday and the
traditional date of the Passion, 25 March;
according to Alexandrian system the date
would have to have been Anno Mundi
5533 = 42(!)AD.

Citations

1. Benjaminson, Chanii. "How old was Moses

when The Torah was given at Mount Sinai"
(http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cd
o/aid/476253/jewish/How-old-was-Moses
-when-the-Torah-was-given.htm) . Chabad-
Lubavitch Media Center. Retrieved
15 February 2013.
2. Dershowitz, Nachum; Reingold, Edward M.
(1997), Calendrical Calculations (1st ed.),
Cambridge University Press, p. 11, ISBN 0-
521-56474-3

3. "Hebrew Date Converter" (https://www.he

bcal.com/converter?hd=1&hm=Tishrei&hy
=5783&h2g=1) . hebcal.com. Retrieved
26 September 2022.

4. "Septuagint Genesis – 5" (http://www.ello

pos.net/elpenor/physis/septuagint-genesi
s/5.asp) . The Greek Old Testament
(Septuagint). Elpenor. Retrieved
15 February 2013.
5. "Septuagint Genesis – 11" (http://www.ell
opos.net/elpenor/physis/septuagint-gene
sis/11.asp) . The Greek Old Testament
(Septuagint). Elpenor. Retrieved
15 February 2013.

6. Genesis 5 (https://www.biblegateway.co
m/passage/?search=Genesis+5&version=
4) ; Genesis 11 (https://www.biblegatewa
y.com/passage/?search=Genesis+11&ver
sion=4)

7. Gen 5 (https://mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et
0105.htm#1) ; Gen 11 (https://mechon-m
amre.org/e/et/et0111.htm#1)
 8. Jones, Dr. Floyd Nolen (2005). Chronology
of the Old Testament (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=AvVPlyYjX7YC&pg=PA29
5) . New Leaf. pp. 295–. ISBN 978-1-
61458-210-6.

9. Atenebris Adsole. "Avodah Zarah, tractate

10" (http://www.halakhah.com/zarah/zara
h_10.html) . Halakhah.com. Retrieved
2013-08-24.

10. Kantor 1993, p. 107.

11. "Birthday of Adam & Eve (3760 BCE)" (htt

p://www.chabad.org/calendar/view/day_c
do/aid/150485/jewish/Adam-Eve.htm) .
Jewish History. Chabad-Lubavitch Media
Center. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
12. "Creation (3761 BCE)" (http://www.chaba
d.org/calendar/view/day_cdo/aid/15682
0/jewish/Creation.htm) . Jewish History.
Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. Retrieved
15 February 2013.

13. "To find the corresponding Jewish year for

any year on the Gregorian calendar, add
3760 to the Gregorian number, if it is
before Rosh Hashanah. After Rosh
Hashanah, add 3761. " "The Jewish year"
(http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cd
o/aid/526875/jewish/The-Jewish-Year.ht
m) . About the Jewish Calendar. Chabad-
Lubavitch Media Center. Retrieved
15 February 2013.

14. See The Remaining Signs of Past

Centuries.
15. Mosshammer, Alden A. (16 October
2008). The Easter Computus and the
Origins of the Christian Era, Alden A.
Mosshammer (https://books.google.com/
books?id=0umDqPOf2L8C&pg=PA87) .
ISBN 9780191562365. Retrieved
2013-08-24.

16. Solomon Gandz, Date of Composition of

Maimonides Code (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/3622160) , Proceedings of the
American Academy for Jewish Research,
17 (1947–1948), pp. 1–7.

17. In Jerusalem local time – 8:50:23.1 UTC

18. "Calendar — when does it start" (http://stra

ngeside.com/calendar-when-does-it-star
t/) . strangeside.com. Retrieved
October 23, 2015.
19. Tøndering, Claus (2014). "The Hebrew
Calendar" (http://www.tondering.dk/claus/
cal/hebrew.php) . www.tondering.dk.
Retrieved October 23, 2015.

20. Landau, Remy (February 16, 2005). "Is

Creation at AM 1 or AM 2?" (http://hebrew
calendar.tripod.com/luachmail.html#02
9) . hebrewcalendar.tripod.com. Retrieved
October 23, 2015.
21. Theophilus of Antioch. Theophilus of
Antioch to Autolycus. Book III. Chapters
XXIV (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf
02.iv.ii.iii.xxiv.html) (Adam—Samuel), XXV
(http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.iv.
ii.iii.xxv.html) (Saul—Cyrus), XXVII (http://
www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.iv.ii.iii.xx
vii.html) (Cyrus—M. Aurelius Verus),
Chap. XXVIII (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/sc
haff/anf02.iv.ii.iii.xxviii.html) (Adam—M.
Aurelius Verus).
22. Sextus Julius Africanus. Extant Writings
III. The Extant Fragments of the Five
Books of the Chronography of Julius
Africanus. Chapters III—VII (http://www.cc
el.org/ccel/schaff/anf06/Page_131.htm
l) , XI—XII (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaf
f/anf06/Page_132.html) , XIII (http://www.
ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf06.v.v.xiii.html) ,
XIV—XV (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/
anf06/Page_134.html) , XVI (http://www.c
cel.org/ccel/schaff/anf06.v.v.xvi.html) ,
XVII (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf
06.v.v.xvii.html) , XVIII (http://www.ccel.or
g/ccel/schaff/anf06.v.v.xviii.html) .
23. Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. "Biblical
Chronology in the Hellenistic World
Chronicles". The Harvard Theological
Review, Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp. 451–
452.

24. Barney, Stephen A. (2006). The Penn

Commentary on Piers Plowman, Volume
5: C Passus 20-22; B Passus 18-20 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=sKsC-txu
JIEC&pg=PA69) . University of
Pennsylvania Press. pp. 69–. ISBN 0-
8122-3921-0.
25. Fourth Century (http://www.geocities.co
m/Heartland/Pines/7224/Rick/chron4.ht
m) (see 327 Eusebius of Caesarea).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
091020085419/http://geocities.com/Hear
tland/Pines/7224/Rick/chron4.htm)
2009-10-25.

26. Howlett, J. A. (1908). "Biblical

Chronology"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wi
ki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Biblical_
Chronology) . In Herbermann, Charles
(ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New
York: Robert Appleton Company.
27. from AM 5194 in the Annals at CELT (htt
p://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100005A/
text025.html) — University College Cork's
Corpus of Electronic Texts project has the
full text of the annals online, both in the
original Irish and in O'Donovan's
translation

28. Elias J Bickerman (1980). Chronology of

the Ancient World (Aspects of Greek &
Roman Life) (https://archive.org/details/c
hronologyofanci00bick/page/73) (2nd
sub ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press.
p. 73 (https://archive.org/details/chronolo
gyofanci00bick/page/73) . ISBN 0-8014-
1282-X.
29. Rev. Philip Schaff (1819–1893), ed. "Era".
Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious
Knowledge. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908–
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