Tech Gr9 Eng TG 2017ED Lowres PDF

TECHNOLOGY
GRADE 7
TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9
2017 EDITION
GRADE 9
2017 EDITION
Teacher Guide
ISBN XXXXXX
TECHNOLOGY
GRADE 8
2017 EDITION
2017 EDITION
Teacher Guide
ISBN XXXXXX
TECHNOLOGY
GRADE 9
2017 EDITION
Teacher Guide
Teacher Guide
Teacher Guide
ISBN XXXXXX
TECHNOLOGY
Grade 9
CAPS
Teacher Guide
2017 Edition
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Contributors:
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Table of contents
Term 3
Chapter 11:
Term 1 Component symbols and simple circuits ........................................... 174
Chapter 1: Chapter 12:
Orthographic drawing ......................................................................... 2 Resistors and Ohm’s Law .................................................................... 194
Chapter 2: Chapter 13:
Provide for wheelchairs ...................................................................... 14 Electronic components 1 ..................................................................... 206
Chapter 14:
Chapter 3:
Electronic components 2 .................................................................... 220
Structures, forces and materials .......................................................... 26
Chapter 15:
Chapter 4 Mini-PAT:
Build and draw electronic circuits ..................................................... 232
A bridge to help the community ........................................................ 46
Chapter 16 Mini-PAT:
Term 2 Electronic systems and control .......................................................... 246
Chapter 5: Term 4
Hydraulics and pneumatics ................................................................ 70
Chapter 17:
Chapter 6:
Preserving metals ................................................................................. 274
Hydraulic machines ............................................................................. 84
Chapter 18:
Chapter 7:
Extending the shelf life of food .......................................................... 290
Pulleys and controllers ........................................................................ 102
Chapter 19:
Chapter 8:
Plastics .................................................................................................. 306
Gears ..................................................................................................... 122
Chapter 20:
Chapter 9:
Recycling and manufacturing with recycled plastic ......................... 318
Mechanisms at home .......................................................................... 144
Reduce, re-use and recycle: Working with plastics ........................... 328
Mechanical systems and control ........................................................ 156
Minimum materials and tools needed for technology activities Materials to be bought by schools
Learners need to bring their own basic writing and drawing tools to class, as well as some waste
materials that will be reused. But the school should provide all the other materials and tools listed below.
Not all the materials and tools will be used in every chapter. At the start of each chapter there is a list
of the specific tools and materials required for that chapter.
Important: The teacher should read about the required materials and tools for a chapter
at least one week before that chapter starts. This will ensure that there is enough time for the
✔ ✘
teacher to put the necessary materials and tools together, and time for the learners to gather the
materials they have to bring to school.
Tools to be bought by learners Big, strong scissors/ kitchen snips (buy in bulk at about R15 New 180 gsm cardboard in
(Necessary for all Technology classes) each). DO NOT USE SMALL CHEAP SCISSORS! different colours (much thinner
than cereal box cardboard, and
easier the cut and fold)
Geometry instruments: compass,

protractor, set squares (30° and 45°)
Masking tape Wood glue (glue stick like Prestik (masking tape can be used
'Pritt' is optional) instead if this is not available)
Pen, pencil, sharpener, eraser,

ruler (30 cm) Calculators
Materials to be sourced by learners

(reuse packaging materials etc.)
String (cotton, 2-3 mm) Copper wire, 1 mm (this bends Galvanised steel, wire 1 mm
easily by hand and can be (optional: if pliers or other tools
cut with scissors; buy from for cutting and bending wire are
hardware store) available)
Left: New 180 gsm cardboard in different colours Cardboard tubes from rolls
(optional, only if learners can afford it). Middle: Reused of toilet paper, foil, etc.
Cardboard (thick cardboard like that used for cereal
boxes). Right: Corrugated cardboard (single layer)
Electric and electronic equipment and materials to be supplied by
schools (in addition to the equipment and materials also needed in
Grades 7 and 8)
Nails (1 mm, 2 mm, 4 Syringes (buy from a pharmacy, Paper clips Diodes
mm, and 6 mm diameters; different diameters)
minimum lengths between Pipe to use with syringes (buy
3 cm and 8 cm) from a pet shop, for fish tanks)
Paper fasteners (split pins, Tooth picks (buy in bulk) Drinking straws (buy in bulk)
optional, may need to go to
specialist stationary or art
shop to buy)
Capacitors Light dependent
resistors (LDR's)
Push button switches
Light emitting diodes (LED's)

Single-pole, double-throw
(SPDT) switches
Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switches
Thermistors
Transistors Variable resistors

TERM 1 Materials required for this chapter:
pencil
Chapter 1 eraser
coloured pencils for shading
Orthographic drawing ruler
1.1 About orthographic drawings

LB page 1 The learners can get an excellent idea of what they are going to learn in this chapter by looking
closely at the illustrations on pages 1, 2 and 3 and answering the simple questions. On page 4
In Grades 7 and 8, the learners learnt the basics of drawing. So far they have covered the is the definition of orthographic; it is very important that the learners understand this concept so
difference between sketches and formal drawings and have learnt how to draw oblique and it is advised that you read through this with them. Questioning the class during and after this will
perspective views. They have studied single and double vanishing point perspective drawings, be a good indicator that they understand the definition and follow the concept.
and have been given a lesson on shading and colouring to provide realism in drawings.
Through investigating the examples and answers that follow, the learners will be shown how
In this chapter, the learners will initially recap a lot of these skills, then they will learn how to orthographic drawing is used to make plans. This is a very important skill, and as this section
make drawings that show the exact sizes of parts of objects. The drawing will also show what should not take too long, it is advised that the learners observe objects around them, such as
objects look like from different viewpoints, which will give them skills necessary for drawing tables and chairs, and discuss which view is which. This will help them to visualise objects in
plans. section 1.2.
1.1 About orthographic drawings ................................................................................ 5

1.2 Make your first orthographic drawings ................................................................... 8 1.2 Make your first orthographic drawings
The learners have to be able to identify isometric views in order to draw orthographic views;
Figure 15 will remind them of what an isometric projection looks like. If any learners are having
difficulty visualising the three views you can use a small box to demonstrate the views; angled
for isometric, and face on/side on/from above for the orthographic views.
In this section the learners will have to take note of dimensions, so you should emphasise this
early on in the lesson.
Figures 18 and 19 together are very important as an aid to understanding orthographic
drawings. They should be worked through carefully with the learners, ensuring that they can
match the preliminary drawings with the final plan.
The learners have already learnt in Grade 8 about the different types of lines they must use in
their drawings. This is covered again as a reminder in Figure 24 and the notes. Make sure that
they use the correct lines when you assess their free-hand drawings on page 12.
There are not a lot of questions in this chapter, so it is important that you make sure that all
the learners have grasped the concept of orthographic drawings as they will not be able to
complete the work in the following chapter if they do not have this skill.
Figure 1
2 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 3

LB pages 2–3 1.1 About orthographic drawings LB page 4
Geoff
In Grades 7 and 8, you learnt different ways of drawing your designs. You can
quickly put your ideas on paper with sketches. Adding perspective makes
drawings look more realistic. Adding shading and colour make your drawings look
even better.
simple sketch
Sarah
Vusi
This is the piano from the picture.
Figure 2
Figure 4
isometric sketch The word orthographic

comes from two words.
“Ortho” means looking straight
Geoff, in at a flat face of an object.
the ceiling “Graphic” means a drawing.
Look at this picture. Who sees it – Vusi, Geoff or Sarah?
Figure 5 shading and colour
Who sees this? Vusi
Figure 3 And who sees this? Sarah

Figure 6

Orthographic drawings LB p. 5 LB page 6
You will now learn how to make The front view, top view and one side view of a small house are shown below. A set
orthographic drawings. This means of drawings like this is called first-angle orthographic projection.
you will look at an object from
different sides and make separate
drawings of what you see.
Look at this isometric drawing of a
rectangular box. Only three faces of
the box are visible.
1. How many faces of the box are not
shown on this drawing?
Figure 7
Three faces are not shown
If you look straight down from above at the box, you will see only a blue rectangle.
This is called the top view.
Figure 8 Figure 9
If you look at the box from a certain position on the left, you will see a yellow rectangle.
Figure 14
First angle orthographic projections are normally drawn in blocks as shown here.
This is called a side view.
The front view is drawn first, in the upper left block. Construction lines are then
drawn from the front view to make it easier to draw the top view and a side view.
A side view can also be called an end view.
Figure 10 Figure 11
If you look at the box from a certain position on the right, you will see a red Front view Side view
rectangle.
This is also called a side view.
It can also be called the front view.
Top view
Figure 12 Figure 13

LB page 7 LB page 8
1.2 Make your first orthographic drawings Architects use orthographic drawings of houses to The small lines on your ruler
tell the builder the size of the windows, how tall the are 1 mm apart.
An orthographic drawing of a staircase LB p. 7 walls are and how high the roof is. These are called
dimensions or measurements. We usually write
An isometric drawing of a mobile staircase is shown measurements in millimetres (mm).
top
in Figure 15. The staircase is 900 mm wide. The other
dimensions are shown on the side view in Figure 17
Look at this side view of the staircase. You can see the measurements between the
on the next page. sid
e arrows.
1. Figure 16 in the Learner Book shows a front view of
the staircase. Divide a sheet of grid paper into four
blocks. Copy the front view onto the top left block
of your sheet of paper. Now use construction lines
to draw a top view and side view in the bottom left
and top right blocks.
t
The completed drawing in Figure 16 must fron
look like this:
Figure 15
Figure 17: Side view of the staircase with measurements
Figure 16

LB page 9 LB page 10
Have a look at the drawings below and on the next page. An architect made these
while he designed a house.
Scale 1:100
Figure 19: Final drawings

Figure 18: Preliminary drawings

LB page 11 Use different kinds of lines LB p. 12
Different kinds of lines in drawings Make a free-hand copy of the drawing in Figure 20. Use all of the different types of
lines.
Different kinds of lines are used in the following drawing:
width = 600
Make sure that the learners’ drawings show the

correct lines in their free-hand sketches of the
washing machine in Figure 20.
centre-to-top = 456
Next week
In the next chapter you will further develop your drawing skills. You will have to
height = 820
make various drawings of a staircase and wheelchair ramp.
0
45
=
h
pt
de
Figure 20
The following types of lines are used in the above drawing:

thick solid lines,
thin solid lines,
dashed lines, and
chain lines.

Chapter 2 2.2 Isometric drawing
Provide for wheelchairs The learners are given two opportunities to practise their first isometric drawings on page 19.
Both are free-hand sketches, but in the second sketch the learners should be far neater and
more accurate, and make a note of dimensions. It is important that the learners only sketch the
ramp in this section, as the steps are sketched in the following section.
2.3 The plan in orthographic drawings

LB page 13 The learners must look at the specifications again, and draw a sketch of the steps in an
In the previous chapter the learners added to their drawing skills by learning about orthographic isometric view. Make sure that they follow the instructions and put in the dimensions as listed on
drawing. They looked at an isometric drawing and drew an orthographic version of that drawing, page 20.
taking the dimensions into account. Prepare the learners for their homework. Ensure they understand that the staircase and
In this chapter the learners are going to combine orthographic and isometric skills in a practical ramp have to be combined into a single object in the drawing, and that they must answer the
exercise where they are asked to design a mobile staircase and ramp for wheelchair access to questions on page 21 as well. It will help them in the next section if they put the dimensions on
a stage. It is an exercise that they will be able to relate to, and this will assist with the design their drawings. If they have difficulty in imagining the object tell them to refer to page 22 for
brief, the specifications and constraints. guidelines.
Making orthographic drawings of the design
2.1 Stairs and a ramp ..................................................................................................17 Once you have checked the learners’ homework, get them to answer the questions on page 22.
They then have to complete an orthographic drawing of their own designs, not the illustration
2.2 Isometric drawing ..................................................................................................19
on page 22. It is important to remind them of scale at this point, as they will have to scale the
2.3 The plan in orthographic drawings ..........................................................................21
drawing of their ramp to fit it on the grid. All measurements must be shown, as well as the scale
the learners use. The learners have two pages to complete this exercise, so they do not have to
make the scale very small. Some learners may need guidance through this exercise: refer them
Materials required for this chapter: back to the orthographic drawings in Chapter 1, and remind them that they need to draw front,
pencils side and top views of their isometric drawing.
pencil sharpener
eraser
ruler
2.1 Stairs and a ramp

The learners must understand exactly what they are being tasked to do to save time later on.
They must revise the word specifications that they used in Grade 7 and Grade 8 projects. You
will be able to monitor their understanding by assessing the rough sketches they draw of their
plans for the staircase/ramp. Make sure that all the learners have entered the dimensions, as
this is critical for their accurate drawings later in the lesson.
At the end of the lesson the learners must revise how isometric drawings are made: run through
the paragraph on page 17 as they will need to remember this for their homework.
14 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 15

LB pages 14–15 2.1 Stairs and a ramp LB page 16
Nelson Mandela High School has a new community If you look at the picture on
hall. A staircase and wheelchair ramp is needed for the previous page, you will see
the stage in the hall. The principal made a list of what a ramp is.
things that should be kept in mind when designing the
staircase and wheelchair ramp.
These are called specifications.
The specifications for the staircase and wheelchair ramp are:
• The stairs and ramp must be made in one unit so that it can be moved.
• The unit should fit in front of the stage so that people can walk onto the stage
and wheelchairs can go up and down.
• The stage is 400 mm high.
• The stairs should be wide enough for two people, about 1 200 mm.
• There should be three steps of the same size.
• The flat part of each step is 800 mm long.
• The ramp should be wide enough for one wheelchair – 1 000 mm.
stai • The slope of the ramp should be 2 433 mm long.
rs
• The ramp is at a 10˚ slope.
• The base of the ramp should be 2 400 mm long.
ramp
Figure 1 • The ramp should have a handrail to prevent wheelchairs from falling off.
Visualise the combined staircase and ramp LB p. 16
To help you imagine what the combined staircase and ramp will look like, you can
make a few drawings.
1. Make a rough drawing to show what you think the combined staircase and
ramp should look like. Make your drawing on a clean page, and make it big
enough to fill the page.
2. Dimensions are given in the above specifications. Write the dimensions in the
correct places on your drawing.
Check the learners’ sketches. Make sure they have followed

instructions and put in the dimensions.
Figure 2
16 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 16 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 17
Isometric drawings LB page 17 2.2 Isometric drawing LB page 18
An isometric drawing can help you to see more clearly what your idea would look There is an isometric drawing of a staircase in Chapter 1. What do you think an
like when it is built. To make an isometric drawing, draw all the vertical lines of isometric drawing of the ramp would look like? It might look a bit like a slice of
the object at 90˚ to the base, and all the horizontal lines at 30˚ to the base. You can birthday cake!
use isometric grid paper to help you do this.
Homework: Make an isometric drawing of a cube LB p. 17
Look at the orange lines on the grid paper below. Do you see how the vertical line
goes up through the middle of the diamond shapes? And how the horizontal line
goes across the middle of the diamond shapes? The other lines are at 30° to the
horizontal line.
Copy the drawing of the cube onto a sheet of isometric grid paper.
Check the learners’ homework. Make sure the cube they have completed is correct.
Figure 4
An isometric drawing of the wheelchair ramp LB p. 18
1. Make a sketch of the wheelchair ramp that looks

A sketch is a rough drawing
like the slice of cake above, on the top part of a
that helps you to quickly put
sheet of isometric grid paper.
your ideas onto paper. It
2. Now make a better sketch on the bottom part of makes it easier to think about
the sheet of paper. what you are designing.
3. Look at the list of specifications at the beginning of You do not need to use a ruler
section 2.1. Label the following on your drawing: or exact measurements.
• the height of the ramp,
• the length of the sloping part of the ramp,
in other words the distance from A to B on the
drawing on the right, B
• the length of the base, A
vertical line
• the width of the ramp, and

length of base
• the 10° angle. Figure 5
30° 30°
horizontal line 90°
Figure 3

LB page 19
Check that the learners’ sketches compare to this example. 2.3 The plan in orthographic drawings
Sketch the staircase LB p. 19
Make a sketch of the staircase on isometric grid paper.

Remember it has only three steps.
Look at the list of specifications and label the following on your drawing:
• the width of the stairs,
• the height of the mobile staircase,
• the height of each step, and
• the length of the horizontal part of each step.
Check that the learners’ sketches compare to the example shown on the next page.

2. Does your stair/ramp look as if it could work? Does it meet all the principal’s
specifications? Did you remember the handrail?
Learners’ own assessment of their drawing according to the specifications.
3. If you are not satisfied with your drawing, now is the time to make changes and
do it again, because it will be assessed by your teacher.
Make orthographic drawings of your design LB p. 20
Look back at the specifications for the ramp and the staircase given on Learner
Book page 16. Another student designed the ramp and staircase shown in Figure 6
below. But this learner didn’t follow the specifications correctly.
Figure 6: Is this design correct according to the specifications on page 16?
Homework LB p. 19 1. Compare the drawing in Figure 6 with the specifications for the ramp, given at
the beginning of this chapter. Write notes to indicate any specifications that are
1. You already have a drawing of the staircase and a drawing of the wheelchair not met.
ramp. Sketch them together as one structure on the isometric grid below. There should be three steps instead of two. The (horizontal) length of the base
You must assess these drawings. The learners should have done a combination of should be 2 400 mm instead of 2 433 mm. The width of the stairs should be
the two previous drawings. Make sure that all unseen edges are in dashed lines.
The drawing must resemble the example on page 22, but that drawing does not 1 200 mm instead of 1 000 mm. There should be a handrail.
precisely adhere to the specifications (see the answer to question 1 on page 22).
The learners’ drawing, however, should precisely adhere to the specifications,
except that the handrail does not need to be shown.

2. Draw a first-angle orthographic projection of your own design of the stair/ramp, Next week
according to the specifications given at the beginning of the chapter. Note that
In the next chapter, you will learn more about different kinds of forces that may
the specifications require three steps. Draw the top view, a side view from the
damage the things we build. You will also learn how materials can be made
ramp side, and a front view as a person that approaches the stairs to climb
stronger, so that they can withstand forces that act on them.
them will see the stairs or ramp. You do not have to draw the handrail as well.
Make all the drawings to exact measurements, but keep in mind that if you
draw them full size, they will not fit on the paper. So think of a scale that will fit
on a sheet of A4 paper. Mark the real measurements on all the sides.
The illustration below is the accurate orthographic drawing according to the

specifications on page 16, except that the handrail is not shown. Check the learn-
ers’ drawings and make sure they have drawn all three views, that they have put all
the dimensions in accurately, and that the scale is shown.

Chapter 3 3.1 Forces act in different places
Structures, forces and In the first lesson the materials provide a range of pictures that learners need to study closely
and then answer the questions. Learners do not necessarily pay close attention to pictures, but
materials looking closely at objects, pictures and diagrams is a very important foundational habit and skill
for technological activity.
Some suggestions for additional explanations are given below.

Although we cannot see forces, we can feel them acting. For example, when the wind is
LB page 21
blowing and you try to open the car door. A bed is a good example to use when explaining the
difference between a static force and a dynamic force. A bed is strong enough to support
3.1 Forces act in different places .............................................................................. 30
the static force exerted by your weight as you sleep. If you jump up and down on the bed, your
3.2 Forces act in different ways ................................................................................ 34 moving body exerts a dynamic force. Even though your body has the same weight, it exerts a
3.3 Different materials for different purposes ............................................................. 40 greater force on the bed when you land after jumping up. As a result the bed may break. This
is an example of a force that is dynamic in the sense that it acts intermittently at the same
place. In a hammer drill, an intermittent force is used to produce a desired effect (e.g. breaking
concrete).
In the learner text, Figures 5 and 7 provide examples of a different way in which a force can act
dynamically, namely when the point of impact moves around.
Dynamic forces can cause structural failure unless they are taken into account when structures
are designed. Technologists need to make their structures extra strong to resist dynamic
forces.
Learners may need some support to distinguish between the direction of movement of a moving
object, and the direction of the force it exerts on another object. For example, they may be
asked to first draw arrows on Figure 7 to show the direction of movement of the two vehicles,
and then to draw arrows to show the direction of the forces exerted by the vehicles on the
bridge.
Figure 1: This bridge cannot withstand the forces acting on it.
Materials needed for this chapter:

12 sheets of unfolded, used writing paper
glue or sticky tape
Key concepts in this chapter:

• the distinction between static and dynamic loads (section 3.1)
• the distinction between even and uneven distribution of loads (section 3.1)
• different ways in which forces can act on structural elements (section 3.2) When designing structures, you need to consider the possibility of uneven loads. Uneven loads
• different properties of materials (section 3.3) are demonstrated in Figure 8 (below) and Figure 9 on page 26 of the Learner Book.
26 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURES, FORCES AND MATERIALS 27

LB pages 22–23
3.2 Forces act in different ways

A variety of practical activities are described in the text for learners, to provide them with
opportunities to experience different ways in which forces can act. We cannot see forces, but
we can feel them in our body. Teachers may use the ideas below in discussions with learners.
Tension: You can feel a tension force when you link your hands together and pull.
Torsion: You can feel a torsion force if you grip the thumb of your right hand inside the palm of
the left hand and twist. You will feel that the left hand is turning in one direction and the right
hand is turning in the opposite direction. Figure 2: If the house is not strong enough, the wind
Compression: You can feel a compression force when you push your hands together. may break it apart.
Shear: If the palms of your hands are dirty from gardening, you can clean the soil off by rubbing
them together. Your hands are moving in opposite directions and exerting a shear force on your
skin that scrapes off the soil.
Bending: You can feel a bending force by holding the ends of a ruler in both hands and making it
curve. The forces exerted by your hands are moving in opposite directions and towards each other.
3.3 Different materials for different purposes

In this lesson, learners engage with pictures, text, practical activities and answers, to learn
that different materials have different properties. These properties are: flexible/stiff; hard/soft;
dense/less dense; corroding/not corroding.
Most of these properties are easy to understand, but the idea of density may be difficult for
learners. Packing clothes into a suitcase is a helpful way to think about density:
Imagine there are two people going on holiday, each person has the same size suitcase. One person
throws his clothes into his suitcase and then finds it difficult to get everything in! The other is a careful
packer and folds everything first. She gets far more clothes in. When they are ready to go, her
suitcase is much heavier than his, even though the cases are the same size. Her suitcase is denser! Figure 3: Roof sheets come in different
shapes

3.1 Forces act in different places
Identify and analyse forces LB p. 24
The weight of the boy in Figure 4 presses down on

the chair as the arrow shows.
When one object pushes against another object,
we say that a force is exerted on the object.
In this case, you can say that the boy exerts a
downward force on the chair, or that there is a
downward load on the chair.
1. Work in pairs. In each of the pictures on this
page and the next, show your partner how the
load acts on the structure.
Figure 4: The boy sits still on the chair.
The red arrows in each picture show the answers. Figure 7: Vehicles passing over a bridge.
As long as a person sits still on a chair, the force on

the chair remains in the same place. This is called a
stationary or a static force.
3. In Figure 7 above, the truck and the car exert forces on the bridge. Can these
forces also be called static? Explain why you say so.
No, because the vehicles are moving. The forces are not static.
When a moving object exerts a force on another

object, you can say that the force is dynamic.
4. In each of the following cases, state whether the force exerted on the table is
static or dynamic. Explain why you say so in each case.
Figure 5: A man walking on a roof. Figure 6: A solar heating system on a roof (a) A pot of flowers standing on the table.
2. (a) Is the load on the roof in Figure 5 always in the same place? Static, because the pot is not moving
Why do you say so?
(b) A cat walking on the table.
No, because the man is moving around
Dynamic, because the cat is moving
(b) Is the load on the roof in Figure 6 always in the same place? Why do you say
(c) A boy rolling a soccer ball over the table.
so?
Dynamic, because the ball is moving
Yes, because the solar heater is fixed or static
(d) A man scrubbing the table.
(c) Are the loads on the bridge in Figure 7 always in the same place? Why do
you say so? Dynamic, because the man’s hand is moving
No, because the vehicles are moving

5. What is the difference between the loads exerted on the two tables below? A load that exerts an equal force over the whole
structure that supports it, is called an even load.
The pots are piled together on the left-hand table, so the load is in one place.
A load that mainly exerts a force on one part of the
On the right-hand table, the load is spread out. structure that supports it, is called an uneven load.
6. Think of a house with a zinc roof and the forces that the sheets exert on the
roof structure.
(a) Is the load even or uneven? Why do you say so?
The load is even because it is spread out all over the roof.
(b) Is the load static or dynamic? Why do you say so?
The load is static because the sheets of zinc do not move around.
7. Think of people climbing up and down wooden steps.

(a) Is the load even or uneven? Why do you say so?
Figure 8: Different ways to place pots on a table.
The load is uneven because the person is standing on one small part of the
LB page 26
steps each time.
A load that exerts an equal force over the whole
structure that supports it, is called an even load. (b) Is the load static or dynamic? Why do you say so?
A load that mainly exerts a force on one part of the
The load is dynamic because the weight of the person is moving from one step
structure that supports it, is called an uneven load.
to another.
8. You have to design two wooden tables, and you are requested to use as little
wood as possible. For the one table, the design brief states that the load on
the table will always be static and even. The design brief for the other table
states that it has to carry the same weight as the first table, but the load will
sometimes be dynamic and uneven. Describe how your designs for the two
tables will differ, and explain why.
The table with a dynamic load needs to be stronger than the table with a static
load, because the force of a dynamic load is greater than the force of a static load.
The same table has to support an uneven load. This means that the load may
sometimes be close to the edge of the table, and the table could topple over. To
stop the table from toppling over, the legs need to be as far apart as possible.
Or the legs can be built at an angle so that they point away from the table.
Figure 9: Different kinds of load on two trucks.

3.2 Forces act in different ways 5. Join two tubes by putting a match or small stick through them as shown below.
Forces can act in the following ways on structures or

parts of structures:
• tension,
• torsion, Figure 13
• compression, When you try to pull the two paper tubes apart now, you will apply shear forces
• shear, and to the stick.
• bending.
The different pieces of a frame structure are called
sections, elements or members of the structure. Find strength in shape LB p. 28
Figure 10: A frame structure made
1. Fold a used A4 sheet of paper in half
of planks.
over its length.
Forces can push, pull and twist LB p. 27
Make six paper tubes by rolling sheets of used writing paper. Use glue or tape to
prevent the tubes from unrolling.
Figure 14
Figure 11
1. Put your hands on both ends of a tube and push them towards each other. Fold it again:
When you do this, you exert compression forces on the tube.
2. Grab a tube at both ends and try to pull it apart. When you do this, you exert
tensile forces on the tube. You put the tube under tension.
3. Put the ends of the tube on two books and press downwards on the middle of
the tube. What happens, and what kind of force did you apply to the tube?
The tube bends because of a compression force.
Figure 15
4. Grab a tube at both ends and twist it as
shown in this picture. When you do this, Fold it a third time, so that you have a
you apply torsion. flat strip that is eight layers thick.
Figure 12
Make two more folded strips like this.
Figure 16

2. Put the folded strip at the edge of your desk as shown below. Hold it down on The shape that you see when you look straight at one end of
the desk with one hand and press down lightly on the outer part of the strip to part of a structure is called the cross-section or profile.
bend it downwards.
5. Make free-hand sketches of the cross-sections of a round tube, a square tube
and a triangular tube.
Figure 17
3. Now fold your paper strip half-open again, and fold it in a new way so that you
get a triangular tube as shown below.
6. Open your triangular tube and fold it again to have
First fold like this: Then fold like this: a T-profile as shown on the right.
Figure 22
Figure 18 Figure 19
Figure 23
to make this triangular tube:
7. Let your T-shaped section stand upright on your

desk as shown here and press downwards at the
Figure 20 top. Do not bend it now.
Take one of the flat folded sections you made in
4. (a) Put the triangular tube at the edge of your desk as you did with the flat strip
question 1. Hold it upright and press downwards at
in question 2. Hold it down on the desk with one hand and press down
the top like you did for your strip with the T-cross
lightly on the outer part to bend it downwards.
section.
(b) What was easier to bend, the flat strip or the triangular tube?
Which strip is stronger when you press down on
It was easier to bend the flat strip. its end, the flat section or the T-shaped section?
Explain why.
This is the shape you see when This is the shape you see when
The T-shaped section is stronger because
you look straight at one end of you look at the end of the folded
your triangular tube: flat strip: the fold that sticks out stops the strip from bending.
A T-shaped section resists compression better than

a flat section that has the same length and is made
Figure 24
of the same amount of material (paper in this case).
Figure 21

8. Compare the resistance to compression of T-shaped, square-shaped and round Using internal cross-bracing to resist twisting
sections, each made from one sheet of A4 paper. Explain your answers.
Imagine that you made a frame structure
The round shape compressed first, then the square shape. The T-shape was with straight pieces of wood.
strongest under compression. The strength comes from angles in the shape that
resist bending. The T-shape has five angles, the square-shape has four angles
and the round shape has none.
Figure 26
Metal sections that are used to build frame
structures are made in a variety of profiles. Some
popular profiles are shown below.
Now imagine that you twist this
frame structure like the person in the
photograph is twisting the towel.
H-profile. This profile is often used as upright
supports or columns, for example in buildings.
It resists compression very well, and it does not
bend easily. Figure 27
I-profile. This profile is used for railway tracks.

The frame structure could end up looking
The broad base provides stability.
like this.
U-profile. This is lighter than the H-profile. It

is often used to provide horizontal support, for Figure 28
example in shelves. The chassis of a truck is
normally made with U-beams.
To prevent the structure from getting
twisted like this, you could add more
This profile is often called angle-iron, even if it
elements as shown here.
is made of metal. It has higher bending strength
than flat strips. It is light and is often used
for cross-bracing in pylons, towers and other
structures.
Tube-profile. This is the best profile for resisting
torsion.
Figure 29
Figure 25: Metal cross-sections This is called internal cross-bracing.

LB page 33 (b) How many bricks do you think you can carry easily if you put them in a box
to carry on your shoulder?
3.3 Different materials for different purposes
Not more than five
How materials can differ from each other LB p. 33
(c) How many pieces of foam plastic of the same size do you think you can
1. What bends more easily, your pencil or a sheet of paper? carry easily if you put them in a box to carry on your shoulder?
Sheet of paper Not more than five
2. Put a sheet of paper flat on your desk. Pick it up with both hands and bend it.
Now put it back on the desk. Is it flat again? A brick is much heavier than a piece of foam plastic of the same size.
One difference between baked clay and foam plastic is that when you
Yes, it is flat again, unless it was folded. take pieces of equal size, the baked clay will be heavier than the foam
plastic. It will require more effort to pick it up or to carry it.
Material that bends easily, but returns to its original
The difference between baked clay and foam plastic can be described
shape when you let go of it, is called flexible material.
as follows: Baked clay has a higher density than the foam plastic.
Material that is not flexible is called stiff material.
3. (a) Is wet clay flexible or stiff? flexible, but does not return to its original shape LB page 34
(b) Is the leg of a chair flexible or stiff? stiff 7. (a) What material has the higher density, wood or rock?
(c) Is a piece of wire flexible or stiff? flexible Rock
(d) Is your shoe flexible or stiff? flexible
(b) What material has the higher density, glass or plastic?
4. Press your finger against your desk. Now press your finger against your arm. Glass
What was different when you pressed your finger against your desk from when
you pressed your finger against your arm?
Pieces of metal that lie around outside sometimes
The skin of the arm is soft. It sinks in and then pops out again. But the desk is Corroded rock can have
look brown. This is called rust or corrosion. Rust is
different colours, like those
hard and does not give way. formed by chemical reactions between the metal in the coloured strip at the
and oxygen in the air or water. Wood and glass do bottom of this page. In the
5. When you press your finger against a bag of sand, will it be the same as against not corrode. Rock that contains iron does corrode. past, colouring for paint was
your desk or arm? When you walk in the veld, you can sometimes see obtained from corroded rock.
pieces of rock that have the same shade of brown.
Same as the arm, but it may not pop out again.
Some materials are hard, and 8. Iron is used in the construction of towers, roofs, cars and trucks and sometimes
Bricks are made by baking clay until it is hard.
some materials are soft. even furniture. What can you do to prevent iron from corroding?
6. (a) Think of a brick and a piece of foam plastic that is the same size as the brick Paint it so that air and water cannot reach the metal.
(like the foam used in mattresses). Which is easier to pick up?
The foam

More about metals The roof structure Wood
There are many different metals, such as copper, Unfortunately, iron corrodes or rusts easily, while The roof cover Tiles
iron, aluminium, chrome, gold and platinum. Iron other metals do not corrode as easily, if at all.
is cheaper than most other metals, because it For this reason, iron is often mixed with other The fence Wood or steel
is so plentiful. It is also easy to make iron into metals, for example chrome, to make it resistant The paving around the house Concrete
different shapes. Iron is normally mixed with a against rust. “Stainless steel” is steel that
small amount of carbon to form “steel”, which is contains a large amount of chrome. • Builders choose bricks, concrete, wood and metal because each one is
much stronger than pure iron. useful in different ways. You can say different materials have different
properties.
• Concrete is hard and it will not scratch easily, so builders use it on house
floors. Concrete is also stiff, so it will not bend when we walk on it.
Materials in a house LB p. 34
Concrete is not damaged by water and it will not rust.
A house is a good example of a structure made of many different materials. To • Bricks do not bend and do not rust, so they are used to build walls.
build a house like the one below, you can use bricks, concrete, wood and steel. • Wood is used in a house for doors, windows and roofs, because it is
flexible. This means that when you slam a door, the wood bends a little
but will not break.
• Wood can be damaged by water, wind and the heat of the sun. To protect
wood against damage and to make it last longer, it should be coated with
varnish, oil or some other preservative material.
• Steel is hard and strong. Steel is also flexible and it is not easy to crack
with a hammer. Therefore, steel is used in security gates. However,
steel is damaged by water; this is called rusting or corrosion. To prevent
rusting, you have to cover steel with special paint.
LB page 36
2. Copy the table below. Fill in which materials are used for the different parts of
the house in the middle column. Then fill in the reasons why you think that
material is used for that part of the house in the column on the right.
Figure 30 Part of the house Material Reasons for choice of material

Walls Brick Bricks are strong, water proof, cannot burn, and
LB page 35
do not rust.
1. Copy the table below. Different parts of the house are listed in the left-hand
Window frames Metal Steel is strong and cheap, it keeps its shape
column. In the right-hand column, fill in the material you think that part of the
house is made of. (unlike wood which can bend when it gets wet),
and it does not need to be painted as often as
Part of the house Material it is made of
wood. Houses near the sea cannot use steel
The walls Bricks window frames because they rust too quickly.
The window frames They have to use wood or expensive aluminium
Metal or wood
window frames.
The door Wood

5. In the old days, wagon wheels were made of wood. Today we use rubber tyres.
Door Wood Wood is strong, cheap and light, and easy to Why did we change from wood to rubber?
work with. It is a good choice in places where it
will not get wet. Rubber is more flexible, cannot crack easily, grips better on a road, and is not
Roof structure Wood Wood is strong, cheap and light, and easy to damaged by water. Because rubber is so flexible, a rubber tyre filled with air
work with. It is a good choice in places where it absorbs bumps in the road so that the ride is more comfortable.
will not get wet.
6. When builders put glass in a window frame, they push a soft sticky material
Roof cover Tiles Tiles are hard and they do not bend or rust. called putty round the edge of the glass. The putty dries until it is hard and
They are heavy so the wind cannot move them stops the glass from falling out. Peanut butter is also a soft sticky material and
Fence Wood Wood poles are cheap, strong, and do not rust, dries in the sun until it is hard. Why is it not a good idea to use peanut butter to
but they should be treated against damage by fit glass in window frames?
water, insects, and fungi. Because peanut butter gets soft when hot or wet, and insects can eat it.
Paving around the Concrete Concrete is very strong, lasts very long, and you
house can quickly cover a large area with concrete.
Next week
Next week, you will start with your practical assessment task. You will make a
3. Some houses have tile roofs, other houses have zinc roofs. Copy and complete a plan to address a need in a community.
table to list the advantages and disadvantages of tile roofs.
Advantages of tile roofs Disadvantages of tile roofs
Tiles are stiff and they do not bend or rust. They are expensive to buy and fit.
They do not need painting. They are heavy, so you need a
They last a long time. stronger roof structure.
They are heavy so the wind cannot They can easily crack if a stone falls
move them. on them.
They do not get too hot in summer
nor too cold in winter.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of zinc roofs? Write your answers
in table form.
Advantages of coated iron roofs Disadvantages of coated iron roofs
They are cheaper to buy and fit. They do not last as long as tiles.
They are lightweight, so you can use They are lightweight so the wind can
a cheaper roof structure. damage them.
They do not crack if a stone falls on them. They get very hot in summer and
They are coated with zinc so that they cold in winter.
will not rust for many years.

Chapter 4 Mini-PAT Materials and equipment required for this chapter:
A bridge to help the

geometry sets
big, strong scissors
corrugated cardboard from old boxes (learners should bring this to school)
community cardboard of old cereal boxes (learners should bring this to school)
scrap paper for building parts of models
LB page 37 extra paper to draw on (the larger the paper the better)
string
masking tape
Over the next six weeks, you will design and build a model of a bridge. To do this, you will work
through the different stages of the design process and arrange yourselves into teams. nails of different sizes to make holes, 1 mm thick and 30-40 mm long
prestik
Week 1
masking tape
Investigate Granny Margaret Thabang’s problem .......................................................... 50
clay or stiff porridge to use as a model for concrete anchors
Week 2 wood glue (optional)
Develop rough sketches of ideas ................................................................................ 55 plastic straws (optional)
Week 3 pieces of wood (optional)
Make working drawings ............................................................................................. 61
Week 4 Week 1
Discuss and practise making your model .................................................................... 66 Learners investigate the problem that people at a village have with crossing a river. They
Week 5 paraphrase (say in their own words) what the problem is and suggest different solutions.
Design an evaluation instrument ................................................................................. 67 They then identify and compare the advantages and disadvantages of different types of bridges.
Week 6
Present your tender to the class ................................................................................. 68 Week 2
Assessment Learners work individually to write the design brief, specifications and constraints for the bridge.
Design: They then make rough sketches for a possible bridge design to solve the problem. They write
Sketch your ideas.............................................................................................. [10] notes on the sketches to help explain their ideas.
Design brief with specifications and constraints ................................................... [10] They team up with three or four members to start the process of preparing a tender. First, they
Make: evaluate their own and each other’s rough design sketches to try to see where and how they
can improve their designs. Then they make rough sketches of their improved design.
First-angle orthographic drawing ......................................................................... [10]
Finally, the team plans the different steps from thinking of building a bridge to finally building
Budget ............................................................................................................. [10]
a bridge. These steps show the lifetime of a project from being just an idea to being the real
Completed model .............................................................................................. [20] product that people benefit from. They have to think carefully about the steps of building the
Communicate: bridge (planning to make), but there are also many other important steps before that, such
Present the tender ............................................................................................ [10] as consulting with the community and obtaining funding. They make a flow chart to show the
[Total: 70] different steps.
46 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 4 MINI-PAT: A BRIDGE TO HELP THE COMMUNITY 47

LB pages 38–39
Week 3
Learners work individually to make working drawings of their bridge designs. They will need
extra paper to draw on.
Then they draw up a budget for building the bridge in reality. They are given realistic examples
of the costs of some building materials. For other materials, they may have to find the costs
themselves, by asking older people or at hardware stores.
Week 4
Learners work as a team to plan to make their models. They first individually practise making
parts of the bridge out of paper. Then they build one final model of the bridge together, using
cardboard, string and other materials.
Week 5
Learners work as a team to make a checklist with which they can evaluate their own model.
They interact with other teams to get the best ideas for criteria to put on the checklist. Then
each team evaluates their model with the help of the checklist. Figure 1
Week 6
Each team prepares for and gives a 5-minute presentation of their tender for the project to build
a bridge. Their tender presentation includes most of their previous work.
Figure 2
48 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 4 MINI-PAT: A BRIDGE TO HELP THE COMMUNITY 49

Week 1 LB page 40 People need to cross the wide river on foot every day, but it is dangerous
because of floods and crocodiles, and it takes very long to walk through the
Investigate Granny Margaret Thabang’s problem (60 minutes)
water. People in wheelchairs cannot cross the river at all.
1. In your team, read through the following story.
3. Can you suggest a few ways to help Granny Margaret Thabang cross the river?
Build a bridge to cross the river, or use boat/ferry that is connected to a cable
that spans the width of the river. The bridge is a better idea, as it would be
very dangerous to cross the river on a boat when it is in flood.
A tender is a bid
for work from
a company. It
gives details
of how much
the company
would charge
to complete a
project.
Figure 3
Rivers provide much-needed water for communities, but sometimes they can
also make life difficult for people. For example, during the rainy season, people Figure 4: The tender request placed in a local newspaper.
from villages on one side of a river struggle to get to the other side of the river,
if there is no bridge.
The uThukela Municipality placed a tender request in the newspaper asking
Many of the people in the KwaNogawu village next to the uThukela River in contractors to submit tenders for a structure to help people safely cross the river
KwaZulu-Natal work on the other side of the river. The doctors, banks and at KwaNogawu village.
shops that they need to visit are also on the other side.
Municipalities are not allowed to choose a contractor without giving as many
School children cross this river to get to their schools, and the elderly have to contractors as possible a chance to apply. This is to stop anyone from being
walk through it once a month to collect their government grants from the offices favoured over others, and to prevent corruption. Each contractor writes a tender
on the other side. document, which is a description of their plan for the project and shows how
Usually, the villagers cross the river on foot, because the nearest bridge is very much they will charge to complete the work. The job is given to the contractor who
far away. But during the rainy season, when the river is in flood, it becomes presents the best plan at the lowest price.
very dangerous. The water levels are so high that it is difficult to get through it You are going to build a structure to help the community. Read the story again
safely, and the villagers have also seen crocodiles in the river. Everyone is scared and then investigate the different bridges below to decide which structure will be
of drowning or getting attacked by the crocodiles, but they don’t have a choice the best solution for the problem.
and have to go through the river to get to the other side.
2. Write a few sentences to explain the problem the villagers have.
50 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 4 MINI-PAT: A BRIDGE TO HELP 51

THE COMMUNITY
Investigate structures to solve the problem (60 minutes)
On this page and the next there are drawings of different types of bridges. You
learnt about these bridges in Grade 8. Do you remember what the names mean? If
you cannot remember, look at your Grade 8 book or ask your teacher to help you.
E: A cantilever bridge
A: A beam and column bridge
F: A cable-stay bridge of the harp shape
B: An arch bridge
G: A cable-stay bridge of the fan shape

C: A truss bridge
H: A small suspension bridge
D: A suspension bridge Figure 5

THE COMMUNITY
Different types of bridges use different materials and construction methods, but
LB page 45
they all have a similar function.
In your group, discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of each of the
bridges for the community. Think about which parts will help the community, and Week 2
which parts will not help.
If the bridge is meant to carry cars, it might be too expensive for your tender.
Develop rough sketches of ideas (30 minutes)
Remember that the bridge has to solve the community’s problem. In technology,
Draw a rough sketch of your ideas for a bridge to help the community. Use the
we call this fit-for-purpose. In this case, it means that your bridge has to be strong
sketching techniques that you learnt in Grades 7 and 8.
and high enough to carry people and not cars. However, your bridge has to be
strong enough to withstand floods, which are common in KwaZulu-Natal. Your [Total: 10]
bridge must also be stable, so that it does not sway and cause old people and See the design sketches on page 53. This page contains notes to explain these sketches.
children to fall when they walk across. It should have a structure that can span a
The bridge designed here is a combination of bridge designs D and H on the previous pages. Design
wide river.
H is cheap, but it is not strong enough, it sags in the middle (not good for wheelchairs), it can sway,
Copy the table below and use it to help you to investigate each of the bridges in and it has a dangerous walking surface. Design D is strong and flat and will not sway as much, but
Figure 5 on the previous page. Also bring pictures of bridges to school. You can find the pillars can be damaged by flood waters.
photographs of bridges in old newspapers and magazines.
For my design I made the following choices:
• The pillars are placed far away from the water, so that they cannot be damaged by flood waters.
Checklist for investigating bridges Yes No
• Two thick I-beams are used to support the walking surface so that it remains flat and does not
Is the bridge for cars? sag in the middle.
Is the bridge for people?
• These I-beams are connected by angle irons to triangulate the structure of the walkway, to pre-
Is the bridge too expensive for the tender? vent the bridge from swaying sideways.
Can the bridge be built strong and high enough so that it is not • Thinner I-beams are strong enough to support the ramps, because the ramps span much shorter
washed away by floods? distances than the bridge itself.
• The ramps have a very gentle slope, so that a person in a wheelchair can get up them easily.
Can the bridge be built so that it is stable and does not sway?
• The walking surfaces are made of steel plates with a rough surface (these plates are commonly
Can the bridge be built long enough so that it can reach or span used in factories for walkways), so that it will not be slippery even when it is raining hard.
across the river?
• The walking surface is wide enough for two people or two wheelchairs to pass each other. If it
Is the bridge strong enough so that the villagers can walk safely was narrower, people on the one side of the river would have to wait for people on the other side
across? to walk over. Because the bridge is so long, they would have to wait very long.
• The bridge is made of steel, cables and concrete. The steel can be welded or bolted together.
The cables can be connected with U-bolts.
• Concrete blocks are used to anchor the pillars and the end of the cables deep into the ground.
The concrete blocks in which the pillars are planted lowers the centre of gravity of the pillars.
• The pillars will be moulded from concrete on the construction site, with steel reinforcement in-
side. This will be cheaper than transporting long steel pillars with a very long truck from a steel
factory. It will also create work for people on the site.
• All the parts of the bridge can be put together on the site, so a lot of work opportunities will be
created.
Note: There is something missing in this design, namely handrails.

THE COMMUNITY
Evaluate and adapt your rough sketches (30 minutes) One possible design
Your team will now prepare a tender. To start, choose the best design in your team.
This means you need to choose one sketch from all the rough sketches. To help FONT VIEW OF BRIDGE
you choose, copy the table below and answer the following questions:
U-bolts to
Learner’s answers will depend on their designs. correct cables
Questions Yes No
Does the structure allow people to move across the river ramp
safely?
pillar
Does the structure protect people from crocodiles? vertical cables (reinforced
Does the structure allow a group to cross safely? (thinner) concrete)
Will the structure be safe when the river floods? concrete
Is the structure durable, and will it last a long time without block for
breaking? CROSS-SECTION OF anchor
Is the structure made from the right materials? Remember that WALK-WAY
the bridge could be in constant contact with water and should wide enough for 2 people UNDER-
not rust. or wheelchairs angle SIDE OF
irons WALKWAY
Will the structure withstand both static and dynamic forces? rough steel plate for
Will the structure be very expensive to build? Remember that
walking surface
you are building it for people, not cars.
Will the structure be expensive to maintain?
Does the structure damage the environment? angle iron
I-beam
If the sketches do not meet these requirements, adapt them until they do. These I-beams
sketches represent your final solution and they will form the basis of your working DETAIL OF
ca
mai
bl
drawing. RAMP AND nc
e
abl
FIXING OF e (t
hic
k)
CABLES TO
ANCHORS I-beam
two thin I-beams concrete block

to support the for anchor
ramp

THE COMMUNITY
LB page 46 have a gentle slope. This is so that old people, sick people and people in wheelchairs
can easily get up them.
Design brief with specifications and constraints (30 minutes)
The walkway of the bridge and the ramps should have handrails for people to hold
Write a design brief that explains what you want the structure to do. Your design on to.
brief has to list the specifications and constraints for your design. The bridge should be stable. It should not sway sideways a lot.
Remember that specifications are things that your design must have and The bridge should last a long time.
constraints are things that your design cannot have. The specifications and the Constraints:
constraints are usually listed in the tender notice.
The bridge should not be too expensive.
Specifications could include the following: It must be possible for the local people to build most of the bridge themselves,
• The bridge has to be completed within a certain time. and without using too expensive machinery. The local people may need training on
• The bridge has to be built according to budget, including all labour costs. the construction methods.
• The bridge has to help the community. For example, you can employ local The bridge should be built in less than 3 months during the dry season.
people to work on the bridge and train them while they work on the project.
That way, they will have good skills that will help them to find work when this
project ends.
Draw a flow chart (30 minutes)
• The bridge has to be user-friendly for disabled and older people.
Do you remember what a flow chart is? A flow chart is “Visual” means something that
Constraints could include the following: a summary of all the steps you have to follow to plan you can see.
• Time and cost constraints. For example, the building process should not take or make something. It is a “visual” way to show the
longer than a specific amount of time, and should not cost more than a certain steps in a planning or making process.
amount. A flow chart is a summary, so use short sentences or
A “keyword” is a word that
• The bridge cannot exclude wheelchair users. just “keywords” to write down your steps. Then draw a
can replace a whole sentence.
• The bridge cannot employ more than a certain number of people from another box around each step and an arrow between the steps. Example: for “Make a list of
area. Look at the example of a flow chart on the right. tasks”, just write “list”.
• Women should not be prohibited from working on the project. Now draw a flow chart of how you will build your
bridge.
[Total: 10] Think of the very first thing you will have to do, and
start from there. For example, will you measure the
Design brief: river first, will you buy the materials first, will you
train your staff first, or will you draw up your budget
The bridge should allow people on foot and in wheelchairs to cross the river quick- first?
ly, easily and safely, even when the river is in flood.
You can change your flow chart later when you
Specifications: make the model of your bridge. Engineers and
The bridge should span the full width of the river when it is in flood. technologists often change their plans while they
work on a project.
The bridge should be at least 2 metres above water.
The walkway of the bridge should be wide enough so the two people travelling in
different directions can cross each other easily, even if they are both in wheel-
chairs.
The walkway should not be slippery even when it is raining hard.
The bridge should use ramps at the sides instead of stairs, and the ramps should
Figure 6

THE COMMUNITY
Week 3
Make working drawings (60 minutes)
Working drawings are guides that show us how to build a specific structure. Make
a working drawing of your bridge. It should be drawn to scale and show as much
detail as possible.
Each member of your team should make their own first-angle orthographic
projection of the bridge, showing the front view, top view and end view.
Each of your drawings should show the
Have another look at
measurements of the structure and the scale you have
Chapter 1 to remind you
chosen. Use correct line types.
how to make orthographic
You will need the following equipment: drawings.
• 30°, 60° and 90° set square,
• a sharp pencil, and
• masking tape to attach your drawing sheet to your drawing board.
[Total: 10]
An accurate drawing of the learner’s own design.
Work out a budget (60 minutes)

All projects that cost money need a budget. A budget is a plan that looks at the
various costs and how the money will be spent.
It is important to make sure that you have enough

money before you begin any project. Otherwise, you
could run out of funds halfway through the project.
You also have to persuade the tender board that
your bridge is cost-effective, which means that it is
safe for people and the environment, and that it is
not too expensive for this purpose.
When you build the bridge, think about the things that will cost money.
For example:
• materials,
• labour,
• designers and engineers,
• equipment that you hire or buy, and
• transport.

THE COMMUNITY
Remember that you are a contracting company and want to make a profit. Once
Labour
you have worked out the other costs, add on an amount for your profit.
Unskilled labourers 25 25 per hour
There will be other companies who will tender for the job, so keep your costs
low to make your tender attractive. However, do not compromise the safety of Carpenter 2 320 per day
the bridge or allow it to become unfit for its purpose. Balance the need to make a Foreman 1 600 per day
profit with the need to build a safe bridge.
Welders 3 720 per day
For this exercise, you have to draw up a cost sheet. Subtotal
A cost sheet is a summary of all your costs.
Look at this example of a cost table for another bridge. You can use some of the Machinery/Equipment
material costs shown in this table when making your own cost table for your
Bulldozer and operator 1 2 000 per day
bridge design.
Your own list will be different, because it will depend on the materials you Road grader and operator 1 2 500 per day
choose to use to build your bridge. If you are not certain of amounts or lengths, Shovels and other equipment 25 10 per day
add on a little extra to your final figure. It is better to have a little left over than to
Subtotal
run short.
To help you work out your costs, speak to a hardware shop owner, a building
contractor, or a family member who is knowledgeable in these things. You can also Other staff costs
look in the Yellow Pages for suppliers. They will give you information if you tell them Engineer
about your project. Don’t just make up the costs. You need your budget to be accurate.
Architect
Apart from the items on the above list, you also have to account for VAT and
insurance. Work manager
TOTAL
LB page 49
[Total: 10]
Example: An example of a budget calculation for a bridge design is shown over the following
two pages.
Item description Quantity Price per unit Total
(Rands) (Rands)
Materials
Cement (80 kg bags) 50 90 10 000
Pine Planks (200 cm × 30 cm × 2 cm) 200
Bags of nails (10 × 3 cm) 10
Bricks 5 000
Steel I-beam (5 m × 6 cm) 20 1 000 20 000
Subtotal

THE COMMUNITY
Materials Quantity Price per Total Labour costs are based on 20 days work at 8 hours per day
unit (Rands) Labour Quantity Payment per Total
including day (Rands) (Rands)
tax (Rands) Metal workers 10 500 per day 100 000
Cement 100 bags 90 per bag 9 000 Labourers 25 25 per hour 100 000
Steel I-beams (5 m × 6 cm) 25 1 000 25 000 Carpenters 2 320 per day 12 800
Brick layers 5 320 per day 32 000
Steel I-beams (10 m × 12 cm) 4 3500 14 000
Foreman 1 600 per day 12 000
Steel I-beams (15 m × 12 cm) 4 5250 21 000 Subtotal labour 256 800
Steel angle iron (5 m × 3 cm) 30 600 18 000 Machinery and tools hired for ten days
Metal cable (2 cm width) 100 m 100 per 10 000 Machinery and equipment Quantity Rate per day Total
metre (Rands) (Rands)
Metal cable (1 cm width) 100 m 50 per 5000 Bulldozer and operator 2 2 000 40 000
metre Road grader and operator 1 2 500 25 000
Stones for concrete foundations 2 tonnes 1 000 per 2 000 Winches for tightening cables 4 800 32 000
tonne Tools per labourer 25 10 2 500
Metal plate (‘starred’ anti-slip, 50 200 per 10 000 Subtotal machinery 99 500
1 m × 1 m) plate
Design costs Quantity Invoice Total
Bricks 5 000 2 10 000 (Rands) (Rands)
Heavy duty bolts 500 5 2 500 Architect 1 20 000 20 000
Engineers 2 25 000 25 000
U bolts to fasten cables 500 10 5 000
Subtotal design 45 000
Subtotal materials: 131 500
Total budget for bridge
Materials 131 500
Labour 256 800
Machinery 99 500
Design 45 000
Total budget before profit 532 800
Profit margin of 10% 53 280
Total budget including profit 586 080
Profit margin LB page 50
What additional amount are you going to charge? Remember that you need to
make a profit. This amount has to be fair to you and to the authorities who will
award the contract. Total all the subtotals and then decide on a percentage for
the profit. You will then have the final total, which you will submit as the cost of
building your bridge.

THE COMMUNITY
Week 4 Week 5 LB page 51
Discuss and practise making your model (60 minutes) Design an evaluation instrument (60 minutes)
You will make a model of your structure. Discuss how you will do this in your In your team, make an assessment checklist (rubric) to see if your structure is a
group. good solution to the community’s problem. Use the specifications and your design
Think carefully about all the materials you will need to build your model. Do brief from Week 1 to help you make the checklist.
you need paper, glue, and/or corrugated cardboard? And what about tools? Do you
Here is an example of a few items that could be in a checklist for a project:
need scissors or glue-guns?
• Is the structure stable? YES/NO
Write a complete list of all the materials and tools necessary to build your
• Is the structure rigid? YES/NO
model.
• Is the structure durable? YES/NO
You need a plan to help you stay organised. Ask yourselves questions such as: • Does the structure allow for more than one person to cross
• What should we do first? it at a time? YES/NO
• What materials do we need for each step?
Now add your own items to the checklist in order to finish it.
When you have decided what you will do, add it to your flow chart. Each member
of your team should draw up his/her own copy of the flow chart. ADDITIONAL ITEMS FOR CHECKLIST
The following activity will help you to make strong structures out of paper. You Structure:
can use these structures to help you build your model bridge. Are the banks of the river stable enough to hold the foundations?
Is the bridge strong enough to withstand floods?
Who will maintain the bridge and make sure it is in good condition and painted to prevent
rust?
Make a model of your bridge (60 minutes) Funding:
Who will fund the costs of the bridge?
Build one model for your team that looks like your working drawing. It should be
To who can the community submit the plans to ask for funding or a loan, if there isn’t any
built neatly, safely and to scale. You can use materials available to you such as
funding yet?
cardboard, string, wire, pieces of wood, drinking straws, plastic and clay. You can
If it takes longer to build than planned for, who will pay the additional costs?
also use glue and paint.
Who should pay to maintain the bridge, the community or the government?
Be aware of safety at all times, especially when working with blades and toxic
Local Employment:
glues. (Wood glue, Prestik and Pritt are fortunately not toxic.)
Who will make sure that people from the local community are hired to do the work?
Remember to follow the steps as shown in your flow chart. Everyone must be
Does the community have the resources to build the bridge (the machinery) or must it
involved with making the model. be brought in from another town?
[Total: 20] Plans and progress:
Has the community been part of the planning process?
Has the community accepted the bridge, its design and the possible costs?
Who will make sure that the plan the architect and engineers draw up meets the specifi-
cations?
Who will check that the builders follow the plans correctly?
Who will check costs while the bridge is being built?
When will the bridge be built: will bad weather affect the time it will take?

THE COMMUNITY
Evaluate your team’s solution (60 minutes)
Meet with all the other teams in the class. Share your checklists among the groups
and work together to choose the best criteria. This way, you will all be able to use
the best criteria to make a single checklist that everyone can use.
Use the chosen checklist to assess your group’s solution to the community’s
problem. Include this checklist in your tender documents.
LB page 52
Week 6
Present your tender to the class (120 minutes)
It is time to present your tender to the class. You have to give a 5-minute
presentation to try convince the tender board that your tender is the best one.
Each member of your group needs to present a part of the tender to the class.
[Total: 10]
The tender should include the following information:
• sketches and orthographic plans
• a budget
• your model
• artistic impressions of your final plan, and
• an assessment checklist.
Plan which member of the team will present which part of the tender. Someone
needs to draw the artistic impression of your structure. This drawing should have
colour and detail to impress the tender board.

THE COMMUNITY
TERM 2
Chapter 5
Materials required for this chapter
syringes of two different diameters and plastic tubing to connect them
Hydraulics and
cereal boxes
equal weights, for example matchboxes filled with sand
pneumatics You are strongly advised to do the action research described on pages 78–80 (LB p.
59–61) and pages 81–83 (LB p. 62–64) yourself before starting with it in class.
LB page 53
5.1 Use water and air to move objects .......................................................................... 75

5.2 Narrow and wide syringes ...................................................................................... 77
5.3 Change the size of forces using a hydraulic system .................................................. 81
This picture appears as Figure 7 on page 58 of the Learner Book. It shows a woman carrying a
heavy load to her house close by, and another woman carrying a small load for a much longer
distance.
5.1 Use water and air to move objects

Learners have engaged with pneumatics and hydraulics in previous grades. In Grade 9 this
should be extended into a sound understanding of the underlying principles involved.
The CAPS document emphasises the difference between gases and liquids as mediums of force
transfer: Gases (like air) are compressible, liquids (like water) are incompressible. This
explains an important difference between pneumatic and hydraulic systems. In a pneumatic
system, part of the work done to press in the input cylinder is absorbed by compression of the
air, so the same amount of work cannot be done at the output end of the system. This is similar
to what happens if a rod used as a lever is flexible. When the rod is used to lift something,
part of the effort to move one end of the lever is spent on bending the lever, and is hence not
available for helping to lift the load.
Figure 1
A rigid lever A somewhat flexible lever
70 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 5: HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS 71

5.2 Narrow and wide syringes directions through a hydraulic system.
However, this does not mean that the force exerted by the output cylinder in a hydraulic system
Although technology is about getting things done in the real world and not chiefly about is equal to the force exerted on the input cylinder. These forces are only equal if the input and
understanding it; understanding how and why things work can help to improve a person’s output cylinders have the same diameter.
technological skills. The idea of ‘work’ provides a way to achieve some understanding of how
At this stage learners need to begin to engage with force quantitatively. In the final activity of
devices such as levers, gears, pulley systems and hydraulic systems provide mechanical
this chapter, the action research described on pages 78-80, learners compare the forces on the
advantage. No device can increase the amount of work done, devices can only change the way
input and output cylinders by balancing a hydraulic system with weights.
in which work is done.
It is understandable that to carry a heavy pack for a short distance can be the same LB page 54
amount of work than carrying a light pack for a long distance. Figure 7 and Question
1 are intended to bring make the learners grasp this. This may help them to achieve an
understanding of how hydraulic systems (and other mechanisms) provide mechanical advantage.
When a first-class lever is used to lift a heavy object,
all the work done by the person pressing the lever
down at the input side is utilized to lift the load up at
the other end (the output side). The larger output force
applied over a shorter distance is the effect of the
work done at the input end by applying a smaller force
over a larger distance.
Consider a hydraulic cylinder consisting of an input cylinder
with a small cross-sectional area and an output cylinder with a
large cross-sectional area. The volume of liquid that leaves the
input cylinder must be equal to the volume of liquid that enters
the output cylinder. Because the output cylinder has a greater
cross-sectional area, it moves a smaller distance than the input
cylinder to let in this volume of liquid. And because the output
cylinder moves a smaller distance, it must exert a greater force,
otherwise the amount of work done by the output side would not
be equal to the amount of work done on the input side.
Note that the measurements for the action research on pages 59 to 61 of the Learner Book
cannot be taken on the syringes themselves, as the syringe markings indicate volume, hence
the readings will be the same on the two cylinders. The action research is specifically about the
differences in the distance moved by the two cylinders.
5.3 Change the size of forces using a hydraulic

system
The experiment with the plastic bag filled with water is a simple and effective way of providing
an experience of Pascal’s principle, namely that pressure is transmitted without loss in all
Figure 2

5.1 Use water and air to move objects
Compressible and incompressible substances LB p. 56
The blue tin contains bundled straw, the red tin contains water
and the yellow tin contains sand.
Figure 4
1. Do you think it is possible to compress the sand with

the wooden spoon so that it takes less space in the yellow tin? No
2. Do you think it is possible to compress the straw? Yes
3. Do you think it is possible to compress the water? No
Straw, grass and paper bundles are compressible.

This means that it can be compressed to take up
less space.
Sand is incompressible. That means it cannot be
compressed to take up less space.
4. (a) Is water compressible or incompressible? Incompressible

(b) Is air compressible or incompressible? Compressible
(c) How can one use a syringe to investigate the compressibility of air and
water?
Fill one syringe with air and the other with water. Press both while keeping a
finger on the outlet tube to feel the difference.

Figure 3
Air is compressible, but water is incompressible.

LB page 57 5.2 Narrow and wide syringes LB page 58
Two syringes that are connected with a tube can be called a syringe
system.
Think about loads and distances LB p. 58
If the tube and syringes are filled with air, it is called a pneumatic
Look at Figure 7 and then discuss the question in small groups.
system.
If they are filled with water or oil, it is called a hydraulic system.
Figure 5
5. When the plunger on the left is pressed in, the plunger on the right presses
Figure 7
against the hand. Will the pressure on the hand be the same with a pneumatic
system as with a hydraulic system? Explain your answer. 1. The woman carrying the big load only has to walk a short distance to her home.
The woman with the small load has to walk quite far to her home. Who will be
The pressure on the hand will be smaller with the pneumatic system, because more tired when she gets home? Explain your answer.
part of the work done to press the plunger is spent on compressing the air, and
No definite answer is possible without more information. The idea with the
is therefore not available at the output end.
question is to simply inspire learners to engage with the idea that the amount of
6. A pneumatic and a hydraulic system are shown below in Figure 6. In each case
the two syringes are exactly the same size. Two heavy objects of the same
‘work’ done when carrying a load depends on both the distance covered and the
weight are resting on plungers on the right in each case. weight carried. It would be good if a few learners suggest that the two women
do roughly the same amount of work, because that may support their thinking on
mechanical advantage in hydraulic systems.
Figure 8 below shows a two-syringe system with a smaller and a bigger syringe.
The system was filled with water until there were no air bubbles.
Figure 6
If the plunger on the left is pressed in by 2 cm in both systems, what will
happen to the blue objects? Explain your answer.
The system of syringes and pipe on the right is filled with oil or water. Both
syringes have the same diameter. When you press in the plunger on the left by
2 cm, the blue ob ect will be lifted by exactly 2 cm.
The system of syringes and pipe on the left is filled with air. Both syringes have
the same diameter. When you press in the plunger on the left by 2 cm, the blue Figure 8
ob ect will be lifted by less than 2 cm, because the air will compress.
Action research: Input and output cylinders LB p. 59 cardboard LB page 60
You will now do more action research

with two syringes. To do this, you
need to make an apparatus.
Copy these rulers onto a drawing and
attach them to a sheet of corrugated
cardboard or a cereal box. The lines
are 2 mm apart.
Attach your two-syringe system with tape to the cardboard sheet or box, as shown
in Figure 9 on the next page.
If you press the plunger on the left in, the plunger on the right will move out.
The syringe on which you push the plunger in is

called the input or master cylinder of the system. Instead of “master cylinder”,
The syringe that is moved is called the output or you can say driver cylinder.
slave cylinder of the system.
You will now do research to find out how far the output cylinder moves out when
the input cylinder is pushed in for a certain distance.
1. Draw water into the input cylinder so that is almost full, and the plunger is
right next to one of the marks on the ruler.
2. Make a small mark at the top of the plunger of the output cylinder.
3. Push the input cylinder plunger in by 1 cm.
4. Measure how far the output cylinder plunger has moved.
5. Draw up a table like the one below and enter your measurement.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 4, but now push the input cylinder in by 2 cm.
7. Repeat all the steps from 1 to 4 for distances of 3 cm and 4 cm.
Input cylinder movement in cm 1 2 3 4

Output cylinder movement in cm Figure 9
The ratio between the input cylinder distance and output cylinder distance should
be constant, but may slightly vary as the readings may not be precise.

8. Now think of the scenario where you made the wide syringe the master 5.3 Change the size of forces using a
cylinder, and the narrow syringe the slave cylinder. How far do you think the hydraulic system
plunger of the narrow syringe will move when you press the plunger of the
wide syringe in by 1 cm? The picture shows a plastic bag filled with water.
It will be the opposite. If the wide cylinder moved cm when the narrow If you put your left index finger gently against the
bag and then pressed against the bag with your
cylinder moved 1 cm, the narrow cylinder will move 4 cm when the wide cylinder right index finger, what do you think
you would feel with your left index finger?
moves 1 cm. When pressure is applied to a flexible
container with liquid, the same pressure
9. Also predict what will happen if you press the plunger of the wide cylinder in is felt everywhere in the container.
by ½ cm, 1 cm or 2 cm. Copy the table below and fill in your predictions. The pressure is “transmitted” or
“transferred” through the liquid.
Wide master cylinder movement in cm ½ 1 2 Note: “Pressure” is not the same as Figure 10
“force”, although it is related to it. A
Narrow slave cylinder movement in cm
man called Blaise Pascal realised this a
few centuries ago and wrote about it. It
The opposite of the measurements in uestion . is called Pascal’s principle.
10. If you still have time, do more research to check your predictions. Draw up
You will now do action
another table to show your new predictions.
research to investigate how input cylinder
The opposite of the measurements in uestion . pressure is transmitted through
output cylinder
water. To do this, you need
the same syringe system on a
You do work when you press in the master cylinder.
cardboard base that you used in
And the slave cylinder does work when it moves on
the previous section. This time,
the other side. The amount of work “put in” on the
put it upright and support it
input side (master cylinder) must be the same as
with books, or something else
the amount of work that “comes out” on the output
that is sturdy. You also need a
side (slave cylinder).
few objects that are equal in
weight, like small boxes filled
11. What do you notice? You have now investigated how the distance of movement
with sand.
changes when you transfer work from one syringe to another syringe with a
different width. Is it only the distance of movement that change when you Figure 11
transfer work from one cylinder to a different cylinder?
Put a finger on the plunger of the slave cylinder when you press the plunger of
Action research: How is pressure transmitted through water?
the master cylinder. Do this in two ways, by using the narrow cylinder as the
1. Draw water into the wider cylinder until it is almost full. You will use this as the
master cylinder and by using the wide cylinder as the master cylinder.
input cylinder.
The force on the wider cylinder is bigger than the force on the narrow cylinder. 2. Put one box on the plunger of the output cylinder. Put another box on the
plunger of the input cylinder.
3. Does the plunger on the output cylinder move?
It should not move. Ask the learners to explain why not

4. Put another box on the plunger of the input cylinder. If the plunger on the
LB page 64
output cylinder still does not move, put more boxes on the input cylinder.
5. Think about what you have just observed. How do the boxes you have placed
on the master cylinder affect the slave cylinder?
The answer is given in the text, in the text following the question.
The boxes on the master cylinder press Instead of saying “the

downwards on the plunger in the system. This boxes press downwards”,
force is transmitted through the water to the technologists usually say “the
plunger on the slave cylinder, and it pushes the boxes exert a downward
plunger of the slave cylinder upwards. force”.
6. Did the plunger on the slave cylinder move the same distance as the plunger on
the master cylinder?
No
7. Was the force exerted by the boxes you placed on the master cylinder equal to
the upwards force exerted on the one box on top of the slave cylinder?
No, it was bigger.
8. Think back to the two women who walked carrying bags to their homes, in the
story at the beginning of section 5.2. What does their story and this experiment
have in common? Think carefully before you write down your answer.
A large force that is exerted (acts) over a small distance does the same amount
of work as a small force that is exerted (acts) over a large distance.
When work is transferred from a wide cylinder to a narrow cylinder, the force
exerted by the narrow cylinder is smaller than the force that is applied to
the wide cylinder. That is why you had to put more than one box on the wide
cylinder before it could move the one box on the narrow cylinder upwards.
The pressure of the liquid is the same everywhere, on the input cylinder as well
as the output cylinder. But because the input cylinder is wider, the force on the
input cylinder is greater than the force on the output cylinder.
Next week
Figure 12 In the next chapter, you will learn how hydraulic systems are used to lift cars and
other heavy objects.

Chapter 6 Orientation
Hydraulic machines
The work for this week involves two quite challenging topics:
• calculations about hydraulic presses, and
• the working of a hydraulic car jack.
The above topics are addressed in sections 6.2 and 6.3.

To make sense of hydraulic press calculations, learners need to clearly understand that the
mechanical advantage comes from pushing a small piston a long way with a small force so that
the big piston moves a short way with a big force.
LB page 65 Learners start to work quantitatively with the relationship between the cross-sectional area and
the distance of movement. This means they need to measure quantities and do calculations with
In this chapter you will investigate how hydraulic systems are used in some practical situations.
those quantities.
6.1 Using pressure to get things done ..................................................................... 89
6.2 Calculations about hydraulic systems ................................................................. 92
6.1 Using pressure to get things done
6.3 The hydraulic car jack ....................................................................................... 95
The pictures and text on Learner Book pages 68–69 engage learners in two applications of
hydraulic presses: metal pressing and waste compaction.
The section then continues to revise the idea of mechanical advantage in hydraulic systems.
Questions 2(a) and (b) on Learner Book page 70 are critical for understanding how hydraulic
systems can provide mechanical advantage. In order to ensure that there is enough time
to do and discuss these questions in class, the design and drawing task in Question 1
on Learner Book page 69 should preferably be given as homework.
6.2 Calculations about hydraulic systems

Learners need to understand the following in order to make sense of calculations about
hydraulic devices:
• The work done by applying a small force over a long distance is equal to the work done by
applying a big force over a short distance (this was emphasized in Chapter 5 already).
• Liquid is not compressible, hence the volumetric displacement of the input cylinder is equal
to the volumetric displacement of the output cylinder
• Volume = surface area of base × height
The diagram in Figure 13 on Learner Book page 72, may help learners to grasp the above
Figure 1 ideas.
Your learners may want to know why the pictures of hydraulic systems have rectangular
84 CHAPTER 6: HYDRAULIC PRES AND JACK cylinders. This is because it is easier to explain the concept of ‘area’ using a rectangle. Normally
hydraulic systems have round pistons.
84 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 6: HYDRAULIC MACHINES 85

This lesson is a series of questions LB page 66
using simple calculations
of hydraulic systems with a
mechanical advantage greater
than 1. All the questions are about
a small input piston (blue) and a
big output piston. It is preferable
that learners reason to do the
calculations instead of trying to use
a formula without understanding.
6.3 The hydraulic car jack

These diagrams appear with explanatory text on
page 76 in the Learner Book (Figures 24 and
25). The questions below do not appear in the
Learner Book, but may be useful in class.
What do you think will happen to the red and
blue valves shown in this diagram, and to the
output cylinder when the red input cylinder is
pulled upwards? Figure 2: Mechanical jacks
What do you think will happen to the red and

blue valves shown in this diagram, and to the
output cylinder when the red input cylinder is
pressed downwards?
86 CHAPTER 6: HYDRAULIC PRES AND JACK
Figure 3: A hydraulic floor jack

LB page 67 6.1 Using pressure to get things done LB page 68
If you press a plastic bottle down hard on a sheet of paper, you can make a
perfectly round mark on that paper.
Figure 5
You can also use a bottle like this to press cookies out of a sheet of dough. Flat
plastic or metal objects such as washers can be made in the same way, by pressing
them out of plastic or metal sheets. With metal, you have to press down very hard.
Questions about applying pressure LB p. 68
1. Tom wants to use two hard steel tubes with sharp

edges to press washers from a sheet of iron. Can
he use a type of lever to help him exert enough
force to press the steel tubes through the iron
Figure 4: A hydraulic car jack sheet?
88 CHAPTER 6: HYDRAULIC PRES AND JACK Make a sketch to show how this can be done.
The machine that you design can be called a
washer-making press.
Figure 6

Many towns in South Africa use garbage trucks to collect garbage bags and other
rubbish.
This truck can carry 15 cubic metres of rubbish, which is roughly 120 garbage
bags. The truck has a hydraulic press with output cylinders that can compress
the rubbish with a force of fifteen tons or 15 000 kg. If you want to know how big
that force is, think about how heavy a full two litre bottle of cold drink feels in
Learners’ own design sketches.
your hand. Now imagine you are holding 7 500 of them!
Because the truck compresses the rubbish, it can pick up about 2 000 bags before
it is full.
Instead of using a lever to exert a big enough force to cut the washers, a
hydraulic pushrod could be used, as shown in Figure 7.
A machine like this is called a hydraulic press.
The mechanical advantage gained by using an output cylinder that is
wider than the input cylinder is used in a hydraulic press.
Figure 8
How does a hydraulic press work?

Look at the syringe system shown here. If you
push the input plunger with your one hand,
input cylinder
the output plunger will push up against your
output cylinder finger.
If the output plunger is wider than the input
plunger, the output force is bigger than the
output input
input force. The mechanical advantage is
bigger than 1.
If the output plunger is narrower than the
input plunger, the output force is smaller
than the input force. In this case, the
mechanical advantage is smaller than 1.
Figure 10 shows the same type of system as Figure 9
Figure 9. The yellow part is water or another
type of liquid. The red and blue parts are
Figure 7 cylinders that can move up and down.

2. (a) Imagine a hydraulic system such as in The surface area of the top of a cylinder is the same as the surface area of
Figure 10 that is about 50 cm high. If the base of the cylinder, and it is the same as the surface area of any cut
the blue cylinder is pushed down by 5 cm, that you make at a right angle with the height of the cylinder. This is called
will the red cylinder move upwards by 5 cm, input the cross-sectional area.
by less than 5 cm or by more than 5 cm? output
If you struggle to understand this, imagine a roll of polony or a brick-shaped
loaf of bread. Each slice that you cut from the polony or bread has exactly
Less than 5 cm
the same shape and size, and therefore also has the same surface area.
(b) Suppose a load, for example, a box with apples,
is placed on top of the red cylinder. Calculations LB p. 71
Will the upwards force on the load be the
same as the downward force exerted on the 1. If the blue cylinder in Figure 11 moves down by 12 mm, by how much will the
blue cylinder. Or will it be bigger or smaller? red cylinder move up?
The upward force on the load will be bigger. By less than 12 mm, however, learners cannot be expected to give
If the output cylinder in a simple hydraulic Figure 10 the actual answer now. The explanation is given in the text and diagram below.
system is wider than the input cylinder, the
output distance is smaller than the input Look at Figure 12.
distance, but the output force is bigger than the • If the blue cylinder is pushed down through the green volume on the
input force. right, the red cylinder will move up through the green volume on the left.
• If the surface area of the base of the output cylinder is four times the
LB page 71
6.2 Calculations about hydraulic systems surface area of the base of the input cylinder, the output force will be
four times as big as the input force. The output distance will be a ¼ of the
A hydraulic system with rectangular cylinders is shown below. The surface area input distance.
of the red cylinder top is four times bigger than the surface area of the blue • In the system in Figures 11 and 12, the mechanical advantage is four, and
cylinder top. the distance advantage is ¼.
The volume of liquid that is pushed down on the right rises up on the left and
pushes the red cylinder upwards.
Figure 11 Figure 12

2. In the system shown in Figure 13, the surface area of the output cylinder top is 6.3 The hydraulic car jack
nine times the surface area of the input cylinder top.
(a) What is the mechanical advantage of this system?
9
(b) What is the distance advantage of this system?
1
9
Figure 13
LB page 73
3. In a particular hydraulic press, the output cylinder moves by 2 cm when the

input cylinder is moved through 10 cm. How much stronger is the output force
than the input force? Figure 14
Output cylinder moves through only one fifth of the distance so the force is
5 times stronger than the input force.
When a tyre goes flat, you need to lift
4. In another hydraulic press, the area of the output cylinder top is the car up to take the wheel off and fit
40 cm2 and the area of the input cylinder top is 5 cm2. another wheel. Since a car is too heavy
(a) How far will the output cylinder move if the input cylinder is moved through to lift with your bare hands, a device
16 cm? that provides a mechanical advantage is
needed.
Output cylinder moves through only one fifth of the distance so the force is A device that is used to lift cars so that
5 times stronger than the input force. wheels can be changed is called a jack. A
jack provides a mechanical advantage.
(b) How far do you need to push the input cylinder so that the output cylinder
will move through 24 cm?
Figure 15: A hydraulic bottle jack
8 × 24 192 cm

If the output cylinder could remain where it
LB page 74
is after the input cylinder has been pushed
Look at Figure 16. A bottle jack has a hydraulic pushrod downwards, then the output cylinder could be
system inside, which provides a mechanical advantage. pushed higher every time the input cylinder is
When the blue input cylinder is pushed down by some pushed down.
distance, the red output cylinder moves up with a
To make this possible, more oil will be needed. A
bigger force, but by a much smaller distance.
real hydraulic bottle jack has an extra container
with oil, as shown in the diagram below.
To make the red cylinder stay in place each
time the blue cylinder is pulled upwards, the oil
Figure 16 should be prevented from being sucked out from Figure 19
underneath the red cylinder. Perhaps something
Questions about the hydraulic jack LB p. 74 like a water tap should be placed at the white
box in Figure 21.
1. Look at Figure 14 on the previous page. Do you think the car will be lifted high
enough when the input cylinder is pressed down?
No, because the output cylinder will only rise a little for one push of
extra oil
the input cylinder. container
To lift the car up high enough, the output cylinder will have to be pushed up
quite a number of times. To do that, the input cylinder will have to be pulled
upwards each time, so that it can be ready for a next downward push. Think of
syringes to understand what will happen. You can even experiment with two
syringes of different sizes again.
Figure 20 Figure 21
A ball valve such as those on the right allows

liquid to flow in one direction through a tube, but
not in the other direction. This ball valve consists
of a ball that is connected to a spring. The spring
Figure 22: Ball valve closed
pushes the valve against the opening, so that no
liquid can flow through.
Figure 17 Figure 18
If the liquid tries to flow from the left to the right,
2. When the blue input plunger is pressed in, the red output plunger moves out. the ball is pushed away from the opening, and the
What do you think will happen if the blue input plunger is now pulled out again? liquid can pass through. Figure 23: Ball valve open
The red input plunger will be sucked down again.

The main part of a hydraulic car jack is a big output cylinder that sticks
3. Make a systems diagram of how a hydraulic car jack works. The picture below
out of the top of the bottle shape. This lifts the car up when you pump the
can help you to think of the different things that happen between the input and
handle.
output of a car jack. The systems diagram must show in different steps what
Inside the bottle is a tank with oil. The oil from this tank passes through a happens inside the jack if you press down and pull back the lever twice.
ball valve into the space where the input cylinder is. The ball valve does not
Note that the additional tank of oil in the drawing below has a hole inside it
allow the fluid to pass back.
into which the output cylinder fits. This tank is also called the “oil reservoir” of
The pump handle connects to the small input cylinder and pushes it in like the hydraulic system.
the plunger in a syringe. As you pump, the input cylinder goes up and down,
forcing the oil to the output cylinder through another ball valve.
The output cylinder pushes up a small distance each time the input cylinder
is pushed down, but with a big force that lifts the car up.
When the input cylinder is pushed downwards, the red valve closes and the
blue valve opens. The oil is then pushed past the blue valve and pushes the
output cylinder upwards.
When the input cylinder is pulled upwards, the red valve opens and oil is
drawn in from the tank. The blue valve closes, so that oil cannot flow back
from the side of the output cylinder. As a result, the output cylinder does not
move while the input cylinder is pulled upwards.
Figure 26: A few inner workings of a hydraulic car jack
Figure 24 Figure 25

Evaluate the design of a hydraulic car jack LB p. 78
Learners’ sketches should show: 1. Who uses hydraulic car jacks?

Step 1: Car owners
the lever pressed down
2. What do you do with a hydraulic car jack?
• the valve to the reservoir closed and the valve to the output chamber opened
Lift up the car to change the wheel.
• the output cylinder raised
3. Is a hydraulic car jack a good tool to lift a car? Explain.
Step 2:
Yes it is, because it is strong and lifts cars easily. It is also small, clean and
the lever pulled back up
• the valve to the output chamber closed and the valve to the reservoir opened has no parts sticking out so it is easy to store in the boot
• oil sucked into the input cylinder chamber 4. What materials are hydraulic car jacks made of?
Step 3: Mostly metal
the lever pressed down
5. What does a hydraulic car jack cost, more or less?
• the valve to the reservoir closed and the valve to the output chamber opened
About R400.
• the output cylinder raised higher than before
Step 4: 6. Is it worth paying that amount for a hydraulic car jack?
the lever pulled back up Most cars already have a ack in the boot, but if you wanted to buy one then
• the valve to the output chamber closed and the valve to the reservoir opened it would be worth that amount.
• oil sucked into the input cylinder chamber. 7. Is it necessary for a hydraulic car jack to look pretty?
Not really.
8. Is a hydraulic car jack safe to use?
Yes, because it has non-return valves so the car can’t fall.

LB page 78
An important question
What safety precautions should people take when using car jacks? Next week
During this week, you learnt how valves can be used to control the movement of
oil and of the output cylinder of a car jack. Next week, you will learn about other
ways to control movement. You will also learn about pulleys and pulley systems.

Chapter 7 Materials required for this chapter
Pulleys and controllers

some cups or beakers with handles (see page 110)
a roll of string
HB pencils and erasers
Orientation
The first part of this chapter is about mechanisms called pulley systems, and specifically:
• single-wheel fixed pulley systems
• single-wheel moveable pulley systems
LB page 79 • pulley-block systems (block and tackle)
7.1 Change direction with a string or rope .....................................................................106 The term pulley is a bit misleading, since the use of pulleys
have nothing to do with the ergonomic and mechanical
7.2 Different ways to use a pulley .................................................................................111
advantages in the various mechanisms. Pulleys only serve
7.3 Mechanical control systems ...................................................................................114 the purpose of reducing friction in these mechanisms, and
all the mechanisms can work well without pulleys.
The picture on the right, which is also in the Learner Book
on page 80, shows what may be called a “single-wheel fixed
pulley system” although there is no wheel or pulley. The key
aspect is a support around which the rope can be pulled in
a different direction than the direction in which the load is
moving.
Due to the mechanics of the human body, it is easier to
pull sideways and downwards on a rope to lift something
up, than to pull it up directly by pulling vertically upwards.
To achieve this, a rigid support is needed around which a
rope or chain can be pulled. A polished surface or a pulley
can be installed at the support which allows the change of
direction of pull, to reduce friction.
Note that the change of direction of pull that is made possible
by pulling round a corner (support) does not provide a
mechanical advantage in any way. The full force needed to
lift the load has to be applied at the input (pulling) end of the rope. A single-wheel fixed pulley
system provides no mechanical advantage, it just provides for a change of direction pull
and therefore a more convenient body position for the person who does the work.
When lifting a heavy object, a mechanical advantage can be achieved by allowing the object
to slide back while lifting it, so that it does not move as far as the end of the rope is pulled.
This technique can be easily demonstrated with a string and a cup or beaker with a handle as
shown in Figure 8 on Learner Book page 84.
Figure 1
102 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 7: PULLEYS AND CONTROLLERS 103

In both lifting systems shown on the right, moveable pulleys LB page 80
A
are used to allow the load to slide back while being lifted.
The effect of a moveable pulley is that the load moves up by
only half the distance through which the rope end is lifted,
hence it works like a first-class lever with a mechanical
advantage of 2. In the block and tackle system on the
right, the principles of direction change and a sliding load
is combined by using a moveable and a fixed pulley. Such
a system provides for both a mechanical advantage and a
more convenient body position.
The change of direction technique as well as the idea of one-way control mechanisms are dealt
with in section 7.1. Section 7.2 is about moveable pulleys and the different kinds of simple
pulley systems. Mechanical control systems forms the topic for section 7.3.
7.1 Change direction with a string or rope

The issue of friction when a rope is pulled around a supporting object is addressed first, in order
to provide motivation for the focus on pulleys in this chapter. With a view to promote a more
global understanding of a mechanism, this is followed by an activity on how to use a simple one-
way movement control mechanism to improve the design of s simple lifting system.
7.2 Different ways to use a pulley

The simple experiment on Learner Book page 84, with a string and a cup or beaker, is critical
to understand how a moveable pulley can be used to provide mechanical advantage. If this
experiment was not done during the first lesson, it should be done at the start of the second
lesson. B C
The three kinds of pulley systems that learners should master are schematically illustrated in
Figures 10 A, B and C (Learner Book page 85). It may be useful to have learners look closely at
these drawings and describe the differences to each other. It may also be useful to ask them to
think and discuss which of the three systems may be most helpful to lift heavy loads, and why.
7.3 Mechanical control systems

This lesson describes three types of systems that
control movement: calliper brakes; cam cleats; and
the ratchet and pawl system. Some learners may have
experienced one-way movement control devices in
public places, and this may be built upon in a class
discussion.
Figure 2: Which way of hoisting a heavy bag is the easiest?

7.1 Change direction with a string or rope When two surfaces rub against each other, there
are forces that act on the materials, and parts of
Different ways to lift something up LB p. 81 the materials may break. The forces that act when
materials rub against each other are called friction
The man in Figure 2A on the previous page wants to lift the sack with wet grain forces. On a cold day, you sometimes rub your
right up to the branch. He wants to fasten the sack to the branch, so that it can hands against each other to warm them up. The
hang there till the wind has dried the grain out. To get the sack up, he slung a rope warmth comes from the friction forces.
over the branch and fastened the one end of the rope to the sack. To prevent friction from harming a rope that is used
1. (a) Make a rough copy of Figure 2A on the previous page. Mark the direction in to change the direction of pulling an object, one
which the man pulls with an arrow. may let the rope run over a wheel that is called a
(b) Mark the direction in which the sack will move with an arrow too. pulley.
The arrows are shown on Figure 2A on the previous page.

2. Do you think the rope will last forever if the man uses it often to pull heavy
objects up around the branch?
Figure 4: A pulley
No, the rope the rope will eventually rub through so much that it breaks (in
proper English one says ‘fray’ instead of ‘rub through’).
Figure 5: The man uses a pulley to lift the sack
The system that the man in Figure 5 uses is called a single wheel, fixed
Figure 3: This rope has been rubbed against the edge of a brick. pulley system. Its purpose is to change the direction of pull, but it does
not give a mechanical advantage.
The man cannot lift the sack from the ground up to the branch with
If you pull heavy objects up many times with the same piece of rope or one pull. He needs to make a plan so that the sack will not drop down
string, the rope will wear out, as you can see in the photograph. It will again while he shifts his hands to get ready for another pull.
eventually break.

LB page 83
The diagram on the right shows a
device called a cam cleat. If you pull
the rope upwards, the cams will close
in on the rope and prevent it from
passing through. If the rope is pulled
downwards, the cams are pushed apart
and the rope can pass through easily.
Devices like a cleat, or the valves
you learnt about in Chapter 6, allow
certain movements, but prevent other
movements. Devices such as these are
called control devices.
You can experiment with a pencil
between your thumb and forefinger as
shown below, to experience how a cam
cleat works. Figure 6: A cam cleat
Figure 7: You can slide a pencil between your thumb and forefinger to feel how a cam cleat works.
3. Make a rough sketch to show where the man in Figure 5 can put a cam cleat to
make it easier to lift the sack up to the branch.

An important experiment LB p. 84 LB page 85
7.2 Different ways to use a pulley
You need a piece of string or a shoelace, and a cup or beaker with a handle.
Put the cup on your desk. Pull the string or shoelace through the handle of the The system on the right is called a block and
cup. Hold the one end of the shoelace in the air with your left hand. Pull the other tackle.
end of the string upwards with your right hand to lift the cup. Let the string slide Look carefully at the three diagrams in Figure
through the handle. 10, showing different ways in which pulleys can
be used when lifting an object with a rope.
The red pulleys are fixed to the support
structure: they can turn but they cannot move.
The red pulleys are called fixed pulleys. The blue
pulleys can move, and they are called moveable
pulleys.
• Figure 10A shows a single wheel, fixed pulley
system.
• Figure 10B shows a single wheel, moveable
pulley system.
• Figure 10C shows a pulley block system, also
called a block and tackle.
Figure 9: A block-and-tackle
Questions about pulley systems LB p. 86
1. Look carefully at Figures 10A and 10C.

(a) If the rope in Figure 10A is pulled down by 50 cm, will the load (the black
object) also move up by 50 cm?
Figure 8 Yes
Is the cup raised by the same distance as you raised your right hand? Repeat the
experiment and observe the movements so that you can observe the distances (b) If the rope in Figure 10B is pulled up by 50 cm, will the load (the black object)
clearly. Try to explain your observation. also move up by 50 cm?
Learners will observe that the cup is not lifted by the same distance than the right No, the load will only move 25 cm up.
hand moves up, because it slid down the string.

(c) When will you do more work, when you pull the rope in Figure 10A down by
50 cm, or when you pull the rope in Figure 10C down by 50 cm?
You will do the most work in Figure 10A, because you need to apply a larger
force over the same distance (50 cm).
Or you can think of it in this way: If you pull the rope in Figure 10A 50 cm
downwards, the load will move 50 cm upwards. But if you pull the rope in

Figure 10C 50 cm downwards, the load will only move 25 cm upwards. You will give a perfect answer, but rather that the question makes them think. (It is like
therefore do more work on the load in Figure 10A. a first-class lever where the fulcrum is closer to the load than to the effort.)
Figure 11 on the next page could help you to better understand

how a moveable pulley system works.
Suppose the load is 50 cm below the hook. To pull the load up
to the level of the hook, the hand must pull up 100 cm of rope.
So the hand moves up 100 cm while the load only moves up
50 cm.
Because the hand moves twice the distance of the load, the
force required is the same as you would need to pick up half
the load (5 kg) directly.
LB page 87
50 cm of rope 50 cm of rope
Figure 10A Figure 10B Figure 10C
In pulley systems such as these, the purpose of the fixed pulleys,

that are shown in red, is to change the direction of the rope, so
that you can pull down to lift an object up. It is easier for your body
to pull a rope downwards than to pull it upwards.
2. In what way do the moveable pulleys, shown in blue, help to make it easier to
lift the black object? If you have difficulty with this question, remember what
you experienced when you did the experiment with the string and the cup on
Learner Book page 84 (Teacher Guide page 110).
The moveable pulleys make it easier to lift the black ob ect (load) because the
ob ect is lifted by only half the distance than the hand. This is a tough
Figure 11: Single moveable-pulley system
conceptual question, and the expectation should not be that the learners can

7.3 Mechanical control systems LB page 88 LB page 89
You can ride a bicycle very fast. Think of a pair of scissors:
Figure 14
A pair of scissors can also be made like this:
Figure 12
Figure 15: An instrument like this is sometimes called a pair of callipers.
However, to be safe when you
ride a bicycle, you need to The handles could be bent like this:
be able to control the speed.
You need brakes. One type
of bicycle brake is shown in
the picture on the right. The
diagrams on the next page will
help you to understand this
photograph better.
Figure 13 Figure 16

LB page 90
The brake system in Figure 13 is actually a pair of callipers, as you can see from
Figure 17 below.
Figure 17: Calliper brake for a bicycle
Investigate a calliper brake system LB p. 90
1. Do the following:
(a) Copy the drawing of the calliper brake in Figure 17 above. On your drawing,
draw the part of the bicycle wheel that fits between the brake blocks. This is
the front view.
An example of a drawing is added in red to Figure 1 above.

(b) Draw a side view of the calliper (note that the brake blocks will look different
in a side view and there will be a few hidden lines).
Colour the two arms with different colours.
Label the brake blocks and fulcrum.
Use arrows to show how the parts move when the brake is pulled.

LB page 91 One-way control systems LB page 92
Car disc brakes also use a caliper. This caliper works in a different way to a bicycle
A brake system prevents movement completely. It does not allow movement in
brake. It exerts a squeezing force on a disc behind the car wheel.
any direction.
A valve system, like that in a hydraulic car jack, only prevents flow (movement of
a liquid) in one direction, but allows flow in the opposite direction. A cam cleat is
like a valve, it allows movement in one direction, but not in the opposite direction.
Figure 18: Disc brake on a car Figure 19: Disc brake on a motor cycle
caliper
output hydraulic oil
piston Figure 21
The device below is called a ratchet and pawl. The wheel with the teeth is the
ratchet, and the other object is the pawl.
brake pad
brake disc
wheel
attaches
here
Figure 20: The parts of a car disc brake Figure 22: A ratchet and pawl
A disc brake system consists of a brake disc, a caliper and brake pads.
When the brake pedal is pushed, it moves the input piston, which pushes
hydraulic oil into the output piston.
The output piston then squeezes the brake pad against the surface of the brake
disc. This contact causes friction, which forces the vehicle to slow down or stop.

Draw a block and tackle system LB p. 93 LB page 94
A question to make you think

1. Make a free-hand sketch to show how a one-way control system can be used
Why is it easier for the girl to get across the wall, to levers, hydraulic systems and moveable pulley
together with a block and tackle system to lift heavy loads.
than for the boy? Try to explain how this is similar systems.
Figure 23: The man wants to lift the sack right up to the branch.
Figure 24
Figure 25
Next week
Next week, you will learn more about different kinds of gears and gear systems.

Chapter 8 Materials needed for this chapter:
a calculator.
Gears NB: As a reminder of how gear ratios are calculated, the section from the Grade 8 Chapter 5
Teacher Guide on gears is included at the end of these notes to the teacher. It is suggested you
read through this again before starting this section.
8.1 Direction of rotation of spur gears

LB page 95
As learners have already learnt about spur gears in Grade 8, they immediately engage with
a series of questions that are designed not only to test that knowledge, but to get them to
In this chapter, you will revise spur gear systems and how they can be used to change the visualise the movement of gears. The first few questions can be discussed in the class, but the
direction, speed and turning force of rotation. You will calculate the number of revolutions, questions on rotational speed must be answered individually. Make sure that all the learners are
rotation speeds and turning forces. able to do the calculations by checking their answers.
You will also look at other types of gears, namely bevel gears, rack-and-pinion gear systems,
and worm gear systems. These other types of gear systems make it possible to change the
direction of rotation in ways that spur gears cannot do. 8.2 Gear ratio, rotational speed and rotational force
8.1 Direction of rotation of spur gears ....................................................................... 126 This section starts with a practical context where different vehicles (a heavy vehicle and a light
8.2 Gear ratio, rotational speed and rotational force ................................................... 130 sports car) may need to use different gear ratios. This context gets learners thinking about the
8.3 Other types of gears .......................................................................................... 135 forces required to move the different vehicles.
Then the definition of gear ratio that was introduced in Grade 8 is revisited. Alternative formulas
are given that express gear ratio in terms of rotational speeds of the axles, numbers of teeth of
the gears, and turning forces on the axles.
In the remainder of the section learners solve problems that will develop their understanding of
the relationships between rotational speeds of the axles, numbers of teeth of the gears, and
turning forces on the axles. In the end, learners discover that they can use a set of gears for the
same purpose as a pulley system (block-and-tackle) to make it easier to hoist a heavy load.
8.3 Other kinds of gears

Learners are shown how bevel gears can be used to change the direction of circular motion.
They also see that bevel gears can alter the speed of rotation.
The two other gear systems that learners examine are rack-and-pinion and worm gear
systems. Practical examples are given which will make it easy for the learners to understand
how these systems works. You can ask them to think of other practical examples where these
systems could be found.
Figure 1
122 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 8: GEARS 123

Talking about gears in everyday language, and calculating gear ratios LB page 96
The definition of gear ratio is a convention, which means it

An example of a spelling
is something people agreed on, like the spelling of a word.
convention:
It is not an absolute truth. The people who decided on the
In South Africa and Britain we
convention for how gear ratios should be calculated were
write “colour”, but in America
scientists and engineers. Unfortunately, they did not pay
they write “color”.
attention to the way that other people talk about gears in
everyday language when this convention was formed. You
have good reason to be annoyed by them for confusing you!
In everyday language you use the descriptive words “low” and “high” to talk about gears
selected on a car or bicycle. In a car you use a low gear (second gear) to drive slowly up a very
steep hill, and you use a high gear (fifth gear) when you drive fast on a flat road. When you cycle
on a flat road, you can select either a low or a high gear. If you select a low gear, you will pedal
fast but with a light force. If you select a high gear, you will pedal slowly but with a heavy force.
So, in everyday language a low gear means that the input rotational speed (of the engine or the
pedals) is fast compared to the output rotational speed (of the wheel). In other words, the output
rotational speed is slow compared to the input rotational speed. That means, if you divide the
output rotational speed by the input rotational speed, you will get a small answer.
Unfortunately, the scientists or engineers who decided on how to calculate gear ratios defined
gear ratios the other way round. They defined gear ratio as input rotational speed divided by
output rotational speed:
rotational speed of input axle
gear ratio:
rotational speed of output axle
The following table shows how the gear ratios of a motor car are shown in a motor car
magazine.
Gear 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Gear ratio 4.1 2.2 1.5 1.1 0.9
Note that the highest gear (5th) has the smallest value of the gear ratio.
A useful way to think of the definition of gear ratio is to say that it is the number of times that a
car’s engine or a bicycle’s pedals have to rotate for the wheels to rotate once.
Figure 2

8.1 Direction of rotation of spur gears LB page 97 LB page 98
3. If the red gear below is turned anti-clockwise, in which direction will the grey
Questions about counter rotation and idler gears LB p. 97 gear turn?
clockwise
1. (a) How many teeth do each of these
gears have?
12 and 12
(b) The black gear is turned clockwise until

the yellow dot reaches the position
shown in Figure 4. Redraw Figure 4 and
Figure 3
draw arrows to show where the blue
and red dots will be.
(c) In what direction did the blue gear turn?
anti-clockwise Figure 6: Counter-rotation
(d) Through which part of a full revolution 4. In the situation below, the red gear drives the blue gear and the blue gear then
did each gear turn? drives the grey gear. If the red gear is turned clockwise, in which direction will
the grey gear turn?
one quarter of a revolution
Figure 4
clockwise
The two blue and black gears in the above
situation turn in opposite directions. This can
also be described by saying that the two gears
counter-rotate.
2. The dark blue gear on the left below is turned anti-clockwise through two
thirds of a full turn. Redraw Figure 5 and indicate with arrows where each of
the yellow dots will be afterwards.
Each dot moves by 8 teeth.
Figure 7: A blue idler gear
5. If the red gear in the above system makes one full turn, how many turns will
the blue gear make, and how many turns will the grey gear make?
The blue gear makes one and a half turns and the grey gear makes one full turn.
Figure 5

Number or rotations of driver and driven gears LB p. 98 Speed of rotation of driver and driven gears LB p. 99
Suppose the red gear in Figure 8 drives the small grey Suppose the small gear in Figure 9 drives
gear. The red gear has 18 teeth and the grey gear has the big gear. The small gear has 20 teeth
6 teeth. For every 1 tooth in the grey gear, there are 3 and the big gear has 40 teeth.
teeth in the red gear.
1. If the small driver gear makes 12
When a gear has made a full turn, you can say it revolutions in one minute, how many
has made one full revolution. revolutions will the driven gear make
in the same time?
Figure 8 12 2 6 revolutions of the driven gear
LB page 99
1. If the red driver gear makes one full revolution anti-clockwise, how many
revolutions will the grey driven gear make, and in which direction? Figure 9
2. If the small driver gear in Figure 9 makes 40 revolutions in one minute, how
The grey gear will make three revolutions clockwise. many revolutions will the driven gear make in the same time?
2. If the red driver gear makes 8 full revolutions, how many revolutions will the 40 2 20 revolutions of the driven gear
grey driven gear make?
If a gear makes 40 revolutions in one minute, we
24 revolutions say the gear turns at a speed of 40 revolutions per
minute. The abbreviation rpm is often used for
3. How many revolutions should the red gear make for the grey gear to make 12 “revolutions per minute”.
revolutions?
four revolutions 3. Look at the situation in Figure 9 again. If the driver gear with 20 teeth turns at
80 rpm, at what speed will the driven gear with 40 teeth turn?
4. In a different set of gears, the driver gear has 20 teeth and the driven gear has
80 teeth. How many full revolutions will the driven gear make if the driver gear 80 rpm 2 40 rpm
makes 20 full revolutions?
Number of times that a gear tooth of the driver gear passes the contact point
between the two gears 20 × 20 400.
This is the same as the number of times that a gear tooth of the driven gear
4. If you want the driven gear in Figure 9 to turn at a speed of 120 rpm, how fast
passes the contact point between the two gears, so 400 80 × (number of should the driver gear be turned?
120 rpm × 2 240 rpm

revolutions of driven gear).
Re-arrange the equation: (number of revolutions of driven gear) 400 80 5.

LB page 100 Revision of what you learnt about gears in Grade 8 LB p. 101
8.2 Gear ratio, rotational speed and rotational force Look at the set of gears on the right. The
big gear is the input gear, and the small
gear is the output gear.
Each gear is fixed to an axle, and the
axle drives a fan. The speed with which
the fan turns is called the rotational
speed of the axle.
When a gear with many teeth drives
a gear with fewer teeth, the driven gear
turns faster, but with a smaller turning
Figure 10: A road roller Figure 11: A sports car force than the driver gear. Figure 13
When a gear with few teeth drives a gear with many teeth, the driven gear turns
A road roller has a bigger engine than a sports car, but moves much slower.
slower, but with a bigger turning force than the driver gear.
To make a heavy road roller move, a large turning force needs to be applied to
the wheels. If the output rotational speed of the wheels is much slower than the Gear ratio is defined as follows:
input rotational speed of the engine, then the output rotational force will be much rotational speed of input axle turning force on output axle
bigger than the input rotational force. A road roller uses a set of gears that changes gear ratio = =
rotational speed of output axle turning force on input axle
the fast rotational speed of the engine into a very slow rotational speed of the
wheels, so that the rotational force at the wheels is strong enough to move the 1. Calculate the gear ratio of the set of gears in Gear ratio and speed ratio is
heavy road roller. Figure 12 the same thing. It can also be
With a sports car, a much smaller rotational force is needed at the wheels, called “velocity ratio”.
gear ratio (80 teeth) (20 teeth) 4
because the car is light. The set of gears used to start moving a sports car also You can write a gear ratio in
changes the fast rotational speed of the engine into a slower rotational speed of 4:1 different ways, for example “2
the wheels, but not as slow as with the road roller. So with a sports car, the wheels to 1”, “2:1” or simply “2”,
turn faster but with a smaller turning force than the road roller. 4 to 1 Turning force is also called
torque.
Increase or decrease in rotational force 2. In Figure 12, if the input axle is rotating at 120 rpm, at what speed is the output
axle rotating?
1. Look at the set of gears in Figure 12.
The driver gear has 20 teeth and the Re-arrange the formula:
driven gear has 80 teeth.
Is this gear system increasing the (rotational speed of output axle) (rotational speed of input axle) (gear ratio)
rotational force or decreasing it?
120 rpm 4 30 rpm
Explain your answer.
The big driven gear turns with a slower 3. In Figure 12, which axle will turn with the greatest force, the driver or the
driven axle?
rotational speed than the small driver
The driven axle, because the axle that turns the slowest turns with the
gear ( times as fast). Therefore the
rotational force of the driven gear will Figure 12 greatest force.
be bigger than the rotational force of the driver gear (4 times as big). That
means the gear system is increasing the rotational force.

Comparing turning forces on the input and output axles 4. Will the force exerted by the output rope be bigger or smaller than the force
applied to the input rope? How much bigger or smaller?
LB p. 102
Hint: Think of the situation as if it was a pulley system. You already know the
In Chapter 7 you learnt how a system of pulleys can relationship between the input distance and the output distance.
Note: You will only consider
give you a mechanical advantage to make it easier to The force exerted by the output rope will be twice as big as the force applied
axles with the same diameter
hoist up heavy objects. You will now investigate how in this chapter. When the
a gear system can do the same, by changing a small diameters of the axles around on the input rope.
turning force on the input axle into a big turning force which the ropes are wound
on the output axle. are different, you also need to LB page 103
Look at Figure 14 below. The input (driver) gear has 9 think about that to compare
turning forces. 5. Look at Figure 15. If you pull down with a force
teeth and the output (driven) gear has 18 teeth. A rope
equal to 3 kg on the input side, how heavy a
is wound around each axle.
load can be lifted on the output side? .
3 kg × 2 6 kg
Figure 15
The 3 kg input weight in Figure 15 represents the turning force exerted on
the input axle. The output weight represents the turning force exerted by
the output axle. You will now check your answer to question 5 by using the
formulas for gear ratio:
rotational speed of input axle
gear ratio =
rotational speed of output axle
Figure 14
turning force on output axle
1. What is the gear ratio? =
turning force on input axle
gear ratio (18 teeth) (9 teeth) 2 2:1
number of teeth on output gear
=
2. For one full revolution of the input gear, how many revolutions will the output number of teeth on input gear
gear make?
You have already used the numbers of teeth on the input and output gears to
The output gear will make half a revolution. calculate that the gear ratio is 2:1. It can also be written simply as 2.
3. If you pull the input rope down by 2 cm, how far will the output rope be pulled If you re-arrange the blue part of the formulas, you can make the turning
up? Draw the vertical part of the output rope in the “position at the end” part of force on the output axle the subject of the formula:
Figure 14 to show where the output rope will be after you pulled the input rope (turning force on output axle) = (gear ratio) × (turning force on input axle)
down by 2 cm.
6. Use the formula above to check your answer to question 5.
The output rope is pulled up by half of the distance that the input rope is pulled
turning force on output axle 2 × 3 kg 6 kg
down: 2 cm 2 1cm. Learners have to indicate this on the Position at the end
in Figure 14.

7. Consider other sets of gears with ropes around the axles, as you did on the 8.3 Other types of gears LB page 104
previous page:
(a) In a certain system, the input gear has 6 teeth and the output gear has 18 Bevel gears
teeth. If you apply 4 kg of force on the input rope, what is the heaviest load
that can be lifted by the output rope?
gear ratio 18 6 3
output load 3 × 4 kg 12 kg
(b) In a certain system, the input gear has 12 teeth and the output gear has 30
teeth. If you want to lift a load of 75 kg on the output rope, with what force
in kilograms must you pull the input rope?
gear ratio 30 12 2
input force 5 kg 2 30 kg
(c) A certain person can only pull with a maximum force of 25 kg. That person
needs to hoist loads of up to 150 kg. Design a gear system that will allow
that person to hoist the heavy loads. In others words, how many teeth
should the input and the output gears have?
gear ratio 150 kg 25 kg 6 6:1
The output gear must have 6 times as many teeth as the input gear,
for example 10 teeth for the input gear and 60 teeth for the output gear.
Figure 16: Two spur gears with shafts parallel Figure 17: Two bevel gears with shafts at 90° to
to each other each other
The shafts of the two spur gears in Figure 16 on the left are parallel, but the shafts
of the two gears in Figure 17 on the right are at right angles to each other. The gears
in Figure 17 also have a different shape to ordinary spur gears to make them work
better at right angles to each other. They are called bevel gears.

3. In a particular bevel gear set, the gear ratio is 1 to 12.
LB page 105
(a) The driven gear in this gear set has eight teeth. How many teeth does the
Bevel gears are used to change the direction of circular motion in devices such as
driver gear have?
the hand drill in Figure 18 and the food mixer in Figure 19. We can say that the
axes of rotation of the two gears are at right angles. The driven gear has 8 teeth, and the driver gear has 12 times as many teeth:
12 × 8 96 teeth.
(Learners should look at the formula on page 124 again if they get confused.)
(b) How many revolutions will the driver gear make if the driven gear makes 60
revolutions?
60 revolutions of 8 teeth divided by the 96 teeth of the driven gear:
60 × 8 96 5 revolutions.
(c) How fast should the driver gear turn to make the driven gear turn at 36 rpm?
Figure 18: A hand drill Figure 19: A food mixer
36 rpm × (1 twelfth) 36 rpm 12 3 rpm
Questions about bevel gears LB p. 105
4. Suppose you want to buy a food mixer to help you mix ingredients when you
1. Do you think bevel gears can also be used to change the speed of rotation?
bake a cake. Which food mixer would require the biggest force to turn when
Explain your answer and give examples.
you mix: the mixer with a ratio of 1:3 or a mixer with a gear ratio of 1:30?
Yes, if a gear system consists of two bevel gears with different number of Explain your answer.
teeth, the speed of rotation will be changed. For example, if the driver gear has The gear ratio is equal to: (turning force at the output axle) (turning force at
many more teeth than the driven gear, then the smaller driven gear will rotate the input axle). If the required output turning force is fixed, then a bigger gear
much faster. ratio will require a smaller input turning force. This is because the turning force
2. Why is fast rotation needed to beat eggs properly? is the denominator in the formula for gear ratio above. When the denominator
Slow rotation will not break up the yolk and mix it with the egg white, and will of a fraction is smaller, the value of the fraction is bigger.
not draw air into the mixture. You need a fast stirring action by the egg beater The gear ratio 1:3 is 1 third and the gear ratio 1:30 is 1 thirtieth. So 1:3 is the
to do this. bigger of the two gear ratios. Therefore the mixer with a gear ratio of 1:3 will
be the easiest to turn, but it will turn the slowest.

Rack-and-pinion gears When something moves round and
round, like a wheel, the movement
is called a circular motion or
rotation.
When something moves in a
straight line, like a stone falling,
the movement is called a linear Figure 21
motion.
The gear wheel is called the

pinion gear.
The straight bar with teeth is

called the rack gear.
Figure 22: A rack-and-pinion gear set
Figure 20: A rack-and-pinion gear in a security gate 3. Which part of a rack-and-pinion gear set rotates?
Questions about rack-and-pinion gears LB p. 106 The pinion
In Figure 20, you can see a shell structure that is bolted to the ground on the inside 4. Which part of a rack-and-pinion gear set moves in a straight line?
of the gate.
The rack
1. What do you think is inside the shell structure in Figure 20, and why is it there?
There is an electric motor inside the structure. The motor turns the spur gear 5. If the distance between two teeth on
the rack is 3 cm, and the pinion has
to open the gate. 18 teeth, how far will the rack move
if the pinion gear makes one full
revolution?
2. In which direction will the gate move when the The gear wheel is called the
gear wheel is turned clockwise (as seen from inside pinion gear. The rack will move
the gate), in Figure 20? The straight bar with teeth is
18 × 3 cm 54 cm.
The gate will move to the right, as seen from called the rack gear.
the inside. Figure 23

LB page 108 Worm gears
Some cars have steering systems that work with rack-and-pinion gears.
In Figure 24, you can see that the steering wheel is connected to a pinion gear.
When you turn the steering wheel, the pinion gear also rotates and moves the
rack gear from side to side, a bit like an electric security gate.
Figure 25: A worm gear set
A worm gear set consists of a worm and a worm wheel. The worm wheel is very
similar to a spur gear. When the worm turns, it slowly pushes the wheel round and
round. The worm is the driver gear, and the wheel is the driven gear.
LB page 109
Figure 24: A rack-and-pinion car-steering system
In Figure 26 below, you can see that the worm driver touches three of the wheel’s
The rack connects to the front wheels and turns them from side to side as you teeth. Only the red tooth on the right is actually pushed by the worm as it turns.
turn the steering wheel.
6. (a) How many teeth does the pinion gear of the steering system in Figure 24
have?
8 teeth
(b) What difference will it make to the car driver if the pinion gear is replaced
with a bigger gear that has 27 teeth?
It will be harder to turn the wheel but the driver will not have to turn the
wheel as much.
Figure 26
Worm gear sets are normally designed so that the worm pushes against a different
tooth during each revolution. In other words, for each full revolution of the worm,
the worm wheel rotates by one tooth.
After five revolutions of the worm, the red tooth will be at the blue dot in Figure
26, and the yellow dot will be where the red tooth was at the start.

Questions about worm gears LB p. 109 Try to explain something, and design a jack
There is another useful thing about worm gears: the worm can turn the worm wheel, but the worm
1. If the wheel in Figure 26 has 32 teeth, how many revolutions will the worm wheel cannot turn the worm. That is why worm gears are used for elevators.
have to make for the wheel to make one full revolution?
Imagine you are in an elevator that is lifted by an ordinary spur gear set and the power goes off.
32 Explain what would happen and why.
2. Does the toothed wheel turn faster or slower than the worm?
The elevator will stop going upwards, because the electric motor that powers the
slower driver gear will have stopped working. Then the weight of the elevator will make
the gear that is normally the driven gear turn in the opposite direction so that
3. If there are 18 teeth on the wheel, and the worm is turned at 6 rpm, how long
the elevator will go down. The elevator is heavy enough to turn the electric mo-
will it take for the toothed wheel to make one full revolution?
tor in the direction opposite to the direction in which it should turn to lift the
minutes elevator up. It is possible that the elevator can go down very fast and the people
in it can be in ured when the elevator hits the ground.
4. If there are 18 teeth on the wheel, how fast should the worm be turned to make
the wheel turn at 3 rpm?
The wheel has 18 teeth so if it makes one revolution then 18 teeth move past You learnt about hydraulic car jacks in Chapter 6. There are also other kinds of car jacks. Make a rough
sketch of how a rack-and-pinion system combined with a ratchet-and-pawl system can be used to make
the worm. So in 3 revolutions 54 teeth move past the worm a car jack.
Each turn of the worm moves 1 tooth of the wheel so it will take 54 turns of the
worm to make 3 revolutions of the wheel.
Learners’ own designs.
So the worm must turn at 54 rpm to make the wheel turn at 3 rpm.
The reason we use worm gears

is to get a large reduction in
output speed, which means a big
increase in output force.
As with spur gear sets, the
Next week
slower the output gear turns, Next week, you will look at different devices that people often use, and you
the more turning force it has. will evaluate them. You will also make an artistic drawing of the inside of your
As the worm rotates fast, the classroom.
worm wheel rotates slowly, but
with greater force. That is why
worm gears are used to lift heavy
objects.
Figure 27: A worm and worm wheel used many years

ago to lift heavy loads

Chapter 9 Materials needed for this chapter: Tools that will assist with teaching (any of
Mechanisms at home pen the following will help):

pencils a breadknife
coloured pencils a garden spade or trowel
pencil sharpener a spanner
eraser a can opener
an egg beater
LB page 111
In previous chapters, the learners investigated the mechanical advantage provided by

levers and gears. They have learnt how this can be used in powered machinery, and how the 9.1 Tools at home
mechanical advantage works on large-scale tools and vehicles.
The important aspect of this lesson is for the learners to explore how levers and gears are used
In the first section of Chapter 9, they will focus on how mechanical advantage is used in
in all tools, including those with which they are familiar. This is explained in the introduction.
common tools; in the kitchen, the garden and around the house. The learners will evaluate
Before the learners do the exercise, they need to understand clearly how mechanical
and write a report on three tools they have seen used regularly at home, with the focus on
advantage is gained when using tools. It will help if you can demonstrate the lever principle
understanding the mechanical advantage gained by using the tool.
using the knife, spanner or spade. Ask the learners to tell you which class of lever each is. (All
The learners then follow this up by revising single-point perspective drawings through learning the levers are third class.)
about the vanishing point on the horizon. They finalise the chapter by doing a drawing of the
Demonstrate the gears in the egg beater and/or the can opener. On the egg beater, ask the
classroom from their new knowledge on this perspective.
learners to identify the bevel gear. Count the teeth on the egg beater on both gears, and ask the
9.1 Tools at home ................................................................................................... 147 class to calculate the ratio.
9.2 Single vanishing point perspective drawing .......................................................... 152 For the exercise, the learners must evaluate three of the tools on the list. You don’t want all the
learners to do the same three tools, so it is recommended that you allocate three different tools
9.3 Draw your classroom ......................................................................................... 154
to each learner. This way all the tools will be described. Make sure that the learner knows what
the tool is that he or she is describing. When they have completed the exercise, the evaluation
of each tool must be read out by a learner who has described that tool. They must explain why
the tool has a mechanical advantage.
9.2 Single vanishing point perspective drawing

The learners move onto single vanishing point perspective drawing in this section. This is
introduced through the description and definition of the horizon and a vanishing point. Using
the illustrations, then encouraging the learners to give their own examples (such as railway
lines), will make the understanding much easier.
The learners then take this knowledge and apply it on a smaller scale through the first exercise,
the drawing of a cube in 3D vanishing point perspective. When the learners see that the principle is
the same regardless of the scale of the subject – compare the drawing of the road in Figure 7 with
the cube in Figure 8 – they will see that vanishing point perspective is easy to understand and draw.
You can make sure that they are able to draw this perspective when they then draw the 3D
shaded wooden object in the exercise Use single vanishing point perpective on Learner
Figure 1: A can opener Book page 119. Tell them that they don’t have to draw the plank in Figure 9: that is only there
144 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 9: MECHANISMS AT HOME 145

to give them an idea of shading, texture and colouring. They can draw any wooden object; for
9.1 Tools at home LB page 114
example a piece of furniture, or any wooden shape.
So far, you have learnt about levers, car jacks, pulleys and gears. These tools make
life easier for us since they give us a mechanical advantage, which in turn gives us
9.3 Draw your classroom additional strength, grip and lift.
It is not only big machines that benefit from these advantages. At home, we have
In section 9.3, the learners will show that they have learnt the skill of single vanishing point many tools that also give us a mechanical advantage. You will find them in the
perspective by drawing their classroom from the inside. Using Figure 11, you can remind them kitchen, the garden and the garage.
of how the points in a ‘vanishing point’ perspective would all eventually meet at the horizon. If
It is not always obvious that certain home tools give us a mechanical advantage.
they extend the lines that are in perspective, they will all meet. You can demonstrate that the
Here are some examples to show you how a mechanical advantage can sometimes
classroom walls are parallel in reality, but if drawn from where the learners sit, because of
be hidden.
vanishing point perspective, the lines would eventually meet.
• A bread knife is a lever. It works well to slice through bread because it has a
Figure 12 shows how this works. On page 112, the learners must draw the room they are sitting long handle.
in, using single vanishing point perspective. Ask them not to copy Figure 12. They must observe
• A garden spade is also a lever that helps to break the surface of the soil. You
the perspective of the walls they are sitting in and draw them as they see them. Only afterwards
provide the power (effort) with your hands, and your foot is the fulcrum. If you
must they compare their own drawing with Figure 12 to see if they have understood the method.
hold the handle with one hand and place your other hand on the shaft of the
The concept of the lines meeting at a vanishing point is very important.
spade, your second hand is the fulcrum.
The learners must evaluate one anothers’ sketches and make constructive comments where
• A spanner is a lever that fits exactly onto a nut so that the nut can be tightened
necessary.
or loosened easily.
• An egg beater uses bevel gears to change the direction of movement. The whisk
spins faster than the handle turns. The handle is attached to the driver gear,
that has many teeth. Imagine that it has 36 teeth. The follower gears have fewer
teeth than the driver gear. Imagine that they each have 12 teeth. For every
LB pages 112–113
turn of the driver gear, the follower gears will turn three times. This gives the
mechanical advantage.
• Wind pumps or wind turbines spin around because the blades are levers. The
wind pushes against the blade, acting as the force. They also use gears to drive
pumps.
• A can opener uses gears and levers to make it easy to cut through the lid of a
can.
Figure 2

LB pages 115–116 Evaluate household tools LB p. 117
1. Select any three of the tools listed here and evaluate them.
• can opener • secateurs
• egg beater • paper punch
• strap spanner for opening bottles • stapler
• vice grip • tweezers
• wire stripper • hammer
• ratchet spanner • garden fork
• nail scissors • pliers
Figure 3
• ladder • screwdriver
2. Describe three tools that people sometimes use that are not on the list above.
If the learners may have difficulty with this ask them to think of any tools that
are not on the list, as all tools will give a mechanical advantage to the user.
Figure 4
Some examples not listed are: crowbar, fire tongs, chisel, paint scraper, carving
knife, hand drill.
The learners must complete three tables describing three tools. The most
important answer is to the question: How does it give a mechanical advantage?
Ensure that the learners understand the principle of mechanical advantage for
each tool they describe.
Example 1
Name of the tool Spade
Figure 5 Who will use it? ardener builder.
What can you do with the tool; what is It can be used to dig it can lift and
its purpose? carry loose material such as sand and
cement to another place. It can be
used to mix concrete.
How does it give you a mechanical It is a 3rd class lever.
advantage?
Figure 6

What material is it made of? Steel sometimes steel and wood. How does it give you a mechanical It has bevel gears.
advantage?
Why is it made of this material? For strength and durability.
What other materials could be used to Iron and strong plastic for the han-
make this tool? What material is it made of? Steel or aluminium and plastic.
dle.
Why is it made of this material? For strength, to be lightweight, and

How much do you think you should pay Under a hundred rand. to be easy and comfortable to hold.
for it?
What can go wrong when using it? How You can hit your foot when digging What other materials could be used to ery strong plastic or hard rubber
can it harm you? you can drop material. make this tool? can be used. instead of metal for the
beaters, but won’t last as long.
What safety precautions should you take How much do you think you should pay Between R50 and R100 depending on
Wear strong shoes and gloves watch
when you use this tool? for it? what it is made of.
what you are doing.
What can go wrong when using it? It can splash food out the bowl and
How can it harm you? make a mess. You can catch your fin-
gers in the mixing beaters.
What safety precautions should you take Hold it firmly don’t wind the handle
Example 2 when you use this tool? too fast watch what you are doing
wear an apron.
Name of the tool Egg beater
Who will use it? Cook, baker, a parent or learner
cooking at home.
What can you do with the tool; what is It stirs and mixes food quicker than
its purpose? you can with a spoon or fork.

9.2 Single vanishing point perspective drawing
Think about being in a car or taxi driving down a long, The horizon is the line where
straight road. When you look straight ahead towards it seems as if the earth’s
the horizon, the sides of the road seem to meet at a surface meets the sky.
point far away, as in this picture.
This is called the vanishing point. Although the road doesn’t actually get any
narrower, it looks as if the straight lines meet at the horizon and the road
vanishes, because of your perspective.
Figure 8: Drawing of a cube in 3D single vanishing point perspective
These are the steps to follow:

1. Draw one face of the cube. Select a vanishing point.
2. Draw very feint lines from each corner of the cube face to the vanishing point.
These are your construction lines.
3. Draw horizontal and vertical lines for the back of the cube. The corners should
connect with the construction lines.
4. Draw the shape of the cube, the outline, in darker lines.
Use single vanishing point perpective LB p. 119
1. Draw a simple wooden object using single vanishing point perspective.

Remember to use feint lines for the construction first. When you have finished,
draw the shape of the object in dark lines.
2. Then make your drawing more realistic by showing the texture of the wood
grain, colour and shading.
Figure 7: Vanishing point at the horizon
Make sure that the wooden ob ect the learners draw has a single vanishing point.
Perspective means a view.
Drawing objects with a single vanishing point is In Technology, it refers to
This can be in the centre, or angled as in the drawing below. Make sure that the
one way to make them look as if they have three the drawing technique of shading and colouring has been added.
dimensions. In the drawing on the next page, you can representing 3D objects in
see a rectangular box in 3D single vanishing point 2D. This means you can draw
perspective. objects to look real even
though you are drawing on a
flat surface.
Let the learners practise drawing the cube, following steps 1 to 4. Their cube
should look like one of the examples below.
Figure 9: Adding wood grain makes things look realistic.

9.3 Draw your classroom LB page 120 Single vanishing point drawing of your classroom LB p. 121
You are sitting in your classroom. Look at the walls on each side of you, at the floor 1. Make your own drawing of your classroom. Don’t worry about the desks,
and at the ceiling. Look at how all the straight lines of the room seem to angle furniture or other learners, just concentrate on the construction: the walls, floor
towards each other the further away you are from them, even though you know and ceiling. It would help if you were sitting at the back of the room. If you are
they are actually parallel to each other. This is a bit like sitting inside a single not at the back, ask your teacher if you can stand there for a few minutes to get
vanishing point drawing! an idea of how the lines move toward a point opposite your eyes. Then return to
The vanishing point is level with your eyes, so all the construction lines point to your desk and draw the sketch in the box on the following page.
it.
Because most of the learners will not be in the centre of the classroom, you can
show them that the single vanishing point can be opposite their point of view. The
above two illustrations show how this happens. If necessary, draw an example of
either of these two drawings on the board, and show how the vanishing point can
move from left to right depending on the angle of the viewer.
Figure 10: Shading helps to make drawings look more 3D.
LB page 122
2. Now evaluate your sketch. Compare it to Figure 12.
• Do you think that your sketch is accurate?
• If you continue the lines, would they meet at a vanishing point?
• If not, what do you think you did wrong? How would you correct the sketch?
3. Show your sketch to another learner, and also evaluate their sketch using the
same questions.
Figure 11: Making lines in front and on top darker Understanding vanishing points and
also helps to make a drawing look more 3D. perspective drawing is very important for
any drawing project. With a little practice,
you can improve your drawing skills and
you will find that it can help you in many
subjects.
Next week
Next week, you will start with your practical assessment for this term. You will
build a model of a tipper truck.
Figure 12: Single vanishing point drawing of the inside of a classroom

Chapter 10 Mini-PAT Materials and equipment required for this chapter:
Mechanical systems and

Materials: small cardboard boxes; corrugated cardboard; masking tape; plastic straws; wire;
thin wooden dowels (2-3 mm, optional); eight plastic bottle tops of the same size; string; paper
fasteners (optional); wood glue; syringes of different diameters; tubing to connect the syringes;
control water container to fill the syringes; two AA cells; LED; beeper; electrical conduction wire;
springy material to make the normally-open switch; sand.
Tools: big strong scissors; cutting knives (optional); different size nails for making holes.
LB page 123
Week 1 Week 1
What is the problem? ..................................................................................................... 159 Learners start by individually answering questions on how to start if you dream of owning your
Week 2 own construction company one day. They are thinking about what they need to do to start
realising their dream.
Design your tip truck .................................................................................................... 169
After this, learners continue to work individually. They look carefully at photos of earth-moving
Week 3 equipment to see the use of hydraulic cylinders and pistons in the equipment.
Assemble the model tip truck .......................................................................................... 171 They write a design brief with specifications and constraints for building a model of a tip truck.
Their workbooks emphasise that safety is a major concern with tip trucks, so they should take
Assessment this into consideration when writing the design brief, specifications and constraints.
Investigate: Lastly, learners follow instructions to practise making the different parts of a model tip truck,
How to put a door on the load bed so that it swings open by itself when the load bed and answer design questions about these parts:
tilts up (questions 1, 2, 3 (b) & 4) ........................................................................... [10] • They follow instructions to build a load bed with an undercarriage/chassis that can tilt.
How to make wheels and a truck body (questions 1 & 2) .......................................... [5] • They have to pay special attention to hydraulics and how to choose the sizes of input and
Design: output cylinders in order to get a mechanical advantage. The teachers should remind them of
Design brief with specifications and constraints ....................................................... [4] what they learnt in Chapter 6 about hydraulics.
How to put a door on the load bed so that it swings open by itself when the load bed • They have to consider the position of the pivots (hinges) around which the back door swings,
tilts up (question 5) ................................................................................................ [5] so that the door will automatically open when the load bed tilts up, and it will stay shut when
Design all the parts of the tip truck (chosen sketch) ................................................. [6] the load bed is flat and fully laden with sand.
Make: • They design a normally closed switch to be used in the circuit for the warning beeper and
light.
Get ready to make your parts ................................................................................. [6]
• They follow instructions to build wheels, axles and bearings.
Make your part or parts ......................................................................................... [12]
Assemble the model tip truck ................................................................................. [12]
Orthographic first-angle projection (working drawing) ............................................... [10] Week 2
[Total: 70] Learners work in teams of three or four.
Every team member makes design sketches of all the different parts of the model. They discuss
their designs with one another as they do this.
The team has a meeting to decide who will build what part of the truck. Each team member will
156 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 10 MINI-PAT: MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND CONTROL 157
build only one part of the truck. LB page 126
Learners work individually to plan how to make the part that they decided to make. Then Week 1
they make those parts, and draw additional sketches if required. The team members keep
communicating about the different parts of the model they are building, to make sure that the What is the problem? (30 minutes)
different parts will fit together later on.
Maria has finished school and wants to learn about the construction industry.
Eventually, she wants to own her own construction company.
Week 3
Learners work together as a team to put all the different parts of the model tip truck together. Individual work
Then they prepare to present their projects. They draw artistic 3D drawings of their models from
two different directions, as well as an orthographic first angle projection drawing. Each member 1. Who can help Maria to get started? In other words, what type of people should
makes only one of these drawings. she meet to help her with her plans?
The team uses a checklist of questions to evaluate their model together.
Other people who have done many years of construction work companies or
LB pages 124–125 organisations that fund small businesses with start-up money
2. Which abilities and skills would Maria need to design and build houses?
nowledge of construction methods and drainage.
nowledge and skills with construction machinery.
nowledge of safety during construction.
Skills in motivating and negotiating with people.
Financial skills such as writing proposals and keeping good financial records.
3. What kinds of equipment will her company need to build houses?
Measuring tools, such as tape measures and spirit/bubble levels.
Mechanical equipment, such as cement mixers, trucks, hydraulic lifts
cranes and pulleys.
Hand tools, such as spades, saws, hammers and trowels.

Figure 1
Scaffolding and other structures for temporary support.
158 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 2 CHAPTER 10 MINI-PAT: MECHANICAL 159

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Machines that construction companies use Design brief with specifications and constraints
The machine in the photo below is called a mini-loader, and builders use it to
move materials around a building site. 1. Read the previous page carefully. Write the design brief by copying this
sentence and completing it:
I am going to help my group design and make a model of a tip truck that will
help Maria to train her truck driver and other staff on safety procedures. [1]
Look at the photo of a tip truck on the next page. The door at the back opens by
itself when the load bed lifts up. It has no bolts or locks to open and close it.
2. Write down the specifications. [2]
The model tip truck must:
• have four strong wheels and a cab for the driver,

• a load bed that can lift up at 30 or more than 30 ,
• a load bed that can carry a table spoon of sand or gravel (stones),
Figure 2 • a load bed that has a door at the back that can open on its own to let
sand or gravel fall out,
It has a scoop in the front, which the driver pushes into a pile of sand. Then the
arms of the loader lift the load of sand into the air. • use a hydraulic system to raise the load bed, and
It uses diesel fuel in the engine as its source of energy. The engine turns a • have a beeper that sounds and a red LED light that goes on when
powerful pump that pumps hydraulic oil through hoses and pistons.
the load bed goes.
How does this mini-loader lift its arms? In other words, find the parts of this
system that make the arms go up. What are the names of these parts?
3. Write down the constraints. Remember that the constraints are the tools,
A hydraulic pump provides oil at high pressure. materials and time that you have available to make the model. [2]
The high pressure oil pushes the piston out of the hydraulic cylinder. I have two weeks to design and build the model of the tip truck.
I will use cardboard and other reusable waste materials. But I will also need
The piston is connected to the arm of the mini-loader. This forms a lever system.
tape or glue, and wire to make pivots and axles for the wheels.
Maria is going to need a big tip truck to deliver sand to different building sites. The
load must not fall off when the load back is horizontal. A big truck like that can be I will not use any special tools other than scissors. (Some students or schools
dangerous if it crashes into cars, it can flatten them! Also, the loads of rock, gravel
may have cutting knives and pliers available. In that case, learners can use those
or sand that tip trucks carry are usually very heavy, and when the load bed is
lifted, it can start pouring out very quickly. This load can injure a person standing tools as well, after the teacher advised them about how to work safety with
too close to it.
People should be trained to work safely around tip trucks. A tip truck needs to
those tools.)
have warning lights and beepers so that everyone will know when the load bed is 4. Form teams of four and compare your specifications.
being lifted.
[Total: 5]
Maria needs a model of a tip truck to train her staff on how to be safe when they
work around the truck.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
How to make different parts of a tip truck How to use a hydraulic system to tilt up the load bed
(3 × 30 minutes = 90 minutes)
When a tip truck unloads, the
During this lesson and the next one, you will practise making different parts of a one side of the load bed lifts up,
model tip truck. but the other side of the load
bed remains at the same height.
Look at the photograph of a tip truck below. Another way to say this is that
the load bed tilts up at an angle.
The drawing on the rights shows
you how to make something tilt
upwards by using a hydraulic
system.
Figure 5
• You need a strong box and a piece of stiff cardboard
as you see in the picture above. Use strong tape to
join the flat piece of cardboard to the box. Make the
small hole you see in the bottom of the wall of the
box. You need two syringes and some plastic tubing,
like you used in Chapter 5. The syringe where the
Figure 3 input force is applied will be called the driver piston.
The syringe where the output force will be obtained
How to attach the load bed to the body of the truck will be called the driven piston.
• Now, fill the driver syringe and the tube with water.
Sand is loaded in the load bed of the truck. The A Take care
Move the driven piston to the “down” position. Push
load bed and the body of the truck should be The cardboard must not get
the end of the tube through the back of the box and
joined in such a way that the load bed can lift, as wet, otherwise it will become
push it onto the driven piston. soft and weak.
in the photo above.
• The tube must go through the hole in the back of
You can make this out of two boxes. The the box, but the driven syringe must be loose, so
drawings on the right show different ways in that it can point up or down.
which this can be done.
• Look at Figure 6. Put a piece of Prestik under the
Join the top box to the bottom box with two cardboard sheet so that the slave piston can push
hinges, so that the box can lift at one end. Doors B against it.
and windows have hinges to allow them to open
and close.
Figure 4

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
• Press the driver piston so that the flat How to put a door on the load bed so that it swings open by itself when
head of the slave piston pushes out
the load bed tilts up
and swings the cardboard sheet up.
Does the cardboard sheet lift up far
Choose a box to represent the load bed. When the load bed tilts up at 30°, the sand
enough?
should fall out. But when the truck is on the road, the door has to keep the sand in.
• Add more pieces of Prestik and find The door does not have any handles or locks to keep it shut, it should stay shut by itself.
the best position to fit the flat head of
Think how you can make a door like this for the truck. Look carefully at Figure 3
the slave piston. The cardboard should
again to help you. The following questions about Figure 3 will also help you.
tilt up to an angle of more than 30°.
• Find the best position for the Prestik 1. Look at the position of the hinge around which the door swings. Why is the hinge
Figure 6
and measure the distance from the placed there? Why does the door have arms that go to the front of the hinge?
hinge, so that you can remember it.
The hinges are far forward from the door so that it will be very difficult or
Are you getting a mechanical advantage? even impossible for the sand in the load bed to push the door open when the
Your hydraulic system has to give you a mechanical advantage. In other words, the
load bed is horizontal.
output force has to be greater than the input force.
[3]
1. Should the driven piston under the load bed be wider than the driver piston, 2. Look at the chains going down from the arms of the door to the truck body.
the same size, or narrower? Give a reason for your answer. What is the purpose of these chains?
The driven piston under the load bed should be wider than the driver piston When the load bed lifts up, the back of the load bed goes down a little. But the
(in other words, it must have a bigger area than the driver piston). The reason door does not go down with it, because the chains hold the front part of each
is that the driven piston under the load bed must exert a bigger force than lever down while the load-bed lifts up. Because the front parts of the levers are
you exert on the driver piston. The driven piston has to lift a heavy load. (The
held down by the chains, the back parts of the levers remain where they are, so
teacher should point out to learners that the pistons in Figure 6 have roughly
that the door does not move. The floor at the back of the load bed is now lower
the same diameter, so they will have to change them to get a mechanical advantage.)
than the door, so the sand can pour out.
Make sure the cardboard at [3]
Now adjust your system so that the driver piston
moves the driven piston. Make sure that the driven the back of the box does not 3. Make a drawing of what the load bed and the door will look like when the load
piston does not pop out of its cylinder. get wet. bed is flat. In other words, what does the load bed look like when the truck is
travelling and the load bed is not tilted up?
2. The back of the box has to be strong and stiff. Why?
The back of the box must be strong because pivot
the driven piston pushes backward ust

door
as strongly as it pushes forward to lift the load.
3. Copy and complete the drawing on the right.

The green lines show you where the driven
pivot
piston is when the cardboard is down. Now
draw the piston again in pencil, on this chain fixed here
same drawing. Show its position when it has
pushed the cardboard up.
Figure 7

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Look at the picture of How to make a switch that goes “on” when the load bed tilts up
a tip truck in Figure 8. Pay special
attention to the door at the The truck needs a circuit that will warn
back of the load bed. the driver when the load moves. Look at
the circuit on the right that is “normally
open”. Normally open means the switch
does not complete the circuit unless
4. Will the door of this load bed something presses on the springy metal
keep the sand inside when strip.
the truck is driving? Explain
your answer. You can also
use a drawing to explain your
answer. Figure 8
If the door has no latch, it will swing and let sand fall out while the truck is Figure 9
driving. This kind of door must have a latch. When the driver wants to tip out
the sand, she or he must walk to the back and unlock the door. Change the design of the switch so that it is “normally closed”. The weight of the
truck bed should keep the switch open or “off”, so that it cannot complete the
For the benefit of the teacher, a more comprehensive explanation of the
circuit. When the bed lifts up, the switch must close to go “on” and complete the
answers to questions 1 and 4 are given here: circuit. This will make the beeper go off and make the LED light shine.
Imagine a scenario with two people and the door where Sipo is very strong and 1. Draw your idea for a normally closed switch. Show the load bed in the down-
holds the top of the door. Tom is weaker and holds the bottom of the door. Sipo position, holding the switch open. You don’t have to draw the whole truck, just
holds the door still while Tom tries to swing the door up. It will help Tom if Sipo the part that pushes the switch down.
holds the door right at the top (like the hinges in Figure 8). But if Sipo takes
hold on points far away from the door, on horizontal levers attached to the top
of the door (as the hinge in Figure 3), it will be very difficult for Sipo to swing
the door up.
[3]
Total [9]
5. Make a model of the door on your box to show your design. Then make a
rough sketch of your design for the door. Total [5]
load bed load bed
piece to push the piece to push the
contact switch open contact switch open
contact wood
spring sponge spring
LED that pushes up metal strip
beeper

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
How to make wheels and a truck body LB page 133
The sketches below show how to make wheels from plastic bottle tops, and how to Week 2
attach the wheels to the box that represents the truck body.
Design your tip truck (30 minutes)
You will work as a team of three or four to design and make different parts that
will fit exactly together to make a model tip truck that works. Each person will
make only one part.
Remind yourself why you are making this model, and look again at the
specifications.
Figure 10 Figure 11
Design all the parts of the tip truck
Remember that the back of the truck body must have enough room for the
hydraulic syringe to move. The body should also have room for the hinge. Draw your designs on sheets of A4 paper. Give a title for each drawing, to show
what the drawing is about. Also use labels to show what the different parts of the
1. Look at the wheels of the truck in Figure 3. Trucks that carry heavy loads must drawing are.
have wheels that are strong, but also wide. Why do the tyres have to be wide?
Use your ruler and show measurements of the parts on your drawing. The
Wide tyres spread the weight of the truck over a larger area. The weight of measurements are important because the part or parts you make have to fit into
the truck is too heavy for narrow tyres. The tyres would burst or the wheels the parts that other people are making.
would bend. Wide tyres also help the truck to have better grip when driving on If you are making the warning circuit, draw a circuit diagram and also draw the
rough terrain. real circuit. You have to plan your circuit so that the switch will be underneath the
[2] load bed, and you have somewhere to hide the battery.
2. How can you make sure that the wheels can turn freely? If you get a better idea, don’t throw away the first sketches. Keep all your old
sketches and notes together. Your teacher will assess you on how much your ideas
The wheels must turn in bearings on the axle, or the axle must turn in bearings have improved.
on the body of the truck. A bearing is a surface that lets a shaft turn with [Total: 6]
little friction. For the model truck, plastic straws are good bearings, an
axle can be made of wire or of thin wooden dowels.
[3] Team design meeting (30 minutes)
[Total: 5]
You will work in teams of three or four. Each person will make only certain parts of
3. The truck should have enough room for the hydraulic syringe to move. It
the tip truck, and in the end all the parts have to fit together.
should also have room for the hinge. Make a sketch of the box you will use for
the truck body, and show the syringe and the hinges on this sketch. Divide the work amongst yourselves. For example, give each person one of the
following parts to make:
• the load bed and the truck body, the hinges between them, and the hydraulic system;
• the door of the load bed and the cabin of the truck; or
load bed • the switch for the warning beeper and light, and the truck wheels and axles.
hinge mask
of tape As a team, you need to check the designs of the different parts to see if everything
will fit together. Only then can you start making the different parts individually. If
the parts won’t fit, you will have to adapt the designs to make them fit.
box for
axle box for truck body axle
cab

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Individual work: Get ready to make your parts LB page 135
Rewrite and complete the following sentences:

Week 3
1. I am going to make …
Assemble the model tip truck (2 × 30 min = 60 minutes)
Each learner can choose which parts of the team’s design they will make. Now bring all the parts together to
make the whole truck. Be careful
2. I will need the following materials:
There are constraints on the when you assemble the truck. Some
Examples of materials (learners have to think ahead, materials that you can use. You parts might not fit exactly. Don’t
aided by their design drawings): cardboard boxes of can only use materials that you force them together as this could
can find. break both parts. It will be easier to
the right size for the load bed stiff cardboard
simply alter a part that doesn’t fit
tape straws for bearings wire or wooden dowels for axles bottle tops for by cutting it carefully, or adding a
wheels string for chains to hold the door-arms down wire or paper fasteners small piece with glue.
for hinges (pivots) wood glue syringes of different diameters plastic tubing The picture on the right is an
example of a tip truck someone
to connect the syringes water container to fill the syringes two AA cells LED
made. Your model will look
beeper/buzzer electrical conduction wire for the circuit springy material to different to this and could work
make the normally-open switch sand to put in the load bed of the model truck. better than this one.
[3] [Total: 12]
3. I will need the following tools:
There are constraints on the
Examples of tools: big strong scissors cutting/ tools that you can use. You
can only use tools that you can
craft knives (optional) different size nails for find, and that are safe for you
making different size holes pliers (optional). to work with.
Figure 12
[3]
[Total: 6]
Presenting your project (2 × 30 min = 60 minutes)
Each team will have five minutes to explain their design and show their drawings
Make your part or parts (2 × 30 min = 60 minutes) to the rest of the class.
Each team member should present the best sketches they have made of a part,
Begin work on your part, but keep checking with the others in the group that the
or parts.
parts will fit together. Make new sketches if necessary.
Three new drawings should also be made of the completed truck. You need to
[Total: 12]
decide as a group who is going to make each of these drawings:
• An artistic three-dimensional drawing showing the completed tip truck from
the front, with the load bed tilted up.
• An artistic three-dimensional drawing showing the completed tip truck from
the back, with the load bed tilted up.
• An orthographic drawing showing the front, top and side views of the
completed tip truck. This is called an orthographic first-angle projection.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
The illustration below shows how the model is projected onto the paper, in order Next week
to draw an “orthographic first-angle projection”.
Enjoy your winter holidays! After the holidays, you will learn more about electrical
circuits and parts that can be used in them.
Front view
Figure 13
Look at the scissors in the figure. If you cut the box open, the sides will fall down
and lie flat on the table. Then you will have the orthographic first-angle projection. Side view Top view
Now you need to complete an orthographic first-angle projection of the truck.
The side view has been drawn for you. Use the red projection lines to complete
the top view of the truck. Then use the blue lines to complete the front view.
Finally add the labels for “front view”, “top view” and “side view” to your drawing.
[Total: 10]
Evaluate your model
When you evaluate a model, you ask questions about it. Most of the questions
relate to the specifications. Turn back and read the specifications again.
• Does the truck have four wheels that look wide enough to carry a heavy load?
• Does the truck have a cabin for the driver?
• Can the truck carry a tablespoon of sand?
• Does the load bed lift up with a hydraulic system? What is the highest angle it
can reach?
Figure 14
• Does the load slide out of a gate at the back of the load bed?
• Does a beeper sound or does an LED come on when the load bed goes up?
• Does the hydraulic system give you a mechanical advantage?
• In theory, what is the mechanical advantage of the system? The syringes have
a lot of friction in them and so the real mechanical advantage is less than the
theoretical advantage.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Terms
3 and 4
TERM 3
11.1 Revision 1: Component symbols
Chapter 11 In this section, learners first revise what they learned in Grade 8 about circuits and components,
Component symbols and and draw simple circuit diagrams. They do not build and test circuits, but rely instead on
what they learned before. They compare circuits with cells in series and in parallel. They also
simple circuits
compare circuits with light bulbs in series and in parallel, and answer questions about the
voltage across and the current through the light bulbs. They complete truth tables for circuits
with switches in series and circuits with switches in parallel.
LB page 139 In these notes, the words “lamp”, “light bulb” and “bulb” all mean the same.
Cells in series
In this chapter, you will revise the work you did on electrical systems and control in Grade 8.
The easiest description of a series circuit is that there is only one path for the current.
You will revise simple circuits, circuit diagrams and connecting cells and light bulbs in series and
parallel. You will also revise switches in series and parallel. You will then do action research on
the effects of changing the voltage in a circuit. Cells in parallel
Learners may wonder what the advantage is of connecting cells in parallel since the
11.1 Revision 1: Component symbols ....................................................................... 178
arrangement does not increase the voltage and does not make the bulb brighter. However, in
11.2 Revision 2: Simple circuits ............................................................................... 186
some situations, cells in parallel will be able to produce a bigger current than the same number
11.3 Testing voltage and current in circuits ............................................................... 188 of cells in series. The reason is that the internal resistances of the cells in parallel are also
in parallel, giving a battery with a lower internal resistance. With cells in series, their internal
resistances are in series and add together.
Lamps in series
You may have to explain the term “voltage drop across the lamp”. It means the same as “the
voltage across the lamp” and the “potential difference across the lamp”.
The word “drop” is used because the flowing charges transfer (give away) some of their energy
to the lamp filament as they flow through. We know they give away energy because the filament
gets white-hot. Therefore, the charges have less energy on the other side of the lamp and we
say there has been a drop or decrease in the voltage across the lamp.
Lamps in parallel
Why can we say each lamp in parallel gets the same voltage drop across it? The answer is that
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to both lamps by copper wires, which are very
good conductors. These copper wires are the long straight lines in the diagram. Because the
conductors are so good, there is no voltage drop across those conductors. It is as if we have
connected each lamp straight onto the terminal of the battery and the wires were not there.
Figure 1: A torch
174 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 11: COMPONENT SYMBOLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 175
Question 5 (b) and Figure 9 might hold a surprise for learners. Usually, we give them the same Different ranges of measurement on a multimeter
kind of torch bulbs or lamps to work with. Therefore, they might expect that the current through You will have to teach learners how to read the multi-meters. The manufacturers do not consider
L1 and L2 should be the same. Prompt them with a question: “Do you think the lamps are of the learners when they print the face of the meter! On the DCV scale, “DCV” means “Direct Current,
same kind?” Volts”. 200m means 200 millivolts: on this range, you can measure up to 200 x 0.001 volts,
Now, some of them might think (and this is more of a worry for a teacher): “Oh well, I can’t that is to say, up to 0,2 volts. If the voltage you are trying to measure is greater than 0,2 volts,
understand this stuff, and there’s no way of telling what the currents are in each lamp. If the the display will put a 1 on the left-hand end. The “1” means, “the meter is working but you
book says the currents are different, that’s how it is”. You should therefore explain that the should select a higher range”.
currents can be different because lamps are made with different filaments. If you look closely at So, you need to switch to the 2000m range. “2000m” means 2 000 millivolts, which is 2 volts,
light bulbs/lamps, you may find some printing on the screw-contact. It might say “0.3W” or “6V and 2 volts is the biggest voltage it can measure. If you measure again and still see a 1 on the
3W” or “3.8V”. These numbers are the power rating in watts or the maximum voltage for which display, the voltage is greater than 2 volts, so switch to the range that is labelled 20. Of course,
the filament is designed. this means 20 volts. Now you might see a number such as 1,52 in the display. If you switch to
Some manufacturers colour-code their bulbs to show the rating. If you look inside the bulb, you the 200 range, you should still see 1,5 in the display. The last digit does not display because
may see a little plastic bead that holds the conducting wires apart. The bead may be white, the 200-volt range is not as accurate as the 20-volt range.
blue, green or yellow. The colour tells you the voltage that will make that bulb very bright. The
Eveready Company used to make torch bulbs with the colour codes as follows: white meant 1,1
You can buy multi-meters from hardware stores, and sometimes even from supermarkets. They
volts, blue meant 2,4 volts, and green meant 3,8 volts. (Remember that your bulbs might come
are relatively cheap.
from China and have other colour codes.)
An alternative to multi-meters is ammeters and voltmeters. Each meter does just one job: it
We usually put 1,5 volts across a bulb rated for 1,1 volts and it will be bright and not burn out.
shows voltage or it shows current. For school use, choose voltmeters that read up to 10 volts
Similarly, we can put 3 volts across a bulb rated for 2,4 volts and 4,5 volts across a bulb rated
and ammeters that read up to 3 amperes.
for 3,8 volts.
The red and black wires must be connected the correct way around on the terminals of the
meters: if you connect the wrong way around, the needle will try to move to the left.
Switches in series and parallel
The advantage of a multi-meter is that you can measure resistance directly. The multi-meter has
This recaps what you did in Grade 8 on logic gates, the bell system in the bus, and the alarm its own battery inside, and when you connect across a resistor, the multi-meter passes a small
system for Mr Abdullahi’s shop. current through the resistor, compares the voltage and the current, and displays the result as a
resistance value.
11.2 Revision 2: Simple circuits
The learners have to make circuits, following the instructions in their book. Each time they make
a circuit, they must also draw a circuit diagram of it.
11.3 Testing voltage and current in circuits

The learners use multi-meters to measure resistance, voltage and current in real circuits, and
use their measurements to construct a graph of the relationship between current and voltage.
176 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 11: COMPONENT SYMBOLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 177
11.1 Revision 1: Component symbols 2. Figure 3 below shows three cells connected in series in a circuit. Draw a circuit
diagram of the circuit.
Components are the parts that we connect in an electric circuit.
Do you remember the symbols for cells, lamps and switches?
Do you remember the difference between joining components in series and in
parallel? Let’s see what you can remember.
You have already learnt that an electric circuit is a closed path in which a
current flows.
The simplest circuit has:

• a power source such as a cell,
• a conductor, and
• a load that provides resistance, such as a lamp.
Cells in series LB p. 140
Two or more cells can be connected in series to In series means the cells are
increase the voltage in the circuit. Figure 2 below connected end-to-end, and the
shows two cells connected in series in a circuit. The current flows through each cell
in turn. Figure 3: Three cells in series connected to a lamp
positive terminal of cell A is connected to the lamp.
The negative terminal of cell A is connected to the positive terminal of cell B, and
the negative terminal of cell B is connected to the other terminal of the lamp. When cells are connected in series, their total
voltage is the sum of the voltages of the three cells:
1. Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit in Figure 2.
1,5 V + 1,5 V + 1,5 V = 4,5 V
Cells in parallel LB p. 141
Two or more cells can also be connected in parallel. A parallel circuit has two or
more different paths for the current to travel along.
Figure 4 shows three cells connected in parallel in a circuit. The positive
terminals of all three cells are connected to one another and to the lamp. The
negative terminals of all three cells are connected to one another and to the other
terminal of the lamp.
1. Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit in Figure 4.
Figure 2: Two cells in series connected to a lamp
178 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 11: COMPONENT SYMBOLS 179

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
B+
B–
Figure 6: Three lamps in series
1. How does increasing the number of lamps in series change the current and
voltage in the circuit?
The overall voltage drop across the lamps remains the same, but the current
Figure 4: Three cells in parallel connected to a lamp decreases.
When cells are connected in parallel, the total If all the lamps have the same resistance, the
voltage of the cells is the same as that of a single voltage drop across each lamp will be equal to 1,5 V.
cell (1,5 volts). When the voltage drops of all the lamps are added,
the total battery voltage of 4,5 V is obtained.
Lamps in series LB p. 142 The current is the same through each lamp.
Two or more lamps can also be connected in series. The pictures below show Lamps in parallel LB p. 143
circuit diagrams of two and three lamps connected in series with the battery. The
positive terminal of the battery (B+) is connected to lamp 1, the other side of lamp Two or more lamps can also be connected to the battery in parallel, as shown in
1 is connected to lamp 2, the other side of lamp 2 is connected to the negative the pictures below. The positive terminal of the battery is directly connected to one
terminal (B–) of the battery, and so forth. side of each lamp and the negative terminal to the other side of each lamp.
B+
B–
Figure 5: Two lamps in series

Figure 7: Circuit diagram of two lamps in parallel

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Switches in series and parallel LB page 144
In a circuit with one switch, the switch controls whether the current flows through
the circuit or not. If the switch is open, no current flows, as the circuit is not
completed. The closed switch allows the current to flow.
Figure 10: Symbols for an open switch and a closed switch
We can use two or more switches to control components in a circuit in more

complex ways.
Figure 8: Circuit diagram of three lamps in parallel
In a logic circuit, an open switch is regarded as
having a value of 0, and a closed switch as having a
The applied voltage is the same across each lamp.
value of 1.
The current splits so that some current goes
The switches are the inputs that control the final
through each lamp. If we add the three currents
state of the circuit.
in the lamps we find the total current from the
battery: It = I1 + I2 + I3 If the circuit is not completed, the output is in the
OFF state and has a value of 0.
If the circuit is completed, the output is in the ON
1. Look at the circuit diagram in Figure 9 and answer the following questions: state and has a value of 1.
Switches in series LB p. 144
In the circuit below, there are two switches in series. This gives us four different
switch combinations. They are:
• switch A and B both open,
• switch A open and B closed,
• switch A closed and B open, and
• both switches closed.
Figure 9
(a) What is the voltage drop across lamps 1 and 2?

The voltage drop across each lamp is 4,5 V. (It will actually be slightly less
than that because of the internal resistance of the battery.)
(b) The total current in the circuit is 10 A. If lamp 1 has a current of 4 A flowing
through it, what will the current be through lamp 2?
Figure 11: Circuit with two switches in series
10 A – 4 A = 6 A
Do you see that the current cannot flow through the circuit if either switch A or
switch B is open? Both of them must be closed for the lamp to glow.

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
LB page 145 1. Complete the truth table below for the circuit in Figure 12.
1. In the table below, “0” means off or open, and “1” means on or closed. Copy and Input A Input B Output
complete the table to show all the different combinations possible in the circuit
in Figure 11. To help you, the first two rows of the table have already been 0 0 0
completed. Make sure you understand those two rows before you complete the 0 1 1
table.
1 0 1
Input A Input B Output 1 1 1
0 0 0
The truth table shows that when switch A or switch B
0 1 0 is closed, the output will be 1 (the lamp will be on).
1 0 0 We call switches in parallel an OR function.
1 1 1
Questions for homework LB p. 146
The table showing these combinations is called a truth
table. Both switch A and switch B must be closed for the 1. Would the lamp glow in each of these circuits? Explain your answer.
circuit to be completed (an output of 1).
(a) Figure 13:
So we can see that switches connected in series give us an
AND function. Yes, because the lamp is part of a
complete circuit that includes the
Switches in parallel LB p. 145
battery (there is a continuous conducting
In the circuit below, there are two switches in parallel. This also gives us four loop including the lamp and the
different switch combinations.
battery).
Figure 13
(b) Figure 14:

No, the lamp is not part of a complete
circuit that includes the battery (the lamp
Figure 12: Circuit with two switches in parallel
is in a loop that is open).
Do you see that the current can go through the closed switch, even if the other
switch is open?
Figure 14

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
(c) Figure 15: Note that you can use a homemade switch and a cell holder made of insulation
tape for this activity.
No, the lamp is not part of a
1. Look at the circuit below.
complete circuit that includes the
battery (the lamp is in a loop
that is open). This circuit is
electrically equivalent to the one
in Figure 14.
Figure 15
2. A kettle must be switched on at the wall plug first and then at the kettle itself.
(a) Copy the truth table below. Fill it in to show all the possible combinations.
Figure 16
Wall plug switch Kettle switch Output
Set up this circuit and check that it works by closing the switch.
0 0 0 (a) Does the lamp glow?
0 1 0 Yes, it does glow.
1 0 0
1 1 1 When you have the circuit working correctly, move on to question 2.
(b) Is this an AND function or an OR function? Explain your answer. If you need to, you can troubleshoot your circuit by looking at the
following:
It is an AND function. Both switches have to be closed for the kettle to
• If the lamp doesn’t light up, but the wires get hot, you may have a
work. If one is off, the kettle will not work. short circuit. This means that the lamp is not connected correctly
in the circuit, or that it is faulty. Check that the lamp is connected
LB page 147 correctly in the circuit.
11.2 Revision 2: Simple circuits • If the lamp still doesn’t light up, check each component and
connecting wire by replacing them, one by one. You can identify
In this lesson, you will set up simple circuits, revising what you learnt about which one is faulty this way.
setting up circuits in Grade 8. 2. Add another lamp to the circuit in series with the first one.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram for this circuit.
Set up circuits LB p. 147
Examples of correct circuit diagrams:
You will need the following for this activity:

• two AA cells in cell holders,
• connecting wires,
• a switch, and
• two lamps.

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Note the third example of a correct circuit diagram. It looks like the lamps LB page 148
are in parallel, but electrically they are in series. It is important that 11.3 Testing voltage and current in circuits
learners do not confuse what a circuit looks like with how it works In this lesson, you will investigate the relationship
V: volts (potential)
electrically. It would be a good idea to draw the third example on the board, between the values of the voltage and the current in a
A: amps (current)
circuit. You will need to use a multi-meter that can be
and ask the learners if the lamps are in series or in parallel. Ω: ohms (resistance)
set to measure the voltage, resistance or the current in
a circuit.
(b) What do you notice about the brightness of the lamps?
Begin by reading the text below on how to use a multi-meter correctly.
Both bulbs glow more dimly than the one that was originally on its own.
Measuring resistance LB p. 148
3. Set up the same circuit, but add another bulb in series with the first bulb.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram for this new circuit. Identify the section labelled “Ω” on the multi-meter dial.
• Connect the red test lead to the “V Ω mA” terminal, and the black test lead to the
Examples of correct circuit diagrams:
“COM” terminal.
• Adjust the function selector switch to the highest range in the section labelled
“Ω”. There are different resistance ranges on a multi-meter, such as 200 Ω, 2 kΩ,
20 kΩ, 200 kΩ and 2 MΩ.
• Connect the ends of the test leads across the unknown resistor as shown.
Ensure that the resistor is isolated from any other component or power supply.
• Read the resistance value from the display. If the displayed value is zero or
very small, for example 0,001, then switch the function selector switch to a
lower resistance range. Keep on switching to lower resistance ranges until the
(b) Write what you notice about the lamps in this circuit. displayed value is larger than 1. Remember that the displayed value is for the
All three lamps glow more dimly than the two lamps in the previous circuit. units of measurement indicated by the range you selected. It may be Ω, kΩ
or MΩ.
4. Write down your conclusions about changing the number of cells and the
number of lamps in the circuit.
Adding an extra lamp in series. to a circuit that already has one or more
lamps connected in series, results in all the lamps glowing more dimly than
before.
Figure 17: Multi-meter set and connected to measure resistance

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Measuring voltage LB p. 149 Action research LB p. 150
Identify the section labelled “DCV” on the multi-meter dial. You will need the following for this activity:
• Connect the red test lead to the “V Ω mA” terminal, and the black test lead to the • three penlight cells (AA) in holders,
“COM” terminal. • a 500 ohm resistor, with the colour bands exactly
• Adjust the range selector to the “DCV”. as in Figure 19, and
• Set the meter on the highest range. • two multi-meters, or an ammeter and a voltmeter. Figure 19: A 500 ohm resistor
• Connect the other ends of the test leads parallel across the part of the circuit 1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 20 below,
where the voltage is to be measured: red test lead to positive (+), and black test using a cell, resistor and ammeter. If you use a In the next chapter, you will
lead to negative (–). multi-meter instead of an ammeter, set it on the learn how the colour bands
• Read the voltage from the display. You may need to adjust the function selector amps scale. on a resistor tell you the
to choose a different voltage range, so that the reading is displayed properly and resistance (ohms).
accurately.
An ammeter is always
connected in series with the
part of the circuit for which
you measure the current, so
that it measures the full current
through that part of the circuit.
It has a very small resistance
so that it does not change the
Figure 20: Circuit with one cell, resistor and ammeter current in the circuit.
2. Now connect a voltmeter across the resistor,
as shown in Figure 21. If you use a multi-meter
instead of a voltmeter, set it on the volts scale.
A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the
Figure 18: Multi-meter set and connected to measure current
part of the circuit for which it
measures the voltage between
Measuring current LB p. 149 two points. Very little current
flows through a voltmeter since
Identify the section labelled “DCA” on the multi-meter dial. it has a very high resistance.
• Connect the red test lead to the “V Ω mA” terminal and the black test lead to
the “COM” terminal. If the current to be measured is between 200 mA and 10 A,
Figure 21: Circuit with one cell, resistor, ammeter and voltmeter across resistor
connect the red test lead to the “10 A” terminal.
• Adjust the function selector to the “A” (ampere) region. If you are measuring an
unknown current, start from the highest range, then adjust to a proper lower Record the readings.
range for the best accuracy. V = 1,5 V or slightly less
• Connect the other ends of the test leads in series with the part of the circuit
I = 3,0 mA (milliamps) or slightly less
where the current is to be measured. (Disconnect the circuit and place the
meter in series.)
• Read the current value from the display.

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
LB page 151 6. Copy the set of axes below onto graph paper. Plot the graph.
3. Now connect a second cell in series as shown in the circuit diagram below:
Figure 22: Circuit with two cells in series, resistor, ammeter and voltmeter across resistor
Record the readings.

V = 3,0 V or slightly less
4. Now connect a third cell in series as shown in Figure 23.
Figure 24: Graph of the relationship between potential difference and current
7. Describe the relationship between voltage and current for a

Figure 23 500 W resistor.
The co-ordinates lie in a straight line. The origin is on this line.
Record the readings.
V = 4,5 V or slightly less • Did you notice that as the voltage is increased the current increases?
• Is your graph in a straight line?
There is a directly proportional relationship
5. Copy the table below and fill in your readings.
between voltage and current. As the voltage is
With one cell With two cells With three cells doubled, the current will double; and as the voltage
is tripled, the current will triple.
Voltage 1,5 V 3,0 V 4,5 V
Current 3,0 mA 6,0 mA 9,0 mA Next week
Next week, you will look at different kinds of resistors used in circuits. You will
also practise doing calculations using the formulas in Ohm’s Law.

AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Chapter 12 12.1 Resistors and their identification codes
Resistors and Ohm’s Law Learners must make the connection between the concept of resistance and the concepts they
have met already, namely voltage and current. They learn to read the colour codes representing
the resistance values of resistors. They have to master the units of resistance, such as ohm,
kilo-ohm and mega-ohm.
You can give your learners real resistors to “read” and find the resistance values. Most electrical
equipment has some control circuit in it, and you will see circuit boards like the ones in the
LB page 153
Learners Book.
In this chapter, you will learn how to use resistors in electric circuits to control a current. You Let learners take apart an old desktop computer – they will find plenty of circuit boards with
will discover that there are different kinds of resistors for different purposes, and you will learn resistors on them. Chargers and transformers for cell phones and laptop computers have
how to read the amount of resistance on a resistor. You will also learn about Ohm’s Law, which control circuits in them, and there too learners will find resistors (along with many other
relates the quantities of voltage, current and resistance, and you will use formulas to calculate interesting components they should learn about).
the values of voltage, current and resistance.
12.1 Resistors and their identification codes ...............................................................197 12.2 Ohm’s Law
12.2 Ohm’s Law ........................................................................................................200
Learners meet the mathematical form of the relationship between voltage, current and
12.3 Calculations using Ohm’s Law .............................................................................202
resistance, V = I × R, and they practise changing the subject of that formula.
Note to the teacher:
If learners have coloured pencils, they should bring them to class for lesson 2.1 12.3 Calculations using Ohm’s Law
The learners follow example calculations using the Ohm’s Law relationship. They then calculate
currents, voltages and resistances for nine questions.
Figure 1: You can change the brightness of the light on some torches. The brighter the light you
choose, the faster the battery will run out.
194 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 12: RESISTORS AND OHM’S LAW 195
12.1 Resistors and their identification codes
What is resistance?
Electricity flows far more easily through copper wire To resist something means
than through plastic wire, string or grass. Copper wire to try prevent it. If you sit in a
has a low resistance to electricity flow, whereas plastic tree and the wind blows hard,
wire has a high resistance. Because electricity flows you can resist falling down by
easily through copper wire, copper is a good conductor clinging to the branches.
of electricity. To conduct means to allow
something to pass through.
The resistance that an object, for example a piece of
wire, offers to the flow of electricity can be measured.
Resistance is measured in ohms. We use the

symbol Ω.
When electricity flows through a conductor, heat is

When something emits light,
generated. Some metals, such as nickel and chrome,
it is a source of light. A light
resist the flow of electricity quite strongly, and heat bulb is a source of light, but a
up when even a small electric current is forced to flow mirror is not a source of light
through it. The heating elements of stoves and kettles as it only reflects light.
are normally made of a mixture of nickel and chrome.
When some metals get extremely hot, they emit light.
If the resistance in a circuit is very low, for example when the terminals of a cell
are connected with a piece of thick copper wire, the current will flow very strongly.
This is called a “short circuit”. It can result in so much heat being generated that
damage is caused to the cell and other parts of the circuit, the conducting wires
can melt and a fire can start.
By adding more resistance to a circuit, you can control how great the current is
that flows through the circuit. In this way, you can protect the components in a
circuit from too much current flowing through them. Increasing the resistance also
means the cell or battery powering the circuit will last longer. You can add precise
amounts of resistance by using resistors with the required resistance value.
Figure 2: How to read the colour bands on a resistor to find out what its resistance is. (You will only work
with resistors with four-colour bands, such as the one at the top.)
196 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 12: RESISTORS AND OHM’S 197
LAW
What is a resistor? LB page 156 The resistance of resistors LB p. 157
A resistor is a specially designed component that is normally used in a circuit 1. Work out and write down the resistance of each of these resistors:
to limit the current. Resistors are made of materials with a high resistance to
(a) (b)
electricity flow, and come in the form of thin wires or films. Resistors also have
precise resistance values that don’t change much in different environmental
conditions.
The most commonly used resistors look like tubes, with two wires to connect
it to the circuit. The symbol to show a resistor in a circuit diagram is an open
rectangle or a zigzag line.
Figure 5 Figure 6
00 1 00 k
(c) (d)
Figure 3: A typical resistor Figure 4: Circuit symbols for resistors
Low-value resistors often have their resistance Figure 7 Figure 8

The fourth band on a resistor
value printed on them in numbers, while high-value
shows the accuracy rating as a ,5 k 43 M
resistors are coded, using coloured bands. The first percentage. This is also called
three bands give the value of the resistor in ohms. The the “tolerance”. The band is
colour-code chart on the second page of this chapter gold or silver, depending on 2. Copy blank resistors with the bands into your books. Fill in the colour codes to
will help you to work out the resistance value in ohms. the tolerance. For the circuits show the given resistance. If you don’t have coloured pencils or pens, write the
Resistors are the most commonly used components you will be building, this is not colour of each band above it.
in electronics, as they are useful to control current. important. (a) 200 kΩ (b) 300 Ω
You will see how they are used in the following weeks. red, black, yellow orange, black, brown
Units of measurement: ohms, kilo-ohms and mega-ohms
• 1 kΩ = 1 000 Ω = 103 Ω
• 1 MΩ = 1 000 kΩ = 1 000 000 Ω = 106 Ω Kilo means multiply by a
thousand, for example
1 km = 1 000 × 1 m.
Mega means multiply by a
million.
Figure 9 Figure 10
3. Describe the function of a resistor as a component in an electrical circuit.

It reduces the current through the circuit, and reduces the voltage drop across
other circuit components that are in series with the resistor.
LAW
12.2 Ohm’s Law LB page 158
2. How will the current change if the voltage supplied by the battery of cells is
kept constant but the resistor is replaced by another resistor with a lower
There is a special relationship between the voltage, A variable is a quantity that
resistance?
current, and resistance in any circuit. You can control can have different values, The current will increase.
any one of these three variables by changing the other for example the amount of
two variables. water in a tank. A constant
is a quantity that always has LB page 159
Ohm’s Law states that as voltage increases, the
the same value, for example
current increases if the resistance is constant. 3. How would you describe the relationship between the current and the voltage
gravitational acceleration.
Sometimes we call a quantity a in a circuit?
In the formula for Ohm’s Law:
• V is the potential or voltage difference measured constant because we decide to They are in direct proportion to each other: when one changes by a factor the
in volts, keep it constant.
other one changes by the same factor (for example, if one is increased to five
• I is current measured in amps, and
and a half times its value the other will also increase five and a half times. If
• R is resistance measured in ohms.
one is made a third of its value, the other will decrease to a third of its
Figure 11 shows this relationship in a formula
triangle. previous value).
When the voltage and current are known, the
4. Which of these changes will cause the current through an electrical circuit to
resistance can be calculated with:
V decrease? Write down all the letters of the statements that are correct.
R= (a) a decrease in the voltage
I
When the resistance and current are known, the (b) a decrease in the resistance
voltage can be calculated with: (c) an increase in the voltage
V=I×R (d) an increase in the resistance
When the resistance and voltage are known, the Figure 11 (a) and (d)
current can be calculated with:
V 5. An electrical circuit has three 1,5 V cells in series that is connected to a lamp
I= and a resistor in series. Which of the following things would cause the lamp to
R
shine less brightly? Write down all the letters of the statements that are correct.
(a) an increase in the voltage of the battery (add another cell)
Questions LB p. 158 (b) a decrease in the voltage of the battery (remove a cell)
R1 (c) a decrease in the resistance of the resistor
Consider the following circuit in Figure 12 (d) an increase in the resistance of the resistor
on the right:
(b) and (d)
1. What does Ohm’s Law say will change in a circuit

when the resistance is kept constant but the Figure 12
number of cells in series is increased?
The current will increase in direct proportion to the number of cells.
LAW
12.3 Calculations using Ohm’s Law Example 3
Calculate the value of the current in the circuit below if the resistor has a value of
In the previous lesson, you learnt how Ohm’s Law can be used to predict what will 3 Ω and the voltage across the resistor is 12 V.
happen when you change one or two of the following variables: current, voltage V
I =
or resistance. You will now use the formulas of Ohm’s Law to make predictions. R
Remember to use the correct units in the formula! 12 V
=
Example 1 3Ω
Calculate the value of the resistance in the diagram below if the voltage across the =4A
resistor is 12 V and the current through the resistor is 2 A.
V
R=
I
12 V
= Figure 15
2A
=6Ω
Questions LB p. 160
1. What will the potential difference be if the current in a circuit is 10 A and the
total resistance is 1 000 Ω?
Figure 13
V = I × R, so V (10 A) × (1 000 ) 10 000
LB page 160
Example 2 2. Given V = 10 V and R = 1 kΩ, what will the value of the current be in a circuit?
Calculate the value of the voltage supply in the circuit below if the resistor has a V = I × R, so I = V ÷ R (10 ) (1 000 ) 0,010 A
value of 4 Ω and the current through the resistor is 2,5 A.
3. Given V = 20 V and R = 5 kΩ, solve for the current.
V=I×R
= 2,5 A × 4 Ω V = I × R, so I = V ÷ R (20 ) (5 000 ) 0,004 A
= 10 V 4. A tumble dryer in a laundry service uses a 220 V power source. The coils of
the heater provide an average resistance of 12 Ω. What is the current flowing
through the heating coils?
V = I × R, so I = V ÷ R (220 ) (12 ) 18,3 A
5. A 9 V battery maintains a current of 3 A through a radio. What is the resistance

Figure 14
in the circuit?
V = I × R, so R = V ÷ I (9 ) (3 A) 3
6. If the voltage across a circuit is increased four times, what would you expect to
happen to the current through the circuit?
It will increase four times as well.
LAW
7. (a) In the circuit below, calculate the resistance value of the resistor. 9. Look at the circuit below:
Figure 16
Figure 19
V = I × R, so R = V ÷ I (6 ) (2 A) 3 (a) Calculate the current through R2.

V = I × R, so I = V ÷ R = (6 V ) (12 ) 0,5 A
(b) If two more cells are added to the circuit, will the current increase or
decrease? Check your prediction using the formula.
(b) What will the current be through R1?
0,5 A. The resistors are in series, so the same current flows through
each resistor.
(c) What will the voltage drop across R1 be?

V = 12 V – 6 V = 6 V
Figure 17 (d) What will the resistance value of R2 be?

12 . It has the same voltage drop across it as R2.
Increase by two cells means 2 × 1,5 V = 3 V extra
V = I × R, so I = V ÷ R (9 ) (3 ) 3 A, which is bigger than 2 A.
8. Calculate the battery voltage for the circuit below:

Next week
In the next chapter, you will learn about components commonly used in electronic
systems and their special functions.
Figure 18
V = I × R, so V (0,5 A) × (12 ) 6
LAW
Chapter 13 13.1 Switches
Electronic components 1 The learners have to study circuit diagrams and explain how each circuit works. They have to
complete nine such tasks.
LB page 163 13.2 Diodes

Learners read an explanation of what a diode does, and interpret the explanation by explaining,
In this chapter, you will learn about electronic systems and about components in electronic themselves, the differences in the use of a normal diode and a light-emitting diode.
circuits. You will also learn about the following control devices: switches, diodes and transistors.
Finally, you will make a simple transistor circuit.
13.3 Transistors
13.1 Switches .........................................................................................................208
Learners read an explanation of what a transistor does and apply their knowledge to explain how
13.2 Diodes ............................................................................................................214
a transistor can act as a very sensitive switch. It is very important that learners interpret the
13.3 Transistors .....................................................................................................217
photo of the circuit in Figure 19 to understand that it is electrically the same circuit as the one
shown by the circuit diagram in Figure 18. Learners need to practise this kind of “translation”
between how a circuit looks on a circuit diagram, and how it looks in real life, for them to be
able to build circuits for given circuit diagrams later on.
The teacher should therefore listen to individual learners explaining how the circuit works.
Learners will need to point to parts of the circuit on the diagram and the photo while they are
explaining.
The teacher can also ask learners to explain the circuit to each other in groups of two or three
learners. The purpose of such group work is for each learner to get an opportunity to say what
they are thinking about the circuit. It may be easier for them to say it than to write it, and they
may find it easier to first say it in their home language.
Figure 1: A few examples of electronic components that we will deal with in this chapter
206 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 13: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 1 207

13.1 Switches LB page 164
Single-pole, single-throw switch (SPST) LB page 165
A switch controls the electric current by closing or opening the circuit. There are Switches are named using the words “pole” and “throw”. Pole refers to the number
various types of switches that control the circuit in different ways. In this lesson, of circuits the switch controls, and throw refers to how many contacts the switch
you will learn about manual switches that a user can turn on or off. can make.
Single-pole, single-throw switches (SPST) control one input circuit and make one
List different switches LB p. 164 contact with the output circuit.
1. Think about different switches that you use daily and make a list of as many of
them as you can.
light switches
Figure 3: The symbol for an SPST switch
plug switches
An example of an SPST is a light switch. Below is a typical lighting circuit.
switches on appliances such as kettles, toasters, lamps and ovens
When the switch is closed, the current will flow from the positive terminal (+)
switches on electronic devices such as remote controls and cell phones of the battery through the switch, through the lamp and back to the negative (–)
terminal of the battery.
Push button switch
Push button switches are often
used for doorbell circuits, as in
Figure 2. This simple doorbell
circuit consists of cells in series,
a push button and a buzzer, all
connected by conducting wire.
A person visiting the house
presses the button for a short
time and then releases it.
Figure 2: A simple doorbell circuit Figure 4: A typical light circuit with an

energy source, switch and lamp
A doorbell circuit LB p. 164
1. Draw the circuit diagram of the doorbell Single-pole, double-throw switches (SPDT)
circuit in Figure 2. Use the correct
circuit diagram symbols. Note that the Single-pole, double-throw switches control one circuit,
cells are in series. but they make two contacts so that they can control
two devices. They turn on device 1 in one position and
2. Explain in your own words how this circuit works. device 2 in the other position. There is no “off” position
for this switch.
When the push button is pressed in, the circuit is completed and the buzzer Figure 5: The symbol for
An example of an SPDT is a switch that turns on an SPDT switch
makes a sound. The buzzer makes a sound for as long as the push button is a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the
pressed in. other position.

A lighting circuit LB p. 166 It’s impossible to give a 0-0 or a 1-1 input.
As long as the circuit is supplied with electrical energy, it’s impossible to get a 0
The circuit diagram below shows a two-way lighting circuit.
output.
4. Look at the circuit diagram below. It shows how one light can be controlled by
two different switches.
Figure 6: A circuit with a battery, two lamps and an SPDT switch controlling two outputs
1. Explain in your own words how this circuit works.

Figure 7: A circuit with two SPDT switches is often used to control a lamp with one switch at each end of a
The explanation must mention that at any given time one of the lamps is on and
long passage. It is also used to control a lamp with one switch at the bottom of a staircase, and the other
the other is off. switch at the top of the staircase.
2. Think about how you can use an SPDT switch. You can make up an example, as (a) Will the lamp turn on if A connects to C and D connects to F? yes
long as it makes sense.
(b) Will the lamp turn on if A connects to C and D connects to E? no
A few examples could be:
green and red lights to show whether a door is open or closed, LB page 167
a heat-sensitive switch to show if a plate on a stove is hot or cold, (c) Will the lamp turn on if AB and ED are closed? yes
lights to show if the water level in a tank is low or high (switch connected to a (d) Will the lamp turn on if DF and AB are closed? no
floating lever device), (e) Explain why the type of circuit in Figure 7 is useful for controlling the lamp
to show if a train is arriving at a level crossing or not, and in a long passage.
a T that shows a green light when it’s on, a red light when it’s off but it is
If you want to walk down a long passage at night, you want to switch the lamp
supplied with electrical energy, and no light when it’s not being supplied with
on when you enter the passage on the one side, and switch it off when you
electrical energy (for instance if the plug is pulled out, or the wall switch is
exit the passage on the other side. If you could not switch off the lamp on
off, or there’s a power failure).
the other side, the lamp would remain on, and you would be wasting electrical
3. Look at Figure 6 again. An SPDT switch controls two possible outputs. They
energy.
cannot both be ON, nor can they both be OFF. Is this an example of OR logic or
AND logic? Explain your answer.
It is an example of OR logic since one throw is always 1 while the other is 0.
In other words, only the 1-0 and 0-1 inputs are possible with an SPDT switch.

Double-pole, double-throw switches (DPDT) When the DPDT switch is moved to the other position than in Figure 9, the
current will flow through the circuit in the following order:
A double-pole, double-throw switch (DPDT) is like two SPDT switches with their • from the positive terminal of the battery,
switch levers attached to each other. There are two input circuits, and for each
• through the ON/OFF switch to 1,
input circuit, there are two possible output circuits.
• through the top part of the DPDT switch from 1 to 5,
In the symbol below, the dotted line shows that the switches operate together.
• through the motor from M2 to M1,
• to 6,
• through the bottom part of the DPDT switch from 6 to 2, and
• to the negative terminal of the battery.
Figure 8
A gate motor circuit LB p. 168
Consider an automatic car gate powered by an electric motor. To open the gate, the
motor should turn in one direction. To close the gate, the motor should turn in the 1. Explain in your own words how this circuit works.
opposite direction. How can the direction in which the motor turns be changed? Learners’ own formulation. The answer must mention that both terminals of
The way to do this is to change the direction of the current through the electric
motor. Double-pole, double-throw switches can be used to reverse the direction the motor are connected to the two poles of the battery at any time when the
of current through a circuit, so they are useful in applications such as automatic switch is in one of its two positions, and that flipping the switch only changes
car gates. The circuit diagram below shows how a DPDT switch can change the
which terminals are connected to which poles.
direction of current through an electric motor.
2. Explain the difference between an SPDT and a DPDT switch.
An SPDT switch has one pole which allows you to choose between two possible
output sides to which the circuit will be connected. A DPDT switch has two
poles, and each of these poles has two possible output sides.
Figure 9: A circuit where a DPDT switch controls the direction in which an electric motor turns
LB page 168
The motor shaft will rotate in one direction when the current passes through it
from terminal M1 to M2, but the motor shaft will rotate in the opposite direction
when the current passes through it from terminal M2 to M1.
When the ON/OFF switch is switched ON, with the DPDT switch in the position
indicated in the diagram above, the current will flow from the positive of the
battery, through the ON/OFF switch to 1, to 3, through the motor from M1, to M2, to
4, to 2 and back to the negative of the battery.

13.2 Diodes LB page 169 LB page 170
Light-emitting diodes (LED)

A diode is a component with two terminals that can be connected in a circuit. The
function of a diode in a circuit is to allow an electric current to flow in the forward A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special kind of
direction and to block current in the opposite direction. diode that glows when electricity passes through it.
If the anode is connected to a higher voltage than the cathode, the current will LEDs produce light of specific colours, based on the
flow from the anode to the cathode. This is called “forward bias”. materials they are made from. For example, they can
If the diode is put in the circuit back to front, so that the voltage at the cathode produce red, amber, yellow, green, blue, violet and
is higher than the voltage at the anode, the diode will not conduct electricity. This white. The most common colour is red.
is called “reverse bias”. LEDs are often used to show if a circuit is working.
Diodes are normally used to prevent damage to other components in circuits. Think about the small red light glowing on the front
For example, some components have positive and negative terminals and will of a TV set that can sometimes change from red to
be damaged if a current goes through them in the wrong direction. A diode can amber.
protect against a current flowing the wrong way if a battery was put in incorrectly LEDs are used as indicators in many devices,
to power the components. If you put batteries into a radio incorrectly, a diode will including calculator screens and digital clocks.
The LED will only allow current to pass in one Figure 12: An LED.
prevent damage to the radio.
The longer of the two
direction. The cathode is normally indicated by a flat
wires coming out of
side on the casing and the anode is normally indicated
the LED should be
by a slightly longer leg. The current required to power
connected to the
an LED is usually around 20 mA. positive terminal, and
The arrow symbol for an LED tells you in which the shorter wire to the
direction the current flows. negative terminal.
Nowadays, LEDs are used in many cases where
normal light bulbs were used. For example, household
lighting is being replaced by LEDs. They are replacing
Figure 10: A diode light bulbs because they are more efficient and use
much less electric energy. They also last for a long
Diodes vary considerably in size, current-carrying time.
capacity, and reverse blocking voltage. They range To protect an LED from too much current, a resistor Figure 13: The circuit
from small diodes that can only handle 20 mA with has to be added to the circuit, as in the diagram below. symbol for an LED.
a reverse blockage of 30 V, to large industrial diodes
that can carry hundreds of amps and block up to
thousands of volts. You can use a multimeter or a Figure 11: Circuit symbol
of a diode. The current
simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check in
flow in a diode is in the
which direction a diode conducts.
direction of the arrow head.
Figure 14: LED circuit with a current-limiting resistor.

Questions LB p. 171 13.3 Transistors LB page 172
1. Describe the function of a diode in your own words.

Transistors are very important building blocks of
A diode allows current to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction. modern electronic devices. They enable us to design
smaller and cheaper electronic devices.
2. List at least four places where LEDs are used. Don’t use the examples already A transistor is a semiconductor device that consists
given. of three layers. Each layer has its own connection
A few examples: point with a specific name: collector, base and
emitter.
a cell phone light
LED computer and TV screens (only on more modern screens)
to show if an appliance (for example a printer or air conditioner) is active or
on standby
Figure 15: One type of transistor
to show if a multi-plug adapter is switched on at the wall socket
modern torches
modern traffic lights (robots)
“daytime running lights” on some new cars
Figure 16: The circuit symbol for an npn transistor
3. How can you make sure that a diode is put in a circuit in the right direction? A transistor works as a type of switch to turn current on and off. It can also
The longer of the two wires coming out of the LED should be connected to the amplify a current.
An npn transistor acts as if there is a switch between the collector and the
positive terminal of the electricity source, and the other wire to the negative
emitter. When the voltage drop between the base and the emitter is smaller than
terminal. 0,6 V, the resistance between the collector and the emitter is very high, so only a
You can also use a multimeter or ammeter to check in which direction a diode very small current passes through. When the voltage drop between the base and
the emitter goes higher than 0,6 V, the resistance between collector and emitter
conducts. suddenly decreases by a large amount, and then a strong current flows through
the transistor. The transistor works like a switch because a tiny current through
4. Draw the circuit symbols for a diode and for an LED.
the base, going to the emitter, switches on a much larger current
through the collector. So it is an electrically controlled
switch.
Transistor is short for “trans-resistor” and this There are other types of
transistors, for example
explains how it works. With a relatively small base
pnp transistors that work
current, the resistance between the collector and the
a bit differently from npn
emitter is changed. As the base current increases, the
transistors. But you will only
collector emitter resistance decreases. work with npn transistors in
In Chapter 14, you will learn about the applications this term.
of transistors.

A transistor circuit LB p. 173 LB page 174
Suppose you want to make a switch that is ON or

closed when you touch its two terminals with your
finger, and OFF or open when you don’t touch it.
Look at the circuit diagram in Figure 17 for a touch
switch such as the one described. The purpose of
this circuit is to light up the LED when you touch
the touch switch with your finger.
Unfortunately, this circuit won’t work well, since
your finger is a very weak conductor. In other
words, it has a very high resistance. So the current
Figure 17: A simple touch switch
will be very small when you touch the switch.
circuit that will not work well
Therefore, the LED will only emit a dim light.
By using a transistor, you can build a circuit that
A transistor uses a small
uses the very small current through your finger to
current circuit to switch on
switch on a larger current that passes through the a larger current circuit. This
LED, which will then emit a bright light. is why transistors are also
Figure 18 shows a circuit that uses a transistor for used in music equipment to
this purpose. In this circuit, the touch switch is an “amplify” the sound.
“input device,” the npn transistor is a “control device,”
and the LED is the “output device”. Figure 19: The construction of a touch switch circuit with a transistor and an LED.
2. Explain how the different parts of the transistor are connected in this circuit.
The collector is connected to the LED, the emitter is connected to the resistor,
LED
touch and the base is connected to the bottom one of the two horizontal wires that
switch
c
form the touch switch.
6V transistor 3. Explain what you expect to see when the touch switch is activated.
b
battery e
The LED will light up (assuming its terminals are connected correctly to the
battery, and that the finger has sufficient moisture to conduct a small current.
R1 = 100 W
4. Touch the two terminals of the touch switch with one finger. Describe what
happens.
The LED lights up.
Figure 18: Circuit using a transistor as an electronic switch
1. The photograph below shows a circuit built according to the circuit diagram in
Next week
Figure 18. Look at the photograph and identify each component in the circuit.
Redraw the photograph and write labels for the different components and draw Next week, you will learn more about electronic systems and components in
arrows pointing from the labels to the components. electronic circuits. You will also learn about capacitors, and various kinds of input
devices such as sensors.

Chapter 14 Somehow, you’ll have to get these components. Many companies will send components by post
Electronic components 2
or courier. Delivery is not free, unless your order is quite large. However, you can put together
a large order by going through your district office, or organising it in your school cluster, or
by organising it with teachers from other schools at a meeting of a teacher association, such
as the SA Association of Science and Technology Educators (SAASTE). Contact details for
companies that sell electronic components, as well as for SAASTE, are given at the end of these
teacher notes.
The teacher should build the circuits in Figures 6, 9 and 12, so that learners can see how these
components work. Build them on a “breadboard” such as you see at the end of the teacher
notes to Chapter 15.
LB page 175
In this chapter, you will learn more about electronic systems and components in electronic 14.1 Light-dependent resistors (LDR)
circuits. You will learn about various kinds of sensors that act as input devices. A touch switch is
a sensor that works with the moisture on your skin. This is a very sensitive device that produces Learners read the information about an LDR and apply it to describe how a day-night switching
a small current. A transistor is required to make the current big enough to have an effect. This circuit operates.
week, you will learn about other kinds of sensors and how they are used in devices. Learners do not have to understand why the LDR is connected in the position where it is in the
You will also learn about capacitors. transistor circuit for a day/night light switch (Figure 6). And they do not have to understand
the purposes of the other resistors in this circuit. (They also do not have to understand how
14.1 Light-dependent resistors (LDR) ........................................................................ 224 the circuit of the fire alarm in the next section works.) That is quite difficult to understand. But
14.2 Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors) ..................................................... 226 learners should know the purpose of the circuit. And they should describe in words how the
14.3 Capacitors ...................................................................................................... 229 transistor and the LDR is connected in the circuit. To describe this, they will have to read the
circuit diagram carefully. Reading circuit diagrams is good exercise for when learners will later
build a transistor circuit, so that they will connect the different components in the correct way.
An explanation of how the day/night switch transistor circuit works:

Learners do not have to understand this, but some clever learners may ask the teacher about
it. So below is a more complete explanation of how the circuit works. But even the explanation
below is not a complete explanation.
As it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR increases. The LDR is in series with R1 and R2, so
the total potential difference is shared between R2, R3 and the LDR. The amount of voltage drop
across each one of these three resistors in series depends on its resistance. The higher the
resistance, compared to the other resistors in series, the larger part of the total voltage drop
will occur across that resistor. So when the resistance of the LDR increases, the voltage drop
across it also increases.
The LDR is in parallel with the loop of the circuit from point “a” to point “e”. So the voltage
drop across point “a” to point “e” is the same as the voltage drop across the LDR. The loop of
the circuit from point “a” to point “e” includes the path from the base of the transistor (point
“b”) to the emitter of the transistor (point “e”). So when the voltage drop across points “a” and
Figure 1: Components connected on a printed circuit board “e” increases, the voltage drop across points “b” and “e” also increases. When this voltage
drop becomes larger than 0,6 V, the resistance between the collector and the emitter of the

transistor suddenly decreases by a large amount, so that enough current can pass through to The list below gives contact details of SAASTE executive committee members in different
light up the LED. provinces:
NAME POSITION CONTACT NO EMAIL ADDRESS PROVINCE
14.2 Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors) Mr Thabo Sithole President 071 914 3238 thabofrance@gmail.com FS
Mr Sealanyane Deputy 072 998 6775 molaseal@gmail.com FS
Learners think of applications for a thermistor, use a multi-meter to actually measure the Molahlehi President
resistance of a thermistor, and see how the resistance changes as it heats up. The learners Ms Buthile Titise Secretary 079 921 2317 buthiletitise@gmail.com FS
also analyse a circuit diagram of a heat-activated switch and describe what the thermistor and Ms Keitumetse Treasurer 076 591 6404 keitumetsem7@gmail.com NW
transistor do in the circuit. They then draw the circuit diagram for a different circuit that will Mokwele
switch on a heater when it has cooled down below a certain temperature.
Mr Phumzile Project 082 931 9730 pmashalaba@yahoo.com EC
Mashalaba Coordinator
14.3 Capacitors
Learners read information about capacitors and the concept of capacitance. They then apply LB page 176
this knowledge to explain what happens in a circuit that has a capacitor.
You can order components from the companies listed below. There are still more companies
that you can find if you search on Google, using the search phrase “electronic component
suppliers South Africa”.
When you get to a website, you will always find a tab called Contact us or Contact or Home or
About us. Click on one of those and you will find a telephone number or email address to use.
Hi-Q Electronics: http://www.hi-q.co.za/online.asp
Hobbytronics: http://www.hobbytronics.co.za/
Mantech Electronics: http://www.mantech.co.za/ (Johannesburg area)
DIY Electronics: http://diyelectronics.co.za (Durban area)
Electronics 1-2-3: http://www.electronics123.co.za/ (This company offers workshops in
electronics for adults and children. They are in the Pretoria area.)
Netram Technologies: https://netram.co.za/
Rabtron: http://www.shop.rabtron.co.za
Mouser Electronics: http://www.mouser.co.za/ (Cape Town area)
Yebo Electronics: http://www.fort777.co.za/
If there is an active school cluster or a SAASTE branch in your area, its members who teach Figure 2: Measuring the resistance of a Figure 3: Measuring the resistance of a
Grade 9 Technology could get together and place a bulk order for electronic components from thermistor at room temperature. thermistor while heating it with a hot object.
a company that sells such components. The order would have to be large enough for one of You can heat a metal thumb tack by pressing it
the suppliers to mail it to the address of one of the schools or the branch. Or someone goes to into an eraser, and then rubbing it hard against
fetch it. Costs would be shared between participating schools. a piece of wood or plastic for one minute.
Safety warning: The thumb tack can get very
When you have received the components, organise a cluster or branch workshop on Grade 9
hot and burn your skin, which can cause a
electronics for teachers, as most teachers will be unfamiliar with this topic. wound.

LB page 177
14.1 Light-dependent resistors (LDR)

R1 = 10 kW
A light-dependent resistor, also called an LDR, is a resistor of which the resistance LED
decreases when it is exposed to light of a higher intensity. It can therefore be
used to detect light and trigger warning devices in cases where light may cause
problems.
• When an LDR is in the dark, its resistance value will 6V R4= 270 W R2=470 kW
be very high, around 1 MΩ. battery
The resistance of an LDR
• When an LDR is exposed to a light of high intensity, increases when it becomes c R3 = 1 kW
the resistance value will decrease. It could drop from darker. npn a
1 MΩ to 2 kΩ. transistor b
e
An LDR has two terminals that can be connected to a circuit in either direction. LDR
Figure 6: Circuit diagram of a day/night switch
1. Write four examples of when it would be useful to have a device that detects
the amount of light, and does something in response to it.
A few examples:
Safety lights that switch on when the ambient light intensity drops below a
certain level.
Detect if something has moved past a point where a beam of light is shone on
a circuit with an LDR
Figure 4: A light-dependent resistor Figure 5: The circuit symbol for a light-dependent Car lights that automatically switch on when it get darks, and switch off when
resistor
it is light.
Circuit of a day/night switch LB p. 178 An alarm clock that wakes you up when the ambient light becomes higher than
Day/night switches are often used to turn on street and outside lights once it a certain intensity.
gets dark. It has an advantage above time switches, since the time settings can
go wrong, and the amount of daylight does not remain constant during different
weather conditions.
In this example, a light-dependent resistor (LDR) is the input device, an npn
transistor is the control device, and an LED is the output device.

2. What is the role of the LDR in the circuit? Uses of thermistors LB p. 179
When the amount of light decreases, the resistance of the LDR increases.
1. Write four examples of situations in which electronic devices that use a
When the resistance of the LDR increases enough, it results in the transistor thermistor of either type would be useful.
allowing current through between the collector and the emitter, so the LED A few examples:
lights up. Switching a kettle off automatically when the water boils.
Optional further explanation that some learners might give: When the Switching on fans or extra fans in an appliance when its temperature becomes
resistance of the LDR increases, the voltage drop between the base and the too high, for example to prevent a computer from overheating and being
emitter of the transistor also increases. When that voltage drop becomes high damaged by the heat.
enough, the transistor allows a big enough current to flow from the collector to Switching an air conditioner or a fridge on or off automatically.
the emitter, so the LED lights up. Setting off a fire alarm.
3. Describe how the transistor is connected to the circuit.

The LED is in the loop containing the collector and emitter. The loop containing
Measuring the resistance of a thermistor LB p. 179
the base is connected in parallel with the LDR. Figures 2 and 3 on Learner Book page 176 show the resistance of a thermistor
measured at room temperature, and when heated by placing it on a hot object. At
4. What is the role of the transistor in this circuit? room temperature, the resistance is 1 413 Ω. When the thermistor is heated with a
It switches the LED on or off depending on the positive potential at the base. hot object, the resistance decreases to 888 Ω.
1. Was the thermistor a PTC or an NTC?

LB page 179
14.2 Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors) NTC
2 Give reasons for your answer.

The resistance value of this resistor depends on the temperature it is exposed to.
There are two types of thermistors: When the temperature of the thermistor is raised, its electrical resistance is
• A “negative-temperature coefficient” type thermistor, where the resistance lowered.
value decreases with an increase in temperature.
This is also called an “NTC” or “–T” thermistor.
• A “positive-temperature coefficient” type thermistor, where the resistance value
increases with an increase in temperature.
This is also called a “PTC” or “+T” thermistor.
Figure 7: A thermistor Figure 8: The circuit symbol for a thermistor

Heat-activated switch LB p. 180 14.3 Capacitors LB page 181
A thermistor can be used in a heat-controlled switch for a fire alarm. When the The main function of a capacitor is to store electric charge. A capacitor consists
thermistor is heated up, its resistance is decreased and the transistor starts of two metal plates separated by an insulator called a dielectric. The ability of a
conducting a current, switching on the LED. capacitor to store electric charge is called its capacitance.
Capacitance is measured in farad. The symbol “C” is used for capacitance.
Because the farad is such a large unit, practical values usually have the prefixes m
NTC thermistor
LED 10 kW (milli-), µ (micro-), n (nano-) or p (pico-).
6V R4 = 270 W R1 = 10 kW
battery
c R3 = 1 kW
npn
transistor b
e
R2 = 1,8 kW
Figure 9: Diagram of a simple fire alarm with an NTC thermistor

Figure 10: Different types of capacitors Figure 11: The circuit symbol for a capacitor
1. What is the role of the thermistor in the circuit?
When it becomes hot due to a fire, its resistance decreases, and this causes When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total area of the metal plates on
the LED to light up. each side is increased, so the total capacitance is increased.
When capacitors are connected in series, the distance between the opposite
2. Describe how the transistor is connected to the circuit. plates is increased. And because capacitance is inversely proportional to the
The LED is in the loop containing the collector and emitter. The NTC thermistor distance between the plates, the total capacitance is reduced to less than that of
the smallest capacitor.
is in the loop of the circuit that is parallel with the LED.
3. Draw a simplified circuit diagram for an indicator light to show when a heater Charge and discharge of a capacitor
has dropped below a certain temperature and starts heating up again.
The charging and discharging of a capacitor can be observed by building the circuit
The same as Figure 9, but this time with a PTC thermistor instead of an in the diagram below. When the switch is switched to position A, the current will
flow from the + of the battery, through LED1, through the switch to one plate of
NTC thermistor.
the capacitor. The negative of the battery is connected to the other plate of the
The LED will switch off again when the temperature increases and the capacitor through the resistor R1. While the capacitor is charging, LED1 will be ON.
resistance of the PTC is high enough.

LB page 182 Name of Picture Symbol Use
component
light- Changes its
dependent resistance
resistor (LDR) depending on the
intensity of light
it absorbs.
Figure 12: Capacitor charging and discharging circuit capacitor Stores electric
charge.
After the capacitor has been charged and the switch is switched to position B, a
current will now flow from the + plate of the capacitor through LED2, and through the
resistor R1 to the negative plate of the capacitor. While the capacitor is discharging,
LED2 will be ON.
Capacitors are often used in electronic devices that need a carefully controlled
time delay, such as timers and traffic lights. The exact kind of capacitor can be
chosen to get the exact time delay that is needed. Increasing the value of the
thermistor Changes its
capacitor increases the length of the time delay.
resistance
depending on the
Questions about components LB p. 183 temperature.
1. Copy the table on the next two pages, without the photographs. Name the
component in the picture and draw the correct circuit symbol next to the
name. Write a brief description of the main uses of the component.
Name of Picture Symbol Use
component
LED Ensures that
current can only electric motor Converts
flow in one electrical energy
direction, and into rotational
produces light movement (kinetic
from electrical energy).
energy.
transistor Acts as a switch
or amplifier that is Next week
electrically Next week, you will draw circuit diagrams and build simple circuits.
controlled.
(npn type)

Chapter 15 15.1 Simple electronic circuits
Build and draw electronic In this section, the learners will build several circuits using electronic components. You will have
to organise the components and other equipment.
circuits A circuit with an LED

The learners make this simple circuit and investigate the effect of connecting the LED in two
ways: first with its long leg towards the positive terminal, and then with the short leg towards
the positive terminal.
LB page 185
A circuit with an LDR
The learners will work with a real circuit to observe the effect of shining light on the LDR or
In this chapter, you will draw circuit diagrams and assemble four electronic circuits, using the shading it.
components you have learnt about in Chapters 3 and 4.
15.1 Simple electronic circuits ..................................................................................... 236 15.2 A control circuit and a time-delay circuit
15.2 A control circuit and a time-delay circuit ................................................................ 238
A fire alarm: A circuit with a sensor and a transistor
15.3 Build a fire-alarm circuit......................................................................................... 241
The learners read about the general properties of a simple control circuit. They identify the input
sensor and output device in a circuit diagram of the control circuit. They identify the input and
output parts of the circuit by using a system diagram.
They do not have to understand the purposes of the different resistors in the control circuit, as
that is too advanced for them.
They redraw the control circuit for a fire alarm that was given in Chapter 14 Figure 9, but with
few small changes:
• They change the output device from an LED to a buzzer.
• They change resistor 1 to a variable resistor. They will see the reason for that in the next
section, when they build and test the circuit.
• They draw the input part of the circuit on the left-hand side and the output part on the
right-hand side. This is the other way round from the way it is drawn in Chapter 14 Figure
9. The purpose of asking them to do it in this way, is for them to think about whether that
will change the way the circuit works, or whether the two circuit diagrams are electrically
equivalent. When they follow the paths of current (lines) for the different loops in the circuit
with their fingers, they will come to understand that the two ways of drawing the circuit are
indeed electrically equivalent – they merely look different. This visual thinking exercise is
good preparation for when they will build the circuit, because a real circuit usually looks very
different from its circuit diagram, and more messy! You need to follow the wires to check that
the circuit you build is electrically equivalent to the circuit diagram.
• They leave out the resistor that is in series with the output device (resistor 4). The reason for
Figure 1: A part of the circuit for a radio this is explained below.
Some output devices such as LED’s, have very small resistances, and they may be damaged by
too large a current. So for such output devices, a resistor needs to be added in series with the
232 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 15: BUILD AND DRAW ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 233
output device, to prevent the current through the output device from becoming too large. That After learners built the circuit they will test it. It will probably not work at first, so they need to do
is the purpose of resistor 4 in the circuit in Chapter 14 Figure 9. But other devices do not need some troubleshooting.
a resistor in series. Then a resistor should not be added in series, because it will “use up” some They will need to adjust the variable resistor so that the alarm is activated at the correct
of the potential difference offered by the battery. In the case of the circuit for the fire alarm, a temperature, not too early (at too low a temperature) but also not too late (at too high a
buzzer rated for 3 V to 6 V should be used without a resistor in series with it. temperature).
LB page 186
15.3 Build a fire alarm circuit
Learners actually build the fire alarm circuit, applying the knowledge they have gained from the
previous section.
You cannot treat this as theory – the learners must have working circuits because they are
going to use the circuits to control the kettle switch that they must make for the mini-PAT in
Chapter 16.
The learners can make their circuits on “breadboards” if you have them. If you don’t have
breadboards, you can give the learners soft planks, screws and washers, as you see in the
figure on the opposite page.
slide switch
stiff wire screw and
large washer
join legs of R1
and LED here
9V battery cap soft wood plank
An alternative to a commercial breadboard
The stiff wires at the top and bottom of the board press against the wood because the screws
hold them down. You can lift the wires just enough to push the lead of a battery, resistor or
other component underneath.
The circuit in the drawing above shows a connector for a 9 V battery, but learners will build a circuit
Figure 2: All of these appliances contain electronic circuits.
with a 6 V battery (four 1,5 V cells in series in a cell holder). This is because the buzzer of the fire
alarm is only rated for a maximum of 6 V. It may break if you apply a higher voltage across it.
234 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 15: BUILD AND DRAW ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 235
LB page 187 A circuit with an LDR LB p. 188
15.1 Simple electronic circuits
Now you will build a circuit where an LDR regulates the current.
A circuit with an LED LB p. 187 You will need:
• an LDR,
In this lesson, you need to assemble a simple LED circuit. You will draw the circuit
• four 1,5 V cells in a
diagram on your own and then work in pairs to assemble it.
cell holder, and
You will need: • a buzzer.
• an LED,
• a 470 Ω resistor, The photograph on the right
• a switch, shows a circuit where an LDR
• four 1,5 V cells in series, or a 9 V battery, and regulates the current through
• electric conducting wire with crocodile clips for connections. the circuit.
1. Work individually to draw

The photograph below shows the circuit you need to build. a circuit diagram of Figure 4.
1. Draw a circuit diagram for Figure 3. 2. Work in pairs to build the
circuit.
3. Predict what will happen
when:
(a) The LDR is covered Figure 4: A circuit where the current is regulated by a light-
dependent resistor
The buzzer will make a
very soft noise or no noise at all.
(b) The LDR is in bright sunlight

The buzzer will make a loud noise.
4. Is the buzzer affected by different

sources of light, such as light from
an electric lamp, light from a cell phone
screen or light from a torch? Do a practical
investigation and write down your findings.
The brighter the light, the louder the buzzer sounds.
Figure 3: A circuit with an LED, a battery, a switch and a resistor
236 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 15: BUILD AND DRAW ELECTRONIC 237
CIRCUITS
15.2 A control circuit and a time-delay circuit It is easier to understand the circuit if you think about a systems diagram. Look at
Figure 6. The yellow part is the output side of the diagram.
A fire alarm: A circuit with a sensor and a transistor
In the next lesson, you will build the electronic circuit for a fire alarm. In the next
chapter, you will use the same circuit but for a different purpose, as part of an
automatic kettle switch. It is very important that you complete the circuit and that
it works, as you will use it in the Mini-PAT in the weeks that follow.
The type of circuit you will build is used very often to switch an output device on Figure 6: A systems diagram of a control circuit
and off without using a switch. Instead of a switch controlled by hand, this type of Figure 7 shows how
circuit uses an input sensor in combination with a transistor to switch the output the circuit in Figure 5 is
device on or off automatically, depending on the measurement of something by the the same as the systems
input sensor. diagram.
This type of circuit is
called a control circuit since
one circuit controls another
circuit. In the case where
a transistor is used with
a sensor such as an LDR,
the base-emitter current
controls the larger collector- Figure 7
emitter current.
Note that resistor 2 and Identify the different components and draw the circuit
the input sensor may have
to change places depending
LB p. 191
on the relationship between
The circuit for the fire alarm contains the following components:
the resistance of the input
Figure 5: The circuit diagram for the control circuit • a battery consisting of 4 cells in series,
sensor and the required
output: • an input sensor to measure the temperature,
• If a decrease in resistance of the input sensor should switch on the output • a variable resistor to set the temperature at which the alarm should go off,
device, then resistor 2 and the input sensor should be arranged as in Figure 5. • an output device to make noise when it gets too hot, and
Look back at the circuit for a heat-activated switch using a negative temperature • a transistor to switch the output device on when it gets too hot.
coefficient (NTC) thermistor, on page 180.
• If an increase in resistance of the input sensor should switch on the output 1. What type of electronic component will you use as the input sensor?
device, then resistor 2 and the input sensor should be arranged the other way a thermistor
around to Figure 5. Look back at the circuit for a day/night switch using a light-
dependent resistor (LDR), on page 178. 2. What type of device will you use as the output device?
a buzzer / beeper / speaker
3. What voltage does the battery supply to the circuit?

4 × 1,5 V = 6 V
CIRCUITS
4. Draw a circuit diagram for a fire alarm:
LB page 192
(a) Show the correct symbols for the components you will use as the input and
the output sensors.
15.3 Build a fire-alarm circuit
(b) Show the voltage of the battery.
Build a circuit and test it LB p. 192
(c) Show the emitter (“e”), base (“b”) and collector (“c”) of the transistor. Look
back on what you learnt about transistors in Chapter 13. Work in pairs to build the circuit.
You need the following materials to build the circuit:
• four 1,5 V cells in series, in a cell holder,
• conduction wires with crocodile clips,
• a 10 kΩ NTC thermistor,
• a 700 to 1 400 kΩ variable resistor,
• a 820 Ω and a 1 kΩ resistor,
• an npn transistor, and
• a buzzer, that is specified to be used with between 3 V and 6 V across it.
1. Now build the circuit. Set the variable resistor to its lowest resistance.
2. Once your circuit is complete, check that all your connections are good.
3. Then connect the battery to the circuit.
4. To test the fire alarm, warm up a thumb tack by pressing it into an eraser, and
rubbing it hard against a piece of wood or plastic for a minute. Then press it
against the thermistor.
A circuit diagram showing the different components in a fire alarm
Troubleshooting
The purpose of resistors 1 to 3 in the control circuit is hard to explain. It has to do
with the minimum current to the base of the transistor that is needed to allow If the fire alarm does not work, then:
current through from the collector to the emitter of the transistor. If you choose to • test whether the battery is flat or not,
study more electronics in FET or at university, you will learn about the purpose of • test all your connections again,
these resistors, and how to calculate their resistances. • follow the flow of the current on your board with your finger, to check whether
Someone has already done the calculations of the resistances of different you connected the components the right way, and
components that should be used for the fire alarm to work. These are called the • check that you connected the transistor the right way round.
specifications for the resistances of components.
• R1 = 700 to 1 400 kΩ (variable resistor) If the fire alarm makes a sound even when the thermistor is not heated, then
• R2 = 820 Ω increase the resistance of the variable resistor until the alarm stops making
• R3 = 1 kΩ a sound. Do not increase the resistance of the variable resistor more than is
• input sensor: 10 kΩ necessary, because then the fire alarm will not make a sound when it is heated.
5. Show the specified resistances of the components on your circuit diagram.
CIRCUITS
If you have time: Build a time-delay circuit LB p. 193 Further reading: Boards on which more complicated circuits are built
If you try to build a more complicated circuit by Figure 9 below shows a simple LED circuit,
Capacitors are often used in time-delay circuits. connecting components using conducting wire such as the one you built in section 15.1, but
You will need: and crocodile clips, many wires will cross one here it is built on a strip board. Notice that
another and the circuit will be messy, looking there are no connecting wires used to build
• four 1,5 V cells in series, or a 9 V battery,
like a tangled bunch of ropes. this circuit! This is because at the bottom of
• two LEDs,
To make a complicated circuit in a neater and the strip board there are parallel copper strips
• a 470 Ω resistor, connecting the holes in each column. This
smaller way, most circuits are built on boards
• a 1 000 μF capacitor, and such as “bread boards”, “strip boards”, or makes it possible to construct a circuit without
• an SPDT switch. “printed circuit boards” (PCBs). using wire.
Figure 10: One possible layout of the simple LED

Figure 9: A simple LED circuit built on a strip
circuit on a strip board
board
Figure 8: A time-delay circuit
Figure 10 shows one possible plan of how to of the strip board. This is to ensure that they
1. Build the circuit. Put the switch to A and observe the LEDs. arrange the simple LED circuit on a strip board. make proper electrical contact with the copper
The copper strips are at the bottom of a strip strips.
Describe what happens and explain it in detail.
board, and not visible from the top. Therefore, Soldering is done with lead, because lead is
When you switch the SPDT switch to position A, LED1 will initially be bright, the copper strips on the drawing of the layout a good electrical conductor and has a low
but then grow dimmer and dimmer until it does not glow at all. were drawn with hatching, to show that you melting point, so it is easy and quick to melt it
The reason for this is that the capacitor is initially discharged, so current can cannot really see them from the top. with a soldering iron.
The arrows on Figure 10 are drawn to help Bread boards and printed circuit boards
flow through the circuit on the right while the capacitor is charging. But the
you understand how current flows through the are other types of boards used to build
more the capacitor charges, the less charge it can accept, so the current flows copper strips at the back of the strip board. complicated circuits. They also have copper
slower and slower until the capacitor is fully charged. The current flows in the direction of the arrows. connections at the back, but these connections
When you switch the SPDT switch to position B, LED2 will initially be bright as The connectors of the components are are arranged in a different way than on a strip
the capacitor discharges through the circuit on the left. LED2 will grow dimmer soldered to the copper strips at the bottom board.
and dimmer until it stops glowing altogether since the charge on the capacitor
will get smaller as it discharges, until it has no charge left.
CIRCUITS
LB page 196
Next week
The next chapter is your Mini-PAT for this term. You will learn how an electronic
circuit can be used to control another circuit with a much bigger current. You will
build a device using both circuits and then test it.
Figure 11: Soldering components onto the back of a strip board
Figure 12: The front and back of a bread board
With a breadboard it is not necessary to solder Almost all manufactured electronic devices
connections, since each hole in the breadboard use printed circuit boards, where the copper
has a spring that grips the wire tightly to make connections at the back can be made in
proper electrical contact. any pattern. This makes it possible to make
complicated circuits that are very small.
Figure 13: The front and back of a printed circuit board
CIRCUITS
Chapter 16 Mini-PAT Tools required for this chapter:
Electronic systems and long-nose pliers with wire-cutting jaws

tin snips or kitchen shears that can cut cold
drink cans
control hole-makers (brad awls)

screwdrivers to match screws you have
Materials required for this chapter:
LB page 197 contact glue cold drink cans (The material is tin-plated
sticky-tape steel or aluminium. It is coated with a
In this Mini-PAT, you will first study where electronic circuits, using very small currents, are used
plastic layer – sandpaper the plastic
to control electric circuits with much bigger currents. You will then design and build your own clear package tape
coating off the places that must conduct
electric circuit that will be controlled by an electronic circuit. thin wire for making springs
electricity.)
Week 1 ...................................................................................................................... 72 very thin insulated copper wire to wind
cells – 1,5 volt
around a straw, to make an electromagnet:
Investigate: Situations where electronic control circuits are needed cell holders
at least 6 m per learner (Get this wire from
Investigate: A circuit with an input sensor, control knob, transistor and output device bulbs and bulb-holders
old chargers, transformers or ballast coils for
Design brief and initial sketches neon lights.) insulated wire and wire with crocodile
Week 2 ...................................................................................................................... 80 straws clips
Evaluate: Team meeting to choose best combination of design ideas large nails that fit inside the straws strong, hard cardboard boxes
Design: Improve your design as a team soft planks wood glue to use on cardboard
Plan to make: Orthographic and 3D drawings of the design screws stiff plastic such as the kind used for
margarine tubs
Week 3 ...................................................................................................................... 85
Make the switch
Connect the switch to the electronic circuit and test it Week 1
Week 4 ...................................................................................................................... 89 Situations where electronic circuits control electric circuits (30 minutes)
Communicate: Prepare a team presentation
Learners read information and perhaps handle real circuit breakers that are not connected to
Communicate: Give team presentation, and listen to other teams’ presentations
the mains.
Assessment The scenario for the mini-PAT is on page 203. The task requires learners to design a switch to
Situations where electronic systems control electric circuits (individual work) ..................... [5] turn off a kettle automatically when the water reaches a certain temperature.
Design brief and sketches (individual work) ...................................................................... [12] Go straight to page 203 and show the learners what the task will be. Discuss the problem
Evaluate and improve the design (team work) .................................................................. [8] without going into much detail – you will deal with details next week. Once they know why they
Final drawings of the design (individual work) ................................................................... [15] are investigating control circuits, then the investigations will make more sense to them.
Make the switch (individual work) .................................................................................... [25] Try to have a kettle with a temperature-controlled switch in the room, boil water in it, and show
how it switches itself off.
Presentation (team work) ............................................................................................... [5]
Then tell learners to go back to page 201, and answer questions 1 to 3 individually. Afterwards,
[Total: 70]
discuss the answers to these questions with them.
246 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 16 MINI-PAT: ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND CONTROL 247
Week 2
Investigate: A circuit with an input sensor, control knob, transistor
and output device (15 minutes) Evaluate as a team: Learn from one another’s designs to make a
better design together (60 minutes)
Learners must end this section by giving appropriate examples of input, output and control
components. They must explain how each one works. For this teamwork, the following strategy helps for thinking creatively about how to solve a
Important concepts here are control device and sensor device. All sensor devices are control problem, and for considering many different ideas for a solution.
devices, but there are control devices (for examples switches) that are not sensors. In other 1. Generating new ideas:
words, there are many control devices but only some of them are sensors. • At the start, learners will have no ideas for how to solve the problem. So they should first
The circuit that will be used for the kettle switch is the same as the fire-alarm circuit that was create some ideas. People’s minds struggle to think creatively when they feel their ideas
built in Section 15.3, with one important difference: instead of a buzzer, the output device will are being judged, by themselves or by others. Therefore, as a first step, learners should
be an electromagnet. not judge any ideas negatively or “give up” on them too early.
• First “add some flesh” to the idea: make a sketch of it, make some notes, and tell others
about it, without judging the idea.
Design brief and initial sketches (75 minutes)
2. Refining designs ideas, and choosing one idea from many ideas:
Design brief Once a team has created and discussed many design ideas, they should now start to think
Spend some time on this, letting the learners put the brief into their own words. critically about these design ideas.
• How exactly will this design work?
Specifications, constraints, planning to make, and design sketches
• Is there something else that is needed to make it work?
Let the learners look at the picture of the kettle on page 203, as a stimulus for their ideas.
• Do you need to change something to the design to make it work?
Better still, give them a kettle to handle and look at. You may have to feed in the idea of an
electromagnet when question 5 is being done. • Can the design be simplified so that it will be easier and quicker to make it?
• What is the most useful idea or ideas in this design?
Consider an alternative sequence of activities if learners are struggling • Will it be useful to combine ideas from different team members’ individual designs, in
This activity might be very hard for many learners, and they might not produce useful answers order to make the final design?
and designs sketches working individually. If that is the case, you should consider sequencing • Only right at the end, the team may have to choose between different designs.
activities differently from the way it is sequenced in the learner book.
It is questions 4 to 10 on pages 204-205 that are hard. So if learners are struggling a lot with
these, you could ask learners to work on this in teams, as is shown in the learner book for
Make individually: 2D Working drawing and 3D drawings of your
Week 2: “Evaluate as a team”. It would then be useful to ask each team to give feedback to
design (60 minutes)
the whole class. Let learners come and draw their ideas on the board as a stimulus for other
It is unlikely that learners will draw a design and then make their product like in the drawing.
learners to come up with more ideas.
While they are working with real objects, they get new ideas. Their design evolves from their
If you change the sequence like this, each learner should still write down the answers to the
attempts to make the parts work together. In other words, the final product will not look like the
questions and make the design sketches. Those answers and sketches will be assessed for
drawings, and that is normal. However, drawings are important because they are tools that help
each learner individually.
you think, by visualising.
Learners may want to change their drawings or make new drawings after they have made
their models. Especially in this mini-PAT, they will need to make many changes to their designs
while they are building their models. It will actually be easier for them to make the drawings
afterwards, because they will then be able to see what they are drawing.
Consider an alternative sequence of activities How does a solenoid actuator work?
The activities to make the model in week 3 will be very time-consuming. It is important that In Grade 7 Chapter 16, learners made an electromagnet by
learners complete their model and test it, so that they get the satisfaction of experiencing winding insulated wire around an iron nail or bolt. When you
how their design solved the problem. You may therefore choose to postpone the making of 2D pass a current through the coil of wire, you set up a magnetic
working drawings and 3D drawings until after the models are completed. If you choose to do field inside the coil. This field magnetises the iron, and this
that, then the learners should start with the making of the models right now, in the remaining 60 makes the field even stronger.
minutes of week 2. Look at Figure A. What happens if you place the iron nail a
Homework: Planning to make and gathering materials little outside the solenoid? The solenoid induces (creates) a
Learners should start collecting materials in the first week of the mini-PAT, as soon as they have magnetic field inside itself, and it also induces a field inside Figure A: The electromagnet – also
a vague idea of what they are going to make. The list below is just some suggestions. Look at the iron. The two magnetic fields attract each other and the called a solenoid actuator
the pictures below to see where these will be used. iron nail is pulled into the solenoid. We say it is actuated – the
solenoid made it move.
• very thin insulated copper wire to wind around a straw, to make an electromagnet: at least If you search on YouTube
6 m per learner. (Get this wire from old chargers, transformers or ballast coils for neon This motion of the actuator will be the output from the electro-
for “solenoids relays
lights.) mechanical switch. It is called “electro-mechanical” because
ScienceOnline”, you will find
it consists of electrical parts and mechanical parts that work
• straws a 5-minute video that gives a
together.
• large nails that fit inside the straws good explanation of solenoids
Figure B shows the parts of a possible design of the switch, and how to make them.
• cold drink cans (The material is tin-plated steel or aluminium. It is coated with a plastic layer –
as well as how it works. The switch is off. The kettle is not
sandpaper the plastic coating off the places that must conduct electricity.)
heating water.
• strong, hard cardboard boxes
return spring sliding
• soft planks latch-piece insulator
• screws solenoid material
• stiff plastic such as the kind used for margarine tubs nail
wires for output
Week 3 from control circuit springy

metal
Make and test your prototype of the switch (120 minutes)
Question 3 on page 208 is the focus of the mini-PAT. If learners have made their electro-
mechanical switch for a kettle, they have succeeded. Using this switch together with an
electronic control circuit is not essential for completing this mini-PAT.
Figure B: The switch is off. The circuit is open. We will pretend that the light bulb is the heating
Ideally, the heat-sensitive control circuit will activate the An electromagnet used for element and that the cell is mains power to the kettle.
electromagnet when the water is hot enough. However, if the same kind of purpose moves back
Look at Figure C. Now you want to heat water,
learners do not have working electronic control circuits, than in the kettle switch, so you push down the lever on the top right. (This
they can instead activate the electromagnet by hand, by is also called a solenoid is the only part of the switch that you see on the
using a second battery that passes a current through the actuator. moves up
outside of the kettle.) When the lever is pressed
electromagnet.
down on the right-hand side, then the left-hand
Figures B and C give you two ideas of how the automatic switch could work.
side of the lever moves up.
You should make one of the designs yourself, to understand the various adjustments that it
Figure C: The lever pushes the latch-piece
needs.
back against the spring.
Look at Figure D. The lever has a conducting surface. The latch-piece is also a conductor. They the solenoid won’t be able to pull strongly enough to move the latch-piece away.
are touching each other and passing current. So the heating element in the kettle gets hot. You can make the return spring from very thin wire, bent into a spiral, or you can make the
spring as you see in Figure G. The ends of the spring push outward: one end pushes against the
solenoid and the other end pushes against the head of the nail. The job of the return spring is to
return the latch-piece to its position when the solenoid is not pulling it.
current
nail plastic thin
wire
cut from plastic

container
Figure D: When you press the lever far enough, the latch-piece jumps back to its normal position
and holds the lever there.
thin metal strip
Look at Figure E. After some time, the thermistor (in the electronic control circuit) senses that
Figure F: The latch-piece can be made from
the water has reached the pre-set temperature. This causes the transistor to let a current a strip of plastic. Glue the nail onto the
though the output device (a buzzer in the case of the fire alarm, and a solenoid in the case of end. Glue the conducting foil or thin metal
the kettle switch). The solenoid pulls the nail in, the left-hand side of the lever is pulled down by Figure G: A return spring can be made like
onto the bottom of the latch-piece.
the springy metal, and the circuit is broken. The kettle element is now off, and it stops heating this, from thin wire or a strip of plastic.
the water. It cannot switch on again until you decide to move the lever to switch it on. Adjustments you might have to do, to make this model work
(If you want to learn more about how the control circuit does the above, there is an explanation The latch-piece rubs against the carrier it slides in, and so it does not slide freely. Also, the
at the end of these teacher notes.) latch-piece can’t move completely freely because there is a wire attached to the conducting foil.
magnetically pulled The solenoid has to move the nail with enough force to overcome both these forces.
back by the solenoid n The return spring must push the latch-piece back into position but this might mean that the
dow
falls spring is too stiff for the solenoid to pull against. You can adjust the stiffness of the spring in
Figure G by bending the wire or by cutting the plastic strip to make it narrower.
These problems with friction and stiffness can be overcome by
The circuit should use a 9 V
using a bigger battery and much larger current in the solenoid, battery to power the solenoid,
output to pull the nail in with more force, but then you need a “power
current from instead of the 6 V battery used
transistor” in the control circuit to carry that larger current. to power the buzzer in the fire
control circuit
There is a way around this problem. You can add a “relay” to alarm in Chapter 15. A battery
Figure E: The solenoid pulls the nail in, the nail pulls the latch-piece in, and the lever falls.
the system. A relay is a switch that closes when a small current with more than 9 V should not
passes through it: when the contacts in the relay close, they be used, because the transistor
How to make the model is not made to handle higher
can pass a large current. The small current will be the collector
You can make the latch-piece out of Styrofoam or out of a voltages. But if a control circuit
current through the transistor. When this current flows, it
strip of plastic about 1 cm wide and about 9 cm long. Fold it Safety warning: is not used with the solenoid,
powers a small electromagnet inside the relay, and the
like a trapezium, as you see in Figure F. then a bigger voltage can be
Thin metal strips can easily electromagnet closes the contacts that can carry a much larger
used.
The conducting strip under the latch-piece can be made from cut you. Therefore, learners current. That larger current then goes through the solenoid.
heavy-duty aluminium cooking foil or from a strip of aluminium should work very carefully However, adding a relay is making the project more complicated. You might want to set such a
cold drink can. when making something task as a challenge to a few learners to solve for the national Science Expo.
The springy strip under the lever can also be made from from a thin metal strip.
The alternative design below gives another way around the problem of friction.
cold drink can aluminium. Don’t choose very stiff material, or
Ideas for alternative designs Figure I: What happens There is no current through the
You need some ideas to suggest to the learners as they design alternative solutions to parts of when a hand presses the heating element (the bulb).
this system. switch down?
Figure H shows you an alternative design. In this design, friction is less, so the model could
work without the need for a power transistor or a relay.
Use the nail as one of the conductors. When the thermistor “tells” the solenoid to pull the nail
up, the head of the nail drops the metal strip and the circuit is broken. The circuit cannot be
switched on again until your hand moves the metal strip up and into contact with the nail. The
drawings and notes in Figure I explain this in more detail.
A hand pushes the switch down, and so
stiff copper wire the conducting strip pushes the nail up.
wrapped tightly
contact onto nail
point
insulating
material
conduct- like wood
ing strip
wires for
springy The conducting strip latches on the head
output from
metal
current
control circuit of the nail. The circuit is complete.
strip
cu
rre
no
nt
current t
here curren
Figure H: A variation on the design idea in Figure B. Again, we pretend that the bulb is the The kettle temperature rises until the
heating element in the kettle. control circuit activates the solenoid
to break the circuit.
current
ent
curr
Below is an explanation of how the control circuit works to “switch on” the output device
(solenoid) when the temperature of the thermistor gets high enough. This is too advanced
for most learners to understand, but some of them may want to find out, and could even
understand it. Also, it will be interesting for you to understand this.
Look at the circuit diagram for the fire alarm on Week 1 LB page 200
page 191 (this answer drawing is only shown in
the Teacher Guide). This circuit diagram is printed Situations where electronic circuits control electric
again on the right. circuits (30 minutes)
The NTC thermistor’s resistance decreases as
it heats up, and so the potential difference across There are many household appliances that use An electronic circuit is
it decreases as well. As you know, the potential electronic circuits to control electric circuits with different from an electric circuit
differences across a chain of resistors in series bigger currents. because it only uses a very
add up to the potential difference across the ends The following two devices are used inside the small current, and because it
of the chain. So if the potential difference across electric switchboard (or distribution board) of every uses electronic control devices
the thermistor decreases, then the potential Figure J: A circuit diagram showing the building that is connected with electricity in a safe such as thermistors, LDRs,
differences across each of the other resistors different components in a fire alarm way. diodes and transistors.
in the chain, namely R1 and R2, increases.
• Ordinary circuit breakers:
The potential difference across R2 is the same as the Shuts off a circuit (for example, the circuit supplying all the lights in a house)
potential difference between the points “a” and “e” on when the current becomes too big (if the current is too big for the thickness of
the circuit diagram, because they are parallel parts of the circuit. So if the potential difference wire used, the wire will overheat).
across R2 increases, then the potential difference between “b” (the base of the transistor) and
“e” (the emitter of the transistor) also increases. That means that the current between “b” and • Residual-current circuit breakers:
“e” increases. When the current between “b” and “e” becomes larger than some critical value, Switches off the main power supply if it detects a leakage of power, such as
the resistance between the transistor’s collector (“c”) and emitter (“e”) suddenly decreases by when a person accidentally touches a “live” electrical wire or contact and the
a large amount. Then a strong enough current can flow through the output component – the electricity is then conducted through his or her body. This device has to cut
solenoid (in Figure J, the output device is a buzzer rather than a solenoid). the current very quickly, otherwise the person can die due to electric shock.
Therefore, it switches off the power even when it detects only a small amount
LB pages 198–199
of leakage of electrical current.
Figure 1: Many everyday devices use

electronic control circuits. Figure 2: An electrical distribution board with circuit breakers
256 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3 CHAPTER 16 MINI-PAT: ELECTRONIC 257

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
The following household appliances use electronic circuits to control them:
LB page 202
• ovens: to control the temperature,
• radios and other music appliances: to control the volume of the speakers, Investigate: A circuit with an input sensor, control knob,
• some energy-saving lights: to switch off automatically when there is enough transistor and output device (15 minutes)
natural light, and
A sensor is a control device that can have a variable
• kettles: to switch off when the water boils.
effect. A switch can only be open (infinitely large
1. Give two examples of situations or applications where electrical circuits are resistance) or closed (zero resistance), so a switch is
used. [1] not a sensor. Devices such as thermistors and LDRs
can have different resistances, depending on the
A few examples: temperature or amount of light. They can therefore
stove plates; electrical heaters and hair dryers; fans and air-conditioners; be used as sensors. A device that can generate a
voltage, such as a photovoltaic cell, can also be used
lights; hot-water tanks (geysers); starter motor of a car; spark plugs of a car
as a sensor. A sensor “senses” something such as
engine, etc. temperature, or light, just as your body’s senses do.
A variable resistor is also a control device, but it is
2. Give two examples of situations or applications where electronic circuits are not a sensor, because it is a device for which the
used. [1] user can set the resistance.
A few examples: The circuit for the fire alarm that you built in
Chapter 15 can be used for different applications
calculator; remote control; computer; cell phone
where a small input current from an input sensor
has to switch on a circuit with a larger current for an
3. Give three examples of situations or applications where electronic circuits
output device. There is also a variable resistor so
and electric circuits are used together. [3]
that the user can determine at what level of light or
A few examples: temperature (for example) the output device should
cell phone charger; automatic car gate; residual-current circuit breaker be switched on or off. Figure 3: The control knob of a
stove plate is connected to a
[Total: 5] variable resistor. This controls
the current through the heating
element. The bigger the current,
the hotter the plate will be.
Figure 4: The control circuit that you built in Chapter 15 for a fire alarm

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
1. Name three input components that you know of. The drawings below show how an electric door lock works. This may give you
useful ideas for your design of an energy-saving kettle switch.
a switch; NTC or PTC thermistor; LDR; variable resistor
2. Name three output devices that you know of.

a lamp/LED; buzzer/beeper; electric motor
3. Name a device that uses a control knob to set the level of something.
A radio has a control knob to set the volume.
LB page 203 Figure 6: An electric door lock

LB page 204
Design brief and initial sketches (75 minutes) Look at the brown part on the right-hand side of the lock mechanism above. This is
the part that moves in or out to open or lock the door. This part is called a “latch”.
The scenario for the Mini-PAT
A kettle uses electricity at a rate 30 times
higher than a normal light bulb. A lot of
electricity can be saved if a kettle is used more
effectively.
If a kettle keeps boiling without being
switched off, it uses electricity unnecessarily.
This leads to a waste of electricity.
If you drink your tea or coffee without cold
milk, you do not want boiling hot water
(100 °C), since it will burn you. So it is a waste
of electricity and time to bring the water to
Figure 7: A 3D assembly drawing of the parts inside an electric door lock
boiling point (100 °C). Most of the time, a kettle
only needs to heat water to a temperature of Design brief
about 75 °C. If the kettle keeps heating the
1. What is the purpose of the switch you will be designing?
water to a temperature of 100 °C, it is a waste of
Hint: Think about how easy it is for people to do things, the impact on the
electricity.
environment, and costs involved. (½)
You will design and make an “energy-
saving switch” for a kettle. The switch will be The switch should make it possible for people to heat water in a kettle without
controlled by an electronic circuit so that the having to switch off the kettle themselves.
kettle will automatically switch off when the The switch should automatically switch off when the required temperature is
water reaches the required temperature. The
reached, so that no electrical energy is wasted unnecessarily. This will mean less
electronic circuit will have a variable resistor
so that the temperature at which the kettle will Figure 5 electricity needs to be generated, so there will be less negative environmental
automatically switch off can be set by the user. effects from power stations and coal mins. Also, people will save money, as they
will not have to pay for the extra electricity.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Specifications 5. What type of electrical component can generate the automatic movement that
2. What parts should the device have where the user must press or turn your device has to perform? This component will be the output device in the
something by hand? (½) control circuit on page 202. (½)
The switch should have a lever that you press down to turn the kettle on. The an electromagnet
switch should have a spring against which you must press to turn the kettle on.
6. Does your device need a container or supporting structure to keep all the parts
The kettle should also have a knob where you can set the temperature of the together? What type of container or structure do you think will work well? (½)
water at which the switch will automatically turn the kettle off. The device needs a container with strong attachment points for all the moving
parts. A closed plastic container will work well. (But learners can use cardboard
3. Are there part(s) of the device that would sometimes be moved by the user,
and other times be moved automatically? [1] instead for the models of their designs.)
Yes. The switch lever will be moved down by the user to switch the kettle on,
Constraints LB page 205
but it will be moved up automatically by something inside the switch to switch 7. What property should the container of the device have, for safety reasons?
the kettle off when the water reaches the required temperature. Give the reason(s) as well.
The container should not allow water to come into the device, because that
4. How should the moving parts of your switch work? For example, what should
cause it to move one way, and what should cause it to move the other way? could cause a short circuit. A short circuit could damage the device and even
Use names for the different moving parts, as well as for the other parts that start a fire. (Learners have to identify this constraint, but they don’t have the
will make the moving parts move or stop them from moving. [2] time and materials to make a waterproof container.)
Note to the teacher: Learners will not be able to explain this easily. They
8. Make a time schedule showing how much time you have to design and make
actually need to finalise their design before they can explain it fully. All that the product. (½)
is necessary for this question is that they give names to the switch lever, the 2 hours to design and draw (Week 2)
spring, the latch, the electromagnet, and the electrical contact. But a full 2 hours to build and test (Week 3)
explanation is given below.
Full explanation: When you press the switch lever down, it will press the lever Planning to make
against a spring that tries to press it back up. But once you have pressed the 9. Make a list of all the materials you will need. [1]
lever down far enough, a latch catches the lever so that it cannot move up any a long wooden bar for the switch lever
more. When the lever is caught by the latch, an electrical contact is made so a nail to put through the middle of the switch lever as a pivot
that the circuit to the heating element of the kettle is closed, and the kettle is a springy metal plate for the spring, as well as a metal plate to be on one side
switched on. The latch works similarly to a door latch. of the electrical contact
When the water reaches the required temperature, the control circuit will a wooden or cardboard block in the shape of a latch
allow electrical current to flow through an electromagnet. The electromagnet thin metal plate (or thick strong foil) to cover the latch with, for the other
side of the electrical contact
will pull the metal latch back so that it doesn’t stop the lever from moving up.
a coil spring for the latch, or thin wire from which you can make a coil spring
The spring will then press the lever up again. When the lever is up, there will be
by wrapping it around a pen
no electrical contact to close the circuit containing the heating element, so
an electromagnet made from insulated copper wire wrapped around a thick iron nail
the kettle will be off.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
a thick piece of metal to attach to the back of the latch, so that this can be LB page 206
attracted by the electromagnet
Week 2
corrugated cardboard shaped to make a container in which the latch can slide, Evaluate as a team: Learn from one another’s designs to make
and also a place where the pivot for the switch lever can be attached a better design together (60 minutes)
10. Make a list of all the tools you will need. (½) 1. Each team member should explain his or her design
There is no such thing as a
scissors to the rest of the team, and the others should ask perfect design! For example,
questions if they don’t understand something.
ruler you can make a complicated
2. After everyone has explained their designs, you design that will work very well,
wire cutter
should make a list of the advantages and but that will be expensive and
disadvantages of all the designs. difficult to build. Or you can
Design sketches make a simple and cheap
This depends on the particular designs. design that works, but is not
11. Make at least two rough sketches of your design. Use labels and notes to
You should check that learners listed strong enough.
explain your design. If your second sketch is an improvement on your first
sketch, keep the first sketch, but simply label the second sketch as “improved advantages and disadvantages for every design.
design”. [5]
Learn from the different designs that different people made
Don’t throw an idea away too quickly even if there is a problem with it. First
Learners’ own ideas. They should sketch at least two different design ideas. A
sketch and explain it to the others. This idea can lead to another better idea. If
sketch of one possible design is shown below. Note that learners will have two more
everyone throws their ideas away too quickly, there will be no ideas on the table to
opportunities to improve and sketch designs. So their design here does not need to
work with. Design teams work well when they separate the work into two stages:
be as good or as complete as the example given below.
• First generate ideas, sketch and explain them, If someone makes a negative
without anyone saying anything negative about remark at this stage, you
the ideas. should say “Red flag! No
negative remarks at this
stage.”
• Once you have several ideas on the table, start Saying “Mary made a bad
thinking about how and whether the different design” or “Sipho’s is much
ideas will work or not. Don’t talk about “Mary’s better”, for example, will hurt
design” or “Sipho’s design”. Rather talk about someone’s feelings or make
“Design C” or “Design B”. Once someone has put others feel proud or arrogant.
a design on the table, you talk about the design. If someone says “Mary’s
You do not talk about the person. You evaluate design ...”, you should say
the designs. You do not evaluate yourself or “Red flag! We call that
someone else. Design C.”
[Total: 12]

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
3. Now combine different ideas from different designs into one better design. Your LB page 207
team will only succeed at this if you talk and sketch together “creatively”. Being
creative means “playing with ideas”. 4. Now each person should make their own sketches of the improved design
To communicate well and to be creative, you have to make many rough that the team made together. Once again, show labels and notes to explain the
sketches. Include labels and notes to help explain the sketches. [4] sketches.
Make at least two sketches, so that both the whole design and hidden detail
can be seen. You might want to draw the design from different view points, or
Learners’ own ideas. draw a few parts on their own. [4]
They should make at least two rough sketches showing different aspects of
the design.
Learners’ own ideas.
The design sketches do not need to be final yet, so learners can make sketches
They should make at least two sketches to show different parts of the team’s
of design aspects that are still problematic, and change it later.
design, or to show the design viewed from different angles.
They should include labels and notes to explain their sketches.
These sketches should be neater than the rough sketches on the previous
page, to show the final design clearly.
They should also make notes and give names to different parts.
[Total: 8]
Make individually: 2D Working drawing and 3D drawings of your

design (60 minutes)
1. Make a 2D working drawing of your design in first- Look back at Chapter 1 page 7
angle orthographic projection. It should be drawn for an explanation of first-angle
to scale and show as much detail as possible. Show orthographic projections.
dimensions and the scale. Show all hidden details.
[8]
Drawing of learners’ own designs.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
2. Make an isometric drawing of your design to scale. Do not show the container 3. Test your model with a simple circuit consisting of a battery and the electric
or structural support for the inner parts of your design. Only show the inner output device that you made.
parts. Do not show any hidden details, but choose your view point so that 4. Test your model by connecting it to the control circuit that you made in
as much detail as possible is shown. Show the scale, but do not show the Chapter 15, but this time connect a 9 V battery to the circuit, instead of the 6
dimensions. [7] V battery you used in Chapter 15. The output device needs a bigger potential
difference than the buzzer in Chapter 15 did.
(a) Before you connect the control circuit to any model, your team should test
Drawing of learners’ own designs. the control circuit as you did before (see page 192), because some of the
connections may have come loose.
Learners need to use drawing triangles to draw lines that are at a 30° angle to
(b) To test your automatic kettle switch, you can use a thumb tack pressed
the horizontal. into an eraser that you heat by rubbing it on a piece of wood or plastic for a
minute.
[Total: 15] (c) If you were not able to build a control circuit successfully in Chapter 15, you
can use the simple circuit discussed in question 3 above to test your model
of the switch.
Homework: Planning to make and gathering materials
Make lists of the materials and tools you will need to build a model of your 5. You will probably find that your model does not work the first time you test it.
automatic kettle switch next week. You need to include the materials you will This is normal! Most new things that people design don’t work the first time
need to build the output device for the control circuit that you will later connect to they test it. Try to find out what’s wrong, and then go back and fix it before you
your model of the switch. (Look back at your answer to question 5 on page 204.) test it again.
LB page 209
If there are any materials on your list that are not available at school, gather
waste materials that you can use instead and bring it to school next week. If you do
not do this, you won’t be able to build a model of your design. Your teacher will give you marks for the following:
• You brought all the materials needed to make a model of your design. [2]
• You accurately made the model according to your design drawings. [8]
• You successfully built the electric output device. [2]
LB page 208 • You connected your model to the simple circuit with the output device,
Week 3 and used a good method to test it.
• After you tested your model for the first time, you made a list of all the
[1]
Make and test your prototype of the switch (120 minutes) possible reasons that your model is not working or why it is not
working well. [2]
You should work only individually in this section, with your own model. There • You used the list to fix or improve your model. [2]
is one exception, namely question 4.(a). For that question, you should work as a • You tested your model again, writing down the problems, and going back
team to test the control circuit before you connect it to your model. After that you and fixing or improving your model until it worked, at least one more time. [4]
should return to working individually.
• Your model worked, or you wrote a good explanation and made sketches of
1. Work alone to build a model of your design for Designers and engineers what you still need to change on your model to make it work. [4]
the switch. A model of a new design is called usually make many prototypes
a prototype. before the design is good [Total: 25]
2. Work alone to build the output device for the enough to start manufacturing
control circuit that you will later connect to and selling it. Each prototype You need to keep a record of all your testing and improvements on your model,
your switch. is an attempt to improve on otherwise you will not get marks for that work.
the previous one.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
Week 4 LB page 210
An alternative to the kettle swicth project: Designing and building a circuit continuity
tester
Your teacher may decide to let you do the
Present your design process and final prototypes
following project instead of designing and
Your team will give a presentation of your project later this week. The presentation building an automatic kettle switch.
should be between three and five minutes long. Each member of your team Often when people have to connect wires
should do a part of the presentation. The other learners in the class may ask you in electric circuits, there are so many
questions after your presentation. wires that it is difficult to know which
Your presentation should be mostly about the design process that you followed two wire ends are of the same wire.
to design, make and improve your prototypes. It would help to have a device that
shows whether two wire ends are
Team meeting: Prepare your presentations (30 minutes) connected or not. This is what
a “circuit continuity tester” does.
1. Decide which part of the presentation each of you will do. Write it down. [1]
2. Decide in what order you will give the different parts of the presentation.
Who will talk first, and who will talk next?
Figure 8
Write the parts of the presentation in the order that you will do them, and
write who will do which part. [1] A circuit continuity tester is actually an open circuit.
3. For homework, you should practise your part of the presentation. Safety warning:
The circuit can only be closed by the two wire ends that
[Total: 2] you are testing. Use the two test leads of the circuit First switch off the power
supply before you do a test
continuity tester to touch the two wire ends that you
such as this one.
want to test. If there is a path for current to be
conducted between the two wire ends, this will
Giving the presentations (90 minutes) complete the circuit and a light or a buzzer on the
circuit continuity tester will be activated.
Your teacher will look at the following to give you marks for your part of your
team’s presentation: Note that a circuit continuity tester cannot If you design and build a circuit continuity tester
• You were well prepared for your presentation. [2] tell you whether the two wire ends are of the as your project, think about the following:
same wire. It can only tell you whether there • It should be easy to let the test leads of
• You explained how you made progress during the design process. [2]
is a path for current to be conducted between the circuit continuity tester make proper
• You looked at your audience and spoke clearly. [1]
the two wire ends, in other words whether the electrical contact with the wire ends.
[Total: 5] two wire ends are electrically connected. But if
• The tester should be small.
you know that there are no splitting or joining
• The tester should be protected from
of wires in between the two wire ends, then the
shocks, for example if it gets dropped.
wire ends can only be electrically connected if
they are of the same wire. • The tester should be protected from water,
since water can cause a short circuit.

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
A few ideas for building a circuit continuity tester are shown in the photos below.
Figure 9
Figure 10

SYSTEMS AND CONTROL
TERM 4 Materials required for this chapter:
10 or more samples of corroded metal
Chapter 17 wire brush

sandpaper
Preserving metals paint and primer for learners to see

two big glasses or beakers
electrodes (a length of copper wire and a brass or iron key)
a power supply (a 1,5V “D” cell with battery holder)
LB page 213
two crocodile clip leads
In Grades 7 and 8, you learnt how to classify metals into
copper sulphate solution (NB: This is poisonous and so must be stored in a safe place.)
ferrous and non-ferrous metals. In this chapter, you will Ferrous refers to the
presence of the element iron 20 galvanised metal items (such as a galvanised nails or bolts, or pieces of corrugated iron).
revise this skill of classifying metals.
in a metal such as steel. This The items can all be the same. Pieces of corrugated iron roof sheet will work very well, but
You will learn how to make metal products last longer
generally makes the metal you should first cut it into smaller pieces so that it will be small enough to fit into plastic
by painting, galvanising and electroplating. If we can use
more prone to react with bottles or jars. You should use a pairs of snips or shears (like scissors, but stronger so that
materials and equipment longer before they are broken and oxygen (oxidisation). it can cut metal) to cut the sheet into smaller pieces.
need to be replaced, then we won’t have to buy new materials
Non-ferrous metals don’t a packet of table salt
and equipment so often. That means that less metal will contain iron molecules.
need to be mined to make new materials and equipment. 10 or more nails
Examples are aluminium,
Less mining means less negative impact on the environment copper, zinc and gold. They 10 or more plastic bottles or jars with lids (can be old cold drink bottles)
because of mining. are generally more expensive a permanent marking pen for writing groups’ names on the plastic bottles
than ferrous metals.
In this chapter, learners are introduced to three common ways of preventing the corrosion of
ferrous metals.
17.1 Painting metals ............................................................................................. 279

17.2 Galvanising .................................................................................................... 283 17.1 Painting metals
17.3 Electroplating ................................................................................................. 286 Place samples of corroded metal on selected desks in the classroom. Use these as a
starting point for discussion about:
• the nature of oxidation in ferrous metals,
• the problems this creates when buildings and other objects are made of these materials,
• the role of paint as an agent in slowing down corrosion, and
• the process to be followed when repairing and painting a corroded piece of metal.
For homework, learners review the chapter and complete the exercise on “Preserve metals
by painting.”
274 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 17: PRESERVING METALS 275

17.2 Galvanising • a teaspoon of table salt to mix with the water, and
• two galvanised objects. Make sure that the objects are small enough to fit into the container.
Collect the Section 17.1 homework assignments. Learners must remove some of the galvanised coating from one of these – possibly by
Give learners 10 minutes to read the content of Section 17.2. rubbing it against the edge of a brick.
Then ask learners questions to make sure that they have understood: Once prepared, the containers must be labelled to identify them with their group, and then
• the difference between the two forms of galvanisation described in this section, stored.
• why zinc provides an effective protection for ferrous metals, and LB page 214
• the strengths and weaknesses of “hot dip” as opposed to “electroplated” galvanising.
For homework, learners review the chapter and complete the “What have you learnt?” at the
end of this section.
An additional way in which zinc protects ferrous metal (too advanced for learners)
Below is a simplified explanation of how zinc provides “galvanic cathodic protection” to ferrous
metals:
When zinc is in electrical contact with iron, it forms a weak electrochemical cell, similar to the
electrochemical cell learners made with a zinc-coated washer and a copper coin in Grade 8
Section 19.1. The zinc “donates” electrons to the iron. So it loses electrons itself, which is a
different way of saying that it oxidises. The iron receives the electrons. This prevents the iron
from oxidising itself, because oxidisation of a metal occurs when the metal loses electrons.
Sometimes ships have big blocks of zinc on them, which are connected to the steel of the ship
with conducting material to form a closed electrical circuit. Because the zinc-iron electrochemical
cell provides the iron with electrons, it is only after all the zinc have oxidised that the iron will start
to oxidise. People also say that the zinc blocks are “sacrificial anodes”.
17.3 Electroplating
Collect the Section 17.2 homework (“What have you learnt?”).
In the first half of this lesson, learners read about electroplating. They are only given a simple
explanation of how this works. For a more complete explanation of electroplating, as well
instructions on how to do a simple electroplating experiment, see the 1-minute video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnJ0V7B7nKo. This video shows how to coat a key with
copper, using copper sulfate solution, a copper plate, a cell, and connecting wires. The teacher
can do this experiment as a demonstration to the learners. If the teacher does this, care needs to
be taken in storing the copper sulfate, as it is poisonous.
In the second half of this lesson, the learners should be divided into groups (of two to four
learners). You should first explain the aim of the corrosion experiment they are going to do.
Each group must be given:
Figure 1: Examples of metal corrosion or rust
• a container in which to put the metal objects – the containers should preferably be plastic
bottles with lids; not glass because this is easily broken while in storage,

LB page 215 17.1 Painting metals LB page 216
Figure 2: A woman painting a door frame
Although metals, as we usually perceive them, are generally very tough, they do
break down over time. Rust is one of the most common ways that metals can
deteriorate. Plants and animals die, become compost and return to the earth.
When metals rust, they break down into smaller particles and also return to the
earth. As you know by now, metals come from the earth originally and humans
extract metals by mining.
But what causes metals to rust? For many metals, a slow chemical reaction
spontaneously occurs between the surface of the metal and oxygen, when the
metal is in contact with water or with moisture in the air. This is called oxidisation
or corrosion. Corrosion can only occur if the metal is in contact with water or
moisture in the air. Ferrous metals are not resistant to corrosion. When a ferrous
metal corrodes, it is called rust.
Corrosion happens much faster when there are salts or acids dissolved in the
water or the moisture in the air. For example, close to the sea, metals corrode
much quicker than inland. Figure 3 shows an example of this.
However, there are ways of protecting metals against oxidisation. The cheapest
way of preserving ferrous metals is by painting the exposed surface.

use a special primer, the metal will keep rusting
Important things to keep
underneath the paint, which will make the paint come in mind when you paint:
off after a while.
1. Always wait till the paint
Certain types of primers meant to stop rusting still you’ve applied is completely
require another primer to be painted on top of it, dry before you apply
before you can apply the final coat of paint. another coat.
You have to read the instructions for the specific 2. Always make sure that the
product carefully before buying or using it. When you’ve surface is clean before
applied all the relevant primers, you can apply your top you paint it. There must be
coat of paint. Now you know how to fix rusted things no dust, water or oil on it.
and make them beautiful again, instead of just throwing Dust, water and oil prevent
them away! paint from sticking to the
surface.
Figure 3: A rusted car by the coast

Preserve metals by painting LB p. 218
How do you paint metal? That depends on whether it is a brand new piece of
metal or a piece of metal that has already rusted. Answer the questions below:
LB page 217 1. List the materials you need to use when painting metals.
Wire brush, sandpaper, primer paint, paint brushes and paint for final coat.
2. Write a brief outline explaining why it is important to use a primer coat when
painting metals.
Applying a primer underneath the top coat of paint will protect the metal
better than a coat of paint alone. The final coat of paint will stick (adhere)
better to the primer than to the bare metal. The primer acts as a glue between
the bare metal and the final coat of paint. Without a primer, the paint could
Figure 4: Wire brush Figure 5: Sandpaper peel or flake off. If it is old metal that had previously rusted, application of a
special anti-rust primer is needed to prevent further rusting.
If it is a brand-new, smooth piece of metal that has never been painted before,
it is best to first roughen the surface a bit. It is difficult for paint to stick to a very 3. In your own words, briefly explain why boats and ships have to be painted on a
smooth surface. To roughen the surface, you can use wire brush such as the one regular basis.
shown in Figure 4 or sandpaper as shown in Figure 5. Make sure that there is no
Boats and ships are in contact with water most of the time, so corrosion can
dust on the surface. You can wipe it with a clean cloth to get rid of dust. Then you
must apply one, or preferably two, coats of primer. Primer protects the metal and occur all the time. Also, if they are in the sea, there are salts dissolved in sea
makes it easier for the top coat of paint to stick to the metal’s surface. Finally, you water, and this makes the corrosion happen much quicker. Regular painting will
can apply the top coat of paint.
slow down the corrosion, because it will prevent metal from being in contact
Painting a rusted piece of metal is a bit more difficult. First, you need to get rid of
as much rust as possible. If there is old, flaky paint, you must remove that as well. with water and air.
A wire brush and sandpaper work well for this. It is hard to get rid of all the rust,
therefore you need to apply a special primer to stop the oxidisation. If you don’t

4. Study the numbered steps below. They give the process of painting metals, but 17.2 Galvanising LB page 219
the steps in the process are not in the correct order. Write down the numbers of
the steps in the order that they should be done.
1. Double coat with primer. When some metals are exposed to
oxygen, it results in rust or oxidisation. Primer helps the top coat
of paint to stick to the surface. It also prevents oxidisation, or at
least slows it down.
2. Sand down your metal. Scrape or sand the surface of your metal
to ensure an even longer lasting and more durable coat of paint.
When the surface of the metal is rough, the paint will stick to it
better.
3. Apply a zinc-chromate primer if you are working with rusted
metal. Scrape all the loose rust and residual dust off first, then
coat it with this special primer.
4. Clean off all loose paint, dirt, grease and grime from the surface
of your metal. If you miss this step, you will end up with a coat of Figure 6
paint that won’t stick to the metal and peels off easily. Even oils
on the surface that may not be visible will affect your paint job, Apart from painting, we can also protect ferrous
The word galvanisation
so give your metal a thorough rub down even if you don’t think it metals from corrosion by applying a thin coat of
comes from Luigi Galvani’s
is necessary. zinc. This process is called galvanisation. name. He was an Italian
5. Paint. Acrylic latex paint is usually the best paint to use for Zinc also corrodes, but the zinc reacts with the doctor and scientist who did
metal. A cheap paint that is not made especially for coating oxygen, water and carbon dioxide in the air and experiments with electric
metal will probably rub off. This will result in the metal requiring turns into “zinc carbonate”. Zinc carbonate is quite currents in the eighteenth
a new coat of paint a lot sooner. Work carefully and apply your tough and consequently, it protects the metal century.
paint evenly on the surface. underneath it. If the zinc carbonate layer gets
damaged, more zinc carbonate forms. This can
6. Read the labels. Make sure your primer and your coat of paint
repeat until there is no zinc left on the metal. Then
are compatible. If they are not, your paint will not stick to the
the metal will start to rust.
primer. Check the drying time , so that you give enough time
This means that galvanisation only slows down the
for the primer to dry before you put the next layer of paint on.
corrosion of a metal. It doesn’t prevent corrosion
Planning ahead is always important when painting.
completely. If you need to protect metal properly for
a very long time, it is best to galvanise and paint the
The correct order of the steps is: 6 4 2 3 1 5 metal, which is what people do with cars today.
There are two ways of galvanising metal. The one process is called “hot-dip
galvanisation”. The other process is called “electro-galvanisation”.
Hot-dip galvanisation means that the ferrous
metal gets dipped into a bath of molten zinc at Molten: when metal or rock is
a temperature of 460 °C. Water boils more or less in liquid form because of very
high temperature.
at 100 °C, so you can imagine how hot that zinc
is! Obviously, you need to do this with the right
equipment and safety measures.

2. What metal is used to coat an object when galvanising it?
LB page 220
Hot-dip galvanisation has two definite advantages: it is relatively inexpensive inc
and it is also very tough, because the zinc layer resulting from this process is thick.
This makes it suitable for outdoor use, even over extended periods of time, such as 3. What are the benefits of hot-dip galvanisation?
20 to 50 years. But there are drawbacks too. Firstly, the metal needs to go through Hot-dip galvanisation is an inexpensive process, and it results in tough
a complex preparation process before it can be dipped into the molten zinc. Figure
protection against corrosion that can last for as long as 20 to 50 years
7 shows these processes. It also makes the metal look dull and the zinc coating is
not the same thickness throughout. outdoors.
Electro-galvanisation means that the ferrous metal gets coated with zinc
through a process called electroplating. You will learn more about electroplating 4. What are the drawbacks of hot-dip galvanisation?
in the next part of this chapter. For now, you only need to know that the zinc layer It is a complicated process, dulls the material it is used on, and does not provide
produced by electro-galvanisation is thinner than the hot-dip zinc layer, and not as
an even layer of zinc on the metal surface. It produces a thick layer of zinc on
tough, but it is the same thickness throughout. The zinc coating is also generally
shinier and even small objects can easily be electro-galvanised. This means that the surface of the metal.
electro-galvanised metals are more commonly used indoors. For outdoor use, it
will definitely have to be painted to make it last longer. 5. Name two examples of galvanised products.
Corrugated iron roof sheeting, electricity poles, car bodies, fence posts,
buckets and baths, iron nails and screws.
You can assist the learners with other answers by having them think about
outdoor metal ob ects, or metal that has to be protected from corrosion.
caustic rinsing pickling rinsing flux zinc bath inspection

cleaning solution cooling
Figure 7: The processes that are followed when hot-dip galvanising metal
What have you learnt? LB p. 220
Galvanising is a process that prevents corrosion. When galvanising metal,

the objects are coated with zinc. This is relatively cheap. The zinc and zinc
carbonate layer separates the iron from the oxygen and moisture. Objects that
have been galvanised are not completely protected from rust. They only take
longer to rust. To protect a metal completely, it is best to galvanise and paint it.
Answer the questions below:
1. Briefly discuss the function and purpose of galvanising.
alvanising is applied to ferrous metals to slow down corrosion. The surface of
the zinc layer corrodes and forms an almost impenetrable layer of zinc
carbonate. This layer prevents the ferrous metal from being in contact with
air and moisture.

17.3 Electroplating LB page 221 LB page 222
Figure 8 Figure 9: How an electroplating system is assembled

Electroplating is a process whereby one metal is An electrolyte is a mixture
coated with a thin layer of another metal by using of salt and water that has the
electricity and salty water (or an electrolyte). ability to conduct electricity.
People do electroplating for a number of reasons.
One reason could be to protect the metal from
corrosion, which is the purpose of galvanisation.
Another reason could be to make an inexpensive
metal look better. For example, copper or silver
jewellery is often gold plated to make it look more
expensive.
Table salt is one example of a
Look at Figures 8 and 9. In practice, electroplating works
salt. Not all salts are edible,
like this:
but all salts contain a metal
The object that you want coated gets connected as one of their elements. For
to the negative side of an electric cell with a wire. example, table salt consists of
The metal that you want to coat the object with gets sodium, which is a metal, and
connected to the positive side of the cell with a wire. chlorine. You can’t use table
Put the object and the metal, with the wires attached, salt for electroplating.
into a container with the water and salt mixture. Copper sulphate is also a salt.
What happens next is that electricity and metal It contains copper, which is a
molecules travel from the positive side to the negative metal, and sulphur. However,
Figure 10: Coins are an example of a less expensive metal that has been electroplated with a
side. This means that after a while, a thin layer of copper sulphate is VERY
more expensive metal for protection and to make it look better.
POISONOUS. You can use it
metal starts to form on the object. The longer you let
for electroplating, but definitely
this process continue, the thicker the metal layer will
not for food.
be.

Work in a group to investigate corrosion LB p. 223 3. Is there a difference in the level of corrosion by the end of the week compared
to the beginning of the week?
In this experiment, you will observe the effect of salt and water on galvanised There will be continual corrosion over the week. The corrosion will be more
and ungalvanised steel. Once you have everything together, it will only take a few
after a longer time.
minutes to prepare this experiment. But then you have to put your experiment in a
safe place where you can observe it for a week or more.
4. Why doesn’t the other piece of metal corrode?
You need the following things for this activity: The galvanisation has protected the metal from the corrosion caused by the
• a plastic or glass container that is not made of metal,
salt water, exactly as it was meant to.
• enough water to fill this container,
• a packet of table salt,
• two galvanised metal items, such as a galvanised nail, or bolt, or a piece of LB page 224
corrugated iron roof sheet (Hint: Look at your answer to question 5 on page 220), What have you learnt?
and
• something rough or sharp that you can use to scratch off the galvanised layer You have learnt three methods of protecting ferrous metals against corrosion:
from one of the items, such as a nail or sandpaper or another piece of metal. painting, galvanisation and electroplating. Protecting metals against corrosion
makes the metals last longer, which could reduce the need for mining. You can
How to do this experiment:
also easily reuse a rusted piece of metal if you clean the rust off and paint it.
• Heat the water and dissolve the packet of table salt in the water.
Reducing, reusing and recycling materials will have a positive impact on the
• When it has cooled down, pour the water and salt solution into the glass or environment.
plastic container.
• Take your two galvanised metal items and put one directly into the water and
salt solution.
Next week
• Use the rough or sharp object to scratch off the galvanised layer from the other
galvanised object. In the next chapter, you will learn more about processing materials by extending
the lifespan of food.
• Put the second object into the water as well. Do not let the two objects touch
each other.
• Keep both objects in the water and salt solution for at least a week.
• Take them both out every day to see what has happened.
Answer the questions below:
1. Which item starts to corrode or rust first?
The ob ect that has had the galvanising layer removed.
2. How long does it take for the metal to start corroding?

The learners should notice rust forming within a day or two. If not, the
galvanisation has not been removed properly.
288 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 289 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 17: PRESERVING METALS 289
Chapter 18 Learners should have read the content of this section before the lesson. You should ask learners
Extending the shelf

questions and allow discussion to make sure that learners understand:
• what factors limit the natural goodness of grain as a food, and
• how each of the technological approaches mentioned in the section manages to limit or delay
life of food the spoiling of grain.

In some schools, it may be useful to encourage learners to describe other (possibly local)
methods of grain preservation with which they are familiar. If this is done, it would be important
to get learners to consider how those methods manage to control the factors that limit the
useful shelf life of grain.
LB page 225
In the last chapter, you learnt about preserving metals by painting, galvanising and electroplating
18.2 Pickling
them. In this chapter, you will learn about different ways of preserving food, namely storing
grain, pickling, drying and salting. Learners begin by reading about pickling as a common method of preserving plant foods, fish,
and possibly some other forms of protein. What they are reading also gives a useful context
18.1 Storing grain ..................................................................................................... 295
within which to think about the process (sequence of steps) followed to take the food from
18.2 Pickling ............................................................................................................. 300
its natural state to its preserved state. On a household (domestic) level, this is often called
18.3 Drying and salting .............................................................................................. 302 “a recipe”, but on an industrial level, one finds similar sequences of steps used in the large-
scale preservation of food. For instance, in food processing plants (factories), one would find
sequential points on the factory floor where the food and other ingredients are:
Materials required for this chapter: • washed,
In section 18.3, learners will complete a practical task. On pages 234 and 236 there are lists of • prepared (cut, crushed, skinned etc.),
the equipment and consumables they will need to complete the task. • added to other ingredients,
This chapter introduces learners to some basic technological processes that are used to • heated or cooled,
preserve food. In their simplest form, many cultures, over thousands of years, have used these • sealed in containers,
processes to prevent the decay of food. Today, these (and related technologies) form the basis
• labelled, and
of some of the world’s biggest industries – all working to extend the useful shelf life of the food
• prepared for delivery.
products we eat.
Once you are sure that learners know what pickling is and understand that it is one of a number
Section 18.1 deals with the preservation of grains. Section 18.2 deals with the preservation
of food preservation technologies used in human societies, move on to the questions at the
of mainly vegetables and fish, and Section 18.3 deals with a process that preserves the useful
end of the section. Question 1 compels learners to consider the importance of sequence
shelf life of meat.
when processing food. Once a domestic sequence (a recipe) is understood, one can show the
similarity between it and its industrial counterparts.
18.1 Storing grain
The content of this lesson covers a traditional, as well as a modern, approach to preserving
grain. You should set the scene for this lesson by outlining briefly the:
• importance of the technologies used to preserve food,
• impact that these technologies have had on culture and the nature of human society, and
• the extent of human dependence on these technologies today.
290 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 18: EXTENDING THE SHELF LIFE OF FOOD 291
LB page 226
18.3 Drying and salting
Learners do a practical task in this section. The practical task should ideally be completed
individually. However, if for some reason groups must be formed, then it should be groups of
only two learners per group.
Learners begin by reading a short introduction to drying, using meat as an example. It would
be useful to start by giving each learner a small piece of biltong to examine. In tasting it, they
will certainly recognise the taste of salt and possibly spices. The importance of these elements
in preserving food has made them extremely valuable during certain periods of history. The
European search for the source of certain spices was a major reason why the original European
settlers and many Malay people ended up at the Cape in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Use this initial discussion on meat preservation to introduce the practical activity described on
pages 235 and 236. It is important that each learner produce a sample of preserved spinach.
Your organisation of equipment should therefore allow all learners to wash, pre-dry and expose
their sample to sunlight. That means that each learner will need spinach, paper towels, access
to water, and some kind of grid on which to dry their “processed” spinach leaf.
It is vital that you, as teacher, complete this practical task yourself before you begin planning
this lesson. It is only by doing it yourself that you will know:
• how much space and access to equipment each learner will need,
• how many paper towels are needed to process each piece of spinach, Figure 1
• how much pressure to exert on the spinach when removing moisture, and
• what the effect of sunlight will be on the spinach after 1, 2 and 3 days of exposure.
You need a clear idea of what the optimum duration of exposure to sunlight is. It will be one of
the things learners will decide on at the end of the activity.
The aim of this activity should be for learners to establish what constitutes the most effective
process (recipe) for producing dried spinach. That means spinach that can be stored for some
time without spoiling. This will mean examining and comparing samples that have been exposed
to sunlight for between 1 and 3 days to see which degree of exposure has the best effect.
This means that your planning must include:
• the management of the practical task,
• the organisation and recording of the samples left outside for drying, and
• assisting learners with the analysis of their samples and the creation of a recipe for the
drying of spinach.
Figure 2
LB page 227 18.1 Storing grain LB page 228
Food begins to spoil the moment it is harvested. Food preservation has been part
of all cultures throughout history. Food preservation enabled ancient humans
to live in one place and form a community. The discovery of food preservation
methods meant that ancient humans no longer had to consume hunted animals
or harvested food immediately. They could preserve some of their food to eat at a
later time. So they did not have to travel all the time in search of fresh food.
It is interesting that different cultures preserved their local food sources using
the same basic methods of food preservation, for example heating, freezing,
pickling, canning, salting, fermenting, drying and refrigerating.
Food preservation is one of the oldest technologies. People ate what they grew
on the land and what they hunted. They had to take good care of their food to
prevent it from going off and making them ill. They also had to find ways of
preserving food so that they would be able to eat even when there were no crops
to harvest or when they could not hunt.
Food preservation is about the treatment, handling

and storage of food to ensure that it does not lose
its nutritional value or quality. An important part
of food preservation is to create conditions that
prevent dangerous bacteria from growing.
Grain is a staple food for most of the world. Different A staple food is a food that is
grains are eaten in different parts of the world, for eaten most often by a group of
example in China and Japan, rice is the staple grain people and forms the largest
that is eaten. part of their diet.
In South Africa, wheat and maize are the main
grains that are grown and eaten. Maize is also used
to make a fermented drink, a type of beer that some
people drink on special occasions.
Structures for storing grain

People have always had some method of storing their grain produce.
Improvements in storage methods have also been observed over time and people
used the best methods for their situation or need, for example storing grain in
sacks. Grains produced by farmers who farm as a business and on a large scale are
stored in “silos”. These are huge cement or metal structures that hold the grain
from many farms in one place until it can be used or exported. The silos keep the
grain cool and free from moisture, insects and rodents.
Figure 3
The process of storing grain
A good storage container First, grains need to be
should: harvested. Small-scale or
• keep grain cool and dry, subsistence farmers do this
by hand. Figure 6 shows
• protect grain from insects,
and harvesting on a much
• protect grain from rats and
bigger, industrial scale with
mice. a combine harvester and a
tractor.
Second, the seed, which is the
edible part of the grain, needs
to be loosened from the plant’s
casing that protects the seeds.
Figure 4: A traditional Zulu grain silo The casing is inedible
and it is called “chaff”. This Figure 6: Harvesting on an industrial scale with a combine
process is called threshing. harvester and a tractor
Figure 7 shows the seeds still in
their casing.
The third step is called “winnowing”. Winnowing is
the process whereby the loosened seed is separated
from the chaff. Figure 8 shows the separated, edible
seeds, and the inedible chaff in the bucket.
There are various traditional winnowing techniques.
Nowadays, people use combine harvesters to harvest,
thresh and winnow.
Figure 7: Wheat before harvesting,

threshing and winnowing
Figure 5: Modern industrial grain silos
Figure 8: Grain separated from the chaff
Fourth, the grain is dried to
There are all kinds of insects that damage grains, Larvae: the stage of an
prevent fungus and bacteria
such as weevils and mites. Mites are very small insects insect’s life after it’s hatched
from growing on the seeds.
that eat grains. Weevils are small insects that lay their from the egg, but before it has
The ideal moisture content for
eggs inside the grain. When the larvae hatch, they eat changed into a mature insect.
wheat is about 14%.
the seeds.
Nowadays, people use grain-
Rodents, such as rats and mice, can also cause great damage to grains. They eat
drying machines, but in the old
large amounts of grain if they’re not controlled. Besides that, they carry deadly
days, people dried grain with
diseases that can contaminate the grain and spread to humans if consumed.
the help of the sun. Figure 9
shows a modern grain-drying Now you can imagine that storing very large amounts of grain, for instance in
machine. a big, modern silo, is a complicated job, because air flow and temperature, insects
and rodents, bacteria and fungi need to be controlled. But luckily, storing small
Finally, the dried grain is
amounts of grain is relatively easy. You need to put the grain into a clean, dry,
stored. The humidity and
airtight container and keep it in a cool place that is dry, with no direct sunlight or
temperature of the air are the Figure 9: A modern grain-drying machine
rodents.
two most important factors
here.
Warm, moist air will encourage bacteria and mould to live on and destroy the
grain, even if the grain has been dried beforehand. Cool, dry air will help to keep
the grain intact for longer.
Figure 10: Schematic cross section of the air movement in a grain silo
18.2 Pickling Pickles have become very popular. There
are many pickling recipes available, and
Most food products deteriorate because of the presence of micro-organisms, such people often experiment with different
as bacteria, yeast or mould. Remember that not all bacteria is harmful. We need combinations of vegetables, herbs and spices.
good bacteria to perform certain functions in our bodies and to make certain food
products, such as yoghurt and cheese.
In the past, people had to store fresh food so that it was safe to eat long after it
was harvested. There were no fridges or freezers to stop food from going off. Fruit
and vegetables were dried, salted, pickled or made into jam so that they could be
eaten long after they were picked. Dried, pickled, salted foods and jams meant that
people had a bigger variety of food and nutrients in their diet for a longer time.
Pickling possibly originated when food was placed

in wine or beer to preserve it. Both wine and beer Figure 11: Examples of pickled foods
Brine is a watery mix of
have a low pH level. People then found many uses
vinegar and salt.
for the brine that was left over from the pickling Make your own pickles LB p. 234
process.
You will need the following ingredients for this activity:
South Africa has a few favourite pickles. Achaar is • 6 pickling cucumbers, sliced in half lengthwise,
What we know today as tomato
a traditional pickle that was brought to our country sauce was originally an oriental • 1 red bell pepper, sliced,
by the Malay people more than a century ago. It can pickle sauce for fish. It spread • 1 cup water, A few rules for pickling:
be eaten as a side dish or with curry, and is widely to Europe by the spice route, • 1 cup white vinegar, • Use clean jars and lids.
enjoyed, especially in the Western Cape. Achaar is and eventually to America • 1 cup white sugar, • White vinegar is better to
made from vegetables such as cauliflower, carrots, where someone added sugar use as it does not discolour
• 2 ½ tablespoons pickling salt,
cabbage and beans, that have been finely cut and are to it. Spices were added to the vegetables the way
these pickling sauces to make • 2 cloves garlic, peeled, brown vinegar would.
mixed together with mustard, turmeric, coriander,
vinegar and sugar. tasty recipes. • 12 black peppercorns, • Use ingredients that are as
• ¼ teaspoon dried dill, and fresh as possible.
LB page 233 • 1 pinch crushed red pepper flakes.
Chutney is another favourite South African pickled product, normally made with 1. Using the ingredients listed above, prepare an instruction sheet for another
fruit. For pickling, we can use salt and water. Often, an acid such as vinegar is also group of learners to use in preparing their pickles. Write your instructions in
added to the salt water. point form. Show the flow of activities from start to finish.
Vegetables and fish are the two most common food types that are pickled.
1. Thoroughly clean and prepare a glass ar with a tight-fitting lid.
Pickling preserves the food because the brine creates an environment where
oxygen is not present. Therefore, the micro-organisms contained in and around 2. Take 6 pickling cucumbers and slice them in half lengthways. Place them in the ar.
the food cannot grow and multiply and, in turn, cause the food to go bad. 3. Add a sliced red bell pepper, two peeled cloves of garlic and 12 black
The food to be pickled is placed in a clean glass jar. A hot brine mix is poured peppercorns to the ar.
over the food and covers it completely. The brine is poured until the jar is full. A 4. Pour 1 cup of water and 1 cup of white vinegar into a pot.
clean, tight-fitting lid seals the jar. Pickles last for many months, depending on the
5. To the liquid, add 1 cup of white sugar, 2 tablespoons of pickling salt,
type of food.
a teaspoon dried dill and a pinch of crushed red
pepper flakes.
6. Heat and stir the brine on the stove until it is almost boiling do NOT bring LB page 235
to the boil. Successful preservation of food depends on
. Pour the liquid over the cucumbers until the ar is completely full. inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms such as
8. Put the lid on tightly. bacteria, and preventing access to insects.
2. Name and briefly discuss three advantages and three disadvantages of this Answer the following questions:
method of food preservation.
1. Explain what you understand about the purpose of food preservation.
1. The food can be kept for a long time without refrigerating it.
2. Many different types of food can be pickled. Normally fresh meat has to be eaten soon after it is obtained, or it will rot. The
3. Pickling adds to the taste and flavour of food, and many people eat pickles for this reason. settlers would slaughter a large animal, and have more meat than could be eaten
1. You need specific ingredients and materials to pickle food. quickly before rotting. They had no way of keeping food cool, so they had to
2. You need heat to pickle food. preserve the meat through other methods. This allowed them to use the meat
3. Some people do not like the taste of food that has been pickled. when they needed it for longer periods of time.
2. Explain the process of drying food for preservation purposes.

By removing the moisture there is less possibility for bacteria to multiply. The
18.3 Drying and salting
remaining bacteria is killed by the addition of salt and spices to the meat. These
South African biltong is a rich inheritance from The word biltong is from the also prevent the meat from being attacked by insects, as salt repels insects.
innovative Dutch settlers from the seventeenth Dutch “bil” (rump) and “tong”
century. They brought recipes for dried meat from (strip or tongue). 3. Briefly discuss why salt is so important in the drying method of preserving
Europe. They used the sun to dry meat during their food.
trek across southern Africa.
Salt prevents the growth of micro-organisms, because micro-organisms dry out
The basic meat spices were
readily available in the Cape Colony. (lose moisture) in a very salty environment. It also repels insects, keeping the
The spices for making biltong
food free from egg-laying parasites.
include a dramatic blend of vinegar,
salt, sugar, coriander and other 4. In South Africa, there are many cultures and methods of food preservation.
available spices. Name one culture and food type they preserve. Briefly explain the process this
Drying is one of the oldest culture follows in preserving this food type.
methods of food preservation.
The Cape Malays used pickling to preserve fish and vegetables.
Drying preserves food by removing
enough moisture from the food to Figure 12: Biltong The Dutch settlers preserved meat by salting, spicing and drying it.
prevent decay and spoilage.
The water content of properly dried food varies from 5% to 25%, depending on
the type of food.
Dry your own food LB p. 235 Fresh spinach is dark green and keeps its leaf shape. When spinach is not fresh
anymore, its shape collapses (it becomes limp or wilted ) and its colour can be
Tip:
When drying food, the key is to remove moisture as quickly as Before you touch any food, come lighter green.. Until it is washed it can be very gritty.
possible at a temperature that does not greatly affect the flavour, wash your hands thoroughly to
remove dirt and bacteria. 2. List all the steps you took and explain why you did them.
texture or colour of the food.
1. Cleaned the spinach repeatedly in a bowl with fresh water to remove grit and
dirt particles.
2. Placed spinach on a paper towel to remove moisture.
3. Carefully rolled spinach into sausage shapes to squeeze out more moisture.
4. Used more paper towel to carefully squeeze spinach sausages to remove
more moisture.
5. Put spinach rolls on a sieve, covered with paper towels, in the sun for a few
Figure 13 LB page 236 days.
You will need the following things for this activity: 6. When they were dry, stored the spinach rolls in a plastic container.
• spinach,
• cold water, 3. What was the effect of the weather conditions on your drying process?
• a knife, The warmer the day the quicker the spinach rolls dried out. If it rained, I
• a large bowl, and placed the rolls under shelter to prevent them from getting wet.
• paper towels.
4. Indicate whether the results of this experiment were a success or not. Motivate
Follow these steps: your answer.
• Find fresh spinach sold loose or in a bunch. Choose spinach that is crisp and
green. Each learner will have their own response to this question. Find out whose
• Fill a large bowl with cool water and add the spinach. methods worked and the results, and if any learner’s method failed. Ask them to
• Rinse the spinach in the water to remove any dust or dirt particles. share their experiences with the class.
• Remove the water from the bowl and refill it with fresh, cool water. Continue to
rinse out the spinach in fresh water until all of the gritty particles are gone.
• Lift the spinach from the water and place it on a paper towel. What have you learnt?
• Roll spinach into sausage shapes, cover it with another paper towel and gently
press on it to remove the moisture. You have learnt how people long ago thought innovatively to develop ways of
preserving food to extend its lifespan.
• Replace the paper towel and gently press on the rolled spinach with a dry towel
until all the water is removed. You have learnt how the principles of grain storage, pickling and drying of food
assist in increasing the lifespan of food.
• Place the prepared spinach rolls, covered with paper towel, on a sieve and leave
them in the sun to dry for a few days.
Next week
• Place the dried spinach in a plastic container for storage until you need to cook it.
Next week, you will learn more about reducing, re-using and recycling plastic to
Record your observations during this practical activity: reduce its negative impact on the environment.
1. Describe what the fresh spinach looked like.
Chapter 19 Materials required for this chapter:
Plastics This chapter requires learners to investigate plastics by handling and describing actual plastic
objects in the classroom.
It is critical that a sufficient number of different plastic product samples are collected and
brought to class. Collection should start at least a week before the start of this chapter. You
must monitor the type and number of products arriving so that you are able to make up for
shortages of any particular types of plastics.
The selection should include plastics with the following different properties:
LB page 237
1. How it looks:
In this chapter, you will learn about various types of plastic. You will also learn that plastic can • clear or transparent (you can see through it),
be recycled, and why this is important.
• translucent (lets light through, but you cannot see clearly through it), and
19.1 What are plastics, and what properties do they have? ............................................ 310
• opaque (does not let light through).
19.2 Types of plastic, recycling, and identification codes .............................................. 313
2. How it feels:
19.3 What have you learnt? ......................................................................................... 316
• hard,
Learners should bring plastic products and containers to school for this week’s activities. Figure
1 below suggests a few types of plastic products they can bring. • soft,
It is important that learners bring a wide variety of plastic products. They have to bring plastic • rubbery, and
products with recycling codes at the bottom to identify which type of plastic it is made of. • spongy.
The selection should include clear, translucent and opaque types of plastic, and hard and soft
Examples of things they can bring:
types of plastic. A few examples of what they can bring are cold drink bottles, milk bottles,
peanut butter jars, shampoo bottles, polystyrene cups, margarine tubs, plastic plates, plastic a piece of electric cord shampoo bottles margarine tubs
eating utensils, freezer bags, flip-flops (plastic sandals), combs, lunch boxes, and/or geometry cold drink bottles polystyrene cups plastic plates
triangles.
milk bottles freezer bags combs
peanut butter jars plastic shopping bags lunch boxes
plastic eating utensils plastic sandals (“foam” or bubble wrap
“rubber” sandals are also
clear food containers plastic sponges (almost all
made from types of plastics)
sponges are made of plastic)
pens
plastic pipes (including hose
fleecy blankets
switches pipes)
electric plugs
handles from pots rulers and/or geometry
triangles any clothes that are made of
plastic rope or fishing line
“polyester” (look on the labels
inside the clothes)
In Grade 8, learners studied the environmental impact of plastic bags and the need to reuse or
Figure 1: Bring plastic items such as these to school for this week’s lessons. recycle them. In this chapter, learners find out what plastics are, and they investigate various
types of plastics and their particular properties. This is important because the properties
of materials determine for which purposes those materials can be used, and for which not.
306 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 19: PLASTICS 307

Learners are also asked to consider what happens to these different types of plastics once 19.2 Types of plastic, recycling, and identification
the objects are no longer wanted. They investigate types of plastics and the importance of
identification codes, which enable the efficient recycling of many plastics.
codes
The first part of this lesson introduces the two main types of plastics, namely thermosetting
plastics and thermoplastic plastics. This is relevant to the second part of this section, on
19.1 What are plastics, and what properties do recycling plastic. Thermosetting plastics are very difficult to recycle, whereas thermoplastic
they have? plastics can be recycled fairly easily.
The aim of this lesson is to enable learners to physically investigate a variety of plastic products As the name suggests, thermosetting plastic can be moulded only once. This is because when
in order to find out more about what plastics are, and to discover the amazing and varied the plastic is being made, certain chemical reactions are used to cause cross-links to form
properties of different types of plastics. between different long-chain molecules, in so doing, causing the plastic to become harder.
Thermosetting plastics do not soften and change shape when they are heated, but they will burn
Learners should be organised into teams of three or four.
if they are heated enough. Thermosetting plastics include polyurethanes, polyester resins, epoxy
Introduction resins, and synthetic rubber. They are useful for manufacturing heat-resistant objects such as
One way of introducing this topic might be to give the teams five minutes to read page 238 and saucepan handles, kitchen work surfaces and light fittings.
the top of page 239. The learners search for about 6 key facts about plastics and record these Thermoplastic plastics become soft and pliable when they are heated, and harden when cooled.
using key phrases. They may also record any questions that arise from their reading. You then Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, nylon (polyamide) and acrylics.
allow teams to share these facts with the whole class, and you answer any questions that have
Thermoplastic plastics can be moulded repeatedly.
arisen. The learners can add to these facts as they proceed through the sections on plastics.
Mastering vocabulary relating to the properties of plastics
Why we have to recycle plastic
Twelve possible properties are listed on page 239. You could instruct each learner in a team
to learn the meanings of three or four of these words, for homework. The following day, they Learners read the text on page 241, so that they can answer the questions that follow on it.
should explain the meanings of the words to the rest of their team. In that way, the meanings of
all properties will be explained within a team.
Different types of plastic need different processes to recycle it
Learners are now ready to do the activity “Investigate properties of plastic objects”.
The table showing the codes for different types of plastics should be explained to the learners.
The plastic products that have been collected are used for this activity. Follow the directions This table will be used for the activity in section 19.3. The recycling code of a plastic product
given on the top of page 240. Make sure that each team has four different types of plastic can normally be found on the bottom of the product.
objects.
It is the type of plastic used to make the object, and not the object itself, that is being
investigated. So, you should ask each team to select two of their objects that have different 19.3 What have you learnt?
recycling codes, and describe their properties.
This section consists of five questions that enable learners to check what they have learnt, and
You should observe the objects of all the teams. In some cases, you should tell a team which enables you to assess the extent of their learning. The questions also require critical thinking:
two of their objects to select for their investigation. This is to make sure that the whole class learners have to recognise that choosing a type of plastic with properties that are suitable/fit for
investigate as many different types of plastic (with different recycling codes) as possible. the purpose of the product, is an important part of the design process of any plastic product.
Make sure that each learner is involved and that each learner records the answers in their Learners should work individually during this activity.
notebooks. Finally, check their work and correct any misconceptions.
Question 1 requires learners to complete a table. Each learner should complete the table for the
same four plastic objects that her or his team investigated in section 19.1.

19.1 What are plastics, and what properties
Plastics are examples of polymers. A polymer is
do they have? a material that is made from molecules that have
The word plastic was
originally used to describe
carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms and other atoms joined a property that materials
Up to about 100 years ago, most clothes as well as
When you look at a piece of in long chains. Cotton, wool, leather, hair, starch, wood such as rubber have, namely
many tools and appliances were made of plant or
cloth closely you will see that and rubber are examples of natural polymers. The that they can be given a
animal materials, such as cotton, wool, wood, animal
it is woven from many thin molecule chains join together in different ways, so new shape. Most synthetic
skin, and bird feathers. But then, chemistry scientists threads, like very thin pieces of polymers have this property,
that there are many different kinds of polymers with
invented ways to make synthetic materials with rope. If you use a microscope and therefore they were given
different properties.
similar properties to natural materials, and sometimes to look even closer, you will the name “plastics”.
Plastics are man-made (synthetic) polymers. They
with useful properties that no natural materials have. see that each thread is made Molecules are made of
are most often made from mineral oil, because the
Most of these synthetic materials are made from of different long, thin pieces atoms that join together. You
molecules in this oil are chains of carbon atoms, but
mineral oil, and most of them are called plastics. that hook or twist into one know from Natural Sciences
shorter chains than in plastics.
Synthetic materials are usually cheaper and lighter another. These long and very that molecules are much too
than natural materials with the same properties, thin pieces are called fibres. small to see, even with a
and factories can mould the synthetic materials into In the close-up photo below microscope.
Different properties of plastics
unique shapes. you can see the plant fibres
from which a specific fabric is Depending on the type of plastic and the form in which it is made, it may have a
Rulers were once made from wood, but are now few of the following properties:
made.
made from plastic. Buckets were first made from
• Transparent means you can see clearly through the plastic.
wood, then from galvanised steel, but now they are
• Translucent means light can shine through the plastic even though you can’t
made from plastic as well. Milk came in heavy glass
see through it.
bottles or steel cans, but now comes in plastic bottles.
Ropes were twisted from sisal plant fibres, but most • Tough means the plastic will not break or shatter if you hit it or drop it.
ropes are now made from plastic fibres. Cars were • Elastic means you can stretch the plastic far and it will still return to its original
made mostly from steel, wood and leather, but now shape.
many parts are made from plastics. • Flexible means the plastic can bend without breaking.
All around you, there are objects made of different • Rigid means the plastic will resist bending and stretching, but if you apply a big
types of plastic. Look at your shoe soles, your pen and Figure 2: Close-up photo of plant enough force to bend or stretch it, it will break or even shatter.
ruler. In winter you may wear a fleecy jacket that feels fibres that were spun and woven • Heat-resistant means the plastic will not melt easily.
like wool. That woolly substance is actually made to make a fabric • Fire-resistant means the plastic will not burn easily.
of plastic fibres. Many clothes and most carpets are • Waterproof means water will not pass through the plastic.
made from plastic fibres.
• Foamed means the plastic has been processed to fill it with small air bubbles.
There are also disadvantages to synthetic materials.
• Electrically insulating means the plastic does not allow electricity to conduct
You learnt in Grade 8, Chapter 8 that most plastics do
through it.
not bio-degrade as natural materials do. This means
plastic waste lasts a very long time. • Thermally insulating means the plastic does not allow heat to be conducted
through it easily.
In many of these cases, you cannot simply say the plastic has a specific property
or does not have a specific property. For example, you cannot simply say a type
Figure 3: A “fleece” blanket is of plastic is flexible. You need to say how flexible it is, for example very flexible or
made from fibres of a type of only slightly flexible.
plastic called polyester.

Investigate properties of plastic objects LB p. 240 19.2 Types of plastic, recycling, and identification codes
Work in teams of three or four.
Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics
For this activity, your teacher asked you to bring different plastic objects to school.
The raw materials from which many plastic products are made, are liquids or soft
• Each team should take two of the objects and describe their properties. Write
materials that can be stirred, similar to glue or clay. When these materials are
the name of the object and then write its properties next to it.
heated and/or mixed with other chemicals, they “set” or become hard and rigid.
• Now swap your two plastic objects with those of another team that have After they set, you cannot make them soft again by heating them. So you cannot
different objects. Then write down the names and properties of the other team’s shape them into new products. They will burn, but not turn soft again. Plastic such
objects. as this is called thermosetting plastic.
Examples are epoxy-resin glue, shoe soles, car Safety warning:
tyres, electrical plugs, pot handles, electronic circuit
Wear protective heat-resistant
boards, and kitchen worktops. Thermosetting plastics gloves, protective glasses and
cannot be recycled by simply reheating them. They fire-resistant clothing if you try
can, however, be turned back into oil through a high- to melt plastic, since molten
temperature chemical process called “pyrolysis”. plastic can splatter and cause
Other plastics melt when they are heated, and serious burn injuries.
can then be shaped into new products. These are Never try to melt plastic by
called thermoplastic plastic. Cold drink bottles and using a flame, since the plastic
detergent bottles are thermoplastic. If you pour boiling can start to burn, and it can
water into it you can change the shapes. release poisonous gases.
LB page 241
Why we have to recycle plastic
Waste plastic in the environment is a big problem. Most types of plastic will not
bio-degrade, but will last for hundreds of years.
Landfills are usually near cities so that garbage trucks don’t have to travel too far
to dump the waste. But that means people can never build houses on that land or
grow crops on it.
Any materials that go into a landfill
will never be used again. Instead,
people will need to extract more raw
materials such as oil, coal, steel, wood
or glass from the earth. Then they will
burn more coal to generate electricity
in order to process the raw materials.
Not all plastics go into landfills,
though. A lot of plastic just remains
where someone has tossed it, or is
dumped into rivers and then goes
into the ocean.
Figure 4: Plastic waste on a sea shore. This photo
was taken in Hawaii, which is why there is black
volcanic rock on the seashore.

In some parts of the ocean, wind causes the water to flow round and round in
bottles for milk, somewhat rigid; bottles; pipes;
one place. These areas are much bigger than South Africa. They are called “ocean
juice, water and tough; resistant to buckets; crates;
gyres”. Here, millions of floating plastic bottles, bags and little plastic flakes about
laundry products chemicals; good flower pots; bins;
the size of this block gather.
barrier for liquids plastic planks; floor
Turtles mistake the plastic bags for jelly-fish and To recycle means to process high density and gases tiles
swallow them, which kills them. Large and small fish waste materials to make new polyethylene
swallow the small plastic flakes. Sea-birds eat these products from it.
pipes; coating resistant to gutters; floor tiles
fish and the plastic in the fish kills the sea-birds. (sheaves) of chemicals; and mats; electrical
So plastic being dumped in the environment is a big problem. But many types of electrical wires electrically boxes; garden hoses
plastic can be recycled. insulating; tough;
polyvinyl can be rigid or
Reasons for recycling LB p. 241 chloride flexible
thin plastic films, flexible; tough; good garbage bags; floor
1. Write down two reasons why we should recycle plastic items. for example to for sealing; barrier tiles; bins
The more plastic is recycled, the less materials are needed for new products. cover food or to moisture
books; flexible
Recycling plastic means that it won’t be added to garbage landfills that use up low density lids and bottles
space. polyethylene
Plastic litter can kill animals. large moulded resistant to car battery cases;
parts, for chemicals; tough; brooms and brushes;
Plastic litter lasts for hundreds of years. example car parts heat-resistant; bins; trays
Litter is ugly. barrier to moisture
polypropylene
protective can be rigid or plates for light
LB pages 242–243 packaging; foamed; low switches; rulers;
disposable melting point; in thermal insulation;
Different types of plastic need different processes to recycle it cups; bottles; foamed form it is foam packaging
Waste of different types of plastic need to be sorted so that each type of plastic polystyrene trays; thermal an excellent heat
can be recycled separately. Manufacturers have agreed on a set of codes to show insulation insulator
which type of plastic a product is made of. (especially in
roofs)
Codes and Examples of Properties Recycled products depends on the type plastic planks
acrylic or perspex
names products of plastic; “ABS” has
sheets (can
cold drink bottles, clear; tough; fibres to make fabrics be used as a very good shock-
polyester fabric good barrier for for clothes, bags and replacement for absorbing properties
for clothes liquids and gases; carpets; food and other type glass windows);
heat-resistant drink containers of plastic, or “ABS” for making
polyester more than car bumpers
one type of
plastic used
in the same
product

19.3 What have you learnt? LB page 244 2. Why do manufacturers often choose to make their products from plastic?
Plastic is cheap, strong, waterproof and airproof. It is easy to manufacture
Identify the types of plastic on the table LB p. 244
products with many different, and complicated, shapes from it. It can be
Look again at the four plastic products that your team looked at in the activity recycled, which saves raw materials.
in section 19.1. Turn them upside down and try to find a symbol for the recycling
code. 3. Why do manufacturers put recycling codes on the bottom of containers?
1. Copy and complete the table below:
Each type of plastic has different properties. If you want to make a product
Learners must refer to the table on the previous two pages to help them. from recycled plastic, you want to know that the properties of the recycled
plastic will suit the product’s purpose. To know the properties of recycled
Code and name of Properties What products could
the type of plastic be made from this plastic, you need to know which type of plastic was recycled to make it. For
recycled material?
this reason, recyclers sort waste plastic into different types of plastic. Each
Object 1
type of plastic waste is recycled separately.
4. Why do they not use the same type of plastic for everything that can be
manufactured?
Each type of plastic has different properties. To make a product, you want to
Object 2 choose a type of plastic that has properties that suit the purpose of the
product.
5. Think of three objects that could not be made of plastic.

engines that run at very high temperatures, electrical conductors, very hard
Object 3
tools such as saws and drills
Next week
Object 4
In the next chapter, you will learn how plastics are recycled to make new products.
316 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 20: RECYCLING AND MANUFACTURING 317
WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC
Chapter 20 Materials required for this chapter:
Recycling and
Copies of page 247 for each learner to write and draw on (it can be black-and-white copies).
At least 10 plastic bottles with lids. Different sizes would be beneficial, for example, 500 ml,
1 litre and 2 litre cold drink bottles. Each learner needs to handle a bottle and investigate marks
manufacturing with on the bottle that were formed because of the injection moulding and blow moulding processes.
An example of a plastic chair will be useful.
recycled plastic In Grade 8 Chapter 8, learners focused on pollution in relation to plastic bags, and the need
to reuse or recycle them in order to protect our environment. In this term, they have so far
investigated various types of plastics and their properties. Learners are now also aware that
different types of plastics need to be recycled separately, and that recycling codes are put on
products to enable easy sorting.
LB page 245
Some of these plastics, for example the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) used to make
In this chapter, you will learn how plastic waste is recycled to make new products. plastic milk bottles, are processed into pellets. The pellets are then used as raw material and
processed into various new products. Diagrams and questioning are used to develop learners’
20.1 Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products .................................................... 321
understanding of these processes.
20.2 Recycling plastic to make new products .............................................................. 324
20.3 What have you learnt? ........................................................................................ 327
20.1 Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products
In this section, learners are introduced to two types of processes required for making plastic
bottles. The first process is injection moulding to make “preforms” from pellets. The second
process is blow moulding, which transforms the “preforms” into bottles.
It could be helpful and interesting for learners to do the following before they read the
explanation of injection moulding on page 246:
• Allow the learners to examine a plastic bottle and ask them to suggest how they think it has
been made. This will help to get them interested.
• Next, the learners could try to identify parts of the machine shown in Figure 2 on page 247.
You should supply the vocabulary for the parts: the hopper (input funnel); plastic pellets (the
raw material); the screw; the barrel; the heater (not shown on the drawing); the mould, the
cooler (not shown on the drawing).
• Ask the learners: “Is there heating or cooling at a stage, or at You can mention to learners
different stages, of the process? Why?” Give one or two that friction caused by the
minutes for learners to discuss this in pairs, and then ask screw causes heat, which
some learners to respond to this question to the whole class. contributes to melting the
• Next, the learners could try to work out the steps in the plastic pellets. It also mixes
the plastic and ensures that
process by studying Figure 2.
it is heated uniformly whilst
• Learners could then read page 246 to check their work. moving it forward into the
• They could also make a simple systems diagram of this mould.
process showing the input, the stages of the process and the
318 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 20: RECYCLING AND MANUFACTURING WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC 319
LB page 246
final product.
• Finally, they could answer the questions at the bottom of page 246.
20.1 Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products
A 2-litre milk bottle is an excellent example of blow moulding.
There are two steps to making plastic bottles, injection moulding and blow
When answering the question on page 248, learners can actually try the lids on the different moulding.
sized bottles to see for themselves that the openings are identical.
Step 1: Injection moulding to make preforms from pellets

Injection moulding is used to make
20.2 Recycling plastic to make new products plastic “preforms” of bottles. Preforms
Learners draw on their knowledge and investigation to complete the questions on the case
are like small bottles with very thick
study “The cyclical process of recycling plastic”.
walls that already have the neck and
screw-thread of the final bottle. Figure 1
It should be noted that often a mixture of recycled and virgin (new) material is used when making
shows the preform for a plastic bottle.
new plastic products.
Figure 2 shows the injection-
You should monitor learners as they complete this task. Observe their work and question them
moulding machine at different times
about their answers to check their understanding.
of the injection-moulding process. In
Question 6 on page 249 requires original thinking about different things that need to be done to this picture, the plastic is the coloured
plastic waste before it will be ready to recycle into new products. substance. The raw material going into
Figure 1: A preform of a plastic bottle
the machine is small, almost round
pieces of plastic called pellets.
20.3 What have you learnt?
They are initially hard since they have not been heated yet, and are shown in
You need to observe the learners during this exercise to ensure they are individually applying blue. The plastic must be soft and hot for the injection process to work.
thought and effort to the task. The pellets are pushed forward by a screw that is turned by a motor. At the same
Once the exercise has been completed and the work handed in, you should discuss these time, the pellets are heated until they melt. The turning force of the screw creates
questions to ensure all learners have a sound understanding of these aspects of manufacturing pressure that pushes or injects the molten plastic into the mould. Once the mould
with recycled plastic. has been filled, the opening of the mould where the molten plastic came in is
Learners benefit from feedback, and therefore need their marked work to be returned as soon closed, and the mould is left to cool.
as possible. The plastic in the mould solidifies as it cools down. Once it has cooled down
sufficiently, the two halves of the mould open so that the preform that was made
can be taken out.
An excellent video called “Plastic Injection Moulding” by Bill Hammock (who is known as the
“engineerman”) is available on YouTube. It is not essential, but this is a fascinating short video Questions for you to answer LB p. 246
that will really enhance knowledge and interest in this topic.
Copy Figure 2 roughly (or use the photocopy that your teacher gives you), and
answer the following questions.
1. Find the mould and label it.
2. Where will you put a heater on the machine to melt the plastic pellets? Draw
an extra part or parts for the machine to show where the heater should be, and
label it.
3. Look carefully at a plastic bottle. You will find a very thin ridge where the two
parts of the mould joined. If you cannot see it, feel around the neck of the bottle
with your finger. Why is the mould line on both sides of the neck?
LB page 248
The two halves are oined together, so there will be a oining line on each side. Step 2: Blow moulding to shape preforms into bottles
LB page 247 Next, the preform goes to a blow-moulding machine. This machine blows hot air
under high pressure into the preform. This heats the lower part of the preform
so that it becomes soft and can change its shape. The high air pressure forces the
walls of the preform to expand into the mould, similar to blowing up a balloon.
Figure 3: Blow-moulding of a preform to make a plastic bottle
The same type of preform can be made into different shapes of bottles, since it
can be blown into different moulds. But all the bottles will have the same screw-on
cap.
Question for you to answer LB p. 248
1. Why will all the different-shaped bottles fit the same cap?
Because the preforms were all the same shape.
Figure 2: The injection-moulding process
5. Plastic bottles and other containers take up a lot of space. Why is this a problem?
LB page 249
The recyclers must build large storage areas and large bins to store the sorted
20.2 Recycling plastic to make new products
material. They need large trucks to transport the recyclable material. If people
In Chapter 19, you learnt why we should recycle plastic containers and other crush or flatten plastic containers (by standing on them) before disposing them,
products. In this chapter, you will learn how PET plastic can be recycled and made
then the waste plastic will take up much less space.
into a new raw material.
Figure 5 on the next page shows the plastic recycling process. 6. Name four things that need to be done to plastic waste before it will be suitable
Each type of plastic waste is pressed into bales that can easily be transported. to turn into new products.
At the recycling factory, the plastic waste is shredded into small pieces, to make it Sorting into different types of plastic pressing the material in containers into
easier to handle and wash.
bales (a large bundle of compressed material tied with rope or wire) for
Case study: The cyclical process of recycling plastic transporting to the recycling factory shredding the material into flakes
LB p. 249 washing and removing bits of labels and old contents melting the flakes into
pellets packaging and labelling the bags of pellets.
1. Why should plastics be separated into different types before it can be recycled?
Each type of plastic has different properties. If you want to make a product 7. Copy and complete the systems diagram in Figure 4 by giving descriptions of
from recycled plastic, you want to know that the properties of the recycled the different steps of the recycling process. Hint: When something is recycled, it
means that the output is also the input, since the process is a cycle or circular.
plastic will suit the product’s purpose. To know the properties of recycled
plastic, you need to know which type of plastic was recycled to make it. LB page 250
Different types of plastic have different melting points, and some types need
special treatment before they can be recycled.
2. How do the recycling codes on the plastic containers help to sort them?
The codes show the sorters which type of plastic each container is made of.
They can then place the containers into the correct bin.
3. The containers are not only plastic. If you look carefully at a container, what
other materials can you find? You can look at some of the containers your
classmates brought to class.
Containers have other materials added to them. Paper and thinner plastic labels
hard plastic caps made of a different type of plastic foam seals in the lids,
etc. Sometimes the containers still have left-over material inside, for instance
syrup, face cream, sour milk, etc.
4. Are all the plastic containers in the bin clean? Is this important?
Usually, the containers are not clean. This is a problem for recyclers. People are
always advised to clean their empty containers by emptying the last bits out and
rinsing them with warm water before putting them in the recycling bin. Figure 4: Systems diagram of the plastic bottle recycling process
20.3 What have you learnt?
1. What is the raw material for the bottles in this process?
pellets of PET from used bottles
2. How can consumers and house-owners make it easier for recyclers to process
plastic products to make new bottles?
Wash out the bottles and other containers remove the labels if possible
remove the hard caps crush or flatten the containers so they take up less
space take the plastic products to a recycling centre set up a
recycling centre at school.
3. A manufacturer can buy one type of preform and then make different-shaped
bottles. How can this be done?
The manufacturer can use different moulds during the blow-moulding stage.
4. Which type of moulding do you think is used to make plastic chairs?

In ection moulding blow moulding will only work for products that are hollow
inside.
5. What is the difference between injection moulding and blow moulding?

In ection moulding uses plastic pellets as raw material, and pushes or in ects
the molten plastic into the mould using the pressure created from the turning
screw.
Blow moulding uses preforms as raw material. It shapes the preforms by blowing
hot air under high pressure into it, to make the preforms expand into the mould.
Next week
Over the next three weeks, you will do your Mini-PAT for this term. You will reuse
old plastic bottles for a new purpose. The new purpose will be different from the
old purpose of storing liquid. You will first design the new product you want to
make. Then you will make the necessary changes to old plastic bottles in order to
make the new product.
Figure 5: The steps to turn waste plastic into new plastic products
Chapter 21 Mini-PAT Materials required for this chapter:
Reduce, re-use and recycle:

a range of different waste plastic objects A4 and A3 paper for drawings
string permanent marker pens to make marks on
sandpaper plastic
Working with plastics thin wooden dowels

skewer/sosatie sticks
nails of different sizes
to make holes in plastic
thin wire many strong pairs of scissors to cut plastic
glue sticky tape to join different plastic parts
together
LB page 253 rulers
A4 and A3 grid paper for isometric and
In this Mini-PAT you will design and make a useful new product from old plastic bottles. But first,
orthographic drawings
you will look at how plastic is used in everyday life.
You will only do individual work in this Mini-PAT. This chapter seeks to develop learners’ ability to design solutions to technological problems.
Learners do only individual work in this mini-PAT.
Week 1 ...................................................................................................................... 334
You must complete some version of this design task yourself before the week that the mini-PAT
Investigate: Plastics in the classroom and at home
starts. You must use the same materials and tools that learners will use. This will ensure that
Different scenarios: Reusing plastic bottles resources are not overlooked, and problems and issues related to the management of the task
Design brief for the scenario that you chose are identified and sorted out before learners start with the task.
You must acquire or collect all materials and tools (including waste plastic) for this Mini-PAT in
Week 2 ....................................................................................................................... 342
advance. Do not rely on learners to bring all the needed materials.
Design: Initial rough design sketches
Make: Final orthographic drawing
Skills development: Practice to mark out, cut and make holes in plastic Week 1
Week 3 ....................................................................................................................... 345 In this week, learners are told that they will be required to design a useful product using mainly
Make the plastic product you designed waste household plastic of some kind. The aim of this week is to get learners to identify a need
that will form the focus of their design.
What have you learnt during this term?
Plastics in the classroom and at home (60 minutes)
Assessment
These exercises provide background information on plastics found in homes and classrooms.
Investigate: Different scenarios reusing plastic bottles.............................................. [4]
Design brief for the scenario that you chose ............................................................ [4] Different scenarios for reusing plastic bottles (30 minutes)
Design: Initial rough sketches ................................................................................ [10] These exercises provide examples of some ways in which such plastics might be redesigned to
Make: Final orthographic drawing ........................................................................... [15] fulfil new functions and meet new needs.
Make the plastic product you designed .................................................................. [25] Learners answer questions that make them think about the needs that can be met by re-using
waste plastic. It would be useful for you to give examples of such needs, such as:
Communicate: What have you learnt during this term? .............................................. [12]
• a need to store things,
[Total: 70]
• a need to protect things, or
• a need to contain things.
328 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 21 MINI-PAT: REDUCE, RE-USE AND RECYCLE: WORKING WITH PLASTICS 329
Design brief for the scenario that you chose (30 minutes)
Learners can choose one of the scenarios given in the previous section for the product that they Learners must record these issues by adding labels to their rough design sketches, and by
will design and make. making notes on the side where necessary.
Some creative learners could come up with innovative ideas that are very different from the four For homework, learners should draw more design sketches to:
given scenarios. If they do so, check that their ideas are simple enough for them to finish their • show different details of their design,
designs and models within the time constraints of this mini-PAT. If they can keep their innovative • show improvements to their initial design,
ideas simple, then allow them to go ahead with their own design ideas.
• give more clear specifications to resolve the “design issues”, and
You should instruct learners to keep a record of their ideas, as well as how their ideas develop.
• add dimensions to their design sketches.
This record should be clear but should also contain rough ideas and rough sketches. Learners
should also record “mistakes” that they made. By the end of the homework section, learners must have refined their designs to the point where
they think it will work.
By the end of the week, each learner should have:
Learners must keep all of the material produced for this homework in their record of the
• a record of her/his ideas, and
design’s development.
• a design brief. It may be added to later, but in its earliest form it should say something like
this: “Use waste plastic to make an exercise wheel for a pet mouse. The mouse must be Final orthographic drawing (30 minutes)
able to climb on and off the wheel on his own.” During this lesson, learners make working (orthographic) drawings based on their newest design
sketches. In most cases, learners will only need to draw a front and a top view.
The drawing needs to be to scale. That will make it possible to use the drawing to make
Week 2
decisions about how parts will fit together, and whether it is possible for a load (like the mouse)
Each learner now has a design brief to work towards. to be carried by the structure or machine.
Titles, dimensions and labels must be included.
Initial rough design sketches (30 minutes)
As learners begin with their working drawings, they will become aware of new problems faced
Drawing initial rough design sketches is a way for learners to identify all of the “design issues”
by their design. This is normal, and changes to the orthographic views will need to be made in
related to their design brief. They communicate their thoughts on the “design issues” through
such cases. However, this means that this section of the work may take longer to complete and
the rough design sketches they draw, and the labels and notes that add to these sketches.
may spill over into the next section.
In the case of the example of a design brief given earlier (an exercise wheel for a pet mouse),
This is an important phase in the design. You should move and interact with learners,
the design issues might include:
considering their work and getting them to think about their designs.
• How big a wheel will a mouse need?
NB: You must collect learners’ working drawings and give learners feedback on it, before the
• What waste plastic object could be used to make the exercise wheel? learners start making their products in week 3.
• What frame will the wheel turn on? What will the frame be made of?
• How will the mouse get on and off the wheel?
Practise marking out, cutting and making holes (60 minutes)
• How can we make sure that the wheel turns smoothly on the frame?
In this section, learners practise working with plastics and tools in a safe, accurate and neat
way. You need to supervise this carefully to ensure the safety of the learners.
While learners try to identify these issues, you should move around the class discussing them
At the end of this lesson, learners must make a list of the materials that they need to make their
with individual learners.
design. If there are any materials that they do not yet have, their homework for the next week is
to collect those materials and bring them to school.
If they do not do that, they will not be able to complete their models in the next week.
330 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 21 MINI-PAT: REDUCE, RE-USE AND RECYCLE: WORKING WITH PLASTICS 331
LB page 255
Week 3 Reduce, re-use, recycle
In Grade 8 Term 4, you learnt that the environment is damaged when more and more things are
Make the product you designed (90 minutes) made and thrown away. You learnt that waste is formed in order to make new products, and
that the products themselves become waste when they are thrown away. You can reduce the
Learners are now at the stage where they begin to make the solutions to their design brief. By
negative impact of this practice on the environment in different ways:
this stage, they will already have gathered the materials they need.
Firstly, you can buy fewer things, which is called reducing your consumption.
You, however, should ensure that all the necessary tools are available.
Secondly, you can use some things over
Learners immediately start with making their designs at the beginning of this week.
and over, so that you don’t have to buy
You must make provision for the labelling and safe storage of learners’ work between lessons. new things. This is called re-using things.
You should expect learners’ designs to change throughout this stage. Making the product has You can also re-use something for a
the effect of showing the designer flaws that were not previously obvious. Learners must record different purpose than it was originally
their original designs as well as the changes to it, so that the teacher can see the progress/ made for. For example, many people use
improvement of the design. old hot-water tanks (geysers), or oil tanks
Help learners to structure their work so that they do not run out of time. Insist that the last to make “braai-skottels” in which they can
10 minutes are used to finish off and clean workspaces. By the end of the 90 minutes, all make fire and barbeque food outside.
learners must have completed the making of their designs. But what if something you own gets
Inform learners that their record of work for the previous three weeks (their design “portfolio”) broken or you don’t have any use for
must be handed in to you at the start of the next lesson. This includes their made product. You it anymore? Then you have to throw it Figure 2: A “braai-skottel” made from an oil
will assess their work in the way that is shown on the bottom of page 253. away. Fortunately, there is a clever way of tank cut through the middle
throwing things away, by separating the
different types of waste.
What have you learnt during this term? (30 minutes) For example, if you and your family collect all your plastic
Learners answer questions that force them to reflect on everything that they learnt about during You learnt in the previous
waste separately, then someone can take that plastic to a
chapter how plastic pellets are
this term. recycling factory where new plastic is made from the old
moulded into new shapes.
LB page 254 plastic. At a recycling factory, the old plastic is washed and
shredded into very small pieces.
It is then melted and “moulded” in the shape of “pellets”. The pellets can then be used as the
Figure 1: Improving raw material to make new plastic products.
your environment
by picking up and
sorting waste
332 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 21 MINI-PAT: REDUCE, RE-USE

CHAPTER 21AND RECYCLE:
MINI-PAT: WORKING
REDUCE, WITH
RE-USE RECYCLE: 333
ANDPLASTICS
WORKING WITH PLASTICS
Week 1 LB page 256
3. Look at the illustrations of household appliances below. The arrows point to
different parts of the appliances, and labels are given to describe the different
Plastics are easy to form into complicated shapes, do not corrode, have high parts of the appliances. Write down the parts that are made from plastic.
electrical resistance, are tough and can be made in many colours.
The parts made from plastic are labelled P in the drawing below.
Plastics in the classroom and at home (60 minutes)
1. Copy the table below. Look around you on your desk, at your clothes and in your
school bag. Make a list of all the things you can see that are made of plastic.
Also write down whether it is made of hard or soft plastic and thick or thin
plastic.
Plastic item Hard or soft Thick, thin, or woven

plastic bag soft thin
rucksack or briefcase soft woven
shoe sole hard thick
shirt soft woven
pencil box hard thick
2. The table below lists different things that you can see in a house. Copy the table
below and write “yes” or “no” next to each item to show whether it is made of
plastic or not.
floor tiles no
roof plates no
cushions yes
windows no
window frames no
paint yes
chair backs yes, except for wooden chairs
lights no
bottles for washing soap yes
sponges yes
the outside of a TV or radio yes, except if it has a metal cover
Figure 3: Different parts of typical household appliances
334 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4 CHAPTER 21 MINI-PAT: REDUCE, RE-USE AND RECYCLE: 335
4. A long time ago, cars were heavy because most of their parts were made of Different scenarios for reusing plastic bottles (30 minutes)
steel, cast iron and even wood. Nowadays, cars are much lighter, and therefore
they use less petrol to travel each kilometre. One way that was used to make On the following pages, you are shown photos of four scenarios in which new
cars lighter is to use more plastic when building them, instead of using metal. products were made from old plastic bottles.
Look at the illustrations of the inside and outside of a car below. The arrows Each of the products solves a certain problem. In other words, it satisfies or
point to different parts, and labels are given to describe these different parts. addresses a certain need. Answer the questions for each scenario about the
List all the parts that are made of plastic. problem or need. Then choose one of these scenarios for the product that you will
design and make.
The parts made from plastic are labelled P in the drawing below.
Scenario A
elow.
Figure 4: Different parts of a motor car
5. How can you test whether a material is plastic or metal?

Hints: Think about hardness, strength, magnetism, sound, heat and fire.
Try to press your fingernail into it: Most plastic
Safety warning:
is soft enough that you can leave a mark. Figure 5
Burning plastic can start a fire
Hit it with a pen: Metal makes a high sound, like and release poisonous gases. 1. What is the purpose of the product? [½]
Molten plastic can cause
a bell. The product is used to feed birds.
serious burn wounds.
Plastic bends more easily than metal of the same
2. How does this reduce the amount of work that somebody has to do? [½]
thickness.
It reduces the amount of work because someone does not need to put out
Many metals are magnetic no plastics are magnetic.
seeds for the birds every day.
Most plastic materials can melt or burn when exposed to heat and/or flames.
Metal will never burn, and it will only melt at very high temperatures.
Scenario B Scenario C
Figure 6 Figure 7
3. What is the purpose of the product? [½] 5. What is the purpose of the product? [½]
The product is used to store dry food such as rice so that it cannot get It traps flies so that there will be fewer flies around the house.
wet or be eaten by insects or other animals.
6. Can this product save you money or time? How? [½]
4. Can this product save you money? How? [½] Yes, you don’t have to buy poison to keep flies away, or you don’t have to
Yes, you don’t have to buy food containers. Your food won’t go bad. swat flies by hand.
Scenario D Design brief for the scenario that you chose (30 minutes)
Answer the following questions to identify the specifications and constraints for
the scenario that you chose.
1. Give a description of the product you are going to make. [1]
Learner’s own answer.
2. Answer the following questions to identify the specifications for your design:
(a) What is the purpose of your product? [½]
(b) Should your product keep some things inside (contain it) and keep other
things out? What should it keep in and what should it keep out? [½]
(c) Should your product be supported in some way to stay upright? How? [½]
3. Answer the following questions to identify the constraints of your design:

(a) Make a list of all the materials that you can easily find and use to make your
product. You will design your product so that you will only need to use these
materials to make it. [½]
(b) Make a list of all the tools that are available to you, and that you know how
to use, for working with the materials you have identified above. You will
design your product so that you will only need to use these tools to make it.
[½]
Figure 8
7. What is the purpose of these products? [½]
(c) Make a time schedule showing how much time you have available to design
It makes it possible to use less water to help plants grow. and make the product. You will design your product so that it is simple
enough that you can design and make it in the limited time available to you.
8. Can this product save you money or time? How? [½] [½]
Yes, you don’t have to water your plants every day, and you will pay less for water. Learner’s own answer.
[Total: 4]
[Total: 4]
LB page 261 Final orthographic drawing (30 minutes)
Week 2 Choose your final design from your rough sketches. Then draw your product to
scale using first angle orthographic projection. Show dimensions. [15]
Initial rough design sketches (30 minutes)
Make rough sketches of your design ideas for the Learners’ own design.
The word innovative comes
product that you want to make. You can make sketches
from the word “new”. An It is very hard to draw the shape of a plastic bottle accurately. Learners
for different ideas and later decide which one you are
innovative solution to a
going to make. can approximate the shape of a plastic bottle using rectangular and
problem is a solution that
Try to design and make a product that is slightly nobody else thought of before. triangular shapes with rounded corners. The dimensions of the plastic
different from the photos of the products on the
bottle should, however, be correct.
previous pages, to address the need. In other words,
try to make an innovative design. One or more of the views on the drawing should show the circular shape of
Show notes and labels on your sketches to help to explain your ideas. [10] the cross section of a bottle, and should also indicate the radius or
diameter.
Learners’ own ideas.
They should sketch at least two different design ideas.
They should use labels and notes to explain their sketches.
Practise marking out, cutting and making holes in plastic Week 3 LB page 263
(60 minutes)
Make the product you designed (90 minutes)
You need the following materials for this activity:
• two or more old plastic bottles that have been cleaned, You can make more sketches if you realise that you need to change some things
• a marker pen or “koki” pen, about your design. [25]
• nails of different sizes to make holes in the plastic,
• a strong pair of scissors to cut the plastic, What have you learnt during this term? (30 minutes)
• sandpaper, and
• sticky tape to join different plastic parts together. 1. What metal is used on the surface of a sheet of corrugated iron to protect it
from corrosion? [1]
First make sure that the plastic bottles are clean and that all the labels and glue
have been removed. zinc
This is how to cut a plastic bottle: 2. Give some examples of steel products that have been galvanised. [1]
First make a small hole with a thin nail where you want to start cutting. Hint: corrugated roof plates car bodies bolts steel beams for construction
It will be easier to make the hole if you keep the cap of the bottle on and tightly
secured, because then the bottle will not collapse as you press the nail in. 3. Painting and galvanising are both methods to stop steel from corroding; each
Then make the hole bigger by moving a thick nail around in the hole to make method coats the steel with another substance. What is the difference between
it bigger, as shown in the photo below. You can also use a cutting knife to make a the two methods? [4]
short cut where you can then put the blade of the scissors in.
Painting covers the steel with a layer that cannot be penetrated by air or water.
Safety warnings If there is a crack or scratch in the layer, the steel will corrode there.
A pair of scissors should not be used like a
alvanising also covers the steel in a protective layer, namely with zinc. But this
knife. If you do that, it can slip and you can
cut yourself. layer of zinc corrodes to form zinc carbonate. Once all the zinc has corroded to
Do not try to cut the thick, hard parts of the form zinc carbonate, the steel itself will start to corrode. Therefore, galvanising
bottle. If you do that, the scissors can slip
and you can cut yourself. only delays the time at which which the steel itself will start to corrode.
Fortunately, if the zinc layer gets scratched, zinc carbonate will form in the
scratch, so the steel will not immediately start to corrode as in the case of a
scratch in paint.
4. How would you protect a steel bridge from rusting? Which of the three
Figure 9: Making a hole in the bottle
processes that you have learnt about in this term do you think would be most
appropriate for this task and why? [2]
Once the hole is big enough to insert one
blade of the pair of scissors, start cutting I would first galvanise the steel of the bridge, and then paint over it.
with the scissors, as shown the photo on That way I would get the advantages of both painting and galvanising.
the right.
I would not use electroplating because it is more expensive.
Use sandpaper to make the sharp edges
of the hole in the bottle smooth so that it 5. Give two examples of food that is preserved by the process of drying. [1]
Figure 10: Cutting the bottle
can’t cut you.
grains flour dried fruit nuts biltong Make a record of the term’s work
Put all the written work and drawings that you did in this term in a file, neatly and
6. Why do manufacturers print a symbol like the one in the correct order. Your teacher will evaluate your file.
in Figure 11 on the bottom of plastic products? [1] Make sure your work pages contain headings to show for which chapters and
sections the work was done.
The symbol shows what type of plastic the
Your file should contain the following:
product is made of, so that plastic waste • answers to the questions about painting, galvanising and electroplating,
can be separated into the different types • your notes about what you observed when you electroplated a metal object,
of plastic, and then recycled separately. • answers to the questions about storing grain, pickling food and drying food to
Figure 11 preserve it,
7. Why do designers prefer to use plastics instead of steel for certain parts of • your notes about how you dried some food to preserve it,
cars? Give four reasons. [2] • your records of the kinds of plastic that the class collected and sorted by the
codes on the containers,
Plastics are lighter than steel, they cannot corrode, they are soft to touch,
• a systems diagram for recycling plastic and producing pellets for
they insulate against heat or cold, and they can cheaply be made into re-manufacture,
complicated shapes. • the investigation of plastics in a car – notes you made,
• the investigation of plastics in a house – notes you made,
[Total: 12] • your sketches and notes of ideas for a product to be made from old plastic
bottles, and
• your orthographic drawing of the product.
Also hand in the product that you designed and made by reusing old plastic
bottles. You teacher will give this back to you after evaluating it.

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TECHNOLOGY

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Geometry instruments: compass,

Pen, pencil, sharpener, eraser,

Materials to be sourced by learners

Push button switches

Light emitting diodes (LED's)

Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switches

Transistors Variable resistors

Orthographic drawing ruler

1.1 About orthographic drawings

1.1 About orthographic drawings ................................................................................ 5

2 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 3

isometric sketch The word orthographic

Look at this picture. Who sees it – Vusi, Geoff or Sarah?

Figure 5 shading and colour

Who sees this? Vusi

Figure 3 And who sees this? Sarah

4 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 5

This is called the top view.

6 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 7

Figure 17: Side view of the staircase with measurements

8 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 9

Figure 19: Final drawings

10 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 11

Make sure that the learners’ drawings show the

make various drawings of a staircase and wheelchair ramp.

The following types of lines are used in the above drawing:

12 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 1: ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING 13

2.3 The plan in orthographic drawings

2.1 Stairs and a ramp

14 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 15

Visualise the combined staircase and ramp LB p. 16

Check the learners’ sketches. Make sure they have followed

Homework: Make an isometric drawing of a cube LB p. 17

An isometric drawing of the wheelchair ramp LB p. 18

1. Make a sketch of the wheelchair ramp that looks

• the width of the ramp, and

18 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 19

Sketch the staircase LB p. 19

Make a sketch of the staircase on isometric grid paper.

20 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 21

Make orthographic drawings of your design LB p. 20

Figure 6: Is this design correct according to the specifications on page 16?

22 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 23

The illustration below is the accurate orthographic drawing according to the

24 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 2: PROVIDE FOR WHEELCHAIRS 25

Some suggestions for additional explanations are given below.

Figure 1: This bridge cannot withstand the forces acting on it.

Materials needed for this chapter:

Key concepts in this chapter:

26 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURES, FORCES AND MATERIALS 27

3.2 Forces act in different ways

3.3 Different materials for different purposes

28 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURES, FORCES AND MATERIALS 29

The weight of the boy in Figure 4 presses down on

As long as a person sits still on a chair, the force on

When a moving object exerts a force on another

30 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 1 CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURES, FORCES AND MATERIALS 31