GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World

Module 4
Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
1.2 The Language of Mathematics
Elementary Logic
Overview
One area of mathematics that has its roots deep in philosophy is the study
of logic. Logic is the study of formal reasoning based upon statements or propositions.
(Price, Rath, Leschensky, 1992). Logic evolved out of a need to fully understand the
details associated with the study of mathematics. For lawyers and judges, logic is the
study of correct reasoning. They often use logic to communicate more effectively,
construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make decisions.
The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the general forms of logical
reasoning applicable to real-life arguments.
The lessons of this module will focus on the concepts, principles, and methods
to obtain good and reliable arguments. The topics included will further the develop the
students their own reasoning and proving skills.
Learning Outcomes
After working on this module, you will be able to:
1. describe the nature of logic;
2. illustrate statements;
3. distinguish simple statements from compound statements;
4. use logical connectives to translate compound statements to symbol and
vice versa
5. performs operations statements;
6. determine the truth value of a statement;
7. form the different forms of conditional statements;
8. illustrate different types of tautology;
9. determine the validity of arguments; and
10. use Euler diagram to determine the validity of arguments.

Historical Note:

One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely
philosophical subject to a formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely achieved this goal;
however, several mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871) and George Boole
(1815–1864), contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline. Boole
published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848. In 1854 he published the more extensive
work, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. Concerning this document, the mathematician
Bertrand Russell stated, “Pure mathematics was discovered by Boole in a work which is called The
Laws of Thought.”

Logical Statements

Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and
commands. For instance,

“Is the test today?” is a question.

“Go get the newspaper.” is a command.
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Module 4
Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
“This is a nice car.” is an opinion.
“Catarman is the capital of Northern Samar.” is a statement of fact.

The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences
that are statements as defined below.

1 Statement
Definition

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and
false.

1 Determine whether each sentence is a statement or not.

a. Samar is a province in Region VIII.
Example

b. How are you?

c. c. x + 2 = 7
Solution
a. Samar is one of the 6 provinces in Region VIII, so this sentence is true and is a
statement.
b. The question “How are you?” is a question and is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it
is not a statement.
c. x + 1= 7 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 6, and
it is false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not
both true and false.

2 Simple and Compound Statements

Definition

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is

a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

The following are examples of simple and compound statements:

Simple Statements
a. Corazon Aquino is the first female president of the Philippines.
b. Some houses are made of bricks.
c. Most young people are addicted to Facebook.
d. Some students are attending the workshop.
Compound Statements
a. If square has four sides, then it is quadrilateral.
b. Either a person will eat pizza or pasta.
c. A politician cannot be a Congressman and a senator at the same time.
d. Jun is a laborer if and only if he works in a factory.

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Module 4
Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
Compound statements are combinations of simple statements connected by some choice of
words like “not”, “and”, “or”, “if-then”, and “if and only if”. These connectors are called logical
connectives and are denoted as follows:

Logic Connectives and Symbols

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement
not p not ~𝑝 negation
p and q and, also, but moreover 𝑝⋀𝑞 conjunction
p or q either/or, unless 𝑝⋁𝑞 disjunction
If p, then q If …, then 𝑝 → 𝑞 conditional
p if and only if q if and only if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 biconditional

2 Consider the following example of statements and their corresponding symbols.

1. if 𝑝 stands for “I study” and 𝑞 stands for “I get good grades”, then
Example

Statement in Symbolic Form

I do not study. ~𝑝
I study and I get good grades. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
I study or I get good grades. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
If I study, then I get good grades. 𝑝 → 𝑞
I study if and only if I get good grades. 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞

2. 𝑝: Maria is the CEO.

𝑞: John is the CEO.
Statement in Symbolic Form
Maria is not the CEO but John is. ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
Not both Maria and John are the CEO. ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
Both Maria and John are not the CEO. ~𝑝 ∧ ~ 𝑞
Neither Maria nor John is the CEO. ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
Either Maria is not the CEO or John is not the CEO. ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞

3 Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

Consider the following simple statements.
Example

p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.

b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball.
Solution
a. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 b. ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟 c. ~𝑠 ∨ 𝑟 d. 𝑞 → 𝑠

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 66 Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines
Answers to Self-Assessment Activity 1
A.
1. NS, 2. S, 3. S, 4. S, 5. NS
B.
1. Let 𝑝: The integer 6 is a prime number. In symbols, ~𝒑
2. Let 𝑝: An actor is a TV personality. Let 𝑞: An actor is a movie personality. In symbols, ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.
3. Let 𝑝: Jane is a good teacher. Let 𝑞: She comes from Samar. In symbols, 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒.
4. Let 𝑝: I will go to Tacloban. Let 𝑞: I will spend my savings. In symbols, 𝒑 → 𝒒.
5. Let 𝑝: Boracay is a world-famous beach. Let 𝑞: It is a tourist destination. In symbols, 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒.
C.
1. I will go to movies and ride a bicycle.
2. I will spend my money or ride a bicycle.
3. If I will eat my favorite food, then I will spend my money.
4. I will not eat my favorite food if and only if I will go to movies.
5. I will go to movies and I will not spend my money.
6. If I will not eat my favorite food, then I will not ride a bicycle.
7. If I will not go to movies, then I will not eat my favorite food.
8. I will eat my favorite food if and only if I will not go to movies.
9. It is not the case that if I will not go to movies, then I will not eat my favorite food.
10. I will not ride a bicycle and I won’t go to movies, or will eat my favorite food.
(~𝑠 ⋀ ~𝑝) ⋁ 𝑟 10. 𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞 5.
~(~𝑝 → ~𝑟) 9. ~𝑟 ↔ 𝑝 4.
𝑟 ↔ ~𝑝 8. 𝑟 → 𝑞 3.
~𝑝 → ~𝑟 7. 𝑞⋁𝑠 2.
~𝑟 → ~𝑠 6. 𝑝⋀𝑠 1.
𝑟: I will eat my favorite food 𝑠: I will ride a bicycle.
Let 𝑝: I will go to movies. 𝑞: I will spend my money.
C. Translate the following propositions in symbols into statements.
5. Boracay is a world-famous beach if and only if it is a tourist destination.
4. If I will go to Tacloban, then I will spend my savings.
3. Jane is a good teacher and she comes from Samar.
2. An actor is not a TV personality or a movie personality.
1. The integer 6 is not a prime number.
B. Translate the following statements to symbols. Use any letter to represent each statement.
5. What are you cooking?
4. Jose Rizal is our national hero.
3. I do not know how to read.
2. Diane is a good dancer.
1. Please follow the minimum health protocols.
otherwise, write NS.
A. Determine whether each sentence is a statement or not. Write S if the sentence is a statement
Self-Assessment Activity 1
Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics Author: Olga DG Unay
GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
4 Module
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 4
Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Operations on Statements
In reasoning, it is necessary to take into account the role of truth values in logic.

2 Truth Value and Truth Table

Definition

A truth value of a statement is true (T) if it is a true statement and false (F) if it is a false
statement.

A truth table shows the relationship between the truth values of statements. This is a vital
tool in determining truth values of statements formed from simple statements.

1. Negation

The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the statement “Today is not Friday.”

In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol ~ is used to denote the negation of a statement. If a
statement p is true, its negation ~p is false, and if a statement p is false, its negation ~p is true.
The negation of the negation of a statement is the original statement.

The truth table for ~𝑝 is:

𝑝 ~𝒑
T F
F T

2. Conjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are statement variables, then the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is “𝑝 and 𝑞” denoted by
𝑝 ∧ 𝑞. The compound statement 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true when both p and 𝑞 are true; otherwise, it is false.

The truth table for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is shown below:

𝑝 𝑞 𝒑∧ 𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
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Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
4 Answer the following:
4
Let 𝑝: 2 = 3 and 𝑞: 3 is a prime number.
Example

Determine the truth value of the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Solution
Since 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true the conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is false. In symbols:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
F T F

3. Disjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are statement variables, then the disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is “𝑝 or 𝑞” denoted by 𝑝 ∨

𝑞. The compound statement 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true if at least one of 𝑝 or 𝑞 is true; it is false only when both
𝑝 and 𝑞 are false.

The truth table for 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is shown below:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

5 Answer the following:

Let 𝑝: 5 is even and 𝑞: 200 is divisible by 2.
Example

Determine the truth value of the disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Solution
Since 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true the disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞is true. In symbols:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
F T T

4. Conditional Statement (Implication)

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are statement variables, then the statement “if 𝑝 then 𝑞” or “𝑝 implies 𝑞” denoted
by 𝑝 → 𝑞, is called conditional statement or implication. The statement 𝑝 is called the hypotheses
and the statement 𝑞 is called the conclusion. A conditional statement is false when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is
false; otherwise, it is true.

The truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞 is shown below:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 4
Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
6 Answer the following:
Let 𝑝: √4 = 2 and 𝑞: 1 is a prime number.
Example

Determine the truth value of the conditional statement of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Solution
Since 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false the conditional statement 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. In symbols:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞
T F F

 Forms of Conditional Statements

A conditional statement has three other conditionals associated with it. They are called the
converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional statements.

3 Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive of the Statement 𝒑 → 𝒒

Let p and q be statement variables.
Definition

1. The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝒒 → 𝒑. To get the converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞, interchange the

hypothesis and the conclusion.

2. The inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝒑 → ~𝒒. To get the inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞, negate the

hypothesis and the conclusion.

3. The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝒒 → ~𝒑. To get the contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞,

negate and interchange the hypothesis and the conclusion.

7 Answer the following:

Let 𝑝 → 𝑞: If the triangle is isosceles, then the base angles are congruent.
Example

Find the converse, inverse and contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 .

Solution
From the conditional statement “If the triangle is isosceles, then the base angles are
congruent.”, we let 𝑝: The triangle is isosceles. and 𝑞: The base angles are congruent.

1. Converse:
𝑞 → 𝑝: If the base angles are congruent, then the triangle is isosceles.
2. Inverse:
~𝑝 → ~𝑞: If the triangle is not isosceles, then the base angles are not
congruent.
3. Contrapositive:
~q → ~p: If the base angles are not congruent, then the triangle is not isosceles.

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Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
5. Biconditional Statement (Bi-implication)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be statement variables. The statement form (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ( 𝑞 → 𝑝) is called the

biconditional of 𝑝 and 𝑞. This is read as “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞” and is denoted by 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞. A biconditional
statement is true if both 𝑝 and 𝑞 have the same truth values, and false if 𝑝 and 𝑞 have opposite truth
values.

The truth table for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is shown below:

Truth Table for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞

p q 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

8 Answer the following:

Let 𝑝: 3 ∙ 5 = 12 and 𝑞: One meter is equivalent to 100 centimeters.
Example

Find truth value of the biconditional statement 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞.

Solution
Since 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true the biconditional 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is false. In symbols:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ↔𝑞
F T F

9 Determine whether each statement is true or false.

1. 7 ≥ 5.
Example

2. 7 is a whole number and 7 is an even number.

4. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution
1. 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Since 7 > 5 is true, the statement 7 ≥ 5 is a true statement.
2. This is a false statement because 7 is not an even number.
3. This a true statement because each simple statement is true.

Truth Tables, Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

Let us examine the following statements and determine the truth value of each:

1. Either it will rain tomorrow or it will not rain.

2. She is strong or she is not strong.
3. Either I lose or win in this election.

It can be concluded that all given statements are always true. These statements are examples
of tautology statements. Let us see the following definitions:

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Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
4 Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency
1. A tautology is a statement that is always true.
Definition

2. A contradiction is a statement that is always false.

3. A contingency is a statement that is neither tautology nor contradiction.

How to Construct a Truth Table

The following are the steps in constructing a truth table:

1. If the given statement has 𝑛 simple statements, then start with a standard form that has
2𝑛 rows. Enter the truth values for each simple statement and their negations.
2. Use the truth values for each simple statement and their negations to enter the truth values
under each connective within a pair of groupings symbols, including parentheses ( ),
brackets [ ], and braces { }. If some grouping symbols are nested inside other grouping
symbols, then work from the inside out. In any situation in which grouping symbols have not
been used, then we use the following order of precedence agreement: First assign truth
values to negation from left to right, followed by conjunctions from left to right, followed by
disjunctions from left to right, followed by conditionals from left to right, and finally by
biconditionals from left to right.
3. The truth values that are entered into the column under the connective for which truth
values are assigned last, form the truth table for the given statement.

The following example shows the step-by-step process of constructing a truth table.

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Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
10
Construct a truth table for 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)]
Example

Solution:
Step 1: The given statement 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)] has the two simple statements 𝑝 and 𝑞. Thus,
we start with a standard form that has 22 = 4 rows. In each column, enter the truth values
for the statements p and ∼q, as shown in the columns numbered 1, 2, and 3 of the
following table.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ [ ∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)]
T T T T F Row 1
T F T T T Row 2
F T F F F Row 3
F F F F T Row 4
1 2 3

Step 2: Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values to enter under
the “and” connective. See column 4 in the following truth table. Now negate the truth
values in the column numbered 4 to produce the truth values in the column numbered
5.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ [ ∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)]
T T T T T F F
T F T F T T T
F T F T F F F
F F F T F F T
1 5 2 4 3

Step 3: Use the truth values in the columns numbers 1 and 5 to determine the truth values to
enter under the “or” connective. See the column numbered 6, which is the truth table for
𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)].
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ [ ∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)]
T T T T T T F F
T F T T F T T T
F T F T T F F F
F F F T T F F T
1 6 5 2 4 3

As shown in the column 6, the truth values are all T. Thus, 𝑝 ∨ [∼ (𝑝 ∧ ∼ 𝑞)] is a tautology.

The next examples show alternative procedures in constructing truth tables.

Note: Students may choose any procedure that is easier or more convenient for them to use.

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Author: Olga DG Unay Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
11 a. Construct a truth table for ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑟
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑟, given
that 𝑞 is true and 𝑞 is false.
Solution:
Example

a. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a ∼ 𝑞 column.

𝑞 𝑟 ∼𝑞
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T

Now use the truth values from the ∼ 𝑞 and 𝑟 columns to produce the truth values
for ∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 as shown in the rightmost column of the following table.

𝑞 𝑟 ∼𝑞 ∼𝑞 ∨ 𝑟
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Negate the truth values in the ∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 column to produce the following.
𝑞 𝑟 ∼ 𝑞 ∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

As our last step, we form the disjunction of ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) with 𝑞 and place the
results in the rightmost column of the table. See the following table. The shaded
column is the truth table for ∼ (∼ 𝒒 ∨ 𝒓) ∨ 𝒒.

𝑞 𝑟 ∼𝑞 ∼𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑞
T T F T F T Row 1
T F F F T T Row 2
F T T T F T Row 3
F F T T F F Row 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when 𝑝 is true, and 𝑞 is false, the
statement ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑟 in the rightmost column is true.

The last column shows that ∼ (∼ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝑟 is a contingency.

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12 a. Construct a truth table for (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞).
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞),
given that 𝑝 is true, 𝑞 is true, and 𝑟 is false.
Solution:
Example

a. Using the procedures developed in Example 10, we can produce the following table.
The shaded column is the truth table for (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞). The numbers in the
squares below the columns denote the order in which the columns were
constructed. Each truth value in the column numbered 4 is the conjunction of the
truth values to its left in the columns numbered 1 and 3.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∼𝑟 ∼𝑟 ∨𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞)
T T T T F T T Row 1
T T F T T T T Row 2
T F T F F F F Row 3
T F F F T T F Row 4
F T T F F T F Row 5
F T F F T T F Row 6
F F T F F F F Row 7
F F F F T T F Row 8
1 2 3 4

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (∼ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞)is true when 𝑝 is
true, 𝑞 is true, and 𝑟 is false.

13 a. Construct a truth table for (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟).

b. Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value of
(∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟), given that 𝑝 is false, 𝑞 is true, and 𝑟 is false.
Solution:
Example

a.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 ∼ 𝑝 ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∼ 𝑟 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟 (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) 𝑣 (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟)
T T T F F F F F Row 1
T T F F F T T T Row 2
T F T F F F F F Row 3
T F F F F T F F Row 4
F T T T T F F T Row 5
F T F T T T T T Row 6
F F T T F F F F Row 7
F F F T F T F F Row 8
b. In row 6 of the above truth table, we see that (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟) is true when 𝑝
is false, 𝑞 is true, and 𝑟 is false.

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14 Answer the following:

Let 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 be statements variables.
Example

1. Show that the statement form ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 is a tautology.

2. Show that the statement form ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 is a contradiction.
3. Construct a truth table for the statement (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ~𝑟. Determine if it is a contingency or not.
Solution

1. Truth table for ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑝:

𝑝 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑝
T F T
F T T

2. Truth table for ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑝:

𝑝 ~𝑝 ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑝
T F F
F T F

3. Truth Table for (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑟

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 ~𝑟 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑟
T T T F T T
T T F T T T
T F T F F F
T F F T F T
F T T F F F
F T F T F T
F F T F F F
F F F T F T

The statement (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑟 is a contingency because it is neither tautology nor

contradiction.

Equivalent Statements

Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in the final
columns of their truth tables. The notation p ≡ q is used to indicate that the statements p and q are
equivalent.

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15 Verify that the two statements are equivalent.
Show that ~ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements.
Example

Solution:
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth tables below show that
~( 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 have the same truth values for all possible truth values of their
simple statements. Thus, the statements are equivalent.

𝑝 𝑞 ~ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) 𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

T T F T T F

T F F T F F

F T T F T T

F F F F F F

Identical truth values. Thus ~ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

The truth table in Example 15 shows that ~ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements. These
equivalences are known as De Morgan’s laws for statements.

DE MORGAN’S LAW FOR STATEMENT:

For any statement 𝑝 and 𝑞.

~ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) = ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

~ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) = ~ 𝑝 ∨ ~ 𝑞

De Morgan’s laws can be used to restate certain English sentences in an equivalent

Form.

16
Use one of De Morgan’s laws to restate the following sentence in an equivalent form:
Example

It is not true that I graduated or I got a job.

Solution:
Let 𝑝: I graduated.
𝑞: I got a job.
In symbolic form, the original sentence is ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞). One of De Morgan’s laws
states that this is equivalent to ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞.
Thus, a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is “I did not graduate
and I did not get a job.”

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17
Show that the following are logically equivalent: ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) and ∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟.
Example

Solution:
Table A.

𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ∼ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∼𝑞 ∼𝑟 ∼𝑞 ∧∼𝑟
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T

The shaded columns showed that the ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) and ∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟 have the same truth
values. Then, we say that ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) and ∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟 are logically equivalent.

To verify our claim, let us determine the truth values of the biconditional statement:
∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ↔ (∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟)

Table B.
𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ∼ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ∼𝑞 ∼𝑟 ∼𝑞 ∧∼𝑟 ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ↔ (∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟)
T T T F F F F T
T F T F F T F T
F T T F T F F T
F F F T T T T T

Let A and B be statements. A and B are said to be logically equivalent statements if A

↔ B is a tautology.

In this example, statements ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) and ∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟 are logically equivalent

statements since ∼ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ↔ (∼ 𝑞 ∧ ∼ 𝑟) is a tautology as shown in Table B

Quantifiers and Negations

Consider the following statements:

(1) Some people are sharing false information in social media.

(2) All social media influencers are allowed to share their own experiences and opinions.

The terms “some” and “all” in statements (1) and (2), respectively, are examples of
quantifiers. The word “some” and the phrases “there exists” and “at least one” are called existential
quantifiers and are used to assert the existence of something.

The words, “all”, “every”, “no”, and “none” are called universal quantifiers. The quantifiers
“all” and “every” are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies a condition. Whereas,
“no” and “none” are used to deny or reject the existence of something.
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The following tables illustrates the negation of some quantified statements.

Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.

18 Write the negation of the following statements:

1.) Some borders are open.
Example

2.) All students are required to attend the virtual conference.

3.) No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Solution:
1.) No borders are open.
2.) Some students are not required to attend the virtual conference.
3.) Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.

Arguments

In this section we consider methods of analyzing arguments to determine whether they are
valid or invalid. For instance, consider the following argument.

If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal. Aristotle was human.
Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.

To determine whether the above argument is a valid argument, we must first define the
terms argument and valid argument.

5 Argument and Valid Argument

An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement called
Definition

the conclusion. An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises
are assumed to be true. An argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.

In the argument about Aristotle, the two premises and the conclusion are shown below.

It is customary to place a horizontal line between the premises and the conclusion.

First Premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.

Second Premise: Aristotle was human.________________________________
Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.

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Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance, if we let h represent the
statement “Aristotle was human” and m represent the statement “Aristotle was mortal,” then the
argument can be expressed as
h →m
h_______
∴m
The three dots ∴ are a symbol for “therefore.”

19 Write an argument in symbolic form:

1. The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore, I will order it.
Example

Let f represent the statement “The fish is fresh.”

Let g represent the statement “I will order it.”

The symbolic form of the argument is:

𝑓 ∨ ~𝑔
𝑓________
∴ 𝑔

2. If she doesn’t get on the plane, then she will regret it. She does not regret it. Therefore,
she got on the plane.

Let 𝑚 represent the statement “She got on the plane.”

Let 𝑛 represent the statement “She will regret it.”

The symbolic form of the argument is:

~𝑚 → 𝑛
~𝑛________
∴ 𝑚

Some Valid Argument Forms

1) Modus ponens (The Latin meaning of modus ponens is “method of affirming”)

𝑝 → 𝑞 (premise 1)
𝑝________ (premise 2)
∴ 𝑞 (conclusion)

Example. Let:
𝑝: There are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes.
𝑞: At least two pigeons roost in the same holes

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If there are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes, then at least two pigeons roost
in the same holes.
There are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes.
Therefore, at least two pigeons roost in the same hole.

2) Modus tollens (The Latin meaning of modus ponens is “method of denying”)

𝑝 → 𝑞
~𝑞________
∴ ~𝑝

Example. Let:
𝑝: There are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes.
𝑞: At least two pigeons roost in the same hole.

If there are more pigeons than there are pigeonholes, then at least two pigeons roost in
the same hole.
At most one pigeon roost in the hole
Therefore, there are more pigeonholes than there are pigeons.

(or, Therefore, pigeonholes and pigeon are of the same number.)

3) Disjunctive syllogism
a) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
~𝑝________ ~𝑞________
∴𝑞 ∴𝑝

Example:
a.) Let 𝑝: Gina is going to study law.
𝑞: Gina is going to study medicine.

Gina is going to study law or medicine.

She does not study law.
Therefore, she studies medicine.

b.) Let 𝑝: The cake has chocolate frosting.

𝑞: The cake has vanilla frosting.
The cake has either chocolate or vanilla frosting.
The cake does not have vanilla frosting.
Therefore, the cake has chocolate frosting.

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4) Hypothetical syllogism
𝑝 → 𝑞
𝑞 → 𝑟________
∴𝑝 → 𝑟

Example. Let:
𝑝: 18,436 is divisible by 18
𝑞: 18,436 is divisible by 9
𝑟: The sum of the digits of 18,436 is divisible by 9.

If 18,436 is divisible by 18, then 18,436 is divisible by 9

If 18,436 is divisible by 9, then the sum of the digits of 18,436 is divisible by 9.
Therefore, if 18,436 is divisible by 18, then the sum of the digits of 18,436 is
divisible by 9.

5) Dilemma
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
𝑝 → 𝑟
𝑞 → 𝑟________
∴ 𝑟

Example. Let
𝑝: 𝑥 is positive
𝑞: 𝑥 is negative
𝑟: 𝑥 2 > 0
𝑥 is positive or 𝑥 is negative
If 𝑥 is positive then 𝑥 2 > 0.
If 𝑥 is negative then 𝑥 2 > 0.
Therefore, 𝑥 2 > 0.

Arguments and Euler Diagram

Many arguments involve sets whose elements are described using the quantifiers all, some,
and none. The mathematician Leonhard Euler used diagrams to determine whether arguments that
involved quantifiers were valid or invalid. The following figures show Euler diagrams that illustrate
the four possible relationships that can exist between two sets.

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Euler diagrams

Euler used diagrams to illustrate logic concepts. Some 100 years later, John Venn extended
the use of Euler’s diagrams to illustrate many types of mathematics. In this section, we will construct
diagrams to determine the validity of arguments. We will refer to these diagrams as Euler diagrams.

20 Use Euler diagram to determine the validity of an argument:

Example

All college courses are fun.

This course is a college course.
∴This course is fun.

The first premise indicates that the set of college courses is a subset of the set of fun
courses. We illustrate this subset relationship with an Euler diagram, as shown in Figure 1.
The second premise tells us that “this course” is an element of the set of college courses. If
we use c to represent “this course,” then c must be placed inside the set of college courses,
as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 2 illustrates that c must also be an element of the set of fun courses. Thus the
argument is valid.

21 Use Euler diagram to determine the validity of an argument:

Example

No pediatrician can juggle.

All clowns can juggle.
∴No pediatrician is a clown.

The Euler diagram in Figure 3 shows that the set of pediatricians and the set of
jugglers are disjoint sets. Figure 4 shows that because the set of clowns is a subset of the set
of jugglers, no pediatrician p are elements of the set of clowns. Thus, the argument is valid.
pediatricians pediatricians

Figure 3 Figure 4

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Self-Assessment Activity 2
A. Write the negation of the following statements:

1, February is the second month of the year.

2. Aristotle is known as the “Father of Logic”.
3. (5 + 6) < 8.
4. All bears are brown.
5. No smartphone are expensive.

B. Form the conjunction, disjunction, conditional and biconditional statements of 𝑝 and 𝑞 for the
following statements. Then determine the truth value of each result.

1. p: There are two seasons in the Philippines.

q: There is no winter season in the Philippines.

2. p: 2 is a prime number.
q: √2 is a rational number.

C. Construct a truth table then determine whether the statement is a tautology, contradiction,
contingency or equivalent.

1. (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟

D. Use one of De Morgan’s laws to write the following in an

equivalent form.

Elle did not eat breakfast and she did not take a lunch break

E. Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

1. Some plants have flowers.

All things that have flowers are beautiful.
∴ Some plants are beautiful.

2. No mathematics test is fun.

All fun things are worth your time
∴ No mathematics test is worth your time.

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Answers to Self-Assessment Activity 2

A.
1. February is not the second month of the year.
2. Aristotle is not known as the “Father of Logic”.
It is false that Aristotle is known as the “Father of Logic”.
It is not true that Aristotle is known as the “Father of Logic”.
3. (5 + 6) ≥ 8
(5 + 6) ≮ 8
4. Some bears are not brown.
5. Some smartphones are expensive.
B.
1. Statement 𝑝 is a TRUE statement since there are two seasons in the Philippines, namely, rainy season and dry
season. Statement 𝑞 is also TRUE since there is no winter season in the Philippines.

Conjunction: There are two seasons in the Philippines and there is no winter season. - True
Disjunction: There are two seasons in the Philippines or there is no winter season. - True
Conditional: If there are two seasons in the Philippines, then there is no winter season. -True
Biconditonal: There are two seasons in the Philippines if and only if there is no winter season. – True

2. Statement 𝑝 is a TRUE statement since 2 has exactly two positive divisors, 1 and itself (2). Statement 𝑞 is a
FALSE statement since √2 cannot be expressed as a quotient of two integers. √2 is an example of an
irrational number.

Conjunction: 2 is a prime number and √2 is a rational number. - False

Disjunction: 2 is a prime number or √2 is a rational number. - True
Conditional: If 2 is a prime number then √2 is a rational number. -False
Biconditonal: 2 is a prime number if and only if √2 is a rational number. - False
C.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 ~𝑝 ~𝑝˄𝑞 (~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
T T T F F T
T T F F F F
T F T F F T
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F T F T T T
F F T T F T
F F F T F F
(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 is a contingency.

D. 1. The argument is valid. 2. The argument is invalid

Using the premises, there are two possible diagrams:

From the rightmost diagram, we can determine that the

argument is invalid.

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Summary
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both true and false.
A simple statement conveys a single idea, whereas, a compound statement conveys two or more
ideas. Compound statements are formed by joining two or more simple statements with the use of
connectives such as “and”, “or”, “if, then”, and “if and only if”. The following table shows logical
connectives and their corresponding symbols:

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement

not p not ~𝑝 negation
p and q and, also, but moreover 𝑝⋀𝑞 conjunction
p or q either/or, unless 𝑝⋁𝑞 disjunction
If p, then q If …, then 𝑝 → 𝑞 conditional
p if and only if q if and only if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 biconditional

There are statements that are related to a conditional statement 𝑝 → 𝑞. These are:
(i) converse (𝑞 → 𝑝), (ii) inverse (~𝑝 → ~𝑞), and (iii) contrapositive (~𝑞 → ~𝑝).
The following table illustrates the rules in determining the truth values of statements.
These rules are essential in constructing truth tables.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝˄𝑞 𝑝˅𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

By constructing truth tables, we can determine if a statement is a tautology (always true),

a contradiction (always false), or a contingency (neither a tautology nor a contradiction) for
whatever truth values of the statement variables. Two statements are said to be logically equivalent
if they have identical truth values. Moreover, if the biconditional of these statements is a tautology,
then the statements are logically equivalent.

In mathematics, quantified statements are often use to state theorems and other
mathematical concepts. The word “some” and the phrases “there exists”, and “at least one” are
called existential quantifiers and are used to assert the existence of something. The words, “all”,
“every”, “no”, and “none” are called universal quantifiers. The quantifiers “all” and “every” are used
to assert that every element of a given set satisfies a condition. Whereas, “no” and “none” are used
to deny or reject the existence of something.

The following tables illustrates the negation of some quantified statements.

Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.

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An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement called
the conclusion. An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed
to be true. An argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.
Here are some valid arguments:

1) Modus ponens
𝑝 → 𝑞
𝑝________
∴ 𝑞
2) Modus tollens
𝑝 → 𝑞
~𝑞________
∴ ~𝑝
3) Disjunctive syllogism
b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
~𝑝________ ~𝑞________
∴𝑞 ∴𝑝
4) Hypothetical syllogism
𝑝 → 𝑞
𝑞 → 𝑟________
∴𝑝 → 𝑟

5) Dilemma
𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
𝑝 → 𝑟
𝑞 → 𝑟________
∴ 𝑟
Euler diagrams are also used to determine the validity of arguments. These diagrams
represent statements the way Venn diagrams represent sets. The following figures show the Euler
diagrams that illustrates the four possible relationships that can exists between two sets.

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Responses To Consider

Intuitively,logic is the discipline that considers correct reasoning. It provides rules in

determining the validity of argument. Logic is very important in understanding mathematical
concepts and principles, and in proving theorems. Moreover, logic is useful in everyday life.
We use logic to show or prove different points. Thus, logic is both essential in studying the
language of mathematics and in our daily living.

As you go along this module, what lesson/s did you feel the most difficult for you? Try to list
them down and give time to consult your teacher for further discussion.

References
Alferez, M. S., et.al. (2010). Statistics and Probability. Revised Edition. Manila: MSA
Publishing House
Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., et.al, Mathematics in the Modern World, Rex Bookstore, Inc.,
2018.
Flores, Maricar; Gagani, Ray Ferdinand M. & Ypanto, Quennie C. Worktext in General
Gonzales, J.O. , et.al. (2015). Essential Statistics. Manila: MaxCor Publishing House, Inc.
Nocon, R., Nocon, E., Essential Mathematics for the Modern World, C & E Publishing, Inc.
2018.
Mathematics(2016). C & E Publishing Company.

Other Materials
http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/Topics/logic.html
Suggested Readings
Malik, D.S. & Sen, M. K., Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications, Cengage Learning,
2010. (pages 31- 52)

Note To Students
Deadline of submission of Worksheet and Reflection Paper to the Municipal Link:
JANUARY 22, 2021

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Note to the Municipal Link: WORKSHEET 4

1. The worksheet and reflection should
be forwarded to: 1.2 Elementary Logic
MARY JANE B. CALPA
Chair, Department of Mathematics To the Students:
College of Science, 1. Fill out the “Student’s Information” completely.
University of Eastern Philippines 2. Write all your solutions/answers on the space
Catarman, Northern Samar provided for each item.
3. Write legibly. Use blue- or black-ink ball pen only.
2. Please check the date of submission 4. Submit on or before the indicated deadline.
indicated on the student’s information
below. 5. For queries, please contact your respective GE 1
Thank you. instructor/professor.

Student’s Information:
Student Number: Last Name, First Name M.I.: Course – Year:

Class ID Number: Professor/Instructor’s Name: Date of Submission:

I. Determine whether each of the following sentences is a statement or not.

1. Legazpi is the capital of Albay.

2. x + 3 = 15

3. Answer this question.

4. x + y > 10

5. Come to class!

II. Provide the negation of each of the following propositions.

1. Today is Tuesday.

2. There is no pollution in Manila.

3. 3 + 5 = 7

III. Let p and q be the propositions:

p: I buy a lotto ticket today.
q: I win the 135 – million pesos jackpot on Saturday.
Express each of the following propositions as an English sentence.
1. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

2. ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞)

3. 𝑝 → 𝑞

4. 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞

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IV. Let p and q be the propositions:
p: It is very cold.
q: It is raining.
Write the following propositions using p, q and logical connectives.
1. It is very cold and raining.

2. It is very cold but not raining.

3. If it is very cold, it is also raining.

4. It is either very cold or it is raining, but it is not raining if it is very cold.

V. State the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following propositions.

1. Faye will attend the party only if Joyce will accompany her.
Converse: _________________________________________________.
Inverse : _________________________________________________.
Contrapositive : ____________________________________________.

VI. Use the indicated letters to write each argument in symbolic form.
1.) If you can read this bumper sticker (𝑟), you’re too close (𝑐). You can read the bumper
sticker. Therefore, you’re too close.

2.) If Lois Lane marries Clark Kent (m), then Superman will get a new uniform (u).
Superman does not get new uniform. Therefore, Lois Lane did not marry Clark Kent.

VII. Use Euler Diagram to determine whether the argument is valid or invalid. Justify your
answer.
a.) Some birds bite.
All things that bite are dangerous.
∴ Some birds are dangerous.

b.) All grass is green.

That ground cover is not green.
∴ That ground cover is not grass.

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