1

HISTORY OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY water because he thought evaporation and

condensation to be universal processes. Anaximander,
Western Philosophy (Greek philosophia, “love of a disciple of Thales, maintained that the first
wisdom”), the rational and critical inquiry into basic principle from which all things evolve is an
principles. Philosophy is often divided into four main intangible, invisible, infinite substance that he
branches: metaphysics, the investigation of ultimate called apeiron, “the boundless.” This substance, he
reality; epistemology, the study of the origins, maintained, is eternal and indestructible. Out of its
validity, and limits of knowledge; ethics, the study of ceaseless motion the more familiar substances, such
the nature of morality and judgment; and aesthetics, as warmth, cold, earth, air, and fire, continuously
the study of the nature of beauty in the fine arts. evolve, generating in turn the various objects and
organisms that make up the recognizable world.
As used originally by the ancient Greeks, the term
philosophy meant the pursuit of knowledge for its own The third great Ionian philosopher of the 6th century
BC, Anaximenes, returned to Thales’s assumption that
sake. Philosophy comprised all areas of speculative
thought and included the arts, sciences, and religion. the primary substance is something familiar and
As special methods and principles were developed in material, but he claimed it to be AIR rather than
the various areas of knowledge, each area acquired its water. He believed that the changes things undergo
own philosophical aspect, giving rise to the could be explained in terms of rarefaction (thinning)
philosophy of art, of science, and of religion. The term and condensation of air. Thus Anaximenes was the
philosophy is often used popularly to mean a set of first philosopher to explain differences in quality in
basic values and attitudes toward life, nature, and terms of differences in size or quantity, a method
society—thus the phrase “philosophy of life.” Because fundamental to physical science.
the lines of distinction between the various areas of
knowledge are flexible and subject to change, the In general, the Ionian school made the initial radical
definition of the term philosophy remains a subject of step from mythological to scientific explanation of
controversy. natural phenomena. It discovered the important
scientific principles of the permanence of substance,
Western philosophy from Greek antiquity to the the natural evolution of the world, and the reduction
present is surveyed in the remainder of this article. of quality to quantity.
For information about philosophical thought in Asia
and the Middle East, see Chinese Philosophy; Islam; B.
The Pythagorean
Buddhism; Daoism (Taoism); Confucianism; Indian
School
Philosophy.

I. About 530 BC at Croton (now Crotona), in southern

GREEK
Italy, the philosopher Pythagoras founded a school of
PHILOSOPHY
philosophy that was more religious and mystical than
the Ionian school. It fused the ancient mythological
Western philosophy is generally considered to have view of the world with the developing interest in
begun in ancient Greece as speculation about the scientific explanation. The system of philosophy that
underlying nature of the physical world. In its earliest became known as Pythagoreanism combined ethical,
form it was indistinguishable from natural science. supernatural, and mathematical beliefs with many
The writings of the earliest philosophers no longer ascetic rules, such as obedience and silence and
exist, except for a few fragments cited by Aristotle in simplicity of dress and possessions. The
Pythagoreans taught and practiced a way of life
the 4th century BC and by other writers of later times.
based on the belief that the soul is a prisoner of the
body, is released from the body at death, and
A.
migrates into a succession of different kinds of
The Ionian
animals before reincarnation into a human being.
School
For this reason Pythagoras taught his followers not to
eat meat. Pythagoras maintained that the highest
The first philosopher of historical record was purpose of humans should be to purify their souls
by cultivating intellectual virtues, refraining from
THALES, who lived in the 6th century BC in Miletus,
sensual pleasures, and practicing special religious
a city on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor. Thales, who
rituals. The Pythagoreans, having discovered the
was revered by later generations as one of the Seven
mathematical laws of musical pitch, inferred that
Wise Men of Greece, was interested in astronomical,
planetary motions produce a “music of the spheres,”
physical, and meteorological phenomena. His
and developed a “therapy through music” to bring
scientific investigations led him to speculate that all
humanity in harmony with the celestial spheres. They
natural phenomena are different forms of one
fundamental substance, which he believed to be identified science with mathematics, maintaining that

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all things are made up of numbers and geometrical elements: air, water, earth, and fire, which are
figures. They made important contributions to alternately combined and separated by two opposite
mathematics, musical theory, and astronomy. forces, love and strife. By that process the world
evolves from chaos to form and back to chaos again,
C. in an eternal cycle. Empedocles regarded the eternal
cycle as the proper object of religious worship and
The Heraclitean School
criticized the popular belief in personal deities, but he
failed to explain the way in which the familiar objects
of experience could develop out of elements that are
Heraclitus of Ephesus, who was active around 500 totally different from them. Anaxagoras therefore
BC, continued the search of the Ionians for a primary suggested that all things are composed of very small
substance, which he claimed to be FIRE. He noticed particles, or “seeds,” which exist in infinite variety.
that heat produces changes in matter, and thus To explain the way in which these particles combine
anticipated the modern theory of energy. Heraclitus to form the objects that constitute the familiar world,
maintained that all things are in a state of continuous Anaxagoras developed a theory of cosmic evolution.
flux, that stability is an illusion, and that only change He maintained that the active principle of this
and the law of change, or Logos, are real. The Logos evolutionary process is a world mind that separates
doctrine of Heraclitus, which identified the laws of and combines the particles. His concept of elemental
nature with a divine mind, developed into the particles led to the development of an atomic theory
pantheistic theology of Stoicism. (Pantheism is the of matter.
belief that God and material substance are one, and
that divinity is present in all things.) F.
The
D. Atomists
The Eleatic
School
It was a natural step from pluralism to atomism, the
theory that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible
In the 5th century BC, Parmenides founded a school particles differing only in simple physical properties
of philosophy at Elea, a Greek colony on the Italian such as size, shape, and weight. This step was taken
peninsula. Parmenides took a position opposite from in the 4th century BC by Leucippus and his more
that of Heraclitus on the relation between stability famous associate Democritus, who is generally
and change. Parmenides maintained that the credited with the first systematic formulation of an
universe, or the state of being, is an indivisible, atomic theory of matter. The fundamental
unchanging, spherical entity and that all reference assumption of Democritus’s atomic theory is that
to change or diversity is self-contradictory. matter is not infinitely divisible but is composed of
According to Parmenides, all that exists has no numerous indivisible particles that are too small for
beginning and has no end and is not subject to human senses to detect. His conception of nature
change over time. Nothing, he claimed, can be truly was thoroughly materialistic (focused on physical
asserted except that “being is.” Zeno of Elea, a aspects of matter), explaining all natural phenomena
disciple of Parmenides, tried to prove the unity of in terms of the number, shape, and size of atoms. He
being by arguing that the belief in the reality of thus reduced the sensory qualities of things, such as
change, diversity, and motion leads to logical warmth, cold, taste, and odor, to quantitative
paradoxes. The paradoxes of Zeno became famous differences among atoms—that is, to differences
intellectual puzzles that philosophers and logicians of measurable in amount or size. The higher forms of
all subsequent ages have tried to solve. The concern existence, such as plant and animal life and even
of the Eleatics with the problem of logical consistency human thought, were explained by Democritus in
laid the basis for the development of the science of these purely physical terms. He applied his theory to
logic. psychology, physiology, theory of knowledge, ethics,
and politics, thus presenting the first comprehensive
E. statement of deterministic materialism, a theory
The claiming that all aspects of existence rigidly follow, or
Pluralists are determined by, physical laws.

G.
The speculation about the physical world begun by The
the Ionians was continued in the 5th century BC by Sophists
Empedocles and Anaxagoras, who developed a
philosophy replacing the Ionian assumption of a
single primary substance with an assumption of a Toward the end of the 5th century BC, a group of
plurality of such substances. Empedocles maintained traveling teachers called Sophists became famous
that all things are composed of four irreducible throughout Greece. The Sophists played an important
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role in developing the Greek city-states from agrarian the soul, rather than learned from experience. The
monarchies into commercial democracies. As Greek philosopher’s task, Socrates believed, was to
industry and commerce expanded, a class of newly provoke people into thinking for themselves, rather
rich, economically powerful merchants began to than to teach them anything they did not already
wield political power. Lacking the education of the know. His contribution to the history of thought
aristocrats, they sought to prepare themselves for was not a systematic doctrine but a method of
politics and commerce by paying the Sophists for thinking and a way of life. He stressed the need for
instruction in public speaking, legal argument, and analytical examination of the grounds of one’s beliefs,
general culture. Although the best of the Sophists for clear definitions of basic concepts, and for a
made valuable contributions to Greek thought, the rational and critical approach to ethical problems.
group as a whole acquired a reputation for deceit,
insincerity, and demagoguery. Thus the word I.
sophistry has come to signify these moral faults.
Platonic Philosophy
The famous maxim of Protagoras, one of the leading
Sophists, that “man is the measure of all things,” is
typical of the philosophical attitude of the Sophist
school. Protagoras claimed that individuals have the Plato, who lived from about 428 to 347 BC, was a more
right to judge all matters for themselves. He denied systematic and positive thinker than Socrates, but his
the existence of an objective (demonstrable and writings, particularly the earlier dialogues, can be
impartial) knowledge, arguing instead that truth is regarded as a continuation and elaboration of Socratic
subjective in the sense that different things are true insights. Like Socrates, Plato regarded ethics as the
for different people and there is no way to prove that highest branch of knowledge; he stressed the
one person’s beliefs are objectively correct and intellectual basis of virtue, identifying virtue with
another’s are incorrect. Protagoras asserted that wisdom. This view led to the so-called Socratic paradox
natural science and theology are of little or no value that, as Socrates asserts in the Protagoras, “no man
because they have no impact on daily life, and he does evil voluntarily.” (Aristotle later noticed that
concluded that ethical rules need be followed only such a conclusion allows no place for moral
when it is to one’s practical advantage to do so. responsibility.) Plato also explored the fundamental
problems of natural science, political theory,
H. metaphysics, theology, and theory of knowledge, and
Socratic developed ideas that became permanent elements in
Philosophy Western thought.

Perhaps the greatest philosophical personality in The basis of Plato’s philosophy is his theory of Ideas,
history was Socrates, who lived from 469 to 399 BC. also known as the doctrine of Forms. The theory of
Socrates left no written work and is known through Ideas, which is expressed in many of his dialogues,
the writings of his students, especially those of his particularly the Republic and the Parmenides, divides
most famous pupil, Plato. Socrates maintained a existence into two realms, an “intelligible realm” of
philosophical dialogue with his students until he was perfect, eternal, and invisible Ideas, or Forms, and a
condemned to death and took his own life. Unlike the “sensible realm” of concrete, familiar objects. Trees,
Sophists, Socrates refused to accept payment for his stones, human bodies, and other objects that can be
teachings, maintaining that he had no positive known through the senses are for Plato unreal,
knowledge to offer except the awareness of the need shadowy, and imperfect copies of the Ideas of tree,
for more knowledge. He concluded that, in matters of stone, and the human body. He was led to this
morality, it is best to seek out genuine knowledge by apparently bizarre conclusion by his high standard of
exposing false pretensions. Ignorance is the only knowledge, which required that all genuine objects of
source of evil, he argued, so it is improper to act out knowledge be described without contradiction.
of ignorance or to accept moral instruction from those Because all objects perceived by the senses undergo
who have not proven their own wisdom. Instead of change, an assertion made about such objects at one
relying blindly on authority, we should unceasingly time will not be true at a later time. According to
question our own beliefs and the beliefs of others in Plato, these objects are therefore not completely real.
order to seek out genuine wisdom. Thus, beliefs derived from experience of such objects
are vague and unreliable, whereas the principles of
Socrates taught that every person has full mathematics and philosophy, discovered by inner
knowledge of ultimate truth contained within the meditation on the Ideas, constitute the only
soul and needs only to be spurred to conscious knowledge worthy of the name. In the Republic, Plato
reflection to become aware of it. In Plato’s dialogue described humanity as imprisoned in a cave and
Meno, for example, Socrates guides an untutored mistaking shadows on the wall for reality; he
slave to the formulation of the Pythagorean theorem, regarded the philosopher as the person who
thus demonstrating that such knowledge is innate in penetrates the world outside the cave of ignorance
and achieves a vision of the true reality, the realm of
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Ideas. Plato’s concept of the Absolute Idea of the Nature, for Aristotle, is an organic system of things
Good, which is the highest Form and includes all whose forms make it possible to arrange them into
others, has been a main source of pantheistic and classes comprising species and genera. Each species,
mystical religious doctrines in Western culture. he believed, has a form, purpose, and mode of
development in terms of which it can be defined. The
Plato’s theory of Ideas and his rationalistic view of aim of science is to define the essential forms,
knowledge formed the foundation for his ethical and purposes, and modes of development of all species
social idealism. The realm of eternal Ideas provides and to arrange them in their natural order in
the standards or ideals according to which all objects accordance with their complexities of form, the main
and actions should be judged. The philosophical levels being the inanimate, the vegetative, the
person, who refrains from sensual pleasures and animal, and the rational. The soul, for Aristotle, is
searches instead for knowledge of abstract principles, the form of the body, and humans, whose rational
finds in these ideals the basis for personal behavior soul is a higher form than the souls of other
and social institutions. Personal virtue consists in a terrestrial species, are the highest species of
harmonious relation among the three parts of the soul: perishable things. The heavenly bodies, composed of
reason, emotion, and desire. Social justice likewise an imperishable substance, or ether, and moved
consists in harmony among the classes of society. The eternally in perfect circular motion by God, are still
ideal state of a sound mind in a sound body requires higher in the order of nature. This hierarchical
that the intellect control the desires and passions, as classification of nature was adopted by many
the ideal state of society requires that the wisest Christian, Jewish, and Muslim theologians in the
individuals rule the pleasure-seeking masses. Truth, Middle Ages as a view of nature consistent with their
beauty, and justice coincide in the Idea of the Good, religious beliefs.
according to Plato; therefore, art that expresses moral
values is the best art. In his rather conservative social Aristotle’s political and ethical philosophy similarly
program, Plato supported the censorship of art forms developed out of a critical examination of Plato’s
that he believed corrupted the young and promoted principles. The standards of personal and social
social injustice. behavior, according to Aristotle, must be found in the
scientific study of the natural tendencies of
J. individuals and societies rather than in a heavenly or
Aristotelian abstract realm of pure forms. Less insistent therefore
Philosophy than Plato on a rigorous conformity to absolute
principles, Aristotle regarded ethical rules as practical
guides to a happy and well-rounded life. His
Aristotle, who began study at Plato’s Academy at age emphasis on happiness, as the active fulfillment of
17 in 367 BC, was the most illustrious pupil of Plato, natural capacities, expressed the attitude toward life
and ranks with his teacher among the most profound held by cultivated Greeks of his time. In political
and influential thinkers of the Western world. After theory, Aristotle agreed with Plato that a monarchy
studying for many years at Plato’s Academy, Aristotle ruled by a wise king would be the ideal political
became the tutor of Alexander the Great. He later structure, but he also recognized that societies differ
returned to Athens to found the Lyceum, a school in their needs and traditions and believed that a
that, like Plato’s Academy, remained for centuries one limited democracy is usually the best compromise. In
of the great centers of learning in Greece. In his his theory of knowledge, Aristotle rejected the
lectures at the Lyceum, Aristotle defined the basic Platonic doctrine that knowledge is innate and
concepts and principles of many of the sciences, such insisted that it can be acquired only by generalization
as logic, biology, physics, and psychology. In from experience. He interpreted art as a means of
founding the science of logic, he developed the theory pleasure and intellectual enlightenment rather than
of deductive inference—a process for drawing an instrument of moral education. His analysis of
conclusions from accepted premises by means of Greek tragedy has served as a model of literary
logical reasoning. His theory is exemplified by the criticism (see Criticism, Literary).
syllogism (a deductive argument having two premises
and a conclusion), and a set of rules for scientific II.
method. HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN
PHILOSOPHY
In his metaphysical theory, Aristotle criticized Plato’s
theory of Forms. Aristotle argued that forms could
not exist by themselves but existed only in From the 4th century BC to the rise of Christian
particular things, which are composed of both form philosophy in the 4th century AD, Epicureanism,
and matter. He understood substances as matter Stoicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism were the
organized by a particular form. Humans, for example, main philosophical schools in the Western world.
are composed of flesh and blood arranged to shape Interest in natural science declined steadily during
arms, legs, and the other parts of the body. this period, and these schools concerned themselves

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mainly with ethics and religion. This was also a and racial barriers and prepare the way for the
period of intense intercultural contact, and Western spread of Christianity. The Stoic doctrine of natural
philosophers were influenced by ideas from law, which makes human nature the standard for
Buddhism in India, Zoroastrianism in Persia, and evaluating laws and social institutions, had an
Judaism in Palestine. important influence on Roman and later Western
law.
A.
C.
Epicureanism Skepticism

The school of Skepticism, which continued the

Epicurus Sophist criticisms of objective knowledge, dominated
Plato’s Academy in the 3rd century BC. The Skeptics
discovered, as had Zeno of Elea, that logic is a
powerful critical device, capable of destroying any
In 306 BC Epicurus founded a philosophical school in positive philosophical view, and they used it skillfully.
Athens. Because his followers met in the garden of his Their fundamental assumption was that humanity
home they became known as philosophers of the cannot attain knowledge or wisdom concerning
garden. Epicurus adopted the atomistic physics of reality, and they therefore challenged the claims of
Democritus, but he allowed for an element of chance scientists and philosophers to investigate the nature
in the physical world by assuming that the atoms of reality. Like Socrates, the Skeptics insisted that
sometimes swerve in unpredictable ways, thus wisdom consisted in awareness of the extent of one’s
providing a physical basis for a belief in free will. The own ignorance. The Skeptics concluded that the way
overall aim of Epicurus’s philosophy was to to happiness lies in a complete suspension of
promote happiness by removing the fear of death. judgment. They believed that suspending judgment
He maintained that natural science is important about the things of which one has no true
only if it can be applied in making practical knowledge creates tranquility and fulfillment. As an
decisions that help humans achieve the maximum extreme example of this attitude, it is said that Pyrrho,
amount of pleasure, which he identified with gentle one of the most noted Skeptics, refused to change
motion and the absence of pain. The teachings of direction when approaching the edge of a cliff and
Epicurus are preserved mainly in the philosophical had to be diverted by his students to save his life.
poem De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)
written by the Roman poet Lucretius in the 1st D.
century BC. Lucretius contributed greatly to the Neoplatonism
popularity of Epicureanism in Rome.

B. Stoicism

The Stoic school, founded in Athens about 310 BC by During the 1st century AD the Jewish-Hellenistic
Zeno of Citium, developed out of the earlier philosopher Philo of Alexandria combined Greek
movement of the Cynics, who rejected social philosophy, particularly Platonic and Pythagorean
institutions and material (worldly) values. Stoicism ideas, with Judaism in a comprehensive system that
became the most influential school of the Greco- anticipated Neoplatonism and Jewish, Christian, and
Roman world, producing such remarkable writers Muslim mysticism. Philo insisted that the nature of
and personalities as the Greek slave and philosopher God so far transcended (surpassed) human
Epictetus in the 1st century AD and the 2nd-century understanding and experience as to be indescribable;
he described the natural world as a series of stages
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, who was noted for
of descent from God, terminating in matter as the
his wisdom and nobility of character. The Stoics
source of evil. He advocated a religious state, or
taught that one can achieve freedom and tranquility
theocracy, and was one of the first to interpret the Old
only by becoming insensitive to material comforts
and external fortune and by dedicating oneself to a Testament for the Gentiles.
life of virtue and wisdom. They followed Heraclitus
in believing the primary substance to be fire and in Neoplatonism, one of the most influential
worshiping the Logos, which they identified with the philosophical and religious schools and an important
energy, law, reason, and providence (divine guidance) rival of Christianity, was founded in the 3rd century
found throughout nature. The Stoics argued that AD by Ammonius Saccus and his more famous

nature was a system designed by the divinities and disciple Plotinus. Plotinus based his ideas on the
believed that humans should strive to live in mystical and poetic writings of Plato, the
accordance with nature. The Stoic doctrine that each Pythagoreans, and Philo. The main function of
person is part of God and that all people form a philosophy, for him, is to prepare individuals for
universal family helped break down national, social, the experience of ecstasy, in which they become one
with God. God, or the One, is beyond rational
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understanding and is the source of all reality. The apart from sensory experience and anything physical
universe emanates from the One by a mysterious or material.
process of overflowing of divine energy in
successive levels. The highest levels form a trinity The Platonic philosophy was combined with the
of the One; the Logos, which contains the Platonic Christian concept of a personal God who created the
Forms; and the World Soul, which gives rise to world and predestined (determined in advance) its
human souls and natural forces. The farther things course, and with the doctrine of the fall of humanity,
emanate from the One, according to Plotinus, the requiring the divine incarnation in Christ. Augustine
more imperfect and evil they are and the closer they attempted to provide rational understanding of the
approach the limit of pure matter. The highest goal relation between divine predestination and human
of life is to purify oneself of dependence on bodily freedom, the existence of evil in a world created by a
comforts and, through philosophical meditation, to perfect and all-powerful God, and the nature of the
prepare oneself for an ecstatic reunion with the One. Trinity. Late in his life Augustine came to a
Neoplatonism exerted a strong influence on medieval pessimistic view about original sin, grace, and
thought. predestination: the ultimate fates of humans, he
decided, are predetermined by God in the sense that
some people are granted divine grace to enter heaven
and others are not, and human actions and choices
III. cannot explain the fates of individuals. This view was
MEDIEVAL influential throughout the Middle Ages and became
PHILOSOPHY even more important during the Reformation of the
16th century when it inspired the doctrine of
predestination put forth by Protestant theologian
During the decline of Greco-Roman civilization,
John Calvin.
Western philosophers turned their attention from the
scientific investigation of nature and the search for
Augustine conceived of history as a dramatic
worldly happiness to the problem of salvation in
struggle between the good in humanity, as
another and better world. By the 3rd century AD,
expressed in loyalty to the “city of God,” or
Christianity had spread to the more educated classes
community of saints, and the evil in humanity, as
of the Roman Empire. The religious teachings of the embodied in the earthly city with its material values.
Gospels were combined by the Fathers of the Church
His view of human life was pessimistic, asserting that
with many of the philosophical concepts of the Greek
happiness is impossible in the world of the living,
and Roman schools. Of particular importance were
where even with good fortune, which is rare,
the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Council of
awareness of approaching death would mar any
Ephesus in 431, which drew upon metaphysical ideas
tendency toward satisfaction. He believed further
of Aristotle and Plotinus to establish important that without the religious virtues of faith, hope, and
Christian doctrines about the divinity of Jesus and the charity, which require divine grace to be attained, a
nature of the Trinity. person cannot develop the natural virtues of courage,
justice, temperance, and wisdom. His analyses of
A. time, memory, and inner religious experience have
Augustinian
been a source of inspiration for metaphysical and
Philosophy
mystical thought.
The process of reconciling the Greek emphasis on
reason with the emphasis on religious emotion in the The only major contribution to Western philosophy in
teachings of Christ and the apostles found eloquent the three centuries following the death of Augustine
expression in the writings of Saint Augustine during in AD 430 was made by the 6th-century Roman
the late 4th and early 5th centuries. He developed a statesman Boethius, who revived interest in Greek
system of thought that, through subsequent and Roman philosophy, particularly Aristotle’s logic
amendments and elaborations, eventually became the and metaphysics. In the 9th century the Irish monk
authoritative doctrine of Christianity. Largely as a John Erigena developed a pantheistic interpretation of
result of his influence, Christian thought was Platonic Christianity, identifying the divine Trinity with the
in spirit until the 13th century, when Aristotelian One, Logos, and World Soul of Neoplatonism and
philosophy became dominant. Augustine argued that maintaining that both faith and reason are necessary
religious faith and philosophical understanding are to achieve the ecstatic union with God.
complementary rather than opposed and that one
must “believe in order to understand and understand Even more significant for the development of Western
in order to believe.” Like the Neoplatonists, he philosophy was the early 11th-century Muslim
considered the soul a higher form of existence than philosopher Avicenna. His work modifying
the body and taught that knowledge consists in the Aristotelian metaphysics introduced a distinction
contemplation of Platonic ideas as abstract notions important to later philosophy between essence (the
fundamental qualities that make a thing what it is—
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the treeness of a tree, for example) and existence religion based on divine revelation, or the word of
(being, or living reality). He also demonstrated how it God—must be justified by reason. He developed an
is possible to combine the biblical view of God with ethics based on personal conscience that anticipated
Aristotle’s philosophical system. Avicenna’s writings Protestant thought.
on logic, mathematics, physics, and medicine
remained influential for centuries. The Spanish-Arab jurist and physician Averroës, the
most noted Muslim philosopher of the Middle Ages,
B. made Aristotelian science and philosophy a powerful
influence on medieval thought with his lucid and
Scholasticism
scholarly commentaries on the works of Aristotle. He
earned himself the title “the Commentator” among
In the 11th century a revival of philosophical thought the many Scholastics who came to regard Aristotle as
began as a result of the increasing contact between “the Philosopher.” Averroës attempted to overcome
different parts of the Western world and the general the contradictions between Aristotelian philosophy
reawakening of cultural interests that culminated in and revealed religion by distinguishing between two
the Renaissance. The works of Plato, Aristotle, and separate systems of truth, a scientific body of truths
other Greek thinkers were translated by Arab scholars based on reason and a religious body of truths
and brought to the attention of philosophers in based on revelation. His view that reason takes
Western Europe. Muslim, Jewish, and Christian precedence over religion led to his exile in 1195.
philosophers interpreted and clarified these writings Averroës’s so-called double-truth doctrine
in an effort to reconcile philosophy with religious influenced many Muslim, Jewish, and Christian
faith and to provide rational grounds for their philosophers; it was rejected, however, by many
religious beliefs. Their labors established the others, and became an important issue in medieval
foundations of Scholasticism. philosophy.

Scholastic thought was less interested in discovering The Jewish rabbi and physician Moses Maimonides,
new facts and principles than in demonstrating the one of the greatest figures in Judaic thought, followed
truth of existing beliefs. Its method was therefore his contemporary Averroës in uniting Aristotelian
dialectical (based upon logical argument), and its science with religion but rejected the view that both of
intense concern with the logic of argument led to two conflicting systems of ideas can be true. In his
important developments in logic as well as theology. Guide for the Perplexed (1190?) Maimonides attempted
The Scholastic philosopher Saint Anselm of to provide a rational explanation of Judaic doctrine
Canterbury adopted Augustine’s view of the and defended religious beliefs (such as the belief in
complementary relation between faith and reason and the creation of the world) that conflicted with
combined Platonism with Christian theology. Aristotelian science only when he was convinced that
Supporting the Platonic theory of Ideas, Anselm decisive evidence was lacking on either side.
argued in favor of the separate existence of universals,
or common properties of things—the properties Abelard, Averroës, and Maimonides were each
Avicenna had called essences. He thus established the accused of blasphemy because their views conflicted
position of logical realism—an assertion that with religious beliefs of the time. The 13th century,
universals and other ideas exist independently of our however, saw a series of philosophers who would
awareness of them—on one of the most vigorously come to be worshiped as saints. The Italian Scholastic
disputed issues of medieval philosophy. philosopher Saint Bonaventure combined Platonic
and Aristotelian principles and introduced the
The contrary view, known as nominalism, was concept of substantial form, or nonmaterial substance,
formulated by the Scholastic philosopher Roscelin, to account for the immortality of the soul.
who maintained that only individual, solid objects Bonaventure’s view tended toward pantheistic
exist and that the universals, forms, and ideas, under mysticism in making the aim of philosophy the
which particular things are classified, constitute mere ecstatic union with God.
sounds or names, rather than intangible substances.
When he argued that the Trinity must consist of three The 13th-century German Scholastic philosopher
separate beings, his views were deemed heretical and Saint Albertus Magnus was the first Christian
he was forced to recant in 1092. The French Scholastic philosopher to endorse and interpret the entire
theologian Peter Abelard, whose tragic love affair system of Aristotelian thought. He studied and
with Héloïse in the 12th century is one of the most admired the writings of the Muslim and Jewish
memorable romantic stories in medieval history, Aristotelians and wrote commentaries on Aristotle in
proposed a compromise between realism and which he attempted to reconcile Aristotle’s thought
nominalism known as conceptualism, according to with Christian teachings. He also took a great interest
which universals exist in particular things as in the natural science of his day. The 13th-century
properties and outside of things as concepts in the English monk Roger Bacon, one of the first Scholastics
mind. Abelard maintained that revealed religion— to take an interest in experimental science, realized

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that a great deal remained to be learned about nature. truth doctrine of Averroës, that all religious beliefs
He criticized the deductive method of his are matters of faith, except for the belief in the
contemporaries and their reliance on past authority, existence of God, which he regarded as logically
and called for a new method of inquiry based on provable. Against the view of Aquinas that God acts
controlled observation (see Deduction). in accordance with his rational nature, Scotus argued
that the divine will is prior to the divine intellect and
The most important medieval philosopher was Saint creates, rather than follows, the laws of nature and
Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican monk who was born morality, thus implying a stronger notion of free will
in Italy in 1225 and later studied under Albertus than that of Aquinas. On the issue of universals,
Magnus in Germany. Aquinas combined Aristotelian Scotus developed a new compromise between realism
science and Augustinian theology into a and nominalism, accounting for the difference
comprehensive system of thought that later became between individual objects and the forms that these
the authoritative philosophy of the Roman Catholic objects exemplify as a logical rather than a real
Church. He wrote on every known subject in distinction.
philosophy and science, and his major works, Summa
Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles, in which he William of Ockham formulated the most radically
presents a persuasive and systematic structure of nominalistic criticism of the Scholastic belief in
ideas, still constitute a powerful influence on Western intangible, invisible things such as forms, essences,
thought. His writings reflect the renewed interest of and universals. He maintained that such abstract
his time in reason, nature, and worldly happiness, entities are merely references of words to other words
together with its religious faith and concern for rather than to actual things. His famous rule, known
salvation. as Ockham’s razor—which said that one should not
assume the existence of more things than are
Aquinas made many important investigations into the logically necessary—became a fundamental
philosophy of religion, including an extremely principle of modern science and philosophy.
influential study of the attributes of God, such as
omnipotence, omniscience, eternity, and In the 15th and 16th centuries a revival of scientific
benevolence. He also provided a new account of the interest in nature was accompanied by a tendency
relationship between faith and reason, arguing toward pantheistic mysticism—that is, finding God in
against the Averroists that the truths of faith and the all things. The Roman Catholic prelate Nicholas of
truths of reason cannot conflict but rather apply to Cusa anticipated the work of the Polish astronomer
different realms. The truths of natural science and Nicolaus Copernicus in his suggestion that the Earth
philosophy are discovered by reasoning from facts of moved around the Sun, thus displacing humanity
experience, whereas the tenets of revealed religion, from the center of the universe; he also conceived of
the doctrine of the Trinity, the creation of the world, the universe as infinite and identical with God. The
and other articles of Christian dogma are beyond Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, who similarly
rational comprehension, although not inconsistent identified the universe with God, developed the
with reason, and must be accepted on faith. The philosophical implications of the Copernican theory.
metaphysics, theory of knowledge, ethics, and politics Bruno’s philosophy influenced subsequent
of Aquinas were derived mainly from Aristotle, but intellectual forces that led to the rise of modern
he added the Augustinian virtues of faith, hope, and science and to the Reformation.
charity and the goal of eternal salvation through grace
to Aristotle’s naturalistic ethics with its goal of
worldly happiness.
IV.
C. MODERN
Medieval Philosophy After PHILOSOPHY
Aquinas

The word modern in philosophy originally meant

The most important critics of Thomistic philosophy “new,” distinguishing a new historic era both from
(adherence to the theories of Aquinas) were the 13th- antiquity and from the intervening Middle Ages.
century Scottish theologian John Duns Scotus and Many things had occurred in the intellectual, religious,
14th-century English Scholastic William of Ockham. political, and social life of Europe to justify the belief
Duns Scotus developed a subtle and highly technical of 16th- and 17th-century thinkers in the genuinely
system of logic and metaphysics, but because of the new character of their times. The explorations of the
fanaticism of his followers the name Duns later world; the Protestant Reformation, with its emphasis
ironically became a symbol of stupidity in the English on individual faith; the rise of commercial urban
word dunce. Scotus rejected the attempt of Aquinas to society; and the dramatic appearance during the
reconcile rational philosophy with revealed religion. Renaissance of new ideas in all areas of culture
He maintained, in a modified version of the double-

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stimulated the development of a new philosophical the principles of geometry to the motions of bodies.
worldview. The success of mechanics in discovering reliable and
useful laws of nature suggested to Galileo and to later
The medieval view of the world as a hierarchical scientists that all nature is designed in accordance
order of beings created and governed by God was with mechanical laws.
supplanted by the mechanistic picture of the world as
a vast machine, the parts of which move in These great changes of the 15th and 16th centuries
accordance with strict physical laws, without purpose brought about two intellectual crises that profoundly
or will. In this view of the universe, known as affected Western civilization. First, the decline of
Mechanism, science took precedence over spirituality, Aristotelian science called into question the methods
and the surrounding physical world that we and foundations of the sciences. This decline came
experience and observe received as much, if not more, about for a number of reasons including the inability
attention than the world to come. The aim of human of Aristotelian principles to explain new observations
life was no longer conceived as preparation for in astronomy. Second, new attitudes toward religion
salvation in the next world, but rather as the undermined religious authority and gave agnostic
satisfaction of people’s natural desires. Political and atheistic ideas a chance to be heard.
institutions and ethical principles ceased to be
regarded as reflections of divine command and came 1.
to be seen as practical devices created by humans.
Descartes

The human mind itself seemed an inexhaustible

reality, on a par with the physical reality of matter. During the 17th century French mathematician,
Modern philosophers had the task of defining more physicist, and philosopher René Descartes attempted
clearly the essence of mind and of matter, and of to resolve both crises. He followed Bacon and Galileo
reasoning about the relation between the two. in criticizing existing methods and beliefs, but
Individuals ought to see for themselves, they believed, whereas Bacon had argued for an inductive method
and study the “book of Nature,” and in every case based on observed facts, Descartes made mathematics
search for the truth with their own reason. the model for all science. Descartes championed the
truth contained in the “clear and distinct ideas” of
reason itself. The advance toward knowledge was
Since the 15th century modern philosophy has been
marked by a continuing interaction between systems from one such truth to another, as in mathematical
reasoning. Descartes believed that by following his
of thought based on a mechanistic, materialistic
interpretation of the universe and those founded on a rationalist method, one could establish first principles
(fundamental underlying truths) for all knowledge—
belief in human thought as the only ultimate reality.
about man, the world, and even God.
This interaction has reflected the increasing effect of
scientific discovery and political change on
philosophical speculation. Descartes resolved to reconstruct all human
knowledge on an absolutely certain foundation by
refusing to accept any belief, even the belief in his
A.
Mechanism and own existence, until he could prove it to be
Materialism necessarily true. In his so-called dream argument, he
argued that our inability to prove with certainty when
In the new philosophical climate, experience and we are awake and when we are dreaming makes most
reason became the sole standards of truth. The first of our knowledge uncertain. Ultimately he concluded
great spokesman for the new philosophy was the that the first thing of whose existence one can be
English philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon, certain is oneself as a thinking being. This conclusion
who denounced reliance on authority and verbal forms the basis of his well-known argument, “Cogito,
argument and criticized Aristotelian logic as useless ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”). He also argued
for the discovery of new laws. Bacon called for a new that, in pure thought, one has a clear conception of
scientific method based on reasoned generalization God and can demonstrate that God exists. Descartes
from careful observation and experiment. He was the argued that secure knowledge of the reality of God
first to formulate rules for this new method of allowed him to have his earlier doubts about
drawing conclusions, now known as inductive knowledge and science.
inference (see Induction).
Despite his mechanistic outlook, Descartes accepted
The work of Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo the traditional religious doctrine of the immortality of
was of even greater importance in the development of the soul and maintained that mind and body are two
a new worldview. Galileo brought attention to the distinct substances, thus exempting mind from the
importance of applying mathematics to the mechanistic laws of nature and providing for freedom
formulation of scientific laws. This he accomplished of the will. His fundamental separation of mind and
by creating the science of mechanics, which applied body, known as dualism, raised the problem of

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explaining how two such different substances as substance is God and that God, substance, and nature
mind and body can affect each other, a problem he are identical. Thus he supported the pantheistic view
was unable to solve that has remained a concern of that all things are aspects or modes of God (see
philosophy ever since. Descartes’s thought launched Pantheism).
an era of speculation in metaphysics as philosophers
made a determined effort to overcome dualism—the Spinoza’s solution to the mind-body problem
belief in the irreconcilable difference between mind explained the apparent interaction of mind and
and matter—and obtain unity. The separation of body by regarding them as two forms of the same
mind and matter is also known as Cartesian dualism substance, which exactly parallel each other, thus
after Descartes. seeming to affect each other but not really doing so.
Spinoza’s ethics, like the ethics of Hobbes, was based
2. on a materialistic psychology according to which
individuals are motivated only by self-interest. But in
Hobbes
contrast to Hobbes, Spinoza concluded that rational
self-interest coincides with the interest of others.
The 17th–century English philosopher Thomas
Hobbes, in his effort to attain unity, asserted that 4.
matter is the only real substance. He constructed a
comprehensive system of metaphysics that provided Locke
a solution to the mind-body problem by reducing
mind to the internal motions of the body. He also English philosopher John Locke responded to the
argued that there is no contradiction between human challenge of Cartesian dualism by supporting a
freedom and causal determinism—the view that commonsense view that the corporeal (bodily or
every act is determined by a prior cause. Both, material) and the spiritual are simply two parts of
according to Hobbes, work in accordance with the nature that remain always present in human
mechanical laws that govern the universe. experience. He made no attempt to rigorously define
these parts of nature or to construct a detailed system
In his ethical theory Hobbes derived the rules of of metaphysics that attempted to explain them; Locke
human behavior from the law of self-preservation and believed that such philosophical aims were
justified egoistic action as the natural human impossible to carry out and thus pointless. Against
tendency. In his political theory he maintained that the rationalism of Descartes and Spinoza, who
government and social justice are artificial creations believed in the ability to achieve knowledge through
based on social contract (voluntary agreement reasoning and logical deduction, Locke continued the
between people and their government) and empiricist tradition begun by Bacon and embraced by
maintained by force. In his most famous work, Hobbes. The empiricists believed that knowledge
Leviathan (1651), Hobbes justified political authority came from observation and sense perceptions rather
on the basis that self-interested people who existed in than from reason alone.
a terrifying “state of nature”—that is, without a
ruler—would seek to protect themselves by forming a In 1690 Locke gave empiricism a systematic
political commonwealth that had rules and framework with the publication of his Essay
regulations. He concluded that absolute monarchy is Concerning Human Understanding. Of particular
the most effective means of preserving peace. importance was Locke’s redirection of philosophy
away from the study of the physical world and
3. toward the study of the human mind. In so doing he
made epistemology, the study of the nature of
Spinoza
knowledge, the principal concern of philosophy in the
17th and 18th centuries. In his own theory of the mind
Whereas Hobbes tried to oppose Cartesian dualism Locke attempted to reduce all ideas to simple
by reducing mind to matter, the 17th-century Dutch elements of experience, but he distinguished
philosopher Baruch Spinoza attempted to reduce sensation and reflection as sources of experience,
matter to divine spiritual substance. He constructed sensation providing the material for knowledge of the
a remarkably precise and rigorous system of external world, and reflection the material for
philosophy that offered new solutions to the mind- knowledge of the mind.
body problem and to the conflict between religion
and science. Like Descartes, Spinoza maintained that Locke greatly influenced the skepticism of later
the entire structure of nature can be deduced from a British thinkers, such as George Berkeley and David
few basic definitions and axioms, on the model of Hume, by recognizing the vagueness of the concepts
Euclidean geometry. However, Spinoza believed that of metaphysics and by pointing out that inferences
Descartes’s theory of two substances created an about the world outside the mind cannot be proved
insoluble problem of the way in which mind and with certainty. His ethical and political writings had
body interact. He concluded that the ultimate an equally great influence on subsequent thought.

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During the late 18th century the founders of the number of infinitely small units of force, called
modern school of utilitarianism, which makes monads, each of which is a closed world but mirrors
happiness for the largest possible number of people all the other monads through its activity, which is
the standard of right and wrong, drew heavily on the perception. All the monads are spiritual entities, but
writings of Locke. His defense of constitutional they can combine to form material bodies. Leibniz
government, religious tolerance, and natural human conceived of God as the Monad of Monads, which
rights influenced the development of liberal thought creates all other monads and predestines their
during the late 18th century in France and the United development.
States as well as in Great Britain.
Leibniz’s theory of the predestination of monads,
B. also called the theory of preestablished harmony,
Idealism and entailed a radical rejection of causality—the view
Skepticism that every effect must have a cause. According to
Leibniz, monads do not interact with each other at
all, and the appearance of mechanical causality in
Efforts to resolve the dualism of mind and matter, a the natural world is unreal, akin to an illusion.
problem first raised by Descartes, continued to Likewise, there is no room in the universe for free
engage philosophers during the 17th and 18th will: Even though we enjoy the illusion of acting
centuries. The division between science and religious freely, all human actions are predetermined by God.
belief also occupied them. There, the aim was to Despite these gloomy conclusions, Leibniz’s
preserve the essentials of faith in God while at the philosophy was profoundly optimistic because he
same time defending the right to think freely. One argued that ours was the best of all possible worlds.
view called Deism saw God as the cause of the great He based this belief on considerations about the
mechanism of the world, a view more in harmony nature of truth and necessity. French writer Voltaire
with science than with traditional religion. Natural mocked this viewpoint in Candide (1759), a satirical
science at this time was striding ahead, relying on novel that examines the woes heaped on the world in
sense perception as well as reason, and thereby the name of God.
discovering the universal laws of nature and physics.
Such empirical (observation-based) knowledge 2.
appeared to be more certain and valuable than Berkeley
philosophical knowledge based upon reason alone.
In the 18th century Irish philosopher and Anglican
After Locke philosophers became more skeptical churchman George Berkeley, like Spinoza before
about achieving knowledge that they could be certain him, rejected both Cartesian dualism and the
was true. Some thinkers who despaired of finding a assertion by Hobbes that only matter is real.
resolution to dualism embraced skepticism, the Berkeley maintained that spirit is substance, and
doctrine that true knowledge, other than what we that only spiritual substance is real. Extending
experience through the senses, is impossible. Others Locke’s doubts about knowledge of an external
turned to increasingly radical theories of being and world, outside the mind, Berkeley argued that no
knowledge. Among them was German philosopher evidence exists for the existence of such a world,
Immanuel Kant, probably the most influential of all because the only things that we can observe are our
because he set Western philosophy on a new path that own sensations, and these are in the mind. The very
it still follows today. Kant’s view that knowledge of notion of matter, he maintained, is incoherent and
the world is dependent upon certain innate categories impossible. To exist, he claimed, means to be
or ideas in the human mind is known as idealism. perceived (“esse est percipi”), and in order for things
to exist when we are not observing them, they must
1. continue to be perceived by God. By claiming that
sensory phenomena are the only objects of human
Leibniz
knowledge, Berkeley established the view known as
phenomenalism, a theory of perception that suggests
that matter can be analyzed in terms of sensations.
German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, like
Spinoza before him, worked in the rationalist (reason-
based) tradition to produce a brilliant solution to the 3. Hume
problems raised by dualism. Leibniz, a mathematician
and statesman as well as a philosopher, developed a Whereas Berkeley argued against materialism
remarkably subtle and original system of philosophy by denying the existence of matter, 18th-century
that combined the mathematical and physical Scottish philosopher David Hume questioned the
discoveries of his time with the organic and religious existence of the mind itself. Hume’s skeptical
conceptions of nature found in ancient and medieval philosophy also cast doubt on the idea of cause as
thought. Leibniz viewed the world as an infinite understood in all previous philosophies and seriously

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disputed earlier arguments for the existence of God. causation arose when he concluded that we do not
His most important philosophical work, A Treatise of encounter causality in our ordinary experience of the
Human Nature, was published in three volumes in world and that any inferences about it, beyond
1739 and 1740. immediate experience, were questionable. Kant’s
answer to the skepticism of Descartes and Hume
All metaphysical assertions about things that cannot involved certain categories, such as space, time,
be directly perceived are equally meaningless, substance, and causality, which he maintained are
Hume claimed, and should be “committed to the essential to our thinking and to our experience of
flames.” In his analyses of causality and induction, phenomena in the world. These categories he called
Hume revealed that there is no logical justification transcendental. All objects of our knowledge, he
for believing that any two events which occur concluded, must conform to the human mind’s
together are connected by cause and effect or for essential ways of perceiving and understanding—
making any inference from past to future. Hume ways that involve the transcendental categories—if
noted that we depend on our past experience they are to be knowable at all. Kant maintained that
whenever we form beliefs about anything that we do he had developed a revolutionary hypothesis about
not directly perceive and whenever we make knowledge and reality that he believed to be as
predictions about the future. According to the significant for the future of philosophy as the
empiricist doctrine of Bacon, Locke, and Berkeley, we hypothesis of Copernicus—that the planets orbit the
can do this because experience teaches us what Sun—had been for science.
particular things belong together as causes and effects.
Hume, however, argued that this attempt to learn Kant’s claim that causality, substance, space, and
from experience is not at all rational, thus calling into time are forms imposed by the mind gave support to
question the reliability of our memories, our the idealism of Leibniz and Berkeley. Kant,
reasoning processes, and our ability to learn from past however, made his view a more critical form of
experiences or to make even the smallest predictions idealism by granting the empiricist claim that
about the future—for example, that the sun will rise things-in-themselves—that is, things as they exist
tomorrow. Though extreme, Hume’s skepticism outside human experience—are unknowable. Kant
about philosophical empiricism raised problems therefore limited knowledge to the “phenomenal
about the possibility of knowledge that contemporary world” of experience, maintaining that metaphysical
philosophers still struggle to resolve. beliefs about the soul, the cosmos, and God (the
“noumenal world” transcending human experience)
are matters of faith rather than of scientific
4. Kant knowledge.

German philosopher Immanuel Kant was among the In his ethical writings Kant held that moral
first to appreciate Hume’s skepticism, and in response principles are categorical imperatives, absolute
he published the Critique of Pure Reason (1781), widely commands of reason that permit no exceptions and
considered the greatest single work in modern are not related to pleasure or practical benefit. Kant
philosophy. In this work Kant made a thorough and argued that human beings should act as members of
systematic analysis of the conditions for knowledge. an ideal “kingdom of ends” in which every person is
As an example of genuine knowledge, he had in mind treated as an end in himself or herself, and never as a
the contributions to physics of English scientist Isaac means to someone else’s ends. In addition, everyone
Newton. In the case of Newtonian physics, reason should govern their conduct as if their actions were to
seemed to have done an effective job of be made law—a law that applies equally to all
understanding the data supplied by the senses and to without exception. Kant thereby postulated a freedom
have succeeded in postulating universal and of action based on moral order and equality. His
necessary laws of nature, such as the law of moral philosophy contributed to modern political
gravitation and the laws of motion. Kant proposed to ideas about freedom and democracy. Kant was a
explain how such knowledge is possible, thereby leading figure of the movement for reason and liberty
providing a complete reply to Hume’s skepticism and against tradition and authority, and in his religious
answering many of the problems that had plagued teachings he emphasized individual conscience and
Western philosophers since the time of Descartes. represented God primarily as a moral ideal.

Kant started by making a fresh analysis of the Kant’s writings constituted a high point of the
elements of knowledge, asking for the first time an Enlightenment, a fertile intellectual and cultural
extremely basic question, “How is our experience period that helped stimulate the social changes that
possible in the first place?” Kant’s predecessors had produced the French Revolution (1789-1799). Other
taken experience for granted. Thus Descartes agreed leading thinkers of this movement included Voltaire,
that we seem to have sensory knowledge of the world Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Denis Diderot. Voltaire,
but asked whether this knowledge was true or the developing the tradition of Deism begun by Locke
result of a dream. Similarly, Hume’s skepticism about and other liberal thinkers, reduced religious beliefs to

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those that can be justified by rational inference from truth, or reality, exists and that the human mind can
the study of nature. Rousseau criticized civilization as know it. This is so because “whatever is real is
a corruption of humanity’s nature and developed rational,” according to Hegel. He conceived the
Hobbes’s doctrine that the state is based on a social subject matter of philosophy to be reality as a whole,
contract with its citizens and represents the popular a reality that he referred to as Absolute Spirit, or
will. Diderot published a 35-volume work known as cosmic reason. The world of human experience,
the Encyclopédie to which many scientists and whether subjective or objective, he viewed as the
philosophers contributed. Diderot and his manifestation of Absolute Spirit.
Encyclopedists, as they were known, associated the
progress and the happiness of humankind with Philosophy’s task, according to Hegel, is to chart the
science and knowledge, whereas Rousseau criticized development of Absolute Spirit from abstract,
such ideas along with the very notion of civilization. undifferentiated being into more and more concrete
reality. Hegel believed this development occurs by a
C. dialectical process—that is, a process through which
19th-Century conflicting ideas become resolved—which consists of
Philosophy a series of stages that occur in triads (sets of three).
Each triad involves (1) an initial state (or thesis),
which might be an idea or a movement; (2) its
Philosophers of the 19th century generally developed opposite state (or antithesis); and (3) a higher state, or
their views with reference to the work of Kant. In synthesis, that combines elements from the two
Germany, Kant’s influence led subsequent opposites into a new and superior arrangement. The
philosophers to explore idealism and ethical synthesis then becomes the thesis of the next triad in
voluntarism, a philosophical tradition that places a an unending progress toward the ideal.
strong emphasis on human will. Whereas
philosophers before Kant had explored the objects of Hegel argued that this dialectical logic applies to all
knowledge, German philosophers who followed Kant knowledge, including science and history. His
on the path of idealism turned to the subject of discussion of history was particularly influential,
knowledge—known variously as the ego, the I, the especially because it supported the political and social
mind, and human consciousness. philosophy later developed by Karl Marx. According
to Hegel human history demonstrates the dialectical
Johann Gottlieb Fichte transformed Kant’s critical development of Absolute Spirit, which can be
idealism into absolute idealism by eliminating Kant’s observed by studying conflicts and wars and the rise
“things-in-themselves” (external reality) and making and fall of civilizations. He maintained that political
the self, or the ego, the ultimate reality. Fichte states are real entities, the manifestation of Spirit in
maintained that the world is created by an absolute the world, and participants of history. In every epoch
ego, which is conscious first of itself and only later of a particular state is the bearer or agent of spiritual
non-self, or the otherness of the world. The human advance, and it thereby gathers to itself power.
will, a partial manifestation of self, gives human Because the dialectic means opposition and conflict,
beings freedom to act. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von war must be expected, and it has value as evidence of
Schelling moved still further toward absolute the health of a state.
idealism by construing objects or things as the works
of the imagination and Nature as an all-embracing Hegel’s philosophy stimulated interest in history by
being, spiritual in character. Schelling became the representing it as a deeper penetration into reality
leading philosopher of the movement known as than the natural sciences provide. His conception of
romanticism, which in contrast to the Enlightenment the national state as the highest social embodiment of
placed its faith in feeling and the creative imagination the Absolute Spirit was for some time believed to be a
rather than in reason. The romantic view of the main source of 20th-century totalitarianism, although
divinity of nature influenced the American Hegel himself advocated a large measure of
transcendentalist movement, led by poet and essayist individual freedom.
Ralph Waldo Emerson.
2.
1.
Schopenhauer
Hegel

German philosophers of the 19th century who came

The most powerful philosophical mind of the 19th after Hegel rejected Hegel’s faith in reason and
century was the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm progress. Arthur Schopenhauer in The World as Will
Friedrich Hegel, whose system of absolute idealism, and Idea (1819) argued that existence is fundamentally
although influenced greatly by Kant and Schelling, irrational and an expression of a blind, meaningless
was based on a new conception of logic and force—the human will, which encompasses the will to
philosophical method. Hegel believed that absolute live, the will to reproduce, and so forth. Will, however,

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entails continuous striving and results in to God. Through such terrible experiences,
disappointment and suffering. Schopenhauer offered Kierkegaard claimed, we learn that humanity’s
two avenues of escape from irrational will: through relationship to God is absolute and all else relative.
the contemplation of art, which enables one to endure What is most significant in a person’s life,
the tragedy of life, and through the renunciation of Kierkegaard concluded, are the decisions made in
will and of the striving for happiness. such ethical crises.

Schopenhauer was one of the first Western Kierkegaard’s ideas came to have importance in the
philosophers to be influenced by Indian philosophy, 20th century. The concepts of existence, dread, the
which was then appearing in Europe in translation. absurd, and decision were influential in Germany,
The influence of Buddhist thought, for example, France, and English-speaking countries. The
appears in his sense that the world is full of evil and condition of humankind during an epoch with two
suffering which can be overcome only through world wars gave these ideas a new relevance; the
resignation and renunciation. Schopenhauer’s own philosophers who developed them founded the
view that an irrational force lies at the center of life movement now known as existentialism.
subsequently influenced voluntaristic psychology, a
school of psychology that emphasized the causes for 5.
our choices; sociological studies that examine Bentham and
nonrational factors affecting people; and cultural Mill
attitudes that play down the value of reason in life.
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, both
3. economists as well as philosophers, dominated
philosophy in England during the 19th century.
Nietzsche Bentham originated the ethical principle of
utilitarianism—that what is useful is good—and Mill
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche continued developed and refined the doctrine. The utilitarians
the revolt against reason initiated by the romantic argued for an ethical principle that would be superior
movement, but he scornfully repudiated to the self-interest of the individual, just as Kant had
Schopenhauer’s negative, resigned attitude. Instead, established a rational principle of moral law superior
Nietzsche affirmed the value of vitality, strength, and to individual desire, by which people’s conduct ought
the supremacy of an existence that is purely egoistic. to be governed. The utilitarians based their principle
He also scorned the Christian and democratic ideas of on the theory that everyone desires his or her own
the equal worth of human beings, maintaining that it happiness, that people have to find that happiness in
is up to a few aristocrats to refuse to subordinate society, and that consequently we all have an interest
themselves to a state or cause, and thereby achieve in the general happiness. They took the position that
self-realization and greatness. For Nietzsche the whatever produces the greatest happiness for the
power to be strong was the greatest value in life. greatest number of people is what is most useful for
Although Nietzsche valued geniuses over dictators, all. This is the meaning of the principle of utility, or
his beliefs helped bolster the ideas of the National benefit, from which utilitarianism takes its name.
Socialists (Nazis) who gained control of Germany in
the 1930s (see National Socialism). In evaluating happiness, Bentham believed it possible
to measure quantitatively the pleasures resulting
4. Kierkegaard from each action—the pleasures of oneself and the
pleasure of others—and thus to decide in any instance
Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard developed what promoted the greatest amount of happiness.
another distinctive philosophy of life. Kierkegaard’s Mill partly abandoned that idea and maintained that
ideas, which were not appreciated until a century one should consider the quality, or type, of pleasure
after their appearance, were literary, religious, and as well as the quantity. Mill applied utilitarian
self-revealing rather than systematic in character. principles to social justice, and the principle of utility
They stressed the importance of experiences that the influenced legislation that brought about social and
intellectual mind judges as absurd, including the economic reforms in Great Britain.
experiences of angst (“anxiety”) and “fear and
trembling.” (The latter phrase is the title of one of his
books.) Such experiences, in his view, lead first to
despair and eventually to religious faith. Kierkegaard 6. Karl Marx and Marxism
discussed this process in terms of the religious person The most influential achievement in political
who is commanded by God to sacrifice his own most philosophy during the 19th century was the
cherished treasures, as in the example of Abraham development of Marxism (see Political Theory).
and the sacrifice of Isaac in the Old Testament. German political philosopher Karl Marx, who created
Although Abraham cannot understand this absurd the system known as Marxism, and his collaborator
request from God, he decides to obey his commitment Friedrich Engels accepted the basic form of Hegel’s

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dialectic of history, but they made crucial The three most important American philosophers of
modifications. For them history was a matter of the the pragmatic movement were Charles Sanders Peirce,
development not of Absolute Spirit but of the who founded pragmatism and gave the movement its
material conditions governing humanity’s economic name; psychologist and religious thinker William
existence. In their view, later known as historical James; and psychologist and educator John Dewey.
materialism, the history of society is a history of class Their work continued into the 20th century. Peirce
struggle in which the ruling class uses religion and formulated a pragmatic theory of knowledge and
other traditions and institutions, as well as its advocated “laboratory philosophy” whereby
economic power, to reinforce its domination over the researchers investigate and clarify the kinds of
working classes. Human culture, according to Marx, knowledge that can be gained either through
is dependent on economic (material) conditions and everyday experience or through scientific inquiry. By
serves economic ends. Religion, he concluded, is “the limiting the realm of meaningful questions to those
opiate of the masses” that serves the political end of that concern possible experience, Peirce hoped to
suppressing mass revolution. Marxism is a theory of introduce scientific logic into metaphysics. He
revolution, of history, of economics, and of politics, advanced a theory of truth that defined truth as that
and it served as the ideology for Communism. which an ideal community of researchers could agree
Although he was a philosopher Marx had disdain for upon. Peirce concluded that many traditional
merely theoretical intellectual work, stating, “The philosophical concepts have no practical use and thus
philosophers have only interpreted the world in are meaningless.
different ways; the point is to change it.”
Whereas Peirce sought to determine the meaning of
Marx’s view of human history is both profoundly terms and ideas and thereby make metaphysics a
pessimistic and profoundly optimistic. Its pessimism precise and pragmatic discipline, James and Dewey
lies in his belief that history reflects the oppression of applied the principles of pragmatism in developing a
the many by a small minority, who thereby secure comprehensive philosophy. Like Peirce, James
economic and political power. It is optimistic on two maintained that the meaning of ideas lies in their
counts. First, Marx believed that technical innovations practical consequences. If an idea has no practical
bring about new ways of meeting human needs and uses, then it is meaningless. James focused on the
make it increasingly possible for people to satisfy power of true ideas to offer individuals, rather than
their deepest wants and to develop and perfect their scientific researchers, practical guidance in handling
individual capacities. Second, Marx claimed to have problems that arise in everyday experience. Truth,
proved that the long history of oppression would according to James, resides in those experiences that
soon end when the masses rise up and usher in a enable people to successfully navigate the challenges
revolution that will create a classless utopian society. and demands of the world.
The first idea enabled Marx to bring attention in the
modern era to Aristotle’s idealistic conception of Dewey emphasized the cooperative process in which
human flourishing, which called upon people to human beings, as intelligent and social beings, create
develop and manifest many different abilities, and revise ideas about the world. One such process
including intellectual, artistic, and physical skills. The was scientific inquiry; another was participation in
second idea motivated much radical activity during just and democratic social and political communities.
the 20th century, including the Russian Revolutions Dewey concluded that science and democracy are the
of 1917, the Communist victory in China in 1949, and only sure guides for intelligent behavior. His
the Cuban Revolution of 1959. progressive social philosophy communicates a vision
of a world in which science, education, and social
7. reform demonstrate the benefits of pragmatic ideas
Pragmatism for human life.

D.
Toward the end of the 19th century, pragmatism 20th-Century
became the most vital school of thought within Philosophy
American philosophy. It continued the empiricist
tradition of grounding knowledge on experience and
stressing the inductive procedures of experimental A diversity of methods, interests, and styles of
science. The pragmatists believed in the progress of argumentation marked 20th-century philosophy and
human knowledge and that ideas are tools whose proved both fruitful and destructive. This diversity,
validity and significance are established as people and the divisions that arose, proved fruitful as new
adapt and test them in physical and social settings. topics arose and new ways developed for discussing
For pragmatists, ideas demonstrate their value insofar these topics philosophically. It proved destructive,
as they enrich human experience. however, as philosophers wrote increasingly for a
narrow audience and often ignored or derided
philosophical styles different from their own.

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In the decades following World War II (1939-1945), selves. These doctrines imply that human beings have
significant divisions arose between so-called enormous freedom. Existentialists maintained that the
continental philosophers, who worked on the human ability to make free choices is so great that it
European continent, and philosophers in the United overwhelms many individuals, who experience a
States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. “flight from freedom” by falsely treating religion,
Deconstruction and other postmodern theories science, or other external factors as constraints and
followed existentialism and phenomenology on the limits on individual freedom. In addition to
continent, whereas the Americans, Britons, and Heidegger the main existentialist thinkers include
Australians worked in the analytic tradition. In the French feminist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir and
final decades of the century, the divisions between her companion, the philosopher, novelist, and
continental and analytic philosophy eased as interest playwright Jean-Paul Sartre.
moved away from the old disputes, and more and
more philosophers became interested in exploring 3.
common roots of the two traditions in the history of Analytic
Western philosophy. Philosophy

1.
Analytic philosophy rose to prominence in the United
Phenomenology
Kingdom after the end of World War I (1914-1918).
This movement heralded a linguistic shift according
German philosopher Edmund Husserl founded the to which the philosophical study of language became
20th-century movement of phenomenology. Husserl the central task of philosophy. Many analytic
said that philosophers must attempt to describe and philosophers concluded that a number of issues
analyze phenomena as they occur, setting aside such prominent in the history of philosophy are
considerations as whether the phenomena are unimportant or even meaningless because they arose
objective or subjective. He emphasized careful when philosophers misunderstood or misused
observation and interpretation of our conscious language. Analytic philosophy is based upon the
perceptions of things. First, we must attend to what assumption that the careful analysis of language and
we are conscious of, observing our perceptions far concepts can clear up these problems and confusions.
more carefully and intensely than we do in everyday The key figures at the beginning of the movement
life. Second, we must reflect upon these observations were British philosopher and mathematician Bertrand
and interpret them without preconceptions. Husserl Russell and Austrian-born British philosopher
maintained that we arrive at meaning and the key to Ludwig Wittgenstein.
solving philosophical problems through a logical
analysis of the data that emerges from such a Russell, strongly influenced by the precision of
“phenomenological study” of the contents of the mathematics, wished to construct a logical language
mind. that would reflect the nature of the world. He argued
that what he called the “surface grammar” of
French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty and everyday language masks a true “logical grammar,”
German philosopher Martin Heidegger further knowledge of which is essential for understanding
developed phenomenology and its emphasis on pure the true meaning of statements. Russell and many
description. For Merleau-Ponty, however, all philosophers influenced by him asserted that complex
perceptual experience carries with it a reference to statements can be reduced to simple components; if
something beyond and independent of our perception their logic does not permit such reduction, then the
of it. Heidegger, too, sought to return to what he statements are meaningless.
claimed had become unfamiliar—Sein (German for
“being” or “existence”). Russell’s view was central to the development of the
so-called Vienna Circle, a group of analytic
2. philosophers active from about 1920 to 1950, who
Existentialism were led by Rudolf Carnap and Moritz Schlick. The
members of the Vienna Circle were scientists or
mathematicians as well as philosophers, and they
originated the movement known as logical positivism.
Heidegger was also a key figure in the 20th-century They believed that the clarification of meaning is the
movement known as existentialism. Existentialists task of philosophy, and that all meaningful
focused on the personal: on individual existence, statements are either scientifically verifiable
subjectivity, and choice. Two central existential statements about the world or else logical tautologies
doctrines claim that there is no fixed human essence (self-evident propositions). According to the logical
structuring our lives and that our choices are never positivists the discovery of new facts belongs to
determined by anything except our own free will. In science, and metaphysics—the construction of
making choices in life, we determine our individual

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comprehensive truths about reality—is a pretentious

pseudo-science.

Wittgenstein, who studied with Russell at Cambridge Inaccessible ideas and impenetrable prose also
University, was perhaps the most important analytic characterize many postmodern philosophical texts,
philosopher. Like Russell, he distrusted ordinary although the difficulties in this case are often
language. In his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) intentional and reflect specific postmodern claims
Wittgenstein stated that “philosophy aims at the about the nature of language and meaning. The literal
logical clarification of thoughts.” Philosophy’s meaning of postmodernism is “after modernism,” and
function, he believed, is to monitor the use of in many ways postmodernism constitutes an attack
language by reducing complex statements to their on modernist claims about the existence of truth and
elementary components and by rebuffing all attempts value—claims that stem from the European
to misuse words in creating the illusion of Enlightenment of the 18th century. In disputing past
philosophical depth. “What can be said at all can be assumptions postmodernists generally display a
said clearly, and what we cannot talk about we must preoccupation with the inadequacy of language as a
consign to silence.” The Tractatus made important mode of communication. Among the major
contributions to the philosophy of language, logic, postmodern theorists are French philosophers Jacques
and the philosophy of mathematics. The account of Derrida and Michel Foucault, and psychoanalyst
language in Wittgenstein’s later work was much Jacques Lacan.
richer and more sophisticated than that in the
Tractatus. However, Wittgenstein never abandoned Derrida originated the philosophical method of
his radical early views on the nature of philosophy. deconstruction, a system of analysis that assumes a
text has no single, fixed meaning, both because of the
As the analytic movement developed, different ideas inadequacy of language to express the author’s
emerged about how philosophical analysis should original intention and because a reader’s
proceed. A group called constructivists was inspired understanding of the text is culturally conditioned—
by Russell, the early writings of Wittgenstein, and the that is, influenced by the culture in which the reader
logical positivists. The solutions to philosophical lives. Thus texts have many possible legitimate
problems, the constructivists argued, lie in using tools interpretations brought about by the “play” of
of logic to create more precise technical vocabularies. language. Derrida stresses the philosophical
Two leading representatives of this movement were importance of pun, metaphor, ambiguity, and other
the American philosophers Nelson Goodman and W. playful aspects of language traditionally disregarded
V. Quine. Quine saw language and logic as in philosophy. His method of deconstruction involves
themselves embodying theories about reality, rather close and careful readings of central texts of Western
than consisting of theory-neutral tools of analysis. By philosophy that bring to light some of the conflicting
contrast, the descriptivists maintained that forces within the text and that highlight the devices
philosophical analysis should focus on the careful the text uses to claim legitimacy and truth for itself,
study of the everyday usage of crucial terms. This many of which may lie beyond the intention of its
group was inspired by the 20th-century British author. Although some of Derrida’s ideas about
philosophers G. E. Moore, Gilbert Ryle, and John language resemble views held by the analytic
Austin. philosophers Wittgenstein, Quine, and Davidson,
many philosophers schooled in the analytic tradition
Although the radical formulations of analytic have dismissed Derrida’s work as destructive of
philosophy from the first half of the 20th century no philosophy.
longer hold sway, analytic philosophy continues to
flourish. Many contemporary philosophers have Foucault created a searing critique of the ideals of the
adopted ideas, methods, or values from the Enlightenment, such as reason and truth. Like
movement, including the Americans Donald Derrida, Foucault used close readings of historical
Davidson, Hilary Putnam, and Saul Kripke. Analytic texts to challenge assumptions, demonstrating how
philosophy also has widely influenced the training ideas about human nature and society, which we
and practices of philosophers today. On the one hand, assume to be permanent truths, have changed over
its influence has led to a renewed commitment to time. From an array of historical texts Foucault
clarity, concision, incisiveness, and depth in created “philosophical anthropologies” that reveal the
philosophical thinking and writing. On the other evolution of concepts such as reason, madness,
hand, it has also caused many philosophers to responsibility, punishment, and power. By examining
embrace difficult and obscure technical language to the origins of these concepts, he maintained, we see
such an extent that their ideas are accessible to only a that attitudes and assumptions that today seem
small community of specialists. natural or even inevitable are historical phenomena
dependent upon time and place. He further claimed
4. Postmodern that the historical development of these ideas
Philosophy demonstrates that seemingly humane and liberal
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Enlightenment ideals are in reality coercive and and the environment? How is the exploitation of
destructive. nature related to the subjugation of women and other
oppressed humans? How can the philosophical study
Lacan agreed with Derrida and Foucault about the of the environment guide and inspire effective
need to overturn crucial cultural and philosophical environmental activism. Most environmental
assumptions, but he arrived at this conclusion by a philosophers seek to apply philosophical methods
different method altogether. Influenced by Swiss and ideas in collaboration with academics and
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and the activists working in the environmental sciences,
psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud, Lacan theology, and feminism.
claimed that the unconscious portion of the mind
operates with structures and rules analogous to those Two figures who played a prominent role in founding
of a language. He used this claim to criticize both environmental philosophy are Norwegian
psychoanalytic theory and philosophy. On the one philosopher Arne Naess and American naturalist,
hand, he believed that concepts from linguistics could conservationist, and philosopher Aldo Leopold.
clarify and correct Freud’s picture of the mind and Naess founded the so-called deep-ecology movement
provide the field of psychoanalysis with greater in the 1970s. The movement distinguishes between
philosophical depth. On the other hand, he shallow ecology, which views nature in terms of its
maintained that applying psychoanalytic methods value to human beings, and deep ecology, which
and theories to linguistics would radically revise values nature independently of its usefulness to
traditional philosophical views of language and humanity. Leopold, in his influential book A Sand
reason. County Almanac (1949), called for the extension of
ethical concern to include all life on Earth, not just
5. human life. Other contemporary environmental
Feminist philosophers include American ecological theologian
Philosophy Thomas Berry and American ecological feminist
Karen Warren.

Feminist philosophers also challenge basic principles 7. Contemporary Political Philosophy

of traditional Western philosophy, investigating how
philosophical inquiry would change if women Political philosophy dates back to Plato and Aristotle
conducted it and if it incorporated women’s who discussed the nature of the ideal government
experiences as well as their viewpoints. In and the ideal society. It continued in theories on
interpreting the history of Western philosophy, individual liberty and political institutions put forth
feminists study texts by male philosophers for their by Hobbes, Mill, and Rousseau. Political philosophy
depiction of women, masculine values, and biases today features a lively dialogue between defenders of
toward men. Feminist philosophers also write about the liberal position and defenders of the
women’s experiences of subjectivity, their communitarian position. The former place the highest
relationship to their bodies, and feminist concepts of value on individual liberties; whereas the latter argue
language, knowledge, and nature. They explore that extreme individual freedom undermines shared
connections between feminism in philosophy and community values.
other emerging feminist disciplines, such as feminist
legal theory, feminist theology, and ecological According to liberalism the chief goods (benefits) of
feminism. Central to feminist philosophy is the government and society are personal and political
concept of the oppression of women who live in freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of
patriarchal (male-controlled) societies; much of the association, and freedom of conscience (belief). Many
work of feminist philosophers has gone into liberal theorists view the freedom to make moral
understanding patriarchy and developing alternatives choices as the most important freedom; they argue
to it. Prominent feminist philosophers include French that political and social systems should be organized
postmodern philosophers Luce Irigaray and Hélène to allow individuals the freedom to pursue their own
Cixous and American philosopher of law Catharine ideas about “the good life.” Communitarians respond
MacKinnon. that granting individuals this extreme freedom of
choice ultimately limits human experience by
6. undermining shared communal values. They claim
Environmental
that by ignoring the importance of community,
Philosophy
liberalism disregards humanity’s social nature.

Environmental philosophy is concerned with issues Prominent communitarians include Scottish

that arise when human beings interact with the philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre and American
environment. For instance, is a transformation of philosopher Michael Sandel. Important liberal
society necessary for the survival of living organisms theorists include British philosopher Isaiah Berlin and
American philosophers Ronald Dworkin and John
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Rawls. Rawls is the author of A Theory of Justice (1971), Business ethicists bring ethical theories and
considered to be the most significant work of political techniques to bear on moral issues that arise in
philosophy in the 20th century. In this book, he business. For example, what are the responsibilities of
presents the idea of “justice as fairness,” a principle corporations to their employees, their customers, their
that promotes the equal distribution of the benefits shareholders, and the environment? Most business
and burdens of society among individuals. Any students take courses in business ethics, and many
advantages that society confers should benefit those large corporations regularly consult with specialists in
who are most disadvantaged, Rawls believes. From the field. Business ethicists also address larger topics,
this and other principles he has developed theories such as the ethics of globalization and the moral
about political and social relations within liberal justification of various economic systems, such as
democracies and between those democracies and capitalism and socialism.
certain illiberal states. Rawls’s ideas remain a major
inspiration for much current work in political Source: Encarta Encyclopedia 2007
philosophy.

8.
Applied
Ethics

Although most contemporary philosophy is highly

technical and inaccessible to nonspecialists, some
contemporary philosophers concern themselves with
practical questions and strive to influence today’s
culture. Practitioners of feminist philosophy,
environmental philosophy, and some areas of
contemporary political philosophy seek to use the
tools of philosophy to resolve current issues directly
related to peoples’ lives. Nowhere have philosophers
more enthusiastically embraced practical relevance
than in contemporary applied ethics, a field that has
developed since the 1960s. Most of the questions
applied ethicists raise concern the general theme
“How should we live and die?”—a question central to
ancient Greek philosophy.

Separate areas of specialization, such as biomedical

ethics and business ethics, have emerged within
applied ethics. Biomedical ethics deals with questions
arising from the life sciences and human health care,
and has two subspecialties: bioethics and medical
ethics. Bioethicists study the ethical implications of
advances in genetics and biotechnology, such as
genetic testing, genetic privacy, cloning, and new
reproductive technologies. For example, they consider
the consequences for individuals who learn they have
inherited a fatal genetic disease, or the consequences
of technology that enables parents to choose the sex of
a baby. Bioethicists then offer advice to legislators,
researchers, and physicians active in these areas.
Specialists in medical ethics offer advice to physicians,
other health care personnel, and patients on a wide
variety of issues, including abortion, euthanasia,
fertility treatments, medical confidentiality, and the
allocation of scarce medical resources. Much of the
work in medical ethics directly affects the everyday
practice of medicine, and most nursing students and
medical students now take courses in this field.

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