KNOWLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA

HISTORY!
KNOWLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA

HISTORY!
 Senior Art Editor Smiljka Surla
CONTENTS
Senior Editors Sam Atkinson, Shaila Brown
Designers Mik Gates, Joe Lawrence, Mark Lloyd THE ANCIENT WORLD
Project Editors Claire Gell, Francesco Piscitelli, Amanda Wyatt
Consultant Philip Parker Timeline of the ancient world 8
Contributors Peter Chrisp, Alexander Cox, Susan Kennedy, Sally Regan Human ancestors 10
3-D Illustrators Art Agency (artists: Barry Croucher, Jean-Michel
Out of Africa 12
Girard, Claudia Saraceni), Peter Bull Art Studio, KJA Artists, Arran
Early humans 14
Lewis, Brendan McCaffrey, Sofian Moumene, SJC Illustration
The first farmers 16
Additional Illustrations Beehive, Peter Bull Art Studio,
Ancient megaliths 18
Gus Scott, Mohd Zishan
Mesopotamia 20
Cartography Ed Merritt
Ancient Egypt 22
DK Media Archive Romaine Werblow
Picture Researchers Nic Dean, Myriam Megharbi Egyptian religion 24
Managing Editor Lisa Gillespie Egyptian daily life 26
Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones Ancient Greece 28
Producer, Pre-Production Andy Hilliard Ancient Greek culture 30
Senior Producer Meskerem Berhane The Phoenicians 32
DTP Designers Nand Kishor Acharya, Syed Md Farhan The people of the steppes 34
Jacket Designers Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi, Tanya Mehrotra Celtic Europe 36
Jackets Design Development Manager Sophia MTT The Persian Empire 38
Jackets Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal The Hellenistic world 40
Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Ancient India 42
Jackets Editor Emma Dawson
China's first emperor 44
Publisher Andrew Macintyre
Han China 46
Art Director Karen Self
Ancient Rome 48
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler
The Roman army 50
Design Director Phil Ormerod
Roman daily life 52
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf
Germanic peoples 54
First published in Great Britain in 2019 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited
80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL

Copyright © 2019 Dorling Kindersley Limited

A Penguin Random House Company

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001–312735–August/2019

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book

is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-0-2413-6337-9

Printed and bound in United Arab Emirates

A WORLD OF IDEAS:
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW
www.dk.com
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
Timeline of the medieval world 58 Timeline of the age of revolution 126
The power of the Church 60 The Seven Years' War 128
The Byzantine Empire 62 The Industrial Revolution 130
Medieval Japan 64 American independence 132
The early Islamic world 66 The expansion of the US 134
The Vikings 68 Colonizing Australia and the Pacific 136
Medieval Europe 70 The French Revolution 138
Empires of Southeast Asia 72 The Napoleonic Wars 140
Cultures of North America 74 The liberation of Latin America 142
China's Golden Age 76 The rise of nations 144
The Crusades 78 Medical advances 146
Sub-Saharan kingdoms 80 The US Civil War 148
Polynesian expansion 82 Life in the Old West 150
The Mongol Empire 84 The automobile 152
Ancient Americas 86 US immigration 154
Ming China 88 Age of empires 156
Early flight 158

THE MODERN WORLD

Timeline of the modern world 162
THE AGE OF EXPLORATION World War I 164
The Western Front 166
Timeline of the age of exploration 92 The Russian Revolution 168
The Renaissance 94 Boom and bust in the US 170
Joseon Korea 96 Age of dictators 172
The Ottoman Empire 98 The Golden Age of Cinema 174
The Printing Revolution 100 World War II begins 176
Early Russia 102 The Holocaust 178
Voyages of exploration 104 World War II in Africa 180
Conquest of the Americas 106 World War II becomes global 182
The Reformation 108 Decolonization 184
The Mughal Empire 110 The Cold War 186
The Scientific Revolution 112 The Vietnam War 188
Early colonial America 114 The Civil Rights Movement 190
The Dutch Golden Age 116 The 1960s 192
Edo Japan 118 Conflict in the Middle East 194
The Atlantic slave trade 120 Postcolonial Africa 196
Absolute monarchs 122 Modern Asia 198
A greener future 200

Glossary 202
Index 204
Acknowledgments 208
THE ANCIENT WORLD
Humans first evolved in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and began
to spread across the globe around 100,000 years later. From around
9000 bce, some groups of humans developed farming and settled
the first towns. Eventually, great civilizations sprang up in several
different areas of the world. The oldest were in the Middle East and
Egypt, with other civilizations forming in Europe, India, and China.
8 the ancient world TIMELINE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

268–232 bce: Ashoka the Great 221–210 bce: Qin Shi Huangdi 206 bce–220 ce: The Han Dynasty
Ashoka expanded The king of Qin united the states The Han Dynasty ruled China for
the Mauryan Empire in of China for the first time, taking more than 400 years. In that time,
India, and ordered the the title “Qin Shi Huangdi” (“First the Chinese invented paper, the
construction of many Emperor of Qin”). He was buried wheelbarrow, and the
Buddhist monuments. with thousands of model soldiers magnetic compass.
known as the Terracotta Army.
CHINESE WHEELBARROW
CAPITAL (TOP) OF AN ASHOKA PILLAR
FROM A MONASTERY AT SARNATH

336–323 bce: Alexander’s empire c.450–100 bce: La Tène Culture

Alexander the Great of Macedon A high point of Celtic civilization,
united Greece under his rule before the La Tène culture is named after
conquering the Persian Empire and an archaeological site found in La
invading India. His empire collapsed Tène in Switzerland. Its people
after his death in 323 bce. produced intricate metalwork in
bronze and gold.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT THE “BATTERSEA SHIELD”

Timeline of the
ancient world STATUES OF
RAMESES II
c.1550–1069 bce: The New Kingdom
In New Kingdom Egypt, pharaohs were
Early humans lived in small groups, moving AT ABU SIMBEL
buried in hidden tombs in the Valley
from place to place to find new sources of food. of the Kings. The New Kingdom
pharaoh Rameses II ruled over Egypt
But with the development of farming, many for 66 years, and commanded the
building of many statues in his image.
groups began to settle down in fertile areas,
forming larger communities.
The earliest towns and cities were built in Mesopotamia (in
modern-day Iraq) and along the Nile in Egypt, more than
5,000 years ago. Centuries later, the cultures of the Greeks,
Phoenicians, and Romans developed around the edges of
the Mediterranean Sea. In Asia, civilizations sprang up
on the shores of the Persian Gulf, around the Indus River 2055–1710 bce:
in modern-day Pakistan, and along the Yangtze River in The Middle Kingdom
MIDDLE
After a period of division, Egypt
China. Ancient regions traded with each other, but they KINGDOM
united under the pharaohs of TOMB MODEL
also competed for land and resources, leading to war, the Middle Kingdom. Much
and the creation of the world’s first empires. of what we know about
Egyptian daily life comes
from art of this period.

SAHELANTHROPUS 1.89 million years ago:

TCHADENSIS
Homo erectus
7–6 million years ago: Homo erectus were the first 200,000 to 18,400 years ago:
Sahelanthropus tchadensis human ancestors to have similar Humans spread across the world
The earliest human ancestors to walk bodies and limb sizes to those of Modern humans travelled out of
upright, Sahelanthropus tchadensis modern humans. They used fire East Africa and eventually
may have spent as much time up in and developed hand-axe tools. spread to every continent HUNTING A MAMMOTH
the trees as they did on the ground. HOMO ERECTUS apart from Antarctica. IN NORTH AMERICA
 9

27 bce: The Roman Empire 9 ce: Germanic tribes 476 ce: Fall of the
Augustus became the first of many defeat Rome Western Roman Empire
Roman emperors. At its greatest An alliance of Germanic In 286 ce, the Roman Empire
extent in 117 ce, the Roman Empire tribes under the chieftain had split into western and
stretched from Spain and Britain to Arminius defeated Roman eastern halves. In 476 ce,
modern-day Syria and the Red Sea. armies at the Battle of Romulus Augustulus, the last
Teutoburg Forest. Western Roman Emperor, was
EMPEROR AUGUSTUS ARMINIUS ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS overthrown by a Germanic king.

492–479 bce: c.500–336 bce: Classical Greece

The Greco-Persian Wars The Greeks of the Classical Age
Darius I of the Persian Empire made great advancements in
and his son Xerxes I launched philosophy, politics, and science,
invasions of Greece. Darius was and developed the first theatres.
defeated by an Athenian army, Classical Greek culture spread
Xerxes by an alliance of city-states. throughout the Mediterranean.
PERSIAN AND GREEK WARRIORS

ROMAN
SOLDIER

c.1200 bce: The Phoenicians 559–330 bce: The Persian Empire c.510 bce: The Roman Republic
The seafaring Phoenician The Persians of the Middle East The Romans overthrew their king,
civilization, based in conquered many lands, and their establishing the Roman Republic.
modern-day Lebanon empire stretched from Egypt to It was governed by elected officials
in the Middle East, began northwest India. The Persians and the Senate, a council of nobles.
to dominate trade across allowed conquered peoples to Under the Republic, Rome became a
the Mediterranean. keep their customs and religions. great power across the Mediterranean.
PHOENICIAN CARGO SHIP

PAINTING OF BULL From c.2500 bce: The Indus

LEAPING, KNOSSOS
trade with Mesopotamia
The people of the Indus Valley
civilization in ancient India
2900–1450 bce: Minoan civilization created trade routes with
The earliest civilization in Europe, the Minoans built other cultures, such as the INDUS STATUE
palaces such as Knossos on their island home of Crete, Sumerians of Mesopotamia. OF A BULL
and set up trading centres across the Mediterranean.

KHAFRA

c.9000 bce: The first farmers c.3300–3100 bce: 2686–2181 bce: The Old Kingdom
Some groups began to settle down and First cities in Mesopotamia During the period known as the
produce their own food rather than The earliest cities were established Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians
living by hunting and gathering. They in Mesopotamia in the Middle East. constructed pyramid tombs and
grew plants to eat and tamed animals The Mesopotamians developed other monuments for their pharaohs
for meat and to work the land. rulership, religion, and a form of (ancient Egyptian rulers). The three
writing, known today as cuneiform, greatest pyramids were the tombs of the
EARLY FARMING AXE that was written on clay tablets. CUNEIFORM TABLET pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaure.
 the ancient world
The brains of humans are almost twice the
10 HUMAN ANCESTORS size of those of our ancestors, Homo habilis.

Human ancestors
Standing upright
Like today’s humans,
SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS Homo erectus would
Region: Africa have stood upright.
Period: 7–6 million years ago Modern humans are the only survivors of a family
The earliest apes that walked upright, Sahelanthropus of apes that walked upright. These apes are called
tchadensis lived in western Central Africa, in a hominins, and they first appeared in Africa around
region of lakes, forests, and grassy woodland.
Although they could walk upright, they may have
seven million years ago.
spent just as much time in the trees as on the ground.
Hominins diverged from other primates that would
later evolve into human’s closest living relative, the
chimpanzee. There were many species of hominins,
but only some are the ancestors of modern
humans. Over millions of years, they began to
walk on two legs, evolved increasingly larger
brains, started to make tools, and learned to
control fire. These adaptations, as well as many
others, were passed on to modern humans.

Long legs
Homo erectus could run
away from predators
AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS using their long legs.
Region: Africa Eyes
Period: 3.85–2.95 million years ago Homo erectus may have
evolved whites to their
Like their ancestors Sahelanthropus, Australopithecus eyes, which would have
afarensis could still climb trees, but they were better improved their vision.
adapted to living in East Africa’s grasslands. Their
improved upright stance meant they could run faster
and see predators and prey across open plains.

Cooked meat
Homo erectus ate meat,
and may have also
cooked it. This increased
energy intake and
fuelled brain growth.

HOMO HABILIS
Region: Africa
Period: 2.4–1.4 million years ago
Homo habilis (meaning “handy man”) had brains
that were 50 per cent larger than those of
Australopithecus. They made simple stone choppers
by striking river pebbles with other stones to make
a cutting edge.

Staying cool
Homo erectus could keep cool
better than earlier hominins
as they had less body hair
and bigger sweat glands. Fire
Fire provided warmth,
light, and protection
from predators.
 Humans were the only species in their
family to spread all over the world. 99% The percentage of DNA humans share with
their closest living relative, the chimpanzee. 11

HOMO ERECTUS HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS

Region: Africa, Asia Region: Europe, Africa
Period: 1.89 million years ago–143,000 years ago Child Period: 700,000–200,000 years ago
Homo erectus had a short
Homo erectus (meaning “upright man”) were the childhood and reached Homo heidelbergensis were named after Heidelberg
first hominins with similar bodies and limb sizes to puberty by the age of 12. in Germany, where their remains were first found in
those of modern humans. They learned to control 1908. They hunted large animals, such as elephants,
fire and invented a new kind of stone tool, using spears. They were the first hominins to adapt
a hand axe with a diamond-shaped blade. to colder climates and build shelters.

Digging tool
Homo erectus may have
used sticks to dig for roots
and tubers to eat.
HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS
Region: Europe, Asia
Strong jaw
Strong muscles in Homo Period: 400,000–40,000 years ago
erectus’ mouth helped
to chew tough food.
Neanderthals, modern humans’ closest relatives,
were named after the Neander valley in Germany
where fossils were discovered in 1856. Neanderthals
were skilled toolmakers, wore clothes of animal
skin, painted cave art, and buried their dead.

HOMO SAPIENS
Region: Worldwide
Period: 300,000 years ago–present
Our species, Homo sapiens (meaning “thinking man”),
is the most versatile hominin. From African origins,
we spread throughout the world, eventually
replacing all other hominin species. We developed
language and writing, which allowed us to
communicate and work together in large groups.

Sculptures
Hand tool Modern scientists
Homo erectus used have discovered that
diamond-shaped tools Homo erectus sculpted
to skin their prey. figures out of rock.
12 the ancient world OUT OF AFRICA 200,000 The number of years it took for humans to
spread all over the world, except Antarctica.

Close relatives
Denisovans, a human-like
species, were discovered
Neanderthal in 2008. A finger bone
Neanderthals lived at of a female was found
the same time as early in the Denisova cave in
humans in Europe, usually Siberia. Denisovans
keeping apart from them. lived in East Asia.

MAL’TA
MLADEČ KOSTENKI MALAIA SYIA

KENTS CAVERN DENISOVA CAVE

CLOCLOVINA
PESTERA OKLADNIKOV
CU OASE CAVE

BACHO KIRO
ZHOUKOUDIAN
LAGAR
VELHO MISLIYA CAVE TIANYUAN CAVE
TEMARA
DAR ES- TESHIK
SKHUL TASH
SOLTAN

QAFZEH
JEBEL
IRHOUD
AL WUSTA YAMASHITA-CHO
TARAMSA

SAHARA
DESERT
TAM PA
HADAR
LING CAVES

SINGA
HERTO /
MIDDLE AWASH BALANGODA
OMO KIBISH

LAETOLI

Flores man
Exploring the world
Homo floresiensis,
Early humans first spread into a tiny hominin,
the Middle East, and then Asia and lived on the island
Australia. They later ventured of Flores between
north into the colder climates of 100,000 and
60,000 years ago.
Europe and northern Asia. During
the last Ice Age, low sea levels
DRAKENSBERG created a land bridge between
The earliest human Asia and North America. Early
Inside Jebel Irhoud cave humans walking across this
BLOMBOS
in Morocco, scientists CAVE reached the Americas.
have discovered the
earliest human remains
yet found. The skull is
300,000 years old and
Unchanged communities
Aborigine ancestors
is very similar to those There are many cultures and Early humans sailed across
of modern humans, but groups around the world the 90-km (56-mile)
has a primitive, slightly today that still follow a stretch of sea from
elongated braincase hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Indonesia to New Guinea
at the back. This way of life can only and Australia. There, they
support a small band of hunted prehistoric giant
kangaroos and big
people, usually made up flightless birds.
San Bushmen of South Africa
of extended families.
The hunter-gatherer San Bushmen
tribes have lived in the Kalahari
Desert for about 20,000 years.
 Humans sailed to Australia Early humans reached some large islands, such as modern-day
on rafts made of bamboo. Britain and the islands of Japan, by walking over land bridges. 13

CALGARY
Hunting
Early humans walked across
a land bridge from Asia to MANIS
North America, possibly
following herds of animals.
ANZICK MEADOWCROFT

Out of Africa
CHILD
PAISLEY
5-MILE
POINT Using tools
The earliest known
The first humans evolved in Africa 300,000 years BUTTERMILK CREEK North Americans were
COMPLEX
ago. When the climate in the previously impassable the Clovis people.
They were toolmakers,
Sahara Desert briefly turned wetter 100,000 years and made distinctive
diamond-shaped blades.
later, they started to explore elsewhere. YUCATAN
CAVES
When humans migrated out of Africa, they shared the
planet with several different kinds of human-like species
called hominins. The most common were the Neanderthals Key
in Europe and western Asia and the Denisovans in East Between 194,000 and
88,000 years ago
Asia. All early humans were hunter-gatherers. They moved
Between 120,000 and
from place to place as they searched for fresh sources of 45,000 years ago
food. This lifestyle meant early humans were great
Between 80,000 and
travellers. Humans’ ability to travel and adapt to changing 40,000 years ago
environments meant they survived while all other Between 50,000 and
hominins went extinct by about 40,000 years ago. Over 25,000 years ago HUACA PRIETA

many generations, early humans gradually travelled Between 18,000 and

further and further. By 15,000 years ago, humans had 15,000 years ago PEDRA FURADA

spread into every continent (except Antarctica). Land during low

sea levels CUNCAICHA

Fossil sites of
early humans
CUEVA BAUTISTA

Mixing populations
Scientists have studied and MONTE
VERDE
compared DNA of modern
humans and DNA extracted
from the remains of other
hominin species. They have
discovered that we share many
genes with these hominins.
As early humans left Africa and
came into contact with other
hominins, we interbred with
them. Modern humans are the
result of this interbreeding.
NEANDERTHAL HUMAN
14 the ancient world EARLY HUMANS 110,000 years old – the age of the oldest jewellery
made by early humans that has been found.

Early humans
Hunting woolly mammoths
During the Ice Age, early humans hunted
woolly mammoths and other large
mammals on the steppes of Europe and
Earth was undergoing an Ice Age between 60,000 Asia. Mammoths provided them with
and 40,000 years ago. Early humans living in Europe and meat, skin for clothing, and bones and
northern Asia at that time experienced a cold and dry tusks to build shelters and make spears.
climate, and much of Europe and Asia were covered
with steppes (treeless grasslands). Hut Spear
Some early humans made These early humans
Early humans lived in small groups of between 25 and 50 people. huts from mammoth made spears tipped with
bones and skin. mammoth-tusk blades.
They kept on the move and lived in temporary shelters. There
were no leaders, and men and women were equally important.
While men hunted large animals, women gathered plant foods
and cared for children. Early humans made a wide range of tools,
including bone needles for sewing and harpoons for fishing.
Because they travelled from place to place, early humans came
into contact with a range of foods and
as a result they had a varied diet.
They were also very adaptable
to changes in the climate.

Clothes
Early humans wore
thick clothing sewn
together from animal
skin and furs.

CAVE ART
About 40,000 years ago, early humans
started to paint animals in caves. Cave
art has been found in Europe, Africa, and
Australia. Early humans painted using
fingers smeared with red ochre (clay)
and sticks dipped in charcoal. Prehistoric
art is evidence for the first humans’
ability to imagine and create.

Lascaux cave paintings

These 20,000-year-old paintings of
horses and aurochs (wild cattle) are
from the Lascaux cave in France.
 73,000 years old – the age of the earliest
drawing discovered so far.
Humans’ close relatives, the
Neanderthals, also painted cave art. 15

Tusks
Mammoths used their 43,000-year-old flutes made
tusks, which could grow from ivory and bone found
up to 5 m (16 ft) long,
to defend themselves in Germany in 2012 are the
against attacking humans.
earliest known
musical instruments.
Fur
Mammoths were
covered with a coat Jewellery
of long hair over a Early humans wore necklaces
thick layer of fat. made from animal bones and
teeth, sea shells, or beads.
Necklaces made of sea shells
have been found far from the
sea, showing that early humans
travelled great distances.

Hunters
To bring down large
animals, early humans
hunted together in groups.

CLOTHING LANGUAGE
Early humans wore clothing made Humans have a hyoid bone
from animal skins, sewn together that anchors the tongue,
with bone needles. Clothes were allowing them to make
worn for display as well as for a wide range of vocal
protection from the cold. A man sounds. Neanderthals
buried 30,000 years ago near also had a hyoid bone.
modern-day Sunghir in Russia Although both species
was found wearing around 3,000 were capable of speech,
mammoth ivory beads, which had it is likely that early
been sewn onto his clothing. He also humans used language
wore a cap decorated with fox teeth. in more complex ways.
Hyoid bone
16 the ancient world THE FIRST FARMERS 35,000 years ago – dogs were
first tamed by humans.

The first farmers CHANGE IN DIET

Though farming was more productive than hunting and
By around 9000 bce, the way humans lived had begun to gathering, farmers ate a less varied diet. Early farmers
change. Instead of constantly being on the move, hunting lived on a few staple crops, such as grain, which lacked
important vitamins and minerals. Early farmers were
wild animals and gathering wild plants, humans started prone to diseases caused by a lack of nutrition.
to produce their own sources of food by farming.
People started to plant seeds in fertile soils and to grow crops.
They also learned to domesticate (tame and raise) animals, such as
sheep and goats, for food or to help them tend to crops. This was the
beginning of farming. Farming could produce much more food than
hunting and gathering, so many humans started to settle down in
permanent villages to be close to their crops. If farmers produced
more food than they needed at the time, they stored it to be eaten
when food was hard to come by. This meant that farming produced
more reliable supplies of food than hunting and gathering.

What hunter-gatherers ate What farmers ate

Hunter-gatherers had a varied Farmers had a small selection
diet, including red meat, fish, of foods, such as cereals,
and plants rich in nutrients. which they ate every day.

Appalachians
Fertile Crescent
Squash
Sunflower Wheat Olives
The Sahel Barley Sheep
Lentils Goat Eastern Asia
Sorghum
Chickpeas Cattle Millet Pig
Millet
Cattle Rice Horse
Camel Soybean Chicken

Mesoamerica
Maize
Squash
Turkey
Millet
Avocado

Indus Valley
The Andes Cattle
EARLY FARMERS Llama and alpaca Rice
Potato Mungbean
Farming began in several parts of
Peanut
the world at different times. Some
areas had more plants and animals
that could be domesticated than
others, and so people living there
had an advantage as farmers. A New Guinea
region known as the Fertile Crescent Bananas
in the Middle East offered the best Key Taro

selection of plants and animals, Areas where farming and

so farming started there. domestication began

Timeline c.8500 bce c.8500 bce c.8500 bce c.7500 bce c.7000 bce c.4000 bce c.3500 bce

Domestication
Most farm animals were
domesticated from
around 10,000 years
ago, but a few were
not tamed until later.
GOAT CATTLE SHEEP CHICKEN PIG LLAMA HORSE
 Most wild animals cannot be tamed. Zebras are
too aggressive and gazelles are too easily scared. 4 million sq km (1.54 million sq miles) – the area of
Earth’s surface now covered by wheat. 17

EARLY TOOLS MEASURING TIME

Living in one place allowed Farmers needed to know when to plant
people to use heavier tools, their crops. They measured the passing
as they didn’t have to carry seasons by keeping track of the Sun and
them around. They also Pottery the stars. In Egypt, farming depended on the
Pots allowed
began to make pottery, people to boil
yearly flooding of the River Nile. Egyptian
which was too fragile and food, make farmers learned that when they saw the
heavy for wandering tribes stews, and store bright star Sirius rising each August,
to transport. Early farmers and contain food. the Nile flood would soon follow.
sharpened pieces of flint
to make sickles and axes.

Sickle Axe Quern

Farmers harvested cereals using Stone-bladed axes were used People ground grain using
sickles that had blades of flint. to cut down trees and clear two stones, which together
the land for growing crops. were called a quern.

FIRST SETTLEMENTS Entrance

Houses were
Loom
Craftwork, such as
Farming villages grew bigger until entered through weaving, took place
they became towns. The first town the roof. on the rooftops.
appeared in West Asia 10,000 years
ago. The people of these early
towns kept sheep, goats,
and cattle and grew
wheat, barley, and
pulses. Towns were
WILD SHEEP also craft centres,
where textiles,
pottery, and
jewellery were
manufactured.

House
Made of mud and
bricks, houses were
tightly packed together.

Cattle
DOMESTIC SHEEP
Cattle were
Çatalhöyük kept in pens
and used for
Selective breeding One of the world’s earliest towns was
Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey, carrying heavy
When farmers bred animals, items or food.
lasting from 7400 to 6200 bce. It had a
they picked those that were
population of several thousand people.
easiest to keep and take care of.
Domesticated animals became
smaller and less aggressive than
Population growth Cooperation Warfare
their wild ancestors. Farmers
also desired certain qualities in As people settled in one place Farmers had to learn to cooperate There was a sharp rise in
their animals. They picked wild and started to produce more with one another. Many people violent conflict as different
sheep with the thickest fur and food than they could eat, working together on large farms groups fought to defend their
smallest horns for breeding. populations grew. could produce more food. food and land.
Over time, the wild sheep’s
descendants gained thick
woolly coats and their horns
got even smaller.
18 the ancient world ANCIENT MEGALITHS c.42,000 rocks make up the
Rujm el-Hiri megalith.

GÖbekli Tepe Tall pillar

The two tallest
The earliest megalithic structure that has been pillars were
discovered, Göbekli Tepe in present-day Turkey, more than 5 m
was built in c.10,000 bce and is made up of at (16 ft) high.
least 20 circular structures. Only two structures
are shown here. Unlike later megaliths, it was
Human pillar built by hunter-gatherers who had
The tallest pillars are T-shaped. only just started to farm.
With carved belts, arms, and
hands, these represent human
figures, possibly the ancestors Side pillar
of the people who made The smaller side
Göbekli Tepe. Many stones are pillars were up to
engraved with images of wild 4 m (13 ft) high.
animals, including lions, snakes,
goats, birds, and insects.

Hand Enclosure D
This circular temple, 20 m
Belt (66 ft) across, is one of the
biggest at Göbekli Tepe.

The vulture may

be holding the
head of a person.

A scorpion
climbs up towards Vulture Stone
the vultures. This pillar, the Vulture Stone,
shows three vultures with a
headless person. This probably
Headless body
shows excarnation, a common
ritual of the time in which the
bodies of the dead were exposed
to be picked clean by vultures.

CARNAC GGANTIJA NEWGRANGE

Location: France Location: Malta Location: Ireland
Date: 4500–3300 bce Date: c.3600-3200 bce Date: c.3200 bce
At Carnac, early people erected more than 3,000 Early people built the temple of Ggantija in Newgrange contains a long, underground
standing stones in rows that stretch for many Malta so that the structure aligned with the passage that leads to a central burial chamber.
miles. The stones are 0.9 m (3 ft) to 2.4 m (73⁄4 ft) sunrise during the equinoxes (when day and Early people carefully designed Newgrange so
tall. Their purpose remains a mystery, but it is night are equal in length). On these dates, that, on the winter solstice (the shortest day of
possible that each stone represents an ancestor, in March and September, the rising sun the year), the rising sun would shine through
whose spirit was thought to live on inside it. illuminates the temple’s central chamber. the passage and light up the burial chamber.
 225 km (140 miles) – the distance some stones
were moved from Wales to Stonehenge. 19

Inner wall
This enclosure featured
a secondary wall.

Entrance
Early people could enter
this enclosure through
a short corridor.

Wooden rollers
The stones were hauled to the site,
maybe with the help of wooden rollers.
Though quarried nearby, they had to be
dragged uphill over rough, rocky ground.

Carver
Each pillar was carved with designs
before it was put into place.

Ancient
megaliths
Around 12,000 years ago, people started to build
the world’s first large monuments called megaliths
(Greek for “big stone”).
Megaliths can be found all over the world. In Europe and
western Asia, they were built to be communal tombs, and
alignments of standing stones whose purpose remains a
mystery. Others may have been temples. They are the first
instances of permanent structures. Early people were probably
strongly aware of their ancestors, who were felt to still be
present after their deaths. Standing stones may have been
Walls set up to honour or worship them. Builders often aligned
Like the pillars, the walls
were made of blocks of local their megaliths with sunrises and sunsets at certain times
limestone, with clay mortar. of the year – but the reasons for this are not yet known.

RUJM EL-HIRI STONEHENGE KOREAN DOLMEN FIELDS

Location: Syria/Israel Location: England Location: North and South Korea
Date: 3000–2700 bce Date: 3000–2000 bce Date: c.700–200 bce
Rujm el-Hiri is made up of five circular stone At Stonehenge, builders set up huge, locally A dolmen is a tomb made of three or more huge
walls that encircle one another, the largest quarried stones in a circle of trilithons (two stones arranged to resemble a table, commonly
measuring 160 m (525 ft) across. Its purpose upright stones and a horizontal stone on top). covered with a mound of earth. Though the
remains a mystery, though some features line This enclosed a circle of smaller stones that are earliest dolmens are found in western Europe,
up with the sunrise during specific dates of the thought to come from Wales, several hundred many more were built in Korea. The earth
year. Early people later built a burial ground kilometres away. Like Newgrange, it is aligned mounds that once covered the dolmens have
that stands in the centre. with the winter solstice sunrise. since been worn away by wind and rain.
 the ancient world
The world’s first city was Uruk,
20 MESOPOTAMIA in southern Mesopotamia.

NINEVEH

Royal hunt
ASSUR
Assyrian king Ashurbanipal’s
palace at Nineveh was decorated
The god Ashur with reliefs showing him hunting
The main temple to the lions. Killing lions was seen as a
chief god of the Assyrians, way of displaying royal power.
Ashur, was based in Assur,
the original capital city of the Hammurabi’s law code
empire. Ashur was sometimes In 1754 bce, King Hammurabi
depicted as an archer inside of Babylon had a famous law
a winged disc. code carved onto a stele
(a stone slab). At the top it
showed the king receiving
the laws from Shamash,
god of justice.

Mesopotamia BABYLON
The word Mesopotamia means “the land between two
rivers” in ancient Greek. This word is now used to refer
to a region of the ancient Middle East around the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers, in modern-day Iraq. The people
who lived here in ancient times, known today as the
Mesopotamians, built the world’s first cities more AKKAD

than 5,000 years ago. EUPH

RATE
S
The inhabitants of early Mesopotamia were not a unified
people. The first cities were built in Sumer, a region of southern
Mesopotamia. The Sumerians were later conquered by people
Sargon of Akkad
from empires in the north – the Akkadians, the Babylonians, Historians believe this
and the Assyrians. Through these conflicts, the people of copper head shows
Mesopotamia developed the first armies, but they also Sargon of Akkad, the first
invented many of the fundamental features of civilization, ruler of the Akkadian
Empire, or possibly his
such as monarchies and organized religion. grandson, Naram-Sin.

Timeline c.6000–4000 bce c.3300–3100 bce c.3000 bce c.2325 bce

The history of First farmers City-states emerge Sumerian bronze The Akkadian Empire
Farming people from Around a dozen cities emerged in The Sumerians learned that by King Sargon of Akkad
Mesopotamia northern Mesopotamia Sumer. Each was governed by an mixing two soft metals, copper conquered all of Sumer,
Various empires sprang up in moved south, into the flat ensi (ruler) who claimed to reign and tin, they could create a harder establishing the Akkadian
ancient Mesopotamia through southern plains of Sumer. on behalf of the local god. The metal, called bronze. They used it Empire. The language of
a series of conflicts over They worked together to Sumerians developed a writing to make tools, weapons, and pots, Akkadian, which is related
thousands of years. Cities fought irrigate their fields, building system known today as cuneiform and to create sculptures. The land to modern-day Arabic
canals, dykes, and reservoirs (meaning “wedge-shaped”), made of Mesopotamia had no metals and Hebrew, gradually
with each other for dominance, to store water. Over time, up of marks that could be mined from under replaced Sumerian. Even
while foreign peoples arrived villages grew larger, and imprinted on the earth, so the tin and copper the Sumerian gods were
as invaders. The last invasion some people began to clay tablets. needed to make bronze had to be given new Akkadian names.
was by the Persians, who took specialize in a single trade imported from other lands. For example, Nanna, chief
control of the region and made or craft. By 4500 bce, the god of Ur, was renamed Sin.
it a part of their empire. Mesopotamians had
developed the potter’s wheel. CUNEIFORM
TABLET
 The tombs of the kings and queens of the
city of Ur were filled with many treasures. 907 The number of signs in the
Assyrian cuneiform language. 21

Mesopotamian
empires
R I ANineveh
Assyria in the north and
Babylon further south Y
created large empires A SS
that covered the whole of Eu Assur

ea
Mesopotamia. These two ph

Tig
ZAGR

an S
OS M empires battled for control

ris
ra
OUN

te
TAIN of the region. This map

ane

s
S shows the growth of the

err
Assyrian Empire from BA

dit
859–669 bce, and the Babylon
BY

Me
extent of the Babylonian LON
Empire when it finally IA Pe
fell to the invading armies Key

rs
of the Persian Empire

ia
Assyrian Empire – 859 bce

n
in 539 bce.

Gu
0 200 400 km Assyrian Empire – 669 bce

lf
Babylonian Empire – 539 bce
0 100 200 miles

S
TIGRI
Battle of Lagash
One of the earliest recorded
battles was fought between
the cities of Lagash and Umma
in around 2450 bce. Lagash
Ancient Mesopotamia
won the battle. The fertile lands around the
Tigris and Euphrates were ideal
for farming, and the people of
ancient Mesopotamia built their
cities close to the rivers and the
coast. However, the lands of
Mesopotamia lacked many raw
materials. Stone, timber, and
Ziggurat of Ur metals all had to be imported
Each Sumerian city from distant lands.
LAGASH
had its own patron god,
worshipped in a huge temple
called a ziggurat. The ziggurat
of Ur was the temple of
UMMA Nanna, the moon god.
URUK

PERSIAN GULF

Gilgamesh
The Epic of Gilgamesh, written UR
before 2000 bce, is the world’s
oldest surviving story. It tells of
the adventures of Gilgamesh, a
mythical king of Uruk.

c.1900 bce c.1595–1530 bce c.911–609 bce 612 bce 539 bce
The Babylonian Empire The fall of Assyria Babylon conquered
The Amorites, a people The cruelty of the Assyrians King Cyrus the Great of Persia
from the western deserts, led to widespread rebellions conquered the Babylonian
HITTITES ON GUARDIAN STATUE
conquered most of against their rule. They Empire. Cyrus named himself
A CHARIOT AT AN ASSYRIAN
Mesopotamia. They ruled ROYAL PALACE AT were finally overthrown by “king of Babylon, king of
from the city of Babylon, DUR-SHARRUKIN Nabopolassar, the ruler of Sumer and Akkad, king of the
and the empire they created Babylon, in alliance with the four quarters of the world”.
is known as the Babylonian Medes people from the east Under his rule, Babylon
Empire. Even after the of Mesopotamia. In 612 bce, remained the most important
Amorite Dynasty was Hittites and Kassites The Assyrian Empire Nabopolassar destroyed the Mesopotamian city.
overthrown, in 1595 bce, Two foreign peoples, the Hittites The warlike Assyrians from the north Assyrian cities. Babylon
Babylon remained an and Kassites, invaded Babylonia, conquered Mesopotamia, creating an empire became the capital of a
important city. introducing fast chariots pulled stretching from Egypt to modern-day Iran. second Babylonian empire.
by horses. The Kassites ruled They spoke Aramaic, which became the
Babylon for around 500 years. standard language across the Middle East.
22 the ancient world ANCIENT EGYPT 32 The number of dynasties
(family lines) of pharaohs.

Ancient Egypt POWERFUL

PHARAOHS
Khafra
Pharaoh Khafra (2558–2532 bce)
built the Great Sphinx – a statue of
Five thousand years ago, the people of ancient Egypt a lion with the pharaoh’s own face.
Every pharaoh wanted to
created the world’s first united state. They invented be remembered long after
writing, created beautiful works of art, and built tombs their own time. They built
and temples, some of which still stand today. statues of themselves and
filled temples with reliefs
Ancient Egypt was the world’s longest lasting and most stable showing them conducting
civilization. For more than 3,000 years, its people spoke the religious ceremonies or
leading their armies. After
same language, worshipped the same gods, and dressed in
their death, they were
similar linen clothing. Throughout this time, they were led by
worshipped as gods.
rulers, called pharaohs, who were seen as living representatives
of the gods. Life in Egypt followed an orderly pattern of work
and religious festivals, with the cycle of the Egyptian year
governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile. TOMBS OF THE PHARAOHS
The dead pharaohs of the Old Kingdom
were buried in massive stone tombs called
pyramids, but the New Kingdom pharaohs
were buried in tombs hidden underground.
EMPIRE ON THE NILE
The ancient Egyptians built their empire in the desert alongside the
River Nile. For most of their history, the desert landscape protected Early pyramids
the Egyptians from foreign invaders. Originally, there were two The first pyramid was built for Pharaoh
states: Upper Egypt in the south, and Lower Egypt in the north. Djoser around 2650 bce, and is thought
to have been designed by Imhotep,
Long after Egypt was united, a pharaoh could still be called “Lord
Djoser’s vizier (chief minister).
of the Two Lands” and symbolized this by wearing a double crown. IMHOTEP

Djoser’s pyramid
Historians believe
that this pyramid,
built with stepped
Kadesh levels, was the first
large structure in the
world to be made of
stone rather than
Mediterr
anean Sea mud bricks.

Giza Heliopolis
Saqqara Memphis
ai

LOWER
Gu

Sin
lf

EGYPT
of
Ea

ue
S

z
st

Akhetaten
er
n
De
Ni

ser
le

R
We

Karnak
e

Thebes
ste

d
rn D

UPPER
EGYPT
esert

S
e
a

NUBIA
Abu Simbel

n
bia
Nu sert
Key De
Old Kingdom
New Kingdom
Nile

0 200 400 km

0 100 200 miles

 Pharaoh, meaning “great house”, was a
respectful way of referring to the king. 146 m (479 ft) – the height of
Pharaoh Khufu’s pyramid. 23

History of ancient Egypt

Timeline
Mentuhotep II Hatshepsut Thutmose III Egypt’s long history is divided into three
Reuniting Egypt after A powerful queen, Hatshepsut The warrior king Thutmose III main periods: the Old, Middle, and New
a period of strife, (1473–1458 bce) ruled Egypt (1479–1426 bce) conquered
kingdoms. Ancient Egyptian historians
Mentuhotep II in her own right as pharaoh. an empire in Asia.
(2055–2004 bce) recorded the names of pharaohs
founded and listed them in
the Middle numbered dynasties.
Kingdom.

Egypt united

c.3100 BCE
Previously two kingdoms, Egypt
was first united by the pharaoh
Narmer, commemorated on this
palette wearing the crowns of
Upper and Lower Egypt.

NARMER PALETTE

The Old Kingdom

2686–2181 BCE
Great Pyramid of Khufu HIEROGLYPHICS During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs ruled from
After Djoser, pharaohs built pyramids with smooth Memphis and built pyramid tombs and monuments
Around 3300 bce, the Egyptians invented at Giza. Huge numbers of people built the pyramids.
sides. The largest was Khufu’s pyramid at Giza,
the world’s first writing system, now called
which is still the world’s biggest stone building. This
hieroglyphics. They used picture signs that
is also the only pyramid with a burial chamber high
up inside the structure rather than at the bottom. stood for ideas, sounds, and words, which
could also be made up of a combination of
signs. Scribes could write either from left
King’s
chamber to right or right to left. Hieroglyphics were
Queen’s
read depending on which way the faces of
chamber the symbols were looking; if they faced the
right, the text was read from right to left.
GREAT SPHINX OF GIZA

The Middle Kingdom

2055–1710 BCE
After a 26-year period of division, Egypt was
reunited by the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom.
The period is remembered for beautiful art and
poetry, much of which depicted Egyptian daily life.
MUMMY FESTIVAL

Inside the pyramid Kingdom invaded

1650 BCE
Khufu’s pyramid has a complex internal The Hyksos moved into northern Egypt from western
structure with at least three chambers, a Asia, destroying the Middle Kingdom. They ruled the
grand gallery, and two mysterious air shafts. north while Egyptian pharaohs ruled the south.

The New Kingdom begins

c.1550 BCE

The Valley of the Kings RIVER

Ahmose, ruler of Thebes, drove out the
The burial place of New Kingdom Hyksos and reunited Egypt, founding the
pharaohs was the Valley of the New Kingdom. The Theban god Amun
Kings, in the desert west of their became the chief Egyptian god.
capital, Thebes. These tombs
Sun worship
1352–1336 BCE

were almost all robbed of their

treasures in ancient times. The pharaoh Akhenaten introduced
a new religion, making the
Egyptians worship the Aten, the
TOMB PRIEST
Treasures of Tutankhamun solar disc. He built a new capital
The only unrobbed tomb was that of called Akhetaten, with open-air
Tutankhamun, a pharaoh in the 14th temples for Sun worship.
century bce. His tomb was found by
British archaeologist Howard Carter WORSHIPPING THE SUN
in 1922, still filled with treasures.
The great pharaoh
1279–1213 BCE

Rameses II ruled for 66 years and fathered around

DEATH MASK OF TUTANKHAMUN 100 children. He famously fought a battle at
Kadesh against the Hittites that he claimed to
have won single-handedly from his chariot.

Late Period
664–332 BCE

Cartouche
Egypt’s power waned as the country was conquered
A cartouche is an oval with a horizontal line at
by a series of foreign powers. Three thousand years
one end. Cartouches were used to show that the
of Egyptian rule ended in 332 bce, when Egypt was
text within them was a royal title – in this case conquered by Alexander the Great.
the name of Pharaoh Rameses II.
 the ancient world
The name Rameses means “born of Ra”,
24 EGYPTIAN RELIGION another name for the Sun god Re.

Re-Horakhty
Egyptian gods and goddesses A statue of
There were many Egyptian gods, who might be depicted Re-Horakhty stands
in the alcove above
in different forms, as humans, animals, or a mixture of
the entrance.
the two. Over time, some gods were combined, creating
new gods. In the New Kingdom, for example, Re the Sun
god merged with Horus, becoming Re-Horakhty.

Osiris Isis
Usually depicted A protector,
as a mummy, magician, and
the king of the mother, Isis
Royal family
dead’s green was crowned
Around the
skin represented with a Sun disk
pharaoh’s legs
new life. or cattle horns. stand small statues
of his wife, mother,
and children.

Set Anubis
The god of the The jackal- Royal wedding
desert, disorder, headed Anubis A carving in stone
and storms, Set protected depicts Rameses’
was depicted tombs and wedding to a
with the head watched over Hittite princess.
of an animal. mummification.

Thoth Bast
The god of The protector
writing had the goddess had
head of an ibis, the head of a
a bird whose cat, an animal
beak resembled that killed pests
a reed pen. in the home.

The Egyptian afterlife

Egyptians believed that they could live again in
Osiris’s kingdom after death – yet their souls would
still need a physical body, kept in a tomb, as a place
to live. Those who could afford it therefore had
their bodies preserved by mummification.

Abu Simbel
South of Egypt, in Nubia, Pharaoh
Rameses II had a great temple carved out
of solid rock. It was dedicated to the gods
Ptah, Amun, and Re-Horakhty, and to the
Preserving the dead pharaoh himself, who was worshipped
After the inner organs were removed, the body was dried alongside them. By claiming equal status
with natron (a salt), then stuffed and wrapped in bandages. with the gods, Rameses meant to impress
the Nubians with his great power.
 2,000 At least this many gods were
worshipped by the ancient Egyptians. 20 m (65 ft) – the height of each
of the four statues of Rameses. 25

Sanctuary
The temple was aligned so that
twice a year, during February and
October, the rising Sun shone into
Side chambers the sanctuary, lighting up the
These were used for
statues of Re-Horakhty, Rameses,
Pharaoh’s crowns storing documents, ritual
and Amun. The statue of Ptah, on
Rameses wears the double tools, food, and sacrifices.
the left of this image, was always
crown of Upper (southern) shrouded in darkness.
and Lower (northern) Egypt.

Small pillared hall

Each day, priests brought
offerings to this small hall
in front of the sanctuary.

“Rameses, chosen of Re,

beloved of Amun, given
life forever.”
Abu Simbel inscription

Large pillared hall

The hall is lined with eight
30ft (9m) tall statues of

Egyptian religion
Rameses, depicted as Osiris.

The Egyptians believed that they lived in a

well-ordered world, overseen by gods, and ruled
by the gods’ earthly representative, the pharaoh.
The great pharaoh It was the gods who made the Nile flood, the Sun
Rameses II ruled Egypt rise, and the plants grow in the fields.
for 66 years, giving him
time to commission more
The pharaoh was seen as a son of the gods in heaven as
statues of himself than any
other pharaoh. Wanting to well as the earthly form of Horus, the sky god. After death,
be remembered, he even he united with Osiris, god of the dead. As chief priest, the
had his name carved on pharaoh made sure that the gods continued to watch over
earlier kings’ monuments.
It is no wonder that he
Egypt. The gods all had their own centres of worship.
later became known as Ptah, the creator god, had his temple in Memphis,
Rameses the Great. while Re the Sun god was worshipped at Heliopolis.
26 the ancient world EGYPTIAN DAILY LIFE 20,000 The number of towns and villages
according to ancient Egyptian records.

The cycle of the Nile Egyptian clothing

For most of ancient Egyptian
The annual Nile flood was
history, people dressed in plain
caused by summer rains in white linen clothes. Men wore a
Ethiopia, to the south of Egypt. shenti (a short kilt) and women
The flood left behind black silt, wore long dresses. Decorated
which was perfect for growing clothes became more fashionable Roof spaces
crops. Farmers did not need during the New Kingdom, but Egyptian houses had
fertilizers because their soil was were only worn by the rich. flat roofs. Families would
often sleep on the roof
replaced each year. Their year
when the weather was hot.
was divided into three seasons:
akhet (flood), peret (growth),
and shomu (harvest).

FLOOD

GROWTH

HARVEST

Loom
Linen, from the flax plant,
was woven into cloth
using a horizontal loom.

Kiln
Pottery was fired over
burning charcoal in
the kiln.

Pottery
Potters, who were usually
male, made pots using a

Egyptian
slow-turning wheel.

daily life
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers who lived in
villages along the banks of the Nile. They usually
worked on great estates, which were owned by
the pharaoh, the temple priests, or the nobles.
Farming in Egypt depended on the River Nile, which flooded
every summer covering the fields. When the rains came, many
farmers left their villages to work on building projects for the
pharaoh. After the Nile waters sank, they returned to plough Food and drink
The men in this model from an Egyptian
and plant their fields. A farmer’s busiest time was during the tomb are making bread, while the women
harvest season, when everyone worked from sunrise to sunset, are making beer. Ancient Egyptians also
gathering the crops. regularly ate fish, onions, and pulses.
 34 years – the life expectancy for
Egyptian men; for women it was 30.
The ancient Egyptians believed that
even the afterlife included hard work. 27

Counting grain Dovecote Shaduf Draught animals

There were two types of granary: Pigeons and doves, Water was lifted using Egyptian cattle pulled
round or rectangular. In this model both sources of meat, a shaduf, a swinging pole ploughs and provided
of a rectangular granary, officials were housed in these with a counterweight meat, leather, and milk.
called scribes record the amount of mud-brick towers. on one end.
grain brought in by the peasants.
Threshing
Farmers walked cattle over
harvested grain to separate
the seeds from the husks.

Life by the Nile

Fishing Egyptian villages occupied a
Egyptians fished with nets narrow strip of land between the
but also used harpoons Nile and the desert, with the fields
and lines with hooks. alongside. Houses were small, with
Building materials two or three rooms. People did not
While stone was used for
have much furniture; they sat on
temples and tombs, Egyptian
houses were constructed from Reed boats the ground or on low stools, and
mud bricks. These were made Small boats were made slept on straw mattresses. Apart
from bundles of papyrus from houses, the most important
by mixing wet mud and straw
reeds tied together. buildings were granaries, where
in wooden moulds and leaving
them out to dry in the sun. grain was stored after harvest.
28 the ancient world ANCIENT GREECE 2,500 sq km (965 sq miles) – the size
of the city-state of Athens.

DELPHI

The Tholos of Delphi

This temple was where the god
Apollo was believed to give
advice through his priestess,
who was known as the oracle.

OLYMPIA

The Olympic Games

The ancient Olympic Games were
held every four years in Olympia in
honour of Zeus, king of the gods.
Athletes competed on foot and
in chariot races, as well as boxing,
wrestling, and discus competitions.

SPARTA

Future ages will

wonder at us, as the present
age wonders at us now.
Pericles, an Athenian politician, in a speech
to the people of Athens in 430 bce

Spartan hoplite
Soldiers of the Greek poleis
were known as hoplites. Spartan
hoplites were trained from an

Ancient Greece
early age, and were the most
feared warriors in Greece.

More than 2,500 years ago, the ancient Greeks created

one of the world’s most influential civilizations. The
height of Greek culture is known as the Classical Age, City-states of central
which lasted from around 500 bce to 336 bce. and southern Greece
In the Classical Age, many of the
The Greeks were not a united people, but lived in more than powerful poleis were clustered in
1,000 rival poleis, or city-states, which were often at war with central Greece and the Peloponnese,
each other. But they did share a common sense of identity, a peninsula in southern mainland
joining together to defend their homeland against invaders, Greece. Each polis had its own
government, laws, coinage, and
and to compete in athletic festivals, such as the Olympic Games.
calendar. The two leading poleis
The Greeks also developed philosophy, politics, science, history were Athens, an artistic centre and
writing, and theatre in this period. The Classical Age ended great naval power, and Sparta,
when Alexander the Great of Macedon united the people of whose male citizens spent all
Greece and conquered the neighbouring Persian Empire. their time training for warfare.
 The Greeks established colonies all around
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. 1 The number of events held at
the first-ever Olympic Games. 2,918 m (9,573 ft) – the height of Mount Olympus, which the
ancient Greeks believed to be the home of the gods. 29

The sphinx of Thebes

The symbol for the polis
of Thebes was the sphinx,
a monster that guarded the
city in Greek mythology.
THEBES

ATHENS

CORINTH

Key
The Parthenon
At the centre of a Greek area of influence in 500 bce
Sea of
citadel rising above Marmara
Athens stood the M AC E D ON
Parthenon, a temple
to the goddess Athena. Mount
Olympus A e g e an
The Athenians took P E R S IA N
Sea
Corinthian coins Athena as their patron E M P IR E
god, and believed she G R E EC E
The city of Corinth was
watched over the city. Ionian
a major trading centre Sea
during the Classical Age. Pe
lo Mycenae
po

nn
es
Rhodes

e
Area of
main map Sea of Crete

Me Knossos
dit
erra 0 100 200 km
nean Crete
Sea
0 50 100 miles

Greek influence
The poleis of Greece controlled all of the lands
around the Aegean Sea by the beginning of the
Classical Age in 500 bce. They also set up colonies
throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

Timeline 2900–1450 bce 1600–1200 bce 1200–800 bce 800–500 bce 500–336 bce

The ages of The Minoan Age The Mycenaean Age The Dark Age The Archaic Age The Classical Age
On the island of Crete, the Minoan The Mycenaean civilization Mycenaean civilization The Archaic (“old”) During the Classical
ancient Greece civilization built large palaces developed on the Greek collapsed around Age was a period Age, Greek culture was
Early influential Greek decorated with images of bulls, mainland. The Mycenaeans 1200 bce, when all the when Greek at its height. Athens
cultures sprang up on which were sacred in Minoan were warlike and, around major palaces were civilization slowly and Sparta joined
the island of Crete and religion. The Minoans also founded 1450 bce, they conquered destroyed by unknown recovered from the together to defeat
in the city of Mycenae, trading settlements across the Crete, becoming the leading enemies. Greece entered Dark Age. A new two invasions by the
eastern Mediterranean. power in the eastern a “dark age”, in which alphabet was Persian Empire, in 490
but these civilizations Mediterranean. writing was forgotten introduced, trade and 480 bce. The two
both collapsed over MYCENAEAN and long-distance trade revived, and the cities later fought a
time. Centuries later, the FUNERAL declined. The Greek Greeks founded long war against each
MASK
Classical Age revived language broke up into many colonies other, in 431–404 bce,
the influence of Greece several different dialects, throughout the in which most of
in the Mediterranean. and knowledge of Mediterranean. Greece took sides. The
ironworking spread. final victor was Sparta.
MINOAN BULL LEAPING WALL PAINTING
30 the ancient world ANCIENT GREEK CULTURE
The word philosophy comes from Ancient Greek:
philos, meaning “love”, and sophia, meaning “wisdom”.

Ancient Greek culture GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Greek thinkers known as philosophers
During the Classical Age of Greece, between around 500 and 336 bce, wanted to make sense of the world around
the Greek city-states produced some of history’s most brilliant them: from the way people behaved, to
what made the seasons change, to the
politicians, thinkers, and writers. The thoughts and ideas of these motions of the stars. In seeking knowledge
influential figures are still important today. and wisdom they created new ways of
thinking and of testing ideas. Some of the
As Greece flourished, its citizens began to develop new ways of looking at the greatest philosophers set up schools, which
world. Thinkers asked more questions, poets and artists began to record what helped spread their ideas far and wide.
they saw, and astronomers tried to make sense of the Universe. Even 2,500 years
later, our understanding of subjects such as maths, science, and architecture is
based on the work of these great scholars.

“KNOWLEDGE IS THE
DEMOCRACY FOOD OF THE SOUL”
Around 508 bce, the city of PLATO, PROTAGORAS,
5TH CENTURY bce
Athens developed a new
system of government called
democracy (meaning “rule
by the people”). In Athenian
democracy, citizens could vote LITERATURE AND DRAMA
on new laws to be introduced The earliest works of Greek literature were
to the city. But democracy not written but performed, and were
didn’t include everyone: only passed on from generation to generation
adult men who were free (not by word of mouth. In the 6th century bce,
slaves) were allowed to vote. poets such as Sappho began to write their
Greek women would not win poems down. Dramatic plays dominated
the right to vote until 1952. 5th-century literature, and the first
historians – notably Herodotus – also
began writing at around this time. Together,
The Pnyx these writers created forms of literature
Athenian assemblies met at the Pnyx, a hill near the Acropolis.
Pericles, a famous politician, is seen here giving a speech.
that we still use today.

Voting stones
Voting for banishment When voting to ostracize
The Athenian lawgiver, Kleisthenes, someone, voters would
introduced a new law called write the person’s name on Homer
shards of pottery called The most famous Greek poet was Homer, who
ostracism in around 506 bce. This
ostraka. These would then lived in the 8th century bce. We know nothing
was designed to prevent any single be counted.
individual becoming too powerful. for certain about him, but tradition says that he
If enough citizens voted in favour, a was blind. His long poems, the Iliad and the
person could be sent into exile for Odyssey, would originally have been learned and
10 years, but without losing his passed on by word of mouth, and were not
citizenship of Athens or property. written down until hundreds of years later.

GREEK MYTHOLOGY Poseidon

Poseidon was the brother
The Greek myths are a large collection of of Zeus. As well as being god of
stories that were first used to explain the the sea, he was thought to be
responsible for earthquakes
world as seen by the ancient Greeks. Some
and other natural disasters.
showed people how they should – and
should not – behave. Others revealed how
places and things were first created, and
how the gods influenced the events in
people’s lives. With their heroes, gods, and
monsters, many of these myths have been
Zeus
used by artists and writers for thousands of
Zeus was “King of the Gods”.
years, and still appeal to our imaginations. He was also the father of
many lesser gods, goddesses,
and heroic figures, including
Aphrodite, Perseus, Apollo,
and Helen of Troy.
 30,000 The estimated number of Athenian citizens allowed
to vote, out of a population of around 250,000. 90 The estimated number of plays written by
Aeschylus. Only seven have survived. 31

Thales Democritus Socrates Plato Aristotle

Thales was one of the first The investigations of Socrates thought that the best Plato founded his own Like his teacher, Plato, Aristotle
Greek philosophers. He worked Democritus into the natural way to discover the truth was academy, or school, in Athens also founded a school, called
out how to measure the height world paved the way for the to ask questions – though he in 367 bce. Many of his the Lyceum. He wrote about
of the Egyptian pyramids, and first scientists. One of his didn’t claim to know the writings survive, and have many different subjects,
believed that water was the theories was that all things answers. He wrote nothing been hugely influential, from money to music, nature
substance from which all other that exist are made of tiny, down, and much of what we particularly on the subjects to poetry, and language to
things came. indivisible particles. know of his work comes from of religion and politics. politics. He also tutored
his student, Plato. Alexander the Great.

A Greek theatre
Greek plays were performed
on a round stage, with the
audience sitting on rows of
seats built into surrounding
hillsides. In the middle of the
5th century bce, a “backdrop”
was added behind the stage,
where actors could change
their costumes.

Drama and theatres

Greek drama reached its peak during
the 5th century bce with the tragedies
of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides,
and the comedies of Aristophanes.
Unfortunately, most of their plays
have been lost. Performances took
place in huge open-air theatres, with
Homer’s influence
Homer’s inspirational
seating for thousands of people. The
stories have been told architects understood acoustics (how
many times over, originally sound travels), so even people seated
on pots and in paintings, a long way from the stage could still
and nowadays in films. hear the actors.

Athena Heracles
The goddess of wisdom, The greatest of the Greek
Athena is usually shown heroes, this lion-skin-wearing
with a helmet and strongman is most famous
shield. She was not for performing 12 “labours”
born, but sprang fully as punishment for killing his
formed from the head wife and children.
of her father, Zeus.
Artemis
Often pictured with a
wild deer, and carrying
a bow or a quiver of
arrows, Artemis was the
goddess of hunting and
of the Moon. She also
protected the young.
32 the ancient world THE PHOENICIANS 12,000 The number of murex snails needed
to make 1.4 g (0.05 oz) of Tyrian dye.

Phoenician trade
Phoenician merchants sailed all around the
The Phoenicians
Mediterranean searching for new markets to The Phoenician civilization began in port
sell their products. They established many
trading stations, several of which became cities on the coast of modern-day Lebanon,
great cities, including Cadiz and Cartagena in in the Middle East. Though they had no land
Spain and Palermo in Sicily. Others, such as empire, the Phoenicians became the leading
Kition in Cyprus, survive only as ruins.
seafaring merchants of the Mediterranean
from 1200 bce.
To
Britain
S PA I N Rome
The main Phoenician cities were Byblos, Tyre, and
Corsica
Gades Sardinia ITALY P ERSIA N Sidon, each ruled by a different monarch. The people
EMP IRE
To
GREEC E
of these cities did not see themselves as a single nation.
Carthage Byblos
West
Africa Sidon It was the Greeks who called them Phoenicians – from
NO RTH
AFRICA Leptis
Tyre phoinos, meaning dark red, perhaps after their most
Key
EGYPT expensive product, a dye known as Tyrian purple.
Phoenician trade route The Phoenicians were the greatest navigators of
Phoenician homeland
the ancient world. Apart from their voyages across the
Mediterranean, they explored the Atlantic coast of
Europe and the west coast of Africa.
The Phoenician alphabet
The Phoenicians’ alphabet formed Horse’s head
the basis of all later Western writing The figurehead may have honoured
Yam, the Phoenician sea god. Like the
systems. Easy to learn, it had just 22 signs,
Greek sea god Poseidon, Yam was also
all standing for consonants. It was adapted worshipped as the god of horses. Ivory tusks
by the Greeks, who added signs for vowels. Ivory, taken from the
tusks of elephants in
Water container North Africa, was carved
This large amphora into decorative panels by
aleph beth gimmel daleth he waw Phoenician craftworkers.
(pottery jar)
contained water
zayin heth teth yodh kaph lamedh for the crew.
Textiles
Rolls of textiles were
mem nun samekh ayin pe tsadi dyed and woven in
Phoenician workshops.
PHOENICIAN
qoph res sin taw ALPHABET

Anchor
Timeline

The crew dropped

The Carthaginian Empire
the heavy anchor
The city of Carthage in North Africa broke into the sea when
away from Phoenician rule in c.650 bce they arrived at a port.
and became the centre of a Carthaginian
Empire, controlling western Sicily, Corsica,
Sardinia, and southern Spain. The rivalry
of Carthage and Rome led to three wars,
which the Romans called the Punic Wars.

First Punic War

264–241 bce

During the First Punic War, Carthage fought

Rome for control of the island of Sicily. Carthage
lost, and Rome became a great naval power.

Second Punic War

218–201 bce

The Carthaginian general

Hannibal led an army, including
elephants, from Spain to Italy.
After three great victories, he
was finally defeated by Rome,
CARTHAGINIAN
COIN SHOWING which became the dominant
HANNIBAL power in the Mediterranean.

Third Punic War

149–146 bce

The Romans conquered and destroyed Carthage.

They took control of all Carthaginian territory
and enslaved or killed the entire population.
According to the Bible, Phoenician cedar wood was used The Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator
to make the roof of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem. explored the west coast of Africa in the 5th century bce. 33

Phoenician merchant ship

With big, broad, rounded hulls,
Tyrian purple Phoenician merchant ships could carry
This rich, purple-coloured dye
large amounts of cargo. They were
was one of the Phoenicians’
most sought-after exports. slow but stable, and could be sailed
or, if the wind dropped, rowed. Reliefs
from Assyria in the ancient Middle
East show that the ships had horse
figureheads at the front. The Greeks
called these ships “hippoi” (horses).

Square sail
With only a single
sail, the ship had
trouble sailing
into the wind.

Steering oar
Two oars at the stern (the
rear of the ship) were used to
change the ship’s direction.

Cedarwood logs
Phoenician cedar, prized
for its aroma, was exported
to Greece, Egypt, and
Mesopotamia, where
building timber was in
Amphora short supply.
These large pottery jars
held olive oil or wine which
were both produced all
around the Mediterranean.

Luxury goods
Phoenician cities
were centres of craft
production, making
glassware and ivory
carvings. Craftworkers
were influenced by
Mesopotamian and
IVORY SPHINX Egyptian art, and the
Phoenicians spread
these styles across
Copper ox hide ingots BEARDED the Mediterranean.
HEAD
Copper, from Cyprus, was mixed PENDANT
with tin to make a piece of bronze.
With handles at each corner, the GLASS AMPHORA
ingot’s shape resembled an ox hide.
The people of
the steppes
In the ancient world, the steppes
(vast treeless plains) of Europe and
Asia were home to tribes of nomads,
who lived by moving from place to
place to find fresh pastures for their
horses, sheep, cattle, and goats.
The people of the steppes usually lived
in small tribes. The power and speed of
their horses made them feared warriors,
so when they united, these groups of
nomads became a deadly threat to the
settled civilizations to the east and west.
The greatest threat came from the Huns,
who conquered large areas of Asia and
Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries ce.

c.3500–3000 bce
The horse was first
tamed on the steppes of
Asia. This gave humans c.900–200 bce
their first fast method The Scythians, a group
of transport. of nomadic tribes who
lived on the steppes
to the north of the
Black Sea, extended
their control eastwards
215–212 bce
across Siberia in
The first emperor of
northeast Russia to
China ordered the
the borders of China.
construction of a barrier
along China’s northern
border. The Great Wall
was built to prevent 1st century bce
raids from the Xiongnu The nomadic Yuezhi
tribes that controlled people were united
much of north and under the Kushan, who
central Asia in the went on to conquer an
3rd century bce. empire that covered
Afghanistan, parts
of central Asia, and
northern India. The
Kushan Dynasty
c.370 ce maintained control
Europeans first became of these regions until
aware of the Huns as the 3rd century ce.
they began to conquer
their neighbours,
sweeping west from
lands beyond the Volga 441–453 ce
River in modern-day The leader of the Huns,
western Russia. Attila, launched a series
of attacks to take
control of lands in
eastern and central
Europe. But soon after
Attila’s death in 453 ce,
his empire fell apart.

Mounted warrior
This hanging from a Scythian tomb in
the Pazyryk Valley of Siberia shows a
horse rider with a bow case by his leg.
The short bow was a powerful weapon
for the nomadic tribes of the steppes,
and was used in warfare and hunting.
36 the ancient world CELTIC EUROPE 4,147 The number of hillforts so far identified as
built by the Celts in Britain and Ireland.

Celtic Europe CELTIC LIFE

Celtic tribes were ruled by chieftains,
The ancient Celts were a people that lived in tribes across ancient kings, and queens. There were
mainland Europe and the British Isles. Celtic civilization was at its different classes in Celtic society,
with most land owned by warrior
height between the 6th and 1st centuries bce. nobles and most people living as
The word “Celt” comes from “keltoi”, the Greek name for a people who lived poor farmers. Others took on roles
as bards (poets and singers), priests,
across Europe. The Romans called the Celts “Galli” (meaning “barbarians”), or
craftworkers, and merchants. The
Gauls, which led to areas they settled being called Gaul (France), Galicia (in Spain), Celts also kept slaves, who had
and Galatia (Turkey). The Celts lived in hundreds of tribes, and did not see been captured in warfare.
themselves as a single people. Despite this, they shared common religious
beliefs and customs, and many were skilled artists, creating richly patterned
metalwork. Their languages, such as Welsh and Gaelic, are still spoken today Celtic homes
by people who see themselves as Celts. The typical Celtic home was a circular
thatched structure called a roundhouse,
which contained a single large room. The
main difference between rich and poor
Celts was the size of their roundhouse.
CULTURES OF THE CELTS La Tène culture In western Europe, there were many
Although the Celts were separate tribes, they Celtic metalwork from around 450 bce hillforts – villages of roundhouses
shared the same customs and styles of art. Over onwards moved on from the geometric surrounded by banks, ditches, and
patterns of the Hallstatt culture to use stockades (walls made of sharpened logs).
time, these customs and styles changed, and new
flowing, curved lines. This new culture From the 3rd century bce, Celtic people in
cultures emerged. All Celtic cultures were known is named after La Tène in Switzerland, Europe began to build larger towns, which
for their skill at bronze metalwork. where Celts threw many gold and the Romans called oppida. Influenced by
bronze items into a lake as offerings. Roman building styles, many of these
The La Tène custom of leaving precious oppida were filled with rectangular
Urnfield culture metalwork in water was widespread. houses rather than roundhouses.
The people of the The “Battersea shield”, below, was
Urnfield culture found in the River Thames in 1857.
(c.1300–750 bce) were Inside the roundhouse
the ancestors of the Celts, This roundhouse at Castell Henlyss in Wales
and lived in east-central was excavated and reconstructed in the 1980s.
Europe and northern
Italy. The culture was
named for the funeral THE CELTS AND ROME
practices of its people – Much of what we know about the Celts
they cremated their dead comes from the writings of the ancient
and put the ashes in urns.
Romans, who fought them for centuries and
The ashes of warrior
rulers were buried with
eventually conquered most of Celtic Europe.
Pottery urn
bronze weapons, armour, This urn from Taranto in Italy
The Romans first encountered the Celts in
and ornaments. held the ashes of the dead. around 390 bce, when a large number
of Celtic tribes crossed the Alps into
present-day northern Italy.
Hallstatt culture
The first true Celtic culture according to modern historians,
the Hallstatt culture is named after an ancient Celtic Gauls attack Rome
cemetery that was found in modern-day Austria. The In 390 bce, one of the Gallic (Celtic) tribes in Italy,
Hallstatt people grew rich by trading, particularly in the the Senones, inflicted a humiliating defeat on
salt they mined. Known for its bronze weapons and Rome. After defeating the Romans in battle, the
geometrical patterns, the culture spread across Europe, Senones captured and raided Rome itself. However,
from the River Loire in modern-day France to the River according to legend, they could not take the central
Danube, in central Europe. The Hallstatt did not cremate Capitoline Hill because a flock of geese, sacred to
their dead, but buried people with offerings for the gods. the Roman goddess Juno, raised the alarm. The
Romans paid the Senones in gold to leave the city.

ROMAN CARVING OF
JUNO’S SACRED GEESE
Hallstatt necklace
Found in modern-day
Poland, this bronze
necklace’s linear
patterning is
typical of Hallstatt
culture. It probably
dates from the
6th century bce. Shield cover
The Battersea shield is actually only a
cover – it would have been attached to
the front of a wooden shield. It is made
of bronze and decorated with red glass.
 75,000
The land the Romans called Gaul covered much of modern-day The estimated number of Romans and
western Europe, including all of France, Luxembourg, and Belgium. Britons killed by Boudicca’s armies. 37

Celtic religion
Celts worshipped hundreds of gods. Different
groups had their own gods, but there was some
overlap – the Irish goddess Badb, for example,
may have been inspired by the Gallic goddess
Cathubodua. The Celts offered precious gifts to
their gods in rivers, lakes, and pools – places seen
as entrances to another world. Animals and people
were also killed in elaborate ways and offered as
sacrifices. In Britain and Gaul, sacrifices were
carried out by priests called druids. Druidism was
one of the few religions banned by the Romans.

God of the wild

The Gundestrup cauldron, a silver bowl found in
a Danish bog, may depict Cernunnos, the horned
nature god of the Celts. The bowl’s design is
influenced by a range of cultures.

Caesar conquers Gaul Romans and Britons

Between 58 and 51 bce, the Roman general In 43 ce, an army of the Roman emperor Claudius Warrior queen
In 60 ce, Queen Boudicca
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in a series of wars. invaded Britain, quickly conquering the southeast.
Gallic surrender of the Iceni tribe, aided
Caesar also led two expeditions across the sea to By 84 ce, the Romans ruled most of Britain, despite
Vercingetorix surrendered by her daughters, led
Britain in 55 and 54 bce. He told the story of his resistance from Celtic leaders. Unlike the Gauls, who a great uprising against
to Caesar at Alesia. Caesar
campaigns in his book The Gallic Wars, in which gave up speaking their own languages, many Britons Roman rule. Her army
then took him to Rome,
he described Celtic society and customs. Caesar’s where he paraded the continued to speak Celtic languages rather than destroyed three
final victory over the Gallic people was the chained king in a Latin. The Celtic way of life also continued in Roman towns before
capture of the oppidum Alesia in modern-day triumphal procession Scotland and Ireland, which were unconquered. it was defeated.
France, the stronghold of King Vercingetorix. before executing him.
38 the ancient world THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 10,000 The number of warriors in the elite
Persian army known as the “Immortals”.

Treasury The Palace of Persepolis Cyrus the Great

King Darius I began building his The empire was founded
palace at Persepolis in around by King Cyrus of Persia
Hall of 100
Columns 515 bce. It was completed 30 years (reigned 559–530 bce),
later by his son, Xerxes, who built who was later known as
a hall of 100 columns beside his Cyrus the Great. After
father’s huge audience hall. successfully rebelling
Corner tower against his overlord,
The four square towers King Astyages of Media,
may have held guard Cyrus and his army
rooms and stairs. went on to conquer the
Apadana
(audience hall)
Babylonian Empire and
Lydia in Asia Minor.

Gatehouse Main gate

The audience hall of Darius I

The most important part of the palace
was the Apadana, the audience hall
where Darius met visiting governors
and foreign ambassadors. Vast and
beautiful, the hall was designed to
display the king’s power and
to impress visitors.

Persian guard
The royal guard was
made up of 1,000
Persian noblemen.
East stairs Tribute bearers

“May Ahura Mazda

The east stairs were also Visitors from around the
decorated with reliefs empire brought tribute gifts for Persian officials
showing processions of the king on New Year’s Day.
visiting subjects.
protect me and my kingdom” Court officials were
distinguishable by the tall,
Darius I, in an inscription at Persepolis fluted hats that they wore.
 Persepolis is a Greek name;
it means “city of the Persians”. 330 bce The year of the murder of Darius III,
the last ruler of the Persian Empire. 39

AHURA MAZDA
Rise of the Persian Empire
M AC E D O NIA Black
Cyrus the Great’s son, Cambyses II Sea

Ca
T H R AC E

spi
(reigned 529–522 bce), conquered

an
IO NI A
Egypt, and under Darius I (reigned LY D I A

Sea
LYC IA
522–486 bce), the Persian empire Me
expanded into northwest India Sea diterrane
an M EDI A
Persian religion and Europe. It was Darius who Babylon
organized the empire into Jerusalem
Persian kings claimed to rule on behalf of EGY PT Persepolis
the supreme god, Ahura Mazda (“Wise Lord”). satrapies. He also founded a
new capital, Persepolis. This

Red
He was seen as the protector of the king and
map shows the Persian Empire

Sea
the empire, and was represented in art as a Key
in c.500 bce, during the reign A ra bi a n
man rising from a winged disc. The ancient The Persian Empire, c.500 BCE
Se a
Persian religion is called Zoroastrianism. of Darius I.

The Persian Empire

Bull carvings
The pillars were topped with
carvings of double-headed
bulls. The bull’s strength was
associated with kingship. Lasting from the 6th to the 4th centuries bce, the Persian Empire
was the world’s first superpower. At its height, it spanned three
Pillars continents, stretching from Egypt to northwest India.
The 72 columns, each
20 m (65.5 ft) high,
supported the wooden The empire was divided into 20 satrapies (provinces). Each had a satrap
beams of the roof. (governor), usually a Persian noble appointed by the empire’s Great King.
The provinces paid tribute (gifts such as gold, ivory, or slaves) to the
king, provided soldiers for his armies, and were harshly punished if they
rebelled. Otherwise, they could manage their own affairs and, unusually
for an ancient empire, the peoples living in the provinces were allowed
to keep their native languages, customs, and religions.

Timeline
The Greco-Persian Wars
Darius ruled over many Greek cities.
In 499 bce, they rebelled against his
rule, helped by western Greeks from
Athens and Eretria. After crushing the
rebellion, Darius vowed to conquer
Greece itself.

Darius’s first invasion of Greece

492 bce

A Persian army led by Darius’s son-in-law,

Mardonius, crossed into Europe. The Persians
conquered Thrace and the kingdom of Macedonia,
which lay to the north of Greece.

Battle of Marathon
490 bce

Darius sent another army by

sea to invade Greece. The
Persians captured many
Greek islands and sacked
Eretria, but were decisively
defeated by an Athenian
army at Marathon. A PERSIAN (LEFT)
FIGHTS A GREEK

Xerxes’ second invasion

480–479 bce

Royal scene
A relief on the north Darius’s son Xerxes I also tried to conquer
stairs (later moved to the Greece. The Persians defeated the Greeks at
treasury) showed Darius I Thermopylae and sacked Athens, but were
in his inner court. beaten at sea at Salamis and on land at Plataea.

Peace of Callias
479–448 bce

Wall of tribute bearers An alliance of Greek seafaring cities, led by

Carved reliefs showed the peoples Athens, set out to free the eastern Greeks from
of the empire, in their national Persian rule. After Greek victories in Thrace and
dress, bringing gifts. When tribute Ionia, the war finally ended in a peace treaty.
bearers approached the hall, they
passed images of themselves.
Alexander the Great Statue of a god
On top of the lighthouse
40
In 336 bce, at the age of just 20,
stood a statue of one of the
Alexander became king of Macedon,
an ancient kingdom bordering the
Greek gods. It may have
The Hellenistic
been Zeus, ruler of the
city-states of Greece. After uniting gods; Poseidon, god of the
Greece under his rule, Alexander led sea; or Helios, the sun god. world
a vast army into Asia. In an unbroken
series of victories, he conquered the
In the 4th century bce, the conquests of
Persian Empire and then invaded India. A Greek hero Alexander the Great of Macedon began a new
Alexander’s empire was the largest the Greek coins of Alexander period of ancient history. The Hellenistic Age
world had seen, yet it quickly fell apart showed him wearing the
on his death in 323 bce. lion skin of Heracles, a (from “Hellene”, meaning Greek) saw Greek
hero of Greek mythology. culture spread south as far as Egypt and east
Signalling mirror
During the daytime, to what is now modern-day Afghanistan.
a polished bronze
Alexander’s empire mirror reflected
Alexander’s lasting legacy was the In new Hellenistic cities, such as Alexandria in Egypt,
the light of the
foundation of more than 30 new cities, Sun’s rays to people adopted Greek dress, and worshipped Greek
the ancient world

Key signal to ships. gods such as Zeus and Poseidon, though sometimes
which he established with Greeks and
Macedonians. He called 20 of them Alexander’s empire
they gave them different names. Ancient Greek
Alexandria, after himself. The biggest Dependent regions
became the common language of the eastern
was Alexandria in Egypt, a great port Alexander’s route
Mediterranean and the Middle East. The influence
city on the Mediterranean coast. City founded by Alexander
of Greek art spread even further, with sculptors from
Significant battles
the Indian subcontinent taking inspiration from Greek
artistic forms in their depictions of the human body.
Fire chamber
At dusk, a large fire

Ca
Black S
Pella ea

s
was lit to signal to

pi
334 bce Samarkand
ships, and was kept Cylindrical section

an
Gordium
Athens 333 bce burning all through Inside this top portion of
Sardis

Sea
Me 331 bce Bactra the night. the lighthouse, which was
dite Nineveh 326 bce
rran Issus Meshed 327 bce probably 21 m (69 ft) high,
ean Ecbatana
Sea 332 bce a system of pulleys and ropes
Tyre Damascus Sangela
Alexandria Gaza raised fuel up to the fire.
Babylon
332 bce Susa Pasargadae
Siwa Memphis
Pattala

R e
Gwadar

d
Octagonal section
THE HELLENISTIC WORLD

0 500 1,000 km Arabian The middle section of the

S e
Sea lighthouse is believed to

a
0 250 500 miles
have been octagonal (eight-
sided), and may have been
30 m (98 ft) high.

Guiding light
Ptolemaic Egypt Merman The lighthouse was the only
On each corner of one of the Seven Wonders
After Alexander’s death, his leading
the square section of the Ancient World to
generals broke up his empire into that formed the base provide a practical benefit
c.500,000

separate kingdoms. Alexander’s friend of the tower stood

for people. Its light burned
Ptolemy seized Egypt, where he made a statue of the god
for centuries, saving the
himself pharaoh. He was the first in a Triton, messenger of
lives of countless seafarers
dynasty of Macedonian rulers, all called the sea, who had a
human upper body
by guiding them safely to
Ptolemy, while their queens were named the harbour of Alexandria.
and a fish’s tail.
Berenice or Cleopatra. On coins used
Cleopatra VII throughout the kingdom, the Ptolemies
The last effective ruler were depicted in a Greek artistic style,
of Ptolemaic Egypt was while on temple walls they appeared “The first city
Cleopatra VII. After her as traditional Egyptian pharaohs. of the civilized world”
during the 1st century ce.

death, the Roman Empire

people lived in Alexandria

took control of Egypt. Diodorus of Sicily on Alexandria,

Bibliotheca historica, 1st century bce
The Pharos of Alexandria Square section
The base of the tower is thought to
In the 3rd century bce, the Greek have been 61 m (200 ft) high. It would
rulers of Egypt built a great lighthouse have contained storerooms, sleeping
on Pharos, a small island beside quarters, and even an observatory.
Alexandria’s harbour. The lighthouse
stood for more than 1,500 years. It
was so famous that at the time of the
Roman Empire the word “pharos” was
used to mean lighthouse or beacon.

Defending the tower Beast of burden Protective base Causeway

Soldiers were garrisoned at The inside of the lighthouse was filled A base that rose 6 m (20 ft) Supplies were delivered to the
the base of the lighthouse with ramps to allow animals to pull above the island protected the lighthouse by a causeway that
to protect it from attack. carts of fuel to the top for the fire. lighthouse from sea storms. connected the island to Alexandria.

Ancient wonders The Hanging Gardens The Colossus of Rhodes

of Babylon Erected in 280 bce, this
The Pharos of Alexandria
This tiered garden, 33-m- (108-ft-) high
was one of the Seven bronze statue of the sun
praised as a feat of
Wonders of the World, a engineering, may not god, Helios, towered
list of spectacular sights have existed in reality. over Rhodes harbour.
and monuments compiled
by Greek travel writers
in the 2nd century bce. The Great Pyramid The Temple of The Statue of Zeus
to have been at least 110 m (360 ft) high.

All of the seven wonders

The lighthouse of Alexandria is estimated

of Giza Artemis at Ephesus at Olympia

were located within the Built for Pharaoh Khufu This ancient temple Around 435 bce, the The Mausoleum at
borders of the Hellenistic in 2589–2566 bce, the burned down twice Greek sculptor Phidias Halicarnassus
world of Greece, Egypt, Great Pyramid is the before being rebuilt created this 13-m- This massive tomb was
and West Asia. only wonder that still in 324 bce, and was (43-ft-) high gold and built for King Mausolus
survives to this day. twice the size of any ivory statue of the of Caria in the Persian
41

other Greek temple. king of the gods. Empire in c. 350 bce.

Ancient India
In South Asia, one of the world’s
first great civilizations, the Indus,
flourished from around 2800 bce.
More than 2,000 years later, the
Mauryans, followed centuries later
by the Guptas, carved out their
own empires in the region.
The people of the Indus Valley, now in
modern-day Pakistan, built the world’s
first planned cities, with sophisticated
water supplies and drainage systems.
But by 1800 bce, the Indus civilization
had declined, possibly due to flooding
or war. It was not until the Mauryan
Empire arose in around 321 bce that
the majority of India became united
for the first time. After the fall of the
Mauryans, the Gupta Empire emerged in
the 4th century ce, and began a golden
age of Indian art and science. Ancient
India was also the birthplace of what
are now two of the world’s major
religions – Hinduism and Buddhism.

c.2500 bce
The people of the
c.1500 bce
Indus Valley began
After the fall of the Indus,
to trade with the
a people known as the
Sumerians of
Indo-Aryans migrated from
Mesopotamia in
central Asia into India. They
the Middle East.
spoke Sanskrit, and this
language began to spread all
over the region. Sanskrit
321–303 bce hymns, called Vedas, are
Inspired by Alexander the earliest Hindu texts.
the Great’s invasion of
268–232 bce
India in 326–325 bce,
After expanding the
Chandragupta Maurya
Mauryan Empire,
conquered northern
Ashoka the Great, the
India, founding the
third emperor, gave up
Mauryan Empire.
warfare. He converted
to Buddhism and sent
missionaries to spread
the religion to Sri Lanka
320–330 ce
and central Asia.
Chandragupta I
conquered northwest 380–415 ce
India, founding the Chandragupta II ruled the
Gupta Empire. Though Gupta Empire. He was a
the Guptas were patron of the arts and
Hindus, they also sciences, and astronomers
promoted Buddhism. and mathematicians of the
Gupta Empire were
the most advanced
in the world at the time.

Gateway to the Great Stupa at Sanchi

Ashoka the Great built many stupas – sacred
mounds holding relics of the Buddha and other
Buddhist teachers. The stupas at Sanchi in
central India were improved upon by later
rulers. This carved gateway to the Great Stupa at
Sanchi was constructed in the 1st century bce.
44 the ancient world CHINA’S FIRST EMPEROR c.70,000 workers built the
emperor’s tomb.

Weapons
The warriors originally
carried a mixture of long-
reach thrusting weapons,
swords, and bows.

Clay figures
The statues were
crafted from clay
that was found close
to the burial site.

Baked statues
Once assembled, the clay
figures were baked in a kiln
to harden them into shape.

Shang and Zhou

The Qin unified China, but they were not its first
rulers. The Shang Dynasty (c.1600–1046 bce)
of northern China developed the first
Chinese writing. The Zhou (1046–256 bce)
conquered the Shang, and during their
rule Chinese writing became closer to
the script in use today.
Zhou bronze
The Zhou crafted beautiful bronze Black lacquer
vessels for use in ceremonial rituals. After firing, the statues
were covered with lacquer,
a varnish that formed a
The Warring States period base layer before painting.

At the beginning of the Warring States period

(475–221 bce), China was divided into many
Painted figures
small kingdoms, which were constantly at The final stage of building
war. By the 3rd century bce, only seven each soldier was to paint
states remained. Between 230 and 221 bce, it in bright colours.
the western state of Qin conquered each
of the other kingdoms in turn.

0
250 500 km

100 200 miles China’s

first emperor
YAN

Z HAO

QI
Yel

WE I In the 3rd century bce, the state of Qin was one of seven
low

warring kingdoms in the region known today as China.

Sea

Xianyang HAN
QI N
By 221 bce Qin, had conquered the neighbouring kingdoms
CHU
and ruled over a unified state. The king of Qin took the
title Shi Huangdi – First Emperor.
Qin Shi Huangdi compelled everyone in China to adopt the same writing
Key system and coins, and he standardized units of weight and measurement
Qin state in about 260 bce
across the empire. He forced labourers to build networks of roads and
State borders in about 260 bce
Expansion of Qin state
canals throughout China, and a great wall to protect the northern border
Extent of Qin Empire in 221 bce against invasion. Yet his rule was so harsh and unpopular that the
Qin Dynasty lasted just four years after his death in 210 bce.
 c.40,000 bronze weapons were buried
with the Terracotta Army. 670 terracotta statues of horses
were buried with the army. 45

The Terracotta Army

Qin Shi Huangdi was buried in a massive
tomb. Pits were dug nearby, and more
Bronze spearhead
than 7,000 life-size statues of warriors Wooden spears
were buried inside. The statues were made were tipped with
of terracotta, a form of pottery, but many a bronze blade.
of the statues carried real weapons. The
Long-reach weapon warriors were buried with the emperor
The ge was made from to protect him in the afterlife.
a bronze dagger-shaped
blade mounted on a
wooden pole. Bun Official
Ordinary soldiers One small pit of statues
wore their hair tied buried with the emperor
up in a bun pointing did not contain soldiers,
to the right. but a group of officials
from the emperor’s court.

Headwear
The shape of an
officer’s headgear
showed their rank.

Armour
Ancient Chinese armour
was made from pieces of
leather sewn together.

There were eight

different basic
head moulds.

Arms, hands,
and armour
were moulded
separately.

The bottom of
the gowns were
hand-built with
strips of clay.

The legs and

Swords base were the
Swords had bronze blades, first parts to
but were covered in a be modelled.
coating to prevent rust.

Modelling the figures

The figures were made in sections,
using moulds for the heads and
“Brandishing his long whip, the limbs. Artists then hand-shaped

First Emperor
the noses, mouths, eyes, and facial
hair. Each warrior’s face was
drove the world before him” different, and they may even have
been portraits of real people.
Jia Yi, The Faults of Qin, c.170 bce
46 the ancient world HAN CHINA 57,671,400 The population of China recorded
in the Han census of 2 ce.

Han China EMPEROR GAOZU

In the early 3rd century bce,
After the death of China’s first emperor in 210 bce, the Chinese rebelled against
rebel leader Liu Bang overthrew the Qin Dynasty and the hated Qin Dynasty. Liu
Bang, who came from a
established the Han Dynasty in 202 bce. The Han ruled peasant family, became a rebel
China for more than 400 years, and established many leader and raised an army to
of the traditions and values of Chinese culture. take the Qin capital Xianyang.
Liu Bang took control of China
The Han emperors promoted Confucianism, a philosophy and renamed himself Emperor
teaching that everyone had a place in society. They also Gaozu. He built a new capital at
improved the Chinese government and created the Taichu Chang’an, simplified Chinese
(traditional Chinese) calendar that is still in use today. The Han government, and employed
established new overland trade routes called the Silk Road to Confucian scholars.
link China with the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.

Earthquake detector
INVENTIONS In 132 ce, Han scholar Zhang Heng created
During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese an egg-shaped copper container that
detected vibrations from the Earth. A ball
invented paper, a seismometer (an would drop from one of the dragons’ heads
instrument for detecting earthquakes), into one of the frogs’ mouths, which
the wheelbarrow, and the magnetic would tell the Han in which direction
compass, among other things. China’s the earthquake had happened.
metalworkers were the most skilled in the
world at the time. They built furnaces so
hot that they could melt iron into liquid,
which they then poured into moulds to
make a range of weapons and tools.

Paper
In around 105 ce, court official Cai
Lun made the first paper using
bark, bamboo fibres, and water.
This was cheaper to produce than
sheets of bamboo or silk.

Wheelbarrow
Han wheelbarrows had a single
central wheel that supported the
whole weight of the load. The Han
Magnetic compass
called wheelbarrows “wooden oxen”.
The first magnetic compass
was a metal spoon, balanced
on a plate, that always
pointed south.
2,400 km (1,500 miles) – the length of the Grand Canal built
by Han Emperor Yang between the years 605 and 611. 6,400 km (4,000 miles) – the approximate total
length of the Silk Road from China to Europe. 47

TRADE AFTER THE HAN

Chinese craftworkers made beautiful In the 2nd century ce, disastrous floods, a plague of
silk, pottery, and metalwork. These locusts, and famine devastated China, and desperate
goods were traded across Asia along the peasants rebelled against the Han. Emperors sent
Silk Road. The art of making silk from armies to end the rebellions, but the army generals
silkworm cocoons was a closely guarded changed sides and instead became local warlords.
Chinese secret. Rich Romans loved silk, Han rule began to break down and, in 220 ce, the
but they had no idea how it was made. last emperor, Xian, gave up the throne.

Bronze art
The Han made many works The Three Kingdoms
of art from bronze. Han emperors From 220 to 280 ce, China was
often filled their tombs with divided into three kingdoms,
bronze sculptures and ornaments. Shu in the west, Wei in the
Silk north, and Wu in the east. The
Han noblewoman ruler of each kingdom claimed
Lady Dai was buried to be the emperor of China,
in a tomb with an
and they were constantly at
intricately painted
silk banner.
war with one another. Wei was
the most powerful kingdom,
and conquered Shu in 263 ce. Wu founder
The kingdom of Wu was
founded by Emperor Dadi, who
ruled from 222 to 252 ce.

Jin Dynasty
In 265 ce, a Wei general
seized power and was
proclaimed emperor of the Jin
Dynasty. He conquered the
eastern Wu kingdom in 280 ce
and briefly reunited most of
China. The Jin Dynasty was
Calligraphy
invaded by neighbouring
Under the Jin, calligraphy
flourished. Wang Xizhi was
kingdoms and fell in 316 ce.
the greatest Jin calligrapher.
HAN GOVERNMENT
In the early years of the Han Dynasty, Chinese government officials were
appointed on recommendations from nobles and senior officials. But in Southern and
165 bce, Emperor Wen introduced a new system in which applicants had Northern dynasties
to pass examinations in order to be appointed, allowing more people to In 386 ce, northern China was
work in government than ever before. However, only the children of reunited under the Northern Wei
wealthy families could afford to be educated and sit the exam. Dynasty. Meanwhile, the southern
region of modern-day China was
ruled by a series of dynasties.
A new religion, Buddhism,
Confucian scholars introduced by merchants and
The Han emperors followed the missionaries from Central Asia,
principles set down by Confucius, a spread widely across China.
Chinese philosopher of the 5th and
6th centuries bce. Confucius believed
that people should treat those above NORTHERN WEI
their rank with respect and those BUDDHIST SCULPTURE
below their rank with fairness. The
relationship between ruler and subject
was considered the most important in Sui Dynasty
Han society, and many emperors In 588 ce, China was
employed Confucian scholars at their reunited by Emperor
courts. In 124 bce, Emperor Wu Wen, who established
established the Imperial University, the short-lived Sui
which trained scholar officials in Dynasty. The second
Confucian texts. and last Sui ruler,
Emperor Yang, ruled
from 614 to 618 ce.
He forced 5 million
Scholars at the imperial court The Grand Canal
Han emperors invited leading scholars people to build a canal
Emperor Yang’s Grand Canal, linking
to serve as advisers at their courts. linking the Yellow and China’s two great rivers, remains
Here, the Han emperor Xian is shown Yangtze rivers. the world’s longest canal today.
with a group of scholars, who are
translating classical texts.
 the ancient world
The Roman language, called Latin, formed the
48 ANCIENT ROME basis for many modern European languages.

Ancient Rome EARLY ROME

According to legend, Rome
From its beginnings as a group of settlements on the was founded by Romulus and
banks of the River Tiber in Italy in the 8th century bce, Remus, half-human sons of
the god Mars. Archaeologists
Rome grew to become an empire that spanned much of suggest that the first settlement,
Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea. located at a ford on the River
Tiber, dated to around the 8th
At its peak, the Roman Empire stretched from the western century bce. Early Rome was
coast of Spain to modern-day Syria, and from the north of especially influenced by the
England to the banks of the Red Sea, incorporating up to a Etruscan people, who spread
quarter of the world’s population. Known for its military and to northern Italy from Lydia
engineering brilliance, the influence of Roman civilization is (in modern-day Turkey). The
still felt to this day, with its law, art, literature, architecture, Etruscans brought knowledge
and politics still shaping much of the world around us. of sewage systems, art, the
toga, and chariot racing to
Rome. The city was even ruled Etruscan tomb painting
by Etruscan kings until the The Etruscans were known for their
founding of the Republic. beautiful wall art, as well as statues
made of bronze and terracotta.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Julius Caesar

According to early Roman historians, the Roman After winning support as a brilliant general in the
Republic was founded in around 509 bce, when the Roman army, Julius Caesar won power in Rome The murder of Caesar
after defeating his political rival, Pompey, in a On 15 March (known as the “Ides of
last Roman king, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown.
civil war. He became the most powerful man in March” in the Roman calendar), Caesar
The monarchy was replaced with a system of elected Rome, but was murdered in 44 bce by a group of was stabbed to death by a group
officials (magistrates), led by two consuls, who worked senators who feared he would make himself king. of Senators called the “Liberators”.
alongside a council of nobles called the Senate.

Roman engineering
The Romans were skilled and innovative engineers. Rome’s
armies were able to cover huge distances using a network of
roads so well-built that some are still in use today. The Romans
built aqueducts to carry water to towns and cities, and they
constructed bridges over rivers. They also designed effective
mills, pumps, siege engines, dams, and even underfloor heating.

Roads Aqueducts
Roman roads were made up Romans built colossal
of five layers, and designed aqueducts to take water
to last. Parts of some Roman from lakes to public baths,
roads still survive today. fountains, houses, and mills.

Timeline 753 bce c.509 bce 264–146 bce 73–71 bce 58–50 bce 27 bce

Ancient Rome Founding of Rome becomes Carthaginian Julius Caesar in Rome becomes
Rome a republic Wars Gaul and Britain an empire
In its history, Rome Little is known of After its last king The North African Between 58 and After Caesar’s
experienced three the early history was overthrown, city of Carthage, in 50 bce, Julius murder in 44 bce,
different forms of Rome. According Rome adopted a modern-day Tunisia, Caesar conquered his great-nephew,
of government: to legend, Rome new form of was the greatest the Celtic tribes of Octavian, hunted
monarchy, republic, was founded by government, the rival of the Roman ancient Gaul, adding down the assassins
and empire. Under twin brothers republic, which Republic. Between most of modern-day and defeated them.
Romulus and Remus. was governed by 264 and 146 bce, France and Belgium He fought his rivals
each, its influence During an argument, magistrates and Rome and Carthage to the Roman to become the first
gradually grew. Romulus murdered consuls. The Roman fought three wars. Republic. He also emperor of Rome.
his brother and he Republic lasted until Rome ultimately Spartacus revolts invaded Britain in He took the title
became the first the beginning of destroyed Carthage, Romans relied upon slave labour, 55 and 54 bce, but Augustus, which
king, giving the the Roman Empire burning the city to but between 135 and 71 bce, the with little success. means “majestic”.
city his name. in 27 ce. the ground. Republic had three major slave
rebellions. The last was led by
Spartacus, a gladiator-general.
 1 million There were at least this many people living
in the city of Rome by the 1st century ce.
No women, even the free born, could
vote or hold office in ancient Rome. 49

THE ROMAN Early emperors of Rome

Although Julius Caesar never became emperor
EMPIRE of Rome, his adopted son and heir Octavian did,
At its greatest North
Sea ruling with the title Augustus. He was the first in
extent in 117 ce, BRI TAI N
a long line of emperors. Some were strong and
the Roman Empire skilled statesmen, but others abused their power.

Rh
covered about Ca

in
ATL ANTIC Danub sp

e
5 million sq km OCE AN e ia
(2 million sq miles) GAU L

n
Se
and included tens ck Sea

I
Bla

a
T
of millions of Corsica Byzantium

A
L
people. S PAIN Rome Y MACEDONIA
A SI A
Sardinia MI NOR
M e d i t SYRIA
e
Carthage r Sicily Crete
r a Cyprus
N O R T H A F n e a
R n S e a Jerusalem
I C Alexandria A RA BI A
A Augustus (27 bce–14 ce) Caligula (37–41 ce)
Key Ruling for more than Known for his cruelty,
Extent of Roman territory at the EGYPT 40 years, Augustus was Caligula was one of
death of Julius Caesar in 44 bce
Extent of Roman Empire at the one of Rome’s most many Roman emperors

Nile
death of Augustus in 14 ce successful emperors. to be assassinated.
Roman Empire at its greatest
extent in 117 ce 0 500 1,000 km
Territory gained and lost
between 14 ce and 117 ce 0 250 500 miles

Emperor
Heart of the empire
The most powerful person At its height the Roman Empire
in the Roman Empire. stretched 4,000 km (2,500 miles) east
Senators to west and 3,700 km (2,300 miles)
Rich and powerful lawmakers north to south. The central hub of this
who governed Rome. vast civilization was the city of Rome,
which by the 1st century ce had more Claudius (41–54 ce) Nero (54–68 ce)
Equestrians
than 1 million inhabitants. A great administrator, Later Roman historians
Noble families, who were often
Claudius expanded the gave Nero a reputation
wealthy and influential.
Roman Empire by for being a cruel and
Plebeians conquering Britain. selfish emperor.
Working people, such as
labourers and merchants.
Freedmen
Former slaves who had
been granted freedom.

Slaves
Slaves had no rights,
and were owned by
their masters.

Roman society Trajan (98–117 ce) Hadrian (117–138 ce)

The people of the Roman empire had different rights Rome in 100 ce The soldier-emperor In Hadrian’s reign, a
depending on their place in society. At the bottom were By the end of the 1st century ce, the Trajan expanded the massive wall was built
slaves, who often came from conquered foreign nations city of Rome was filled with palaces, Roman Empire to its in Britain to mark the
outside of Rome. At the top were the noble-born families temples, theatres, public baths, greatest extent. limit of the empire.
of the equestrians and senators, as well as the emperor. monuments, and amphitheatres.

70 ce 113 ce From 122 ce 286 ce 312–330 ce 476 ce

The Colosseum is begun Trajan’s column The Eastern and The rule of The fall of Rome
Titus Flavius Vespasianus, known This marble column in Western Roman Constantine From the late 4th
as Vespasian, founded the Flavian Rome celebrates the empires The emperor century ce, the
Dynasty in 69 ce. He ruled for military victories of Near the end of the Constantine Western Roman
10 years, but is best known Emperor Trajan. 3rd century ce, the founded the city Empire declined in
for beginning construction of the It was completed in vast Roman Empire of Constantinople, power, unable to
Colosseum in Rome. He was the first 113 ce and inspired split in two, with the which became prevent the advance
Roman emperor to many later victory and western half ruled the capital of the of powerful tribes
pass the throne memorial columns, Hadrian’s Wall from Milan and Eastern Roman from western and
on to his son. such as Nelson’s Built to protect Roman Ravenna and the Empire. He also central Europe.
Column in Trafalgar Britain from northern tribes eastern half ruled became the first The last western
Square, London. in modern-day Scotland, from Nicomedia at emperor to emperor, Romulus
Hadrian’s Wall was 118 km first and later from convert to Augustulus, was
(73 miles) long. The wall Constantinople Christianity, but overthrown by a
had a fort every 8 km (modern-day only did so on Germanic king
(5 miles) along its length. Istanbul). his deathbed. in 476 ce.
 Cloak Galea
In warm weather, a A legionary’s helmet,
50
legionary’s cloak or galea, was made The Roman army
was rolled up in a of iron with bronze
bag. It was used as decorations. The army of the Roman Empire was the most effective
a blanket at night.
fighting force of the ancient world. Unlike most of
their enemies, Roman soldiers were highly trained
and made their living from being in the army.
The finest soldiers were heavily armed citizen footsoldiers
called legionaries. They joined up at the age of about 18,
and served for the next 25 years. Constant training,
and marching with heavy equipment, kept them fit.
Legionaries were labourers as well as fighters. They built
Loculus temporary camps, as well as forts and roads. Alongside
Soldiers stored their the legionaries were non-citizen soldiers called
personal belongings
the ancient world

in a leather satchel
auxiliaries (helpers), who were lightly armed and
called a loculus. fought as archers, slingshot wielders, and cavalry
(soldiers on horseback).

Situla
The situla was an
iron cooking pot.

Focale
This woollen scarf
stopped the soldier’s
armour from rubbing
against his neck.

Lorica segmentata
THE ROMAN ARMY

This armour was made

Faix of overlapping metal
A long sickle known plates so that the
as a faix was used to cut soldier could move
down corn from fields. and bend freely.

Ration bag
A net bag carried enough
food to feed the soldier
for three days.
Pilum
This javelin could be
thrown at distant
enemies before they
Dolabra came in range of the
Soldiers used this soldier’s sword.
march 35 km (22 miles) in five hours.

pickaxe to cut down

Even with their packs, legionaries could

trees and to dig ditches. Pugio

This small dagger
Turf cutter could be used as a
This tool was used to build secondary weapon.
a low earth wall to protect
the army’s camp.
Cingulum militare Furca
This belt, hung with leather strips The soldier used this
studded with metal, was also worn pole to carry his pack
when the soldier was out of uniform. on the march.
Marching equipment Tunic
On the march, each legionary carried Soldiers wore a
short-sleeved,
his own equipment and supplies, in a
knee-length woollen
“sarcina” (pack) carried on a pole slung tunic underneath
over his shoulder. The sarcina included their armour.
food rations and a sickle for reaping
corn, as well as a pickaxe and turf
cutter to help build a new camp at
375,000

the end of every day’s march.

Gladius
The gladius was a short,
stabbing sword used in
close-quarters fighting.
Scutum
This rectangular
curved shield was
made of wood
The total number of soldiers
in the Roman army in 117 ce.

covered in leather.
“Then they advance, all
marching in silence
and in good order, each man
keeping his place
in the ranks, as if in face of the enemy”
Josephus, Description of the Roman Army, 70 ce

Caligae
The soles of these
heavy sandals were
reinforced with
iron nails.
165,000

A Roman legion
The Roman army was split
into legions. In 117 ce, when the Roman
Empire reached its greatest extent, there
were 30 Roman legions spread throughout
the empire. Each had a number and a
name, which might have been the country
The number of legionaries

its soldiers came from or a nickname, such

in the Roman army in 117 ce.

as “Fulminata” (lightning hurler). One

legion was made up of 5,500 men, split
into 10 divisions called cohorts. These
cohorts in turn were divided into
centuries, smaller units of 100 men.
Each legion also had a unit of cavalry, Roman cavalry
who served as scouts and messengers. The soldiers who made up
First cohort Lesser cohorts Cavalry unit the Roman cavalry were
The first cohort was made up of The second to tenth cohorts were made Each legion was supported skilled horse riders who
800 men, who were the most up of 500 men each, with the tenth by a cavalry unit made up were able to fight from
51

experienced soldiers in the legion. cohort being the least experienced. of 120 skilled horse riders. the back of a horse.
52 the ancient world ROMAN DAILY LIFE 1 million The population of the
city of Rome in 1 ce.

Roman daily life

Atrium
The atrium (entrance hall), where
visitors were greeted, was the
most public part of the house.
There were big differences between the lives of The compluvium, an opening in
the roof, let in light. Beneath,
rich and poor people in the Roman Empire. While rainwater collected in the
the wealthy had lives of luxury, the poor often impluvium, an ornamental pool.
lived in small rooms in badly built slum blocks.
In a traditional upper-class Roman family, the oldest
male was known as the paterfamilias (father of the family).
He often owned a town house, called a domus, and a
country house or villa. While the villa was a place to relax
and go hunting, the domus was where the paterfamilias
did business and socialized. Every morning he received a
stream of visitors, who were often less wealthy Romans
coming to ask favours. The family was served by many
slaves, who did all the housework, acting as maids and
cooks. The slaves lived in small, simple rooms around
the courtyard at the back of the domus.

A Roman domus
The plan for this Roman domus
is based on evidence found at
Pompeii, where many houses were
preserved when they were buried
by a volcanic eruption in 79 ce.

Ianua and vestibulum

The front door (ianua)
opened into a small
entryway (vestibulum)
that was closed off from
the main domus.

Taberna
The parts of the domus
facing the street were rented
out as tabernas (shops).
These were often run by
former slaves of the family.
 44,850 The number of apartment
blocks in Rome in 315 ce. 53

Peristylum
Romans loved gardens, and a
domus often had a peristylum,
a courtyard filled with plants or
sometimes featuring a small pool.

Latrina
The latrina (toilet) was
cleaned out using waste
water from the kitchen.

Culina
Slaves cooked all the
meals, which were
prepared over a charcoal
fire in the culina (kitchen).

Tablinum
At the centre of the domus,
the tablinum was an office,
where the paterfamilias
conducted his business.

Triclinium
The dining room (triclinium) was
named after the three couches
on which diners reclined to eat.
They leant on their left elbow
and ate with their right hand.

High-rise living
In Rome and other big cities, the poor lived
in towering apartment blocks called insulae
(meaning “islands”). Often badly and cheaply
built, they were at constant risk of fire and
sudden collapse. The tallest could reach
nine storeys in height.

Cubiculum
The cubiculum (bedroom)
Lararium
was not just where family
members slept. It was also
Every home had a small
a place for private meetings shrine called a lararium,
with important visitors. where offerings were made
each day to the gods who
watched over the family.

Concrete walls
A Roman invention, concrete was
a cheap building material. Early
concrete was made of rubble held
together with a material called
lime (which means “sticking”).
Volcanic ash was added to the
mix to help prevent cracks.
54 the ancient world GERMANIC PEOPLES 3 The number of days the Visigoths
spent plundering Rome.

Germanic peoples RELATIONSHIP WITH ROME

For more than 600 years, the Germanic tribes
In 250 bce, hundreds of tribes were living in a region known were at odds with the Roman Empire. In the 4th
to the Romans as Germania (in Scandinavia and eastern Europe). century ce, people known as the Huns migrated
into Germania, forcing several tribes to move
Many were nomads and migrated across large distances, into lands occupied by the Roman Empire.
forming new kingdoms and battling old empires as they Some tribes settled peacefully and traded with
roamed across the continent. the Romans, as well as adopting their values
and traditions. But they started to rebel and
Germanic people settled across modern-day Germany, Scandinavia, invade more land, and also attacked Rome
France, Britain, Spain, and North Africa. They lived outside and near several times.
the borders of the Roman Empire. The Germanic tribes were not united
and often fought among themselves, as well as with the Roman Empire.
During the 4th and 5th centuries ce, after several rebellions and wars,
the tribes contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Over the Chieftain Arminius
In 9 ce, in
next 300 years, small Germanic kingdoms formed across Europe and Teutoburg Forest
would later grow into some of the major European kingdoms of in modern-day
the medieval period. western Germany,
chieftain Arminius
defeated invading
Roman legions.

GERMANIC PAGANISM
The many Germanic tribes had their own religious
beliefs. They worshipped many gods that
represented nature and the world
around them. These beliefs
are collectively known as
Germanic paganism.
They also believed in
supernatural beings,
such as elves, sprites,
and dragons. As the
tribes migrated across
Europe, each tribe’s
religious beliefs
changed over time.

Torslunda plates
Cast in bronze, the
Torslunda plates were
found in Sweden in 1870.
Historians think that they
show scenes from
Germanic mythology.

GERMANIC TRIBES Vandals Suebi Goths

The Germanic people formed The Vandal tribe of Scandinavia The Suebi were a collection of tribes, The Goths were made up of two
migrated through mainland Europe. including the Marcomanni, Quadi, and tribal groups – the eastern Goths,
many tribes across Europe,
They settled in North Africa in the Lombards. They settled along the known as the Ostrogoths, and the
from Scandinavia in the north
5th century ce, where chieftain banks of the River Elbe in central western Goths, known as the
to the Black Sea in the south. Genseric started the Vandal Kingdom. Europe, as well as Visigoths. In 410 ce, Goth leader
After the fall of the Roman venturing west Alaric I successfully attacked and
Empire in 476 ce, some of to modern-day plundered Rome. In the late
these tribes established the Spain where 5th century, Theodoric the Great
first Germanic kingdoms. some tribes formed an Ostrogothic empire
established the in modern-day Italy.
Kingdom of
the Suebi.
SUEBIAN STATUE OF THE MAUSOLEUM
VANDALS PLUNDER ROME, 455 ce A PRAYING MAN OF THEODORIC
 Some Germanic warriors believed that pendants Germanic prophets, known as soothsayers,
worn on their swords could heal wounds. performed rituals at sacred locations, such as groves. 55

WARFARE AND KINGS AND CHIEFTAINS

WEAPONS Germanic tribes were ruled by skilled warriors.
These chieftains led by example and gained reputations
Germanic warriors were fearless
as fierce warlords. After centuries of war with the
fighters. They used iron to make
declining Roman Empire, the nomadic tribes settled and
swords, but iron was scarce, and
claimed land. Their rulers changed from chieftains into
their swords were weaker than
monarchs, reigning over their new territories.
the steel weapons used by the
Roman Empire. They were also
armed with lances, wooden
clubs, and darts. It was rare for a
Germanic warrior to wear armour,
and most carried a shield made Germanic chieftain
from wicker or wooden planks. Clovis I was a
chieftain before he
Sutton Hoo helmet became the first
A 7th-century Germanic helmet king of the Franks
discovered at a burial site in 482 ce. He was
called Sutton Hoo in Britain was baptized as a
made from iron and copper. Christian in 496 ce.

GERMANIC SOCIETY
At first, Germanic tribes were clan-based, with related Mead hall
People in Germanic society had a value
families forming small settlements of wooden houses. They Large one-room buildings in gold known as weregild based
grew crops and reared animals for food. Over the centuries,
as populations grew and the need for protection increased,
called mead halls, also known
as feasting halls, were places on their social status.
where tribespeople and If they were killed or injured, their family
military chieftains and lords came to power, with younger warriors celebrated with would receive payment from the attacker.
warriors pledging loyalty to their leader. their lord or chieftain.

Anglo-Saxons Lombards Franks

The Anglo-Saxon tribes migrated From the 6th to The Franks spread from modern-day
from northern Germany the 8th centuries, western Germany into Belgium and
into Britain from the 5th the Lombard tribe France. Charlemagne formed the
to the 6th centuries. split from the Carolingian
Several Anglo-Saxon Suebi tribes Empire, one
languages merged and started the of the most
and became known Kingdom of powerful
as “Old English”. the Lombards, kingdoms
occupying most of in western
modern-day Italy. Europe.

CHARLEMAGNE,
ANGLO-SAXON LOTHAR I, KING OF KING OF THE
PENDANT, 600 CE THE LOMBARDS FRANKS
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
In the 1,000 years between the 5th and 15th centuries, the collapse
of the Roman Empire fractured Europe into rival kingdoms. China,
and new Islamic empires spreading from the Middle East, went
through golden ages of art and science. In Japan, warlords took over
the empire, eventually leading to a century of civil war. New cultures
emerged in the Americas, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.
58 the medieval world TIMELINE OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

SAMURAI ARMOUR
AND WEAPONS
c.1190: Mesa Verde Cliff Palace 13th century: Maori
The ancestral Puebloans, a arrive in New Zealand
people of southwest North The Polynesian people known as
America, built a settlement the Maori settled on the islands
now known as Cliff Palace in of New Zealand, which they
a rock face at Mesa Verde ANCESTRAL PUEBLOAN called Aotearoa, meaning
in modern-day Colorado. WOVEN BASKET “land of the long white cloud”.
MAORI MASK

1185: Warlords rule Japan

With the support of his
samurai armies, the military
leader Minamoto Yoritomo
came to power in Japan. This
led to more than 400 years
of conflict as rival warlords 12th century: Great Zimbabwe
fought for control of Japan. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe in
southeast Africa built a capital
city known as Great Zimbabwe.
Its towers were the tallest structures
BIRD SCULPTURE in sub-Saharan Africa until the arrival
AT GREAT of Europeans in the 15th century. KRAK DES
ZIMBABWE CHEVALIERS

Timeline of the
medieval world 802–1431: The Khmer Empire
The people of the Khmer
In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire, CHARLEMAGNE
Empire in Southeast Asia
ancient knowledge was lost and regional constructed hundreds of
temples at their capital
rulers fought each other for dominance. But city of Angkor, in
across Asia and the Americas, old and new modern-day Cambodia.
ANGKOR TEMPLE SCULPTURE
empires continued to expand and flourish. 800: The Holy Roman Empire
Charlemagne was crowned
the first emperor of the
Belief in Christianity took hold across Europe, while Holy Roman Empire, a
the new religion of Islam quickly spread out from group of territories in
the Middle East into North Africa and southern west and central Europe.
Spain. Conflict between the two religions led to
centuries of warfare. Elsewhere, the great cultures
of China and India spread their influence into 794–1185: The Heian Period
Southeast Asia, while the Pacific Islands were During the Heian Period, a
high point of Japanese culture,
settled by Polynesians. Great civilizations arose in literature and the arts flourished
the Americas, isolated from the rest of the world at the imperial court and
until the arrival of Europeans in the 15th century. Buddhism continued to spread
throughout Japan.
HEIAN PERIOD BUDDHIST STATUE

MISSISSIPIAN
527–565: Justinian I CULTURE c.610: Islam begins
DECORATED POT
The eastern portion of the Roman According to Islamic belief,
Empire survived the fall of Rome From c.600: Mississippian culture the prophet Muhammad
in 476 ce, and continued on as the In North America, Native American JABAL AL-NOUR began preaching Islam after
Byzantine Empire. One of its most tribes living in the Mississippi Valley being visited by an angel at
successful emperors, Justinian I, region built giant earth mounds and a cave in a mountain now
sent armies that conquered parts traded in pottery and woven items. known as Jabal al-Nour (the
JUSTINIAN I of North Africa, Spain, and Italy. “Mountain of the Light”).
 59

SONGHAI
1206–1368: The Mongol Empire TOMB 1368–1644: The Ming Dynasty
The Mongol tribes of Central Ming China produced highly
Asia, united under the c.1335–1591: The Songhai Empire prized porcelain pottery. The
leadership of Genghis Khan, The Muslim Songhai Empire was Ming also took on great building
conquered large areas of one of the largest states in African projects, such as the Forbidden
Asia, the Middle East, and history. It controlled all trade along City in Beijing and the rebuilding
MONGOL Europe, creating one of the the River Niger in West Africa. of the Great Wall of China. MING PORCELAIN
QUIVER largest empires in history. VASE

1095–1291: The Crusades 1054: The East–West Schism

Christian armies from Europe set out The Roman Catholic Church and the
on a series of holy wars known as Eastern Orthodox Church separated
the Crusades. Their aim was to conquer in an event known to historians as the
cities in the Holy Land (in the Middle East-West Schism. The Hagia Sophia
East) that were under Muslim control. cathedral in Constantinople became
The Crusaders built or captured many the centre of Orthodox Christianity.
castles, such as Krak des Chevaliers. HAGIA SOPHIA

960–1279: The Song Dynasty c.1000: Vikings land in America

During the Song Dynasty, the The Viking explorer Leif Erikson and LEIF ERIKSON
Chinese economy boomed and his crew became the first Europeans
the population of China doubled to set foot on the east coast of North
from 50 million to 100 million. Like America. They named the area they
the Tang emperors before them, the explored Vinland, after the
Song were great patrons of the arts. grapevines they found there.
SONG DYNASTY COIN

793: The Vikings raid Lindisfarne

A seafaring people from Scandinavia
known as the Vikings raided a
Christian monastery on Lindisfarne,
an island off the coast of England. For THE CITY OF
BAGHDAD
the next three centuries, the Vikings
VIKING
HELMET
launched attacks against coastal
settlements throughout Europe. 750-1258: The
Abbasid Dynasty
The Abbasids oversaw a
period of learning, art, and
culture across the Islamic
world. They ruled from the
new city of Baghdad.

618–907: The Tang Dynasty c.718–1492: The Spanish Reconquista

Under the rulers of the Tang The Moors, an Islamic people of North
Dynasty, China experienced Africa, invaded southern Spain in the
a Golden Age of cultural and 8th century. They converted many
artistic achievement. The Tang churches, such as the Mezquita in
set up academies to promote Córdoba, into mosques. The Spanish
arts such as pottery making, THE MEZQUITA OF CÓRDOBA
drove out the Moors after a series of wars
TANG STATUE OF A DANCER scroll painting, and poetry. known as the Reconquista (“reconquest”).
60 the medieval world THE POWER OF THE CHURCH 17 Joan of Arc’s age when she led French
troops into battle against the English.

Timeline 313–380 ce 597 711–1492

Medieval Christianity Christianity endorsed Augustine of Canterbury Spanish Reconquista

by Rome A group of monks led by At the start of the 8th century,
As empires rose and kingdoms At first, Romans treated Augustine journeyed from Muslim people known as
Christians with violence, Rome to England on a mission Moors invaded modern-day
fell, Christianity endured and
as the Christians refused to spread Christianity in 597. Spain and Portugal. From the
became increasingly powerful. to worship Roman gods. Augustine became the first early 8th century to the end of
Christianity helped to build However, in 313 ce, attitudes Archbishop of Canterbury, the 15th century, the Christian
kingdoms, mighty institutions, started to change when converting thousands of English kingdoms of Spain battled the
and spread new ways of Emperor Constantine I people to Christianity, including Muslim Moor armies for
thinking. However, it also granted religious freedom to King Ethelbert of Kent. control of the region. The
all Christians in the Roman conflict lasted for more than
sparked violent wars and
Empire. Later, in 380 ce, 700 years and is known
created divides between Emperor Theodosius I made as the Spanish Reconquista.
empires and cultures. Christianity the official
religion of the Roman Empire.
AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY

The power
Aachen Cathedral
Built under the rule of
Charlemagne in the late 8th
century, Aachen Cathedral is the

of the Church oldest cathedral in northern

Europe and was inspired by
eastern Roman architecture.

From its beginnings in the 1st century ce, the

religion of Christianity began to spread from
the Middle East, eventually reaching
Europe. The teachings of the Christian
Church became a part of everyday life.
AACHEN
For its first 1,000 years, the Church was unified and
was led from Rome by a religious leader known as
the Pope. This Roman Catholic Church influenced all
aspects of medieval society, from the courts of kings
and queens to the daily routines of peasants. As it
grew in power, the Church gained wealth and began
to control large areas of land. It built elaborate
places of worship, helped to care for the sick, Joan of Arc
and provided education. It also helped to raise Joan of Arc, a peasant
girl, believed she was
armies for war and influenced powerful monarchs. chosen by God to help
drive the invading
English from France. In
1429, she led French
armies against English
troops and helped win
many battles.
AVIGNON

Palais des Papes

Between 1309 and 1377
Pope Clement V temporarily
moved the headquarters
of the Roman Catholic
Church from Rome to the
Palais des Papes in Avignon
in France because of
political unrest in Rome.

The Mezquita
When the Muslim Moors invaded modern-day
Spain in the 8th century, they captured Christian
cathedrals such as the Mezquita in Córdoba. It was
adapted into an elaborate mosque. In the 13th
century, when Christians regained Córdoba, it
CÓRDOBA was converted back into a cathedral.
 30 The number of years it took to build
Old St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. 1.3 billion The approximate number of
Catholics in the world today. 61

800 1054 1084–c.1250 1095–1291 1455

The East–West Schism Different factions emerge The Crusades The Gutenberg Bible
In the middle of the 11th During the 11th to the 13th In 1095, Pope Urban II called During the Printing Revolution, the
HOLY ROMAN century, the Roman Catholic centuries, several religious for the Christian armies of first mass-produced book was a
EMPEROR Church, based in Rome, and orders emerged from Europe to invade the sacred Bible made by printing pioneer
CHARLEMAGNE
the Eastern Orthodox Church, monasteries throughout cities of the Holy Land in the Johannes Gutenberg. It had 1,286
based in Constantinople, Europe and the Middle East. Middle East, which were at pages that filled two volumes. The
separated. This was caused These new orders, such as the that time under the control expensive Bibles were bought by
by years of arguments over Cistercians, Carthusians, and of Muslim empires. Over the wealthy church leaders.
interpretations of the Bible Carmelites, focused on a next 200 years, several wars
Charlemagne crowned and cultural differences solitary existence, taking vows between Christian and
In 800 ce, the Frankish king, between the Roman West of silence and living simple, Muslim armies, known as the
Charlemagne, was crowned and the Greek East. disciplined, and spiritual lives. Crusades, raged across the
Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Middle East.
Leo III. Charlemagne’s Holy
Roman Empire included most GUTENBERG
of western and central Europe. BIBLE

Christian Europe
The Roman Catholic Church was based
in Rome, with its headquarters at Old St.
Peter’s Basilica from the 4th century ce.
The building was demolished and replaced
with the current St. Peter’s Basilica in the
16th century. The Eastern Orthodox
Church, which split from Rome in the
11th century, was based in the city of
Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).
Old St. Peter’s Basilica
Old St. Peter’s Basilica was built in the
4th century ce. It was one of the most
important centres of the Roman Catholic Vladimir the Great’s baptism
Church and the largest church in the The Grand Prince of Kiev,
world. It became a sacred destination Vladimir the Great, converted
for pilgrimage and religious ceremonies. to Christianity in 988 ce and
helped spread the religion
across eastern Europe.

CHERSONESUS

Hagia Sophia
Built during the reign of
Byzantine ruler Justinian I
in the 6th century, the
Hagia Sophia cathedral in
Constantinople was the centre
of Orthodox Christianity.

CONSTANTINOPLE
ROME

Montecassino
The hilltop monastery at
Montecassino was founded
in the 6th century. It is home
to one of the first orders of
monks – the Benedictines.
The Byzantine
Empire
In 395 ce, the Roman Empire was
divided in two. The Western Roman
Empire was captured by barbarians
in 476 ce, but the Eastern Roman
Empire survived, and became
known as the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire was named after
Byzantium, the original name of its capital,
Constantinople (now Istanbul in present-
day Turkey). At its height the Byzantine
Empire stretched from southern Spain to
the Middle East. Its people were devoutly
Christian, spoke Greek, and referred to
themselves as Romans. The Byzantine
Empire was invaded by barbarians and
nearby empires many times, but it
endured for almost 1,500 years.

527–565
Emperor Justinian I
was crowned in 527.
During his reign, he
600–900
led many successful
The Byzantine
military campaigns
Empire lost some
to conquer parts of
of its territory
North Africa and Italy.
to nearby Muslim
empires and to
976–1025
invaders from
Emperor Basil II ruled
Europe and Persia.
over a golden age in
which the Byzantine
Empire grew wealthy,
1054
produced great works
The Byzantine Empire
of art and literature,
split from the Roman
and strengthened its
Catholic Church and
military might.
formed the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
1095–1204
The Byzantine
Empire allied with
European kings 1204
during the Crusades, The Byzantine Empire’s
a series of military alliance with European
campaigns against kings dissolved and
the Muslim empires. the Crusaders attacked
and plundered the city
1204–1453 of Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire The empire became
grew even weaker after severely weakened.
constant invasions.
Now just a city-state,
Constantinople was
conquered by the
Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Byzantine empress
This mosaic depicts Empress Theodora (in
the middle wearing a brown robe and a
jewelled crown decorated with sapphires
and emeralds) and other ladies of the
Byzantine royal court. Theodora married
Emperor Justinian I and together they
ruled over the Byzantine Empire.
 the medieval world
Samurai swords were so strong that
64 MEDIEVAL JAPAN they could cut through armour.

EARLY JAPAN Medieval ERA OF THE SHOGUNS

Japan
From 11,000 bce, during the Jomon During the Heian period, wealthy
Period, clans of people lived in small landowners hired warriors to protect
settlements on the islands of Japan and their land. These warriors became known
created simple pottery. Around 10,000 as the samurai. After the Genpei War, in
years later, in the Yayoi Period, the clans From the end of the 12th century to the late 12th century, the victorious
mined bronze and iron, and farmed rice. the beginning of the 17th century, Minamoto clan set up the first shogunate
Japan experienced a turbulent (a government controlled by a military
dictator) and claimed power. Over the
period of civil war, power struggles, next 400 years, civil wars raged across
The Kofun Period (300–552 ce) and foreign intervention. Japan as rival clans tirelessly battled
The Kofun Period is now known for the each other for territory and power.
elaborate burial mounds that were built for Military leaders came to power in Japan,
the era’s leaders. The tombs were created in supposedly ruling in the name of the
several designs, including special keyhole emperor. These leaders took control
shapes. Haniwa – cylinder-shaped figurines
of the country, setting up military
crafted from clay – were buried with the dead.
governments, called shogunates, that Castles
ruled Japan for more than 400 years. Japanese castles were initially built in
The leaders of these governments important strategic positions, such as along
were known as the shoguns, and they trade routes and next to major rivers. They
later became the official residences of lords
commanded armies of loyal warriors and their samurai followers. The castle itself
known as samurai. Warfare between the stood at the heart of a complex of buildings
samurai clans broke out regularly, as rival that were built to govern the local lands.
leaders competed for control. Yet amid
the civil wars and social chaos, Japanese
culture and art continued to flourish.
DAISEN KOFUN NEAR OSAKA,
THE LARGEST KOFUN TOMB IN JAPAN

JAPANESE SOCIETY
The Asuka Period (552–710) Under the samurai, everyone in Japan had
Japanese society began to change during the
different rights and privileges, depending
Asuka Period. Buddhism arrived from Korea
and started to spread with the help of the
upon their role in society. The social system
Soga clan, who rose to power and dominated was similar to that of Europe, but here,
Japan until 645. peasants were seen as an important part
of society, because farmers and fishermen
A new name provided food for everyone to eat.
During the Asuka
Merchants were looked on less favourably,
Period, the islands
became known as as they produced nothing and profited
Nippon, which means from the work of others.
“land of the rising sun”.

Emperor
Although the emperor was seen by
The Nara Period the Japanese as the supreme ruler,
(710–794) he lacked any real power.
During the short Nara Period, Himeji Castle
Shogun
Buddhism grew in popularity and Officially the emperor’s second-in- The Himeji Castle complex was
became a mainstream religion command, the shogun made most of made up of more than 80 buildings
across Japan. Large Buddhist the political decisions. and was protected by an imposing
temples were built, such as the stone base and several moats.
one at Todaiji. The era was also Daimyo
known for its poetry and Influential landowners, the daimyo
historical literature. swore loyalty to the shogun and
employed samurai to guard their land. THE UNIFICATION
NARA BUDDHIST STATUE
Samurai OF JAPAN
These elite Japanese warriors served During the second half of the 16th century,
The Heian Period and protected their masters and their three influential daimyo, Oda Nobunaga,
(794–1185) community, living by a code of honour.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu,
The Heian Period was the Peasants and craftworkers helped to bring an end to the civil wars, and
high point of the imperial The samurai protected those below finally united the warring clans of Japan.
court and early Japanese them in return for food, weapons,
Tokugawa Ieyasu established the last
culture. Literature flourished, armour, and other goods.
shogunate of Japan, bringing all of the
with female writers such as Merchants and servants regional lords under his control.
Murasaki Shikibu and Sei All classes of the community were
Shonagon producing works served by people who bought and
MURASAKI SHIKIBU
that are still read today. WRITING THE TALE OF sold goods.
GENJI, c.1020
 10% The estimated amount of the Japanese
population that belonged to the samurai class. 7 The number of virtues the samurai were expected to possess.
They included honesty, courage, loyalty, and honour. 65

Japan under the samurai

Timeline
The samurai When Minamoto Yoritomo
The name samurai means “one who became the first shogun, the
serves”. The samurai were soldiers elite warrior class of samurai
who loyally supported their shoguns rose to power. This led to more
and protected the lands of their lords. than 400 years of conflict as
They followed a strict code of conduct, rival samurai warlords battled
known as Bushido. The sword was an with each other for power.
important part of samurai culture and
represented their status.

Minamoto Yoritomo

1192
becomes shogun
Culture and the arts After defeating rival clans, Minamoto
New traditions and art forms Yoritomo established the Kamakura
Shogunate, taking the political power
developed during the medieval period.
away from the emperor. Yoritomo’s
Decorative arts, such as garden design,
authority relied on the samurai.
flower arranging, and calligraphy
(handwriting) flourished. The rituals

1274 and 1281

of the tea ceremony, originally from The Mongols invade
China, took on a distinctly Japanese Having conquered China, Mongol
form. Plays and performance arts, leader Kublai Khan set his sights on
such as Noh dance-dramas, also Japan. He amassed a huge fleet and
tried to invade by sea on two
became popular.
occasions. However, the samurai and
a series of devastating storms made
the Mongols retreat both times.

Genko War

1331–1333
Emperor Go-Daigo attacked the
Masks Kamakura Shogunate with the help of
Noh masks were the shogun’s rivals. A civil war broke
crafted from wood. out, known as the Genko War, and the
They were carved Kamakura Shogunate was defeated.
so that, depending
on the position of
Ashikaga Shogunate

1338
the actor and the
stage lighting, The Kamakura Shogunate were
the expressions betrayed by one of their own
and moods looked generals, Ashikaga Takauji, who then
different to the stole power from Emperor Go-Daigo
audience. and established the Ashikaga
Shogunate in Kyoto.

MASK OF AN Onin War

1467–1477
OLD MAN
The Onin War started an era of civil
war and unrest across Japan known as
the Sengoku or “Warring States” period.
Japan divided into regional warring
clans battling for dominance.

Japanese firearms
1543

When Portuguese sailors arrived in

Japan with firearms, Japanese
engineers studied the weapons and
started to manufacture them. This
changed how battles were fought.
14TH-CENTURY SAMURAI ARMOUR AND WEAPONS MASK OF A WOMAN

Oda Nobunaga Toyotomi Hideyoshi Tokugawa Ieyasu

Using new firearms, based on those brought Toyotomi Hideyoshi took over as Oda After Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s death, another
to Japan by Portuguese sailors, Oda Nobunaga’s successor after Nobunaga’s civil war broke out as rival clans tried
Nobunaga and his samurai death. He continued the attempt to claim power. In 1600, Hideyoshi’s
defeated many rival clans and to conquer all of Japan and powerful adviser, Tokugawa Ieyasu,
overthrew the Ashikaga eventually unified all of won the Battle of Sekigahara.
Shogunate. By the time the clans. In 1585, he He took lands away from
of his death in 1582, became the Chancellor his previous enemies,
Nobunaga had united to the Emperor, and placed his allies in
nearly half of Japan. later, the Chief strategic positions,
Imperial Minister. and established an
era of peace
across Japan.
66 the medieval world THE EARLY ISLAMIC WORLD 62 million – the population of the Islamic
empire during the reign of the Umayyads.

The Mezquita
Islamic people known as the
Moors arrived in Spain from
Morocco in 711. The Islamic
influence on Spanish architecture
can be seen in the red-and-white
archways inside the Mezquita’s
prayer hall in Córdoba.

CÓRDOBA

TANGIER

CAIRO

The Islamic empire

At its height in the mid-8th century,
the early Islamic states formed one
of the largest empires the world
had ever seen, stretching for more
than 8,000 km (5,000 miles) from
modern-day Spain across North Africa, City of the Dead
This network of tombs,
through the Middle East, and into Asia.
crypts, and mausoleums in
Ibn Battuta
Cairo was built during the
The great explorer Ibn Battuta
Islamic conquests of Egypt.
(1304–1369) travelled the world for
nearly half of his life. His journey of
around 120,000 km (75,000 miles)
took him through modern-day Turkey,
Crimea, Asia, India, China, and Africa.

The early
Islamic world Pioneering scientist
Ibn al-Haytham
The religion of Islam was founded by the prophet (965–1040), also
known as Alhazen,
Muhammad in the Middle East in the early 7th century. was one of the
Within just 100 years, powerful Muslim armies had world’s first
physicists. He
spread the influence of the new religion across three performed many
continents, creating an Islamic empire. experiments
that helped to
Over the following centuries, the Islamic empire continued to establish the idea
of scientific method.
expand its borders in Asia, Africa, and Europe. The empire was
ruled by a series of caliphs (“successors” of Muhammad), many
of whom encouraged the development of new ideas in science,
maths, and medicine. Travellers and merchants from the Islamic
world journeyed far and wide, spreading their culture and
beliefs around the world.
 29
During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Islamic empire The number of years Ibn Battuta
established some of the world’s first universities. spent travelling the world. 67

Early Islamic leaders The Umayyads The Abbasids The Mamluks

In the mid-7th century, The Abbasid Dynasty The Mamluks were slave
According to Muslim belief, the Umayyad Dynasty came to power in 750 and warriors before they
Islam was founded in 610 took control of the encouraged learning, art, overthrew their masters,
when a merchant named caliphate and expanded and culture. They began the Abbasids, and took
Muhammad saw a vision its lands to Spain and to lose power during the over the caliphate. They
of an angel in a cave. Central Asia. 13th century after the were formidable soldiers,
UTHMAN IBN AFFAN, Mongol Empire destroyed FATIMID TEXTILE defeating the Mongols.
The angel dictated to SECOND CALIPH
Baghdad, their capital.
Muhammad the word of The first rulers The Fatimids
Allah (God), which he wrote When Muhammad died in During the 10th century, a
down as the Qu’ran, Islam’s 632, the first Islamic rival clan to the Abbasids,
the Fatimids, claimed to
holy book. Muhammad government, known as
a caliphate, was created. be descendants of
went on to unite the tribes Muhammad’s daughter,
The first four caliphs were
of Arabia under Islam. and rose to power across
leaders who had been
taught by Muhammad. North Africa and the
Middle East.
UMAYYAD GREAT MOSQUE ABBASID ART MAMLUK POTTERY

Timeline 632–661 661–750 750–1258 909–1171 1250–1517

Umayyad Mosque
Based in Damascus in
modern-day Syria, the
Umayyad Dynasty built one
of the largest mosques in the
world, the Umayyad Mosque.

DAMASCUS

JERUSALEM
Baghdad
BAGHDAD When the Abbasid Dynasty
took over the Islamic Caliphate,
they built a new circular
capital city called Baghdad,
Dome of the Rock now in modern-day Iraq.
This Islamic shrine in
Jerusalem was built by
the Umayyad Dynasty in
the 7th century. It was
constructed on a holy
site sacred to Muslims,
Christians, and Jews.

MECCA
Golden age
From about 750 to
1258, the Abbasid
Dynasty ushered in a
golden age of Islamic
Jabal al-Nour culture, with great
This mountain near achievements in
Mecca has a sacred cave, science, maths, the
SCHOLARS IN AN
where Muslims believe arts, and engineering. ABBASID LIBRARY
the prophet Muhammad
was visited by an angel.

“I constantly
sought knowledge
and truth.”
Alhazen, Islamic scientist,
Book of Optics, 1021
68 the medieval world THE VIKINGS 870 The year Iceland was discovered by
a Viking who set sail from Norway.

The Vikings
Kitchen
A fire in the hearth burned all day
and night for cooking and warmth.
Cooking cauldrons were either hung
The Vikings, a seafaring people from Scandinavia, from the ceiling or suspended from
a tripod. Once the Sun had set at the
ventured beyond their homeland in search of land, raw end of the day, families gathered
materials, and lured by the promise of gold and silver. together to eat.

From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings’ fearsome

reputation spread as they raided and plundered settlements
across Europe. But they weren’t just pirates – the Vikings
were excellent shipbuilders, sailors, and navigators too.
They were daring explorers, sailing as far west as North
America and travelling overland as far east as Baghdad
in present-day Iraq. They also created new trade routes,
selling animal furs, crafts, and slaves.

Viking longhouse
When they were not at sea,
Vikings lived a rural life in
large, narrow homes known Smoke holes
as longhouses. Several families Gaps in the roof
lived inside a longhouse, alongside allowed smoke from
their animals. There was little the fire to escape.
privacy, but it was cosy and warm.

Growing crops
Crops included wheat, rye,
barley, and oats, as well as
onions, cabbages, and peas.

Longhouse floor
The floor was made
from compacted earth.

Wattle and daub walls

Chopping firewood Walls were made of
Lots of dry firewood was interwoven branches,
needed to keep the fire covered in a mixture of
burning inside the longhouse. clay, soil, sand, and straw.
Important Vikings were buried in boats,
along with their weapons and valuables. 841 The year Viking explorers first
settled in Dublin, Ireland.
Some longships had enough space
to carry horses as well as crew. 69

Barn animals
Vikings kept their animals
and tools in a barn area at
one end of the longhouse.
Roof materials
Roofs were made from VIKING
materials such as wooden LONGSHIP
tiles, thatched reed, or turf.

Adventurous explorers
The Vikings used their navigational skills
to explore far-reaching lands, sailing fast
wooden longships huge distances. Each ship
had a large sail as well as 24–50 oars with a
crew of at least as many people. One group
of Viking explorers crossed the Atlantic
Ocean, stopping in Scotland and Iceland
before reaching Greenland in 982. In about
1000, Leif Eriksson was the first
European to make landfall on
the east coast of North America.

Viking warriors
In 793, Viking raiders destroyed a Christian
monastery on Lindisfarne, an island off the
northeast coast of England. This violent raid
shocked the Christian world.
For the next three centuries,
Viking raiders terrorized
Europe, looting enough
treasure to fill their
ships, taking slaves,
and setting up bases
from which to attack
new targets. They
Prized animals demanded enormous
Sheep, cows, goats, and payments in return for
poultry supplied meat, leaving areas in peace.
eggs, and milk for food, as
well as wool for clothing. VIKING HELMET

Sleeping areas
The Vikings ate, worked, and slept Gods and religion
on raised wooden platforms that ran
The Vikings worshipped many different gods,
alongside the walls of the longhouse.
They used animal furs and blankets such as the one-eyed Odin, the super-strong
to keep warm and comfortable. Weaving garments thunder god Thor, and the mischief-maker
Longhouses had little furniture – only Viking women spent part of each Loki. Around campfires, they told stories
the richest families had chairs or beds. day making clothes. They used wool through songs and poems about the gods
or flax on a weaving loom to make and their epic battles against giants and
fabric, which was then fashioned monsters. Over time, as the Vikings settled
into clothing. Vikings wore simple across Europe, they
tunics, sometimes embellished with
began to convert
patterns or fur trimmings.
to Christianity.

Storage space
Locked wooden chests Thor’s hammer
stored clothing, blankets, Thor was the favourite
and family valuables. god of farmers and
peasants. His hammer
protected him against
his enemies.
 Jousting tournaments
70
To train and to show off their
Medieval Europe Chain mail combat skills, knights took part in
A knight wore a shirt of chain, known elaborate tournaments. They would
Between around 720 and 1400, many European as a hauberk. It was made up of
battle each other in a joust,
nations were organized on the feudal system, in small interlinking metal rings and
was an effective defence against exhibitions of swordplay, and
which different levels of society, from kings and most medieval weapons. show off their horse-riding skills.
queens to peasants, had obligations to each other for
military protection, the rights to farm land, and food.
Feudalism affected everyone living in northern and western
Europe. Rulers needed armies to defend their kingdoms, so
they shared their land with lords, who would supply them
with trained and armoured knights in return. For the next
700 years the knight became one of the most important
Helmet
soldiers in the army of European monarchs. The knight’s helmet
was made of metal
and often had a hinged
the medieval world

visor and holes to allow

Sword him to breathe.
Knights mainly used
Plate armour
swords in battle, but Shield By the 15th century, improved
they also used lances, A knight carried a weaponry, such as crossbows, and
maces, and warhammers. shield made of wood advances in making armour meant
or metal to protect knights replaced chain mail with
him during battles
and tournaments.
suits of armour made from metal
plates. This meant they were
better protected, although it
was heavier than chain mail.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
c.6,000

Coat of arms
A knight’s shield was
Warhorse decorated with his personal
The knight’s combat horse coat of arms, so other soldiers
was bred for strength, could identify its owner.
stamina, and speed.
Henry II could summon to battle.
The number of knights England’s King

Scabbard
The knight stored his
sword in a leather pouch
that had been shaped to
fit the weapon.
 English word meaning “servant”.

Bard
A knight’s horse wore
The word “knight” comes from an Old

special armour, called a

bard, which was very Stirrup
expensive and heavy. The stirrup supported the
knight’s foot, allowing him
to balance and fight, even
on a charging horse.

Knight of the realm

A knight was usually of noble birth and began
3,000

his training from the age of seven. He started

as a page, helping to care for another knight’s
horse and equipment. At around the age of 13,
he became a squire, starting combat training and
assisting his knight during battle. He eventually
became a knight himself at the age of 21.

Monarch
The feudal system A king and queen owned all the
The Black Death
The king allowed lords to hold areas of the land in their kingdom. During the middle
king’s lands (known as “fiefs”) in exchange of the 14th century,
Lords and ladies a plague known as the
for money and the promise of fighting
Lords and ladies received land (often Black Death spread
men during times of war. The lords then a manor house) and peasants from across Europe, killing
leased parts of their fief to noble the monarchs in exchange for millions. Suddenly,
knights. Knights were in charge of loyalty and military aid. there were fewer
law and justice in their land. Serfs peasants to work the
Knights
The number of knights that attended the largest

(peasants) worked the land for land and the demand

tournament, at Lagny-sur-Marne, France, in 1179.

Knights received food, protection,

the knights, producing food and for peasants rose.
and land from lords in exchange
for loyalty and military service. Peasants realized
supplies in exchange for a place
they could choose
to live. Some serfs worked for where and for
free, others paid rent – but Serfs
Serfs received food, whom they worked,
no serf was allowed to protection, and a place which led to
leave the fief without the to live from knights feudalism’s decline.
permission of their lord. in exchange for
71

work and rent.

72 the medieval world EMPIRES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

DOMINANT EMPIRES Empires of

Southeast Asia
The mix of cultures and religions created tensions between the
kingdoms of Southeast Asia, leading to rivalry, war, and the rise
and fall of several empires throughout the region’s history.
However, from the 11th century onwards, a group of large
empires – the Khmer (see right), Champa, Srivijaya, Pagan, and From the 2nd century ce, contact with the cultures of
Dai Viet – were locked in a power struggle to dominate the area. India, China, Europe, and the Middle East transformed
the tribes and settlements in the jungles of Southeast
0 500 1,000 km
M e k ong Asia into great city-states, kingdoms, and empires.
0 250 500 miles

PAGAN
DAI VIET Early Southeast Asian societies were shaped by the politics,
Pagan
religions, art, and architecture of their neighbours, India and
Hainan
China. European and Arab merchants later brought their own
I
THA

Bay of culture to the region. By combining these influences in different

CH
SUKHO

B e n ga l KHMER ways, Southeast Asia developed many distinct cultures. Some

AM

Vijaya
Andaman
PA

Sea Angkor
Ph ilippines
became empires, building huge cities and thousands of temples,
So uth
Gulf of Ch ina
as well as seaports to trade with the rest of the world.
Thailand
S ea
INDIAN
OCEAN
THE KHMER
SRIV

Key “The suffering of

EMPIRE the people
S

Champa Kingdom
u

IJA r a
m

B o r n e o
Dai Viet Empire The Khmer Empire (802–1431)
a

is the suffering of the

YA
t

Khmer Empire
Palembang was one of the largest and
Pagan Empire most powerful in the region. emperor.”
Srivijaya Empire Stretching from present-day
Java Emperor Jayavarman VII,
Sukhothai Empire south China to Malaysia,
1181–1218
the Khmer Empire used the
Mekong River for trade and
Champa Kingdom (192–1471) travel. The Khmer people were
On the southeast coast of present-day Vietnam, great builders and constructed
Angkor Wat
the Champa Kingdom began as a group of small Originally a Hindu temple, Angkor
roads, canals, and reservoirs.
settlements. The Champa built many distinctive Wat was built in the early 12th
red-brick temple-towers, and survived several
The capital of the empire was century by thousands of workers
attacks from their more powerful neighbours. ANCIENT HINDU TEMPLE AT based in Angkor, which, at its for Suryavarman II, the ruler of the
MY SON COMPLEX, VIETNAM peak, was the largest city in Khmer Empire. It was a large
the world. It had hundreds of complex that covered an area of
SRIVIJAYAN temples, including Angkor Wat. 2 square km (0.75 square miles).
METAL COINS Srivijaya Empire (c.650–1288)
This sea-based empire had its capital on the
Indonesian island of Sumatra. It controlled all Main entrance Ancient shrine
sea trade to India and China, before The main entrance, Eight towers
losing its dominance to the to the west of the surrounding Angkor
seafaring Indian Chola Dynasty. complex, had lion Wat are thought to
statues guarding a have been part of
stone causeway. an old shrine.
Water barrier
The moat around the
Pagan Empire (849–1287) complex was about
Built on the Irrawaddy River in present-day 200 m (650 ft) wide.
Myanmar, Pagan started out as a city-state, but
later united the surrounding states to form an empire.
BUDDHA STATUE AT SULAMANI
Its people built thousands of Buddhist temples. TEMPLE, MYANMAR

Dai Viet Empire (939–1804)

Around what is now present-day Hanoi in Vietnam,
the Dai Viet Empire emerged in the 10th century. It
created foreign trade routes, and survived invasions
from the powerful Mongol and Khmer empires.
BUST OF DAI VIET MILITARY
COMMANDER TRAN HUNG DAO

Sukhothai Empire (1238–1438)

In the early 13th century, Sukhothai separated
from the Khmer Empire and became the first Khmer homes
independent Thai state in the region. The new The Khmer people probably
empire spread from what is now present-day SUKHOTHAI lived in thatched houses
Thailand into Laos and Myanmar. STONEWARE DISH surrounding the temple.
 1 million The number of people that lived in
Angkor during the 12th century. 200 The number of wall paintings
decorating Angkor Wat. 73

RELIGIOUS MALACCA AND

INFLUENCE THE SPICE ISLANDS
The empires of Southeast In the 15th century, the
Asia were influenced by the city-state of Malacca was
religions of India, China, formed in what is now present-
the Middle East, and Europe, day Malaysia. It soon became
as traders, conquerors, and the main port for the region’s
pilgrims travelled through Hinduism from Buddhism from Islam from Christianity from
spice trade. In the 16th century,
the region. Four of the the 1st century the 5th century the 10th century the 16th century Europeans arrived, looking
world’s major religions – Hindu culture spread Both Indian and Arab merchants Portuguese traders to trade in nutmeg, mace,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, overland from India Chinese cultures travelled the long brought Christianity cloves, and pepper.
in the northwest, as brought Buddhism trade routes from the to the area. Dutch,
and Christianity – have all
well as by sea when to a few empires. Middle East to East English, and German
been important in the Indian sailors began Some Hindu Asia, bringing Islam missionaries helped
history of Southeast Asia. to visit the region. temples later to the region. spread the new faith.
became Buddhist.

Central tower
The 65-m (215-ft) central Towers
tower of the temple was The four outer towers and the
accessed by a steep staircase. central tower of the temple are
thought to symbolize Mount
Laterite core Meru from Hindu mythology.
A hard, red-coloured
rock called laterite
formed the core of Intricate design
the buildings. The intricate decorative
features on the temple
buildings were carved
from soft sandstone, and
then adorned with gold.

KHMER WOMEN
PARTICIPATED IN TRADE
Vishnu statue
The temple was built in honour of the AND SERVED AS
many-armed Hindu god Vishnu, who had a
giant statue in the central tower. The statue
BODYGUARDS
was later moved near the entrance. FOR THE KING
74 the medieval world CULTURES OF NORTH AMERICA

Cultures of
North America
Before the arrival of Europeans from the
late 15th century onwards, several distinct
cultures developed across the different
landscapes of North America.
In their early history, North American tribes relied
on their environment for food – they hunted, fished,
and gathered seeds and nuts to eat. Later, some tribes
began to farm the land, growing crops and rearing
animals for food, clothing, and tools. Some of the tribes
were nomadic, and followed food sources such as
migrating bison herds. Others settled by rivers or built
structures into mountainsides. Many tribes were
experts in basket weaving, pottery, and sculpting,
creating unique works of art.

Basket weaving
The Ancestral Puebloans were
expert basket makers. They
weaved intricate patterns into
their baskets, which were used
to gather crops, nuts, and
berries. The baskets were
also used for cooking.

Hunter
The Ancestral
ANCESTRAL PUEBLOANS Puebloans hunted
Date: From 1500 bce animals to supplement
the crop harvest.
Originally hunter-gatherers, the tribes of
the Ancestral Puebloan culture that lived in the
mountainous regions of the modern-day states
of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah Grinding corn Crafting pots Turkeys
Corn was ground Pottery was made from Domesticated turkeys were
eventually became farmers. They built some of
down using a rounded long coils of clay. Pots reared for food, and their
their settlements in large sheltered cliff faces, stone called a mano were decorated with feathers and bones were used to
such as the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde. and a flat stone plate geometric patterns. decorate clothing and make tools.
called a metate.

ADENA CULTURE HOPEWELL CULTURE MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURE

Date: c.1000–100 bce Date: c.200 bce–500 ce Date: c.700–1600
The Adena culture was a collection of tribes that A collection of societies and tribes that arose The tribes of the Mississippian culture were
lived in western and central North America. They from the Adena culture, the Hopewell culture mostly farmers, who grew corn, squash, and
were hunter-gatherers, following animal herds and spread along the rivers of eastern North beans. They lived in small towns in the
farming simple crops. They used tools, created America. They were skilled sculptors and Mississippi Valley and the surrounding areas,
pottery, and built large earth mounds, which were developed a large network of trade routes constructing houses and buildings on top of
used as places to meet and for ceremonies. along rivers and streams. earth mounds and platforms. They also sculpted
and carved unique works of
art and decorated pottery.
SCULPTURE
OF A DUCK
AND FISH

SERPENT MOUND IN MODERN-DAY OHIO IN THE US DECORATED POT

 c.100 The number of people that lived
at the Mesa Verde Cliff Palace. 50 million people were living in North
America by the late 1400s. 75

Homes
Multi-storey homes
were made from
sandstone and
mortar, and accessed
by ladders. Farming the land
Ancestral Puebloans farmed crops
such as corn and beans on the fertile
ground above and behind the cliff
Storing crops face. They built dams to ensure
Small rooms at the their crops got enough water.
back of the Cliff
Palace were used
to store crops.

Family
Many families
occupied the Cliff
Palace, with
several generations
living together.
Kiva
Built underground, large circular
chambers known as kiva were used
for important community meetings
and religious ceremonies. They were
Tools accessed through a hole in the roof that
The Ancestral Puebloans also let out smoke from a fire pit below.
did not use metal –
they crafted tools from
animal bones and stone.

GREAT PLAINS HUNTERS THE NORTHWEST COAST DORSET AND THULE PEOPLE
Date: From at least 10,000 bce Date: From c.9000 bce Date: From c.500 bce
The many tribes of the Great Plains of central The tribes that lived along the Pacific coastline of The tribes of the Dorset and Thule cultures lived in
North America were hunter-gatherers who western North America relied on the ocean for food. the Arctic regions of North America. They adapted
followed herds of migrating bison. They crafted They used trees from coastal forests to make canoes to living in cold climates, making houses from bones
bison remains into everyday items, such as and houses. The Makah tribe carved images in stone and clothing from furs and animal skins. The Dorset
headdresses. The people of the Great Plains (called petroglyphs) showing hunters, priests, whales, tribes hunted seals, while the Thule tribes used
were nomads and and ships, which can still be seen today. harpoons and skin-covered canoes to hunt whales.
lived in cone-shaped
tepees (tents) that
were easy to
build, pull
down, and
transport.

AMERICAN BISON
MAKAH PETROGLYPH IN MODERN-DAY WASHINGTON IN THE US THULE HOUSE IN MODERN-DAY ONTARIO IN CANADA
China’s
Golden Age
In the 7th century, after a period
of 400 years in which China was
divided into rival clans, the Tang
Dynasty unified the country and
ushered in a cultural and creative
golden age.
Poetry, pottery, and scroll painting
flourished under the new regime.
Academies were set up to promote the
arts and an exam system encouraged
scholars to join the government. After
the Tang Dynasty’s decline, the Song
Dynasty ruled and maintained the
empire’s cultural and economic
prosperity. This period of peace and
growth saw China’s population rise
to more than 100 million.

618–626
Governor Li Yuan
ended the brief reign
of the Sui Dynasty
and proclaimed 626–649
himself Emperor Emperor Taizong,
Gaozu, the first ruler the son of Gaozu,
of the Tang Dynasty. encouraged learning
and the arts, and
expanded the
690–705 empire’s borders.
The Tang Dynasty was
briefly interrupted by
712–756
the Zhou Dynasty, led
Emperor Xuanzong
by Empress Wu Zetian,
established academies
a former mistress of
for musicians and poets.
Emperor Taizong.
He was overthrown by
a rebellion led by the
warlord An Lushan.
820–907
Assassinations and
corruption weakened
the Tang Dynasty,
leading to rival armies 960–1126
clashing throughout The Song Dynasty
the fragmented empire. rose to power and
encouraged classic
Chinese traditions,
1127–1279 improved living
After losing territory conditions, and
in the north to the organized an
Jin Dynasty, the Song increase in rice and
Dynasty continued to iron production.
reign in the south, but
eventually fell to the
Mongol Empire.

Scroll painting
Painted by Zhang Zeduan during the
Song Dynasty, Along the River was
more than 5 m (16½ ft) long. This colour
version of the scroll was created during
the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).
78 the medieval world THE CRUSADES c.50,000 The number of Crusaders that
fought in the Second Crusade.

Multiple battles
The Crusades

Timeline
The first four Crusades involved
thousands of soldiers fighting in violent
battles across the Middle East, with power From the end of the 11th century, European Christian armies
and land shifting between Muslim and
Christian forces. As the battles raged on, embarked on a series of military campaigns called the
the Middle East endured five more “Minor Crusades. They invaded Muslim empires in an effort to gain
Crusades”, as well as other smaller
campaigns and internal conflicts.
control of cities in the Holy Land, a region in the Middle
East sacred to both Christians and Muslims.

The First Crusade

For the next 200 years, these campaigns were led by

1095–1099
Since 638, Muslim rulers had controlled European kings and nobles, and involved thousands
the Holy Land. In 1095, Pope Urban II called of knights who travelled east to battle Muslim
for the First Crusade, and a year later armies
marched east to take back the city of
forces. At first, the Crusaders were victorious
Jerusalem from the Muslims. Within three and captured several key cities across the
years of fighting, they regained control of the Middle East as they took advantage of
city and established four Crusader states.
divisions between the Muslim empires.
The Crusaders established small
kingdoms and built huge castles
throughout the region to defend their
newly conquered lands. However,
the Muslim forces defended
their land, and eventually
defeated the Crusaders,
forcing them to return
home to Europe.
THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

The Second Crusade

1147–1149

Arrow loops
After defeat in the First Crusade, the Muslim Openings along the walls and
Seljuk Empire declared jihad (holy war) against the towers allowed archers to
the Crusader states. German and French soldiers fire on the enemy below.
marched east, but they were defeated by Seljuk
forces at Damascus in present-day Syria.
Krak des Chevaliers
The Crusaders captured, built, and
adapted many castles to defend their
The Third Crusade
1189–1192

newly established states. Krak des

Forty years later, the Muslim
sultan of Egypt, Saladin, Chevaliers in present-day Syria was built
captured the city of by Muslims in 1031, but was captured in
Jerusalem from the 1110 by Christian armies, who expanded
Crusaders. A third Crusade, it in 1142–1170. With thick stone walls
led by many kings such and towers, this castle proved to be a
as King Richard the
KING RICHARD I formidable fortress.
Lionheart of England,
re-established Christian rule in the region, but was
unable to take back Jerusalem. Instead, Richard and
Saladin agreed a treaty that allowed Christian A long journey east
pilgrims safe passage into the city. In heavy armour and carrying their equipment and
The Fourth Crusade
supplies, most of the Crusaders marched east for
1202–1204

Called for by Pope Innocent III, the Fourth Crusade months across dangerous terrain. They travelled
set out to once again recapture Jerusalem. However, more than 3,220 km (2,000 miles) from western
the armies were diverted to Constantinople, and the Europe to Jerusalem. In later Crusades, they sailed
Crusaders sacked the city for its wealth. across the Mediterranean Sea – a voyage that was
faster and Nsafer
o r t h than the journey across land.
Sea

London Climbing the walls

Crusades Five to Nine
1217–1291

The invading forces

For the next 90 years, the Crusaders fought five Mainz
Speyer used long ladders
more holy campaigns that saw their grip on the to climb the castle’s
Middle East weaken. Clermont Venice outer walls.
Their presence in the ck Sea
Genoa Bla
Holy Land ended in Marseille Zara Constantinople
the late 13th century, Rome
Edessa
when a new Muslim
Antioch
dynasty, the Mamluks, M e d i t e Machicolations
r
led by Sultan Baybars, r Damascus Holes in the floor at the
a
forced the Christian n e
Key a n edge of battlements, called
Crusaders to retreat S e a Jerusalem
First Crusade machicolations, allowed
and head home. Second Crusade Cairo the defending army to
Third Crusade 0 500 1,000 km drop rocks and boiling oil
Fourth Crusade 0 250 500 miles on the invaders below.
SULTAN BAYBARS
During the Crusades, several religious orders of knights were
formed, including the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller. 2,000 The maximum number of knights
Krak des Chevaliers could hold. 79

Order of knights Catapult defence

The Knights Hospitaller, The Crusaders used catapults, known
who controlled Krak des as trebuchets, to launch huge rocks
Chevaliers, were an order from the top of large towers. They
of knights that wore were used to target siege towers and
distinctive black clothing machines, as well as break up
with white crosses. Battering ram
attacking lines of enemy soldiers. Many armies favoured this type of
Inner citadel siege machine, which was used to
The middle part of the castle had a chapel break open castle walls and doors.
and main hall, and was entered through a To protect the soldiers operating
second, heavily guarded gateway.
the ram, sloping roofs were built
to deflect arrows and boiling oil.

Moat
Between the outer
walls and the inner
citadel was a moat
of water, a further
barrier for invaders.

Turrets
The castle’s outer wall
contained several round
towers that allowed soldiers
to defend in every direction.
 the medieval world
Zimbabwe means “houses of
80 SUB-SAHARAN KINGDOMS stone” in the Shona language.

Clay house
KINGDOM OF AKSUM KINGDOM OF ZIMBABWE A group of clay-walled thatched
huts within a circular walled
Date: 100–900 ce Date: From the 12th century to 1450
enclosure may have been home
The city of Great Zimbabwe was once the centre to the king and his family.
Located on the Red Sea coast
in what is now modern-day of the powerful Kingdom of Zimbabwe in
north Ethiopia and Eritrea, southeast Africa. Its rulers controlled the gold
Aksum grew rich on trade. trade between inland regions and the Indian Ocean
The kingdom converted to coast. The modern-day country of Zimbabwe is
Christianity in c.340 ce. named after this kingdom. The Great Enclosure,
Legend says that the kings the most impressive part of the city, may have
of Aksum were descended been the royal palace.
from King Solomon and the
Queen of Sheba, prominent AKSUMITE COIN Narrow passageway
figures in the Bible. Historians think a narrow
passage that ran for 55 m
(180 ft) between the outer
and inner walls may have
been used as a secret escape
KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE route if the city was invaded.
Date: c.700–c.1840
This empire emerged around Lake Chad. It formed
at the southern end of the trade route that
crossed the Sahara Desert to other settlements on
the Mediterranean coast. Traders exchanged salt,
ostrich feathers, and ivory for horses and guns.
The empire reached its peak in the 17th century.

PART OF A KANEM-BORNU HORSE HARNESS

“Among the gold mines of

the plains… is a fortress
made of stones
of marvellous size.” Inner wall
A maze of inner
Vicente Pegado, a Portuguese captain, walls within the Great
after visiting Great Zimbabwe, 1531 Enclosure divided public
and private spaces.

Sub-Saharan
Outer wall
The outer wall, made of cut
blocks of granite, was 9.7 m
(32 ft) high in some places.

kingdoms
About 3,000 years ago, groups of farmers began KINGDOM OF BENIN
migrating out of the rainforests of West Africa into Date: 1200–1897
much of sub-Saharan Africa – the vast region of The wealthy Kingdom of Benin,
Africa south of the Sahara Desert. in what is now modern-day Nigeria,
was ruled by a powerful king called
These farmers, who spoke many different forms of Bantu an Oba. The kingdom’s people,
languages, taught the hunter-gatherers and cattle-herders living the Edo, made many kinds of art,
in the grasslands how to use iron. Around 100 bce, people from including fine metalwork. In 1897,
Asia brought tame camels into North Africa. North African British soldiers stormed the Oba’s
palace and looted all their treasures.
traders could now cross the Sahara Desert to bring back gold
from sub-Saharan Africa. These changes led to organized
kingdoms emerging in different parts of the region. BRONZE BENIN SCULPTURE
1 million The approximate number of stones used to
build the Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe. 100,000 The population of Timbuktu,
capital of the Mali Empire, in 1500. 81

Soapstone bird
At least eight sculptures
of an eagle-like bird,
carved from soapstone,
were found in the ruins
of Great Zimbabwe.

Conical tower
A tall tower at the
end of the passage
probably had
religious or
symbolic meaning.

Patterns
Part of the outer wall was
decorated with a pattern
of chevrons (V-shapes).

Courtyard
A large courtyard near the
main entrance may have
been used for ceremonies.

MALI EMPIRE KINGDOM OF KONGO SONGHAI EMPIRE

Date: From 1230 to Date: 1390–1914 Date: c.1335–1591
the 16th century
The Kingdom of Kongo, in what is now modern- Sonni Ali was the first
The vast empire of Mali day Angola, was the most powerful state in ruler of the Songhai
lay on the southwestern Central Africa. The kingdom traded in cloth and Empire. He took control of
edge of the Sahara Desert. pottery. Its rulers converted to Christianity gold trade routes across
Its most famous ruler, Mansa after the arrival of Portuguese traders in 1483. the Sahara Desert from
Musa I, was a Muslim and the It became a Portuguese colony in 1914. the Mali Empire, which
richest person in the world was by then in decline.
at the time. He ordered the Songhai’s capital was
building of the Great Mosque Gao on the River Niger
in Timbuktu, a city famous in modern-day Mali. TOMB OF SONGHAI EMPEROR
for its artists and scientists. MALIAN POTTERY KONGOLESE SWORD ASKIA MOHAMMED
82 the medieval world POLYNESIAN EXPANSION
Statues on Easter Island once had eyes made from
coral and a volcanic glass known as obsidian.

Polynesian WAVES OF MIGRATIONS OUTRIGGER CANOE

expansion
The Lapita people from the Bismarck Archipelago, off Polynesians were expert
New Guinea, sailed to Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga in c.1400 sailors and built canoes called
bce. More than a thousand years later, they settled on outriggers. These boats were
the eastern Polynesian islands. A few centuries later, made from two hulls attached
Around 1400 bce, people living in they discovered and settled Hawaii and Easter Island. to each other with logs and
Southeast Asia sailed east from New The final migration occurred around 1,000 years ago, rope. Outriggers varied in size
when Polynesian seafarers landed in New Zealand. and were fast, robust, and
Guinea to find new homes. They
could withstand voyages of
began to settle on thousands of Hawaii up to 4,800 km (3,000 miles).
islands in the Pacific Ocean known as Mariana
Islands Marshall
PACIFIC
Polynesians are thought to
Islands
have been the first people
Polynesia (meaning “many islands”). Micronesia OCEAN
Bismarck
K i r i b
to navigate across open
Archipelago a t
Polynesia stretches from New Zealand New
i ocean, using the stars, sea
in the south to Hawaii in the north and
Guinea Solomon
Islands
Tuvalu
Marquesas
currents, weather patterns,
Vanuatu Cook Islands and migrating birds to
Easter Island in the east. The earliest Samoa Islands
Fiji Niue Society chart their course.
Polynesians sailed eastwards. They AUSTRALIA New Tonga Islands
Caledonia Gambier
continued to explore and settle the Islands Easter
Island
Pacific until Polynesian cultures spread NEW Key
across the whole region east of Fiji. ZEALAND Origin of the Pacific settlers Rope
Polynesians made rope out
Polynesians shared similar languages Chatham
Islands
c.1400–1000 bce
of coconut fibres to hold
1000 bce–1 ce
and beliefs, but developed their own 0 2,000 4,000 km
1–500 ce
their masts upright.
identities and ways of life. 0 1,000 2,000 miles 1000–1400 ce

THE SPREAD SAUDELEUR DYNASTY

OF ANIMALS The Saudeleur Dynasty (c.1100-1628) was Prow
one of the first organized governments in The prow (front end)
Polynesian explorers
the region and ruled the island of Pohnpei of the canoe cut
brought animals such as through choppy water.
in Micronesia for more than 500 years.
pigs, chickens, and dogs with PIG It was established by twins, Olisihpa
them as they settled new
and Olosohpa, who arrived in a canoe.
islands. Dogs were used
to hunt, while pigs and
chickens were sources
of food. Stowaway
rats, attracted by food RAT
on the boats, also spread
from island to island. The
newly introduced animals
and the settlers’ overhunting
caused many native mammals
and birds to become extinct. Nan Madol
CHICKEN The capital of the Saudeleur Dynasty, Nan Madol
was built on man-made islands and canals.
Historians call it the “Venice of the Pacific”.

HAWAII MAORI CULTURE

Made up of volcanic islands, In the 13th century, the Maori
Hawaii was settled by were the first people to settle in
Polynesian explorers in about what is now called New Zealand.
400 ce. Over several centuries, They called the islands Aotearoa,
more migrations from Tahiti Kahanu Ke-Ao Lanihuli meaning “land of the long white
and the Society Islands brought A symbol of A symbol of cloud”. The settlers lived in large
new religions and ideas to the energy. purity. groups that were ruled by chiefs.
islands. When the migrations Their beliefs were passed on
ended, Hawaii started to through songs and dance, and they
develop its own culture, art, worshipped more than 70 gods.
and spiritualism, including
Ho’omana (which means “to Maori mask
make life force”). Followers Traditionally, Maori
of Ho’omana meditated while masks were intricately
visualizing special symbols to Uli-Nana-Pono Kahanuala carved from wood.
focus their minds and bodies. A symbol of A symbol of The masks honoured
calm. breath. their ancestors.
25 million sq km (10 million sq miles) – the total area
that Polynesia covers in the Pacific Ocean. 10,500 km (6,500 miles) – the distance Polynesians travelled over
several generations from New Guinea to Easter Island. 83

Mast Fishing
Masts made of Fish, turtles, and sharks
long, sturdy logs were caught for food as
held the sails. the explorers travelled and
searched for new islands.

Sail
Sails were made from
plant fibres woven into
matting. They helped to
control the force of the
wind on the canoe.
Stern
The curved shape of
the stern (at the back
of the canoe) stopped
waves from breaking
on the deck.

Water
Drinking water
was stored in
Rudder gourds, and was
A steering paddle topped up during
was used to steer storms by catching
the canoe. rainwater from
the sails.

Deck
Lightweight wooden
planks were supported by
tightly woven fabric across
the canoe’s two hulls.
Storage
The hollow hulls provided Food
space to store supplies, As well as food for the journey, plants,
which also weighed down the seeds, and animals were transported
canoe to keep it stable at sea. to help start new settlements.

Polynesian explorer
EASTER ISLAND
Several families would Polynesians colonized Rapa Nui (known
travel on the canoe as today as Easter Island) between 800 and
they searched for new 1200 ce. They built large stone statues called
islands to settle. moai, which represented their ancestors and
Conch
Conch shell horns, were worshipped as gods. As the population
known as Pu, were Hull
grew, they split into tribes, which fought for
used to communicate Large tree trunks were
across the water carved and hollowed resources such as wood and food that were
between the canoe out to create the main becoming scarce. After c.1500, the people of
and people onshore. hulls of the canoe. Rapa Nui toppled the moai statues and
adopted a new belief system with new gods.

Polynesian navigators They organized annual rituals, which saw

them compete against each other every
used shells, sticks, and coconut fibres year to select the island’s ruling tribe.
to make simple maps of the islands
and sea currents they experienced Moai statues
on their journeys. All of the Moai statues faced outwards from the
island and were placed on ceremonial platforms.
The Mongol
Empire
In the late 12th and early 13th
centuries, the Mongol tribes were
nomads living in the grasslands
of Central Asia. Temüjin, a chieftain
who later took the name Genghis
Khan (“universal ruler”), united
them in 1206. From then until
1368, the Mongols conquered
large areas of Asia, the Middle
East, and Europe, forming one
of the largest empires in history.
Genghis Khan and his descendants
commanded large armies of warriors
skilled at fighting on horseback, and
used this military might to overwhelm
their enemies and expand their territory.
The Mongol Empire eventually covered
an area of more than 23 million sq km
(9 million sq miles). Though the empire
was created through warfare, Mongol
rule brought peace and stability, and
people were able to travel between
Asia and Europe in relative safety.
1185–1206
Genghis Khan united
1219–1221 the nomadic tribes
The Mongols defeated the living in Central Asia.
Khwarazmian Dynasty
in Central Asia, claiming
their lands and their
trade routes from 1227–1241
Europe to Asia. After Genghis Khan’s
death, his son Ögodei
became the Great
Khan and expanded
the empire, conquering
1241–1251
northern China.
After Ogedei’s death,
a power struggle
lasted for several 1258
years. Eventually The Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan’s conquered parts of
grandson, Mongke the Middle East,
Khan, defeated his plundering Baghdad,
rivals to claim power. and ending the rule
of the Muslim
Abbasid Dynasty.
1260–1294
After a period of
civil war, Kublai 1330–1368
Khan took control of The Mongol Empire
the Mongol Empire. fragmented after
He defeated the Song Kublai Khan’s death
Dynasty and started and was weakened
the Yuan Dynasty. He further by the spread
was the first non- of the bubonic plague.
Chinese ruler of the In China, the Yuan
whole of China. Dynasty was defeated
by the Ming Dynasty.

The Siege of Baghdad

The Mongol Empire attacked Baghdad in
modern-day Iraq in 1258, which led to
the fall of the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate.
The Mongol forces, led by Hulagu Khan,
went on to conquer most of western Asia.
 The Incas
86
The Inca Empire was established in 1438 on
the Pacific coast of South America. The Inca
Ancient Americas were master stonemasons who constructed
Between about 3000 bce and 1697 ce, several mighty about 40,000 km (25,000 miles) of roads as
civilizations and empires flourished in what is now well as large mountainside cities. The city of
present-day Mexico, Central America, and the Machu Picchu (meaning “old mountain”) was
2,430 m (7,972 ft) above sea level and sat
western regions of South America. on the side of Huayna Picchu, a peak in the
Andes mountains. Abandoned around the
One of the first civilizations to form in the Americas was time of the Spanish conquest in the 16th
that of the Norte Chico (from c.3200 bce), who farmed cotton century, the city remained undiscovered Temple of the Sun
on the coastal regions of present-day Peru. The later Olmec of by Western explorers until 1911. The Inca visited this
Mexico (1200–400 bce) built impressive buildings and crafted semi-circular building
Royal palace to worship the Sun god,
monuments and sculptures. From these two early cultures Inti. An altar in the temple
The Incas used the best stone to build a palace that
grew three great civilizations – the Maya and Aztecs in may have been for Emperor Pachacuti in 1450. lined up perfectly with a
Mexico, and the Incas in Peru. These four great empires built window and the Sun during
settlements in hot deserts, dense jungles, and on mountainsides. the summer solstice, and is
thought to have been used
the medieval world

They constructed large pyramids, immense road networks, Social areas for religious ceremonies.
and thought of unique ways to farm in challenging landscapes. Across the city were
They were extremely religious and held lavish ceremonies, large square areas, known
as plazas, for locals to
and performed human sacrifices to appease their many gods. meet and watch religious
They used gold, a resource the civilizations had in abundance, ceremonies and festivals.
to decorate their temples and religious buildings, and to
make jewellery and ornaments. Solar heating
The Incas positioned their
buildings so that they were
heated by the Sun throughout
the day, which kept the
Intihuatana residents warm at night.
Standing at the top of a large terraced
pyramid, this ritual stone was used
as an astronomical clock or calendar
to plan when to farm and when to
ANCIENT AMERICAS

hold festivals of Sun worship.

12
million people were living in the
Inca Empire during the 15th century.
 Roads Bricks Andenes Llamas Farming tools
The Incas built roads made out Builders carved each Stepped terraces called Domestic animals The Incas used multipurpose
of stone that cleaved through brick to fit perfectly andenes were cut into the such as llamas tools such as the raucana
mountainous landscape. This vast into place so they did steep mountainside to grow were used to (a rudimentary gardening tool)
road system connected cities to not need mortar to crops, such as maize, cocoa, transport goods to prepare soil, harvest potatoes,
each other. Messengers ran to and glue bricks together. and potatoes. Stone walls between towns. and remove weeds.
from way-stations between cities, helped to prevent landslides
carrying messages to one another. caused by torrential rain.
200,000

THE OLMECS THE MAYA THE AZTECS

Dates: c.1200–c.400 bce Dates: 1000 bce–1697 ce Dates: 1325–1521
The Olmec civilization emerged Ranging from the Yucatan Ruling over most of what is now present-day Mexico,
along the southern coast of Peninsula in present-day Mexico the Aztec emperors had millions of subjects who they
the Gulf of Mexico. They to parts of Central America, the controlled with threats of war, violence, and ritual
lived in large settlements Maya civilization was made sacrifice. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, was built on a
and farmed crops such up of self-ruling city-states, marshy island in Lake Texcoco, where Mexico City stands
as corn and beans. The such as Palenque. The Maya today. It had a pyramid at its centre and many temples, as
Olmecs traded goods had their own written well as man-made islands that were used to grow crops.
the Aztec capital, during its peak.

made from jade and language, and were master

obsidian, and carved large mathematicians and builders.
stone heads that were up With no central capital to
to 3 m (10 ft) tall. They overthrow, the Maya did
The approximate population of Tenochtitlán,

worshipped many gods not fall easily when the

and believed some animals Spanish invaded in the
were sacred. Many of their 16th century. It took
beliefs were adopted by the Europeans nearly 200
later civilizations, such as years to conquer them.
the Aztecs and Mayans. The
Olmecs may have developed the
OLMEC HEAD
first writing in the Americas.
87

SCULPTURE JADE MAYA MASK AZTEC DOUBLE-HEADED SERPENT SCULPTURE

88 the medieval world MING CHINA 24 The total number of emperors that consecutively resided at
the Forbidden City between the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Ming China THE GREAT WALL

During the era of the Ming
The Ming Dynasty seized power from the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the Great Wall of
Dynasty in 1368 and went on to rule China for 276 China was rebuilt and
expanded to protect the
years. The Ming period was an era of change for China, empire from the Mongol tribes
and was known for its porcelain and great buildings. invading from the north. New
building techniques allowed
The early Ming emperors fortified the northern borders, the wall to be reinforced with
protecting China from Mongol invaders. Trade and exploration battlements, watchtowers,
were encouraged, and new types of food were imported from and military fortresses.
around the world. This led to more crops being grown, and
the population more than doubled. But in the last century of the
dynasty, years of money problems and poor harvests led to
rebellion, and the Ming Dynasty eventually collapsed in 1644.

Northern vantage point

THE HONGWU New watchtowers allowed the
Chinese military to watch
EMPEROR the border and react quickly
to any attacks by enemies.
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang
became the first emperor of
the Ming Dynasty, and became
known as the Hongwu THE FORBIDDEN CITY
Emperor. He brought all parts The third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Yongle (who ruled
of the government under his from 1402 to 1424), moved the capital to Beijing. In 1406, he
own authority, and established ordered the construction of a new palace complex. It housed the
a new law code, known as imperial family, court officials, and important foreign visitors, as
the Grand Pronouncements. well as many servants. The palace was heavily guarded and access
A commanding leader, Hongwu into the complex was restricted, so it became known as the
was also fearful of betrayal. Forbidden City. It was one of the largest palaces in the
He set up a secret police force world, with 980 buildings and around 9,000 rooms.
to protect his power. Its many buildings were topped with golden yellow
tiles, which was the emperor’s official colour.
Peasant warrior
Born into poverty, Zhu
Yuanzhang led the forces fighting Gateway
against the Yuan Dynasty, and On each side of the
eventually became emperor. outer wall was a guarded
gateway into the complex.

VOYAGES OF ZHENG HE
Zheng He (1371–1433) was one of China’s greatest explorers.
As an admiral of the imperial fleet, he commanded a treasure
fleet of several hundred ships on seven voyages to India, the
Persian Gulf, and the east coast of Africa. He contacted new
cultures, expanded China’s influence, and returned with spices,
gems, and trade representatives from foreign nations.

Key
1st–7th voyages
PERSIA Nanjing
4th–7th voyages
5th–7th voyages MING Outer wall
Hormuz 6th and 7th voyages EMPIRE
The outer wall of the city
7th voyage only Changle
A was 8 m (26 ft) high and 8 m
ra
bia (26 ft) wide at its base.
INDIA
Salalah
Arabian
Sea Bay of Qui Nhon
Aden
Calicut
Bengal CHAMPA Layout of the city
KINGDOM
The city was planned using
AFRICA Samudera ancient Chinese rules of design.
Galle
Important buildings faced south,
Malacca
Sumatra to honour the Sun, and the
I N DI AN Meridian Gate
Malindi 0 1,000 2,000 km
Palembang
ceremonial palaces were The great main gate
0 500 1,000 miles
O CE AN arranged in groups of three, into the complex was
Jav
a Surabaya
symbolizing heaven and holiness. on the south wall.
 c.27,800 The number of sailors that crewed
Zheng He’s fleet on his first voyage.
In 2014, a porcelain vase from the
Ming Dynasty sold for $21.6 million. 89

MING PORCELAIN
In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor re-established the
Imperial Porcelain factory, that had been founded by
the previous Song Dynasty, in Jingdezhen. The factory
perfected old techniques created by the Tang Dynasty
to produce porcelain wares for the imperial palace. The
distinctive blue-and-white Ming porcelain became
popular and was exported around the world.

The Sacred Way

THE MING TOMBS Leading to the Yongle
At the foot of Tianshou Mountain, north of Beijing, Emperor’s tomb, a 7-km
the emperors of the Ming Dynasty built a complex (4-mile) path was lined
with statues of generals,
of mausoleums, known as the Thirteen Tombs of the
imperial officials,
Ming Dynasty. The whole complex covered an area and animals.
PILGRIM FLASK GLOBULAR VASE SLEEVE VASE of 120 sq km (46 sq miles).

Inner Court
The emperor and his
family lived in the
northern part of
the complex.
Imperial garden
The imperial gardens
were used for relaxation,
exercise, and ceremonies.

Hall of Supreme Harmony

The grandest building in the
Ming Empire, this hall housed
the throne room and hosted
major ceremonies.

Watchtower
Guards kept watch for
enemy soldiers and
assassins from the
corner watchtowers.

Moat
The city was protected
by a 50 m- (170 ft-) wide
moat around its perimeter.

Central platform
The main halls in the outer

100,000
court were built on an
8 m- (26 ft-) high platform.

Outer court
craftsmen spent
The southern part of the 14 years building
palace was where the emperor the Forbidden City.
held official ceremonies.
THE AGE OF EXPLORATION
Between the 14th and 17th centuries, new discoveries and
voyages of exploration transformed people’s knowledge of the
world. In Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, scientists made
revolutionary breakthroughs, while artists used new methods to
portray the world in a realistic way. Europeans also explored and
colonized the Americas, at the expense of native populations.
92 the age of exploration TIMELINE OF THE AGE OF EXPLORATION

1619: Slaves arrive in Jamestown 1632–1653: The Taj Mahal

The first African slaves taken to the The fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan,
English colonies in America were made ordered the construction of many
SLAVE to work on tobacco plantations. Over palaces and mosques. The Taj Mahal
ANKLETS
the following centuries, thousands of was a tomb built for his wife, Mumtaz
Africans were taken from their homes Mahal. Shah Jahan himself was also
to be sold in the Americas. buried here after his death.
TAJ MAHAL
JAMESTOWN

1603: Edo Japan

1607: Jamestown Tokugawa Ieyasu united Japan
A group of English colonists built a under his rule and moved the
settlement called Jamestown on the capital to Edo (modern-day
banks of the James River in modern-day Tokyo). This began an era of
Virginia. It was the first successful peace in Japan that saw the arts
English colony in North America. flourish. A new form of theatre,
kabuki, entertained the public.
KABUKI ACTOR KOREAN TURTLE SHIP

Timeline of the
age of exploration 1520–1566: Suleiman the Magnificent
The longest-ruling emperor of the Ottoman
From the 15th century, a new curiosity about Empire, Suleiman the Magnificent,
oversaw a golden age of Islamic arts,
the world led to many daring voyages, the crafts, science, and architecture.
questioning of established beliefs, and
the beginnings of modern science.
DECORATED OTTOMAN PLATE
When the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus first landed
in the Americas in 1492, he opened up new continents for
European exploration, and the nations of Europe began to
create empires to rival those of East Asia, India, and the
Islamic Middle East. In Europe itself, the rediscovery
of ancient knowledge led to the Renaissance (“rebirth”), 16TH-
a period of great artistic and cultural achievement. It CENTURY GLOBE

was followed by the Scientific Revolution, a time of new 1519–1522: Voyage of Magellan
The Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
discoveries and inventions, many of which challenged Magellan led an expedition to
previously accepted views of the universe. circumnavigate (sail all the way
around) the Earth. Magellan died
on the voyage, but the crew of one
of his five ships made it home.
HERNÁN CORTÉS

1450s: The Gutenberg Bible 1453: The fall of Constantinople

Johannes Gutenberg invented a The Islamic Ottomans conquered
printing press that revolutionized Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul),
the production of books. One of the the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
GUTENBERG first books he mass-produced was Christian scholars and scientists fled
PRESS
a version of the Bible, bringing its from the city to Europe, bringing with
words to a wider audience. them new ideas and ancient texts that
helped to kickstart the Renaissance.
OTTOMAN SHIELD
 93

1643–1715: Louis XIV 1668: Newton’s 1673: Leeuwenhoek’s

The French king Louis XIV reflecting telescope microscope
moved the royal residence to English scientist Isaac Newton The Dutch scientist
Versailles outside Paris. He made improvements to the and inventor Anton van
expanded the palace and forced telescope, using a series of Leeuwenhoek created a tiny
all the members of his royal mirrors to reflect light. microscope that zoomed in
court to move there. on details that were LEEUWENHOEK’S
MICROSCOPE
LOUIS XIV NEWTON’S REFLECTING TELESCOPE
invisible to the naked eye.

1592–1598: The Imjin War 1547–1584: Ivan the Terrible

The Korean admiral Yi Sun-sin Ivan IV became the first tsar
commanded the Korean naval fleet (emperor) of Russia, and greatly
during the Imjin War, a conflict expanded the borders of Russia to
with Japan. He defeated invading the south and east. He was called
Japanese navies using Geobukseon Ivan the Terrible because of his
COUNCIL OF TRENT
warships, known as “turtle ships” short temper and the harsh
because of their armoured hulls. punishments he carried out. 1545–1563:
HELMET OF IVAN IV
The Counter-Reformation
The Catholic Church held
three councils at Trent
(modern-day Trento) in
northern Italy to discuss
reforms to the Church, in
response to the spread
of the Reformation.

1526: The Battle of Panipat 1543: The Copernican Revolution

The Central Asian warlord Babur Portuguese astronomer Nicolaus
invaded northern India and defeated Copernicus calculated that the Earth
the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of travelled around the Sun, challenging
Panipat. Babur and his descendants the teachings of the Roman Catholic
created the Islamic Mughal Empire, Church that the Earth was the
which spread across most of India. centre of the Universe. COPERNICAN
MODEL OF THE
MUGHAL ARCHER SOLAR SYSTEM

1519–1521: The Spanish 1517: The Reformation 1498–1499: Michelangelo’s Pietà

conquest of Mexico Martin Luther wrote a list of At the height of the Renaissance,
The Spanish conquistador complaints about the Roman the Italian artist Michelangelo
(“conquerer”) Hernán Cortés led Catholic Church called the produced one of his finest
an expedition to invade Mexico. 95 Theses, beginning a sculptures, the Pietà (“The
His army conquered the Aztec period of religious turmoil Pity”), which shows Mary
civilization and destroyed its known as the Reformation. holding the body of Christ.
capital city, Tenochtitlán.
LUTHER’S 95 THESES

PIETÀ

1449–1492: Lorenzo de Medici 1492: Voyage of Columbus

The politician Lorenzo de Medici, Christopher Columbus landed in the
known as Lorenzo the Magnificent, West Indies in the Caribbean in his
came to power in Florence in Italy. search for a new sea route to Asia.
Lorenzo was a great patron of the He brought back news of the lands
arts, and under his rule, the city he visited to his patrons in Spain,
became the heart of the Renaissance. inspiring many explorers to make
voyages to the Americas.
LORENZO DE MEDICI SPANISH CARAVEL
94 the age of exploration THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance ELEMENTS OF THE RENAISSANCE

During the Renaissance, Europeans rediscovered
Much of the knowledge gathered during ancient times was lost ancient thought and culture. However, new and
to Europeans in the medieval era due to wars, disease, and original ideas and techniques also developed
and spread across the continent.
famine, and the Church and its teachings dominated society.
However, from the 14th century, Europe experienced what
became known as the Renaissance, meaning “rebirth” in French.
The revival of ancient ideas
Scholars and artists revisited scientific ideas and art styles from ancient Philosophers and scientists studied
Rome and Greece, and were also influenced by Islamic cultures from the the works of the great thinkers and
Learning from
east. New ideas and outlooks developed across Europe and challenged writers of ancient civilizations, such
the ancients
as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and
the traditional views of the Church. This led to new advances in art, Plato and Aristotle
Cicero. They inspired Renaissance are at the centre
literature, science, and theatre. Painters and sculptors, formerly regarded philosophers to look beyond the of Renaissance
as artisans (craft workers), were praised for their artistic achievements. teachings of the Church and question artist Raphael’s
all aspects of European society. painting The
School of Athens.

FLORENCE Sculpture Portraits

Renaissance artists
The Renaissance started in Renaissance sculptors, such as Donatello painted people in as
and Michelangelo, used new techniques
the city-state of Florence, much detail as possible.
to make their art look realistic. They
in modern-day Italy. In the
studied the human body and its
late 14th century, Florence expressions and movements to
was a wealthy city and its make their sculptures more natural.
businessmen and merchants
used their money to support
artists, craftsmen, and
thinkers, such as the painter
and architect Giotto Sculpture of David
Between 1501 and 1504,
di Bondone and the the sculptor Michelangelo
writer Dante Alighieri. Buonarroti carved the biblical
hero David out of marble.

Architecture Florence Cathedral Lorenzo de Medici

Renaissance architects were influenced by Filippo Brunelleschi The Medici family were influential
the buildings of ancient Rome and Greece designed the massive merchants, bankers, and politicians in
with their domes, arches, and columns. dome of Florence’s Florence for more than 200 years.
Renaissance designs in turn influenced cathedral. It was Lorenzo de Medici ruled Florence from
engineers to think of new ways to build. constructed without 1449 to 1492 and was known as
the use of scaffolding. Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a
patron of the arts and sponsored
many artists, including Sandro
Botticelli and Michelangelo.
 14 The number of years it took artist
Leonardo da Vinci to paint the Mona Lisa. 4 members of the Medici family, at
separate times, were elected as Pope. 95

Vanishing point Renaissance

humanism
Humanists believed that a
study of mankind, rather
than God, should be at the
centre of learning. They
looked to texts from
ancient times, especially
in the art of persuasion,
grammar, and history to
help them become useful
Perspective members of society.
Renaissance artists developed new methods
to make their works look more realistic. They Humanist literature
started to use perspective to add depth to In Praise of Folly, by
scenes, making objects painted on a flat Desiderius Erasmus,
surface look closer or further away. The use questioned the values of
of light and shade also helped Renaissance medieval society and the
art to look more three-dimensional. teachings of the Church.

Patron
Wealthy patrons financially
Master
A creative mentor, the master THE NORTHERN
supported the master and helped
to build the artist’s reputation.
guided the artistic styles of
the studio and workroom.
RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance spread out of Italy and
into northern Europe during a period
known as the Northern Renaissance.
Italian masters inspired artists from
across Europe and were invited by kings
and queens to attend their royal courts.
In the mid-15th century, the printing
press, a machine that could quickly
produce books, was invented. This helped
spread the new ideas of the Renaissance.

A Renaissance workshop
Flemish artist Jan van der Straet
illustrated the busy studio of Dutch
painter Jan van Eyck in his painting
The Invention of Oil Paint, c.1590.

Apprentice
Young apprentices performed
basic tasks before learning
from the master.

Mixing colours
Experienced apprentices ground
and mixed the materials for
making different colours.

Sketchers
Apprentices often sketched the
main painting in the workshop
to practise their skills.

“Painting is poetry which is

Sculpture
Sculptures and paintings were often
Platform
The master sometimes stood on a
seen and not heard.”
produced in the same workshop. platform to be at the best angle to paint. Leonardo da Vinci, A Treatise of Painting, 1651
96 the age of exploration JOSEON KOREA

Early Korea

Timeline
Before the rise of the Joseon Dynasty in Cannon fire
1392, the history of the Korean peninsula Crewed by about
was influenced by its ever-changing 50 marines, a Geobukseon
was armed on all four sides
relationship with the powerful Chinese
with about 26 small cannon.
dynasties to its north. Local kingdoms also In the naval battles of the Imjin War,
competed for land and power. Buddhism, the warships’ firepower overwhelmed the
introduced from China in 372 ce, Japanese fleet, which was armed only
flourished during the period with bows and arrows, and primitive
of the early kingdoms but long guns known as arquebuses.
was later suppressed during
the Joseon era.

The Three Kingdoms

During the period of “The Three 670–935
Kingdoms”, Korea was split between
three rival powers: Silla and Baekje
in the south, and Goguryeo in the
north. Towards the end of the era,
the Silla Kingdom, allied with the
Tang Dynasty of China, defeated
its rivals and unified the peninsula
under Korean rule for the first time. BUDDHA SILLA
935–1392

Goryeo Dynasty Extra power

As the ruling Silla Kingdom broke apart with a
Two sails were used during
series of uprisings and rebellions, a new kingdom,
windy weather, boosting
Goryeo, formed under Wang Geon. After years of
the warship’s speed.
war, Silla and the rebelling Baekje surrendered to
Goryeo, unifying Korea once more. A long period of
peace and prosperity followed, though the country
suffered civil wars in the 12th century.
Sharp protection
To stop enemy marines
Mongol occupation
1270–1356

attempting to board the

The rule of the Goryeo Dynasty was interrupted in ship, the roof was covered
1270 by the Mongol Empire. After nearly 40 years with metal spikes.
of Mongol attacks, the Goryeo surrendered and
were controlled by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty for
around 80 years. The Goryeo royal family remained
as puppet rulers until the 1350s, when King
Gongmin drove the Mongols out. By now,
however, the dynasty was in decline.

Oar power
The Geobukseon didn’t rely on wind
power like other vessels of the time.
It was powered by a crew of around
70 oarsmen. The oars increased the
warship’s ability to manoeuvre during
battle, meaning it could turn very Rest and recovery
quickly and surprise enemy ships. The lower deck was home to
the kitchen and housed the
sleeping quarters.
13 of Yi Sun-sin’s ships defeated 133 Japanese
warships in the Battle of Myeongnyang.
Sejong the Great’s reforms allowed people
of any class to work in the government. 97

Joseon Korea Admiral Yi Sun-sin

After a brilliant career
Lasting for more than 500 years, the rule as an army officer,
Yi Sun-sin was
of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897) shaped promoted to admiral
many of modern-day Korea’s social and in the Joseon navy
during the Imjin War
cultural traditions. (1592–1598). He
heroically commanded
After the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty in 1392,
the Joseon fleet and
the Kingdom of Great Joseon was established by didn’t lose a single
General Yi Seong-gye, who became the first king, naval battle against
taking the title Taejo (“Great Ancestor”). The new the invading Japanese.
dynasty expanded its boundaries north and moved
its capital city to the city of Hanyang, known today “I CAN BE APPROACHED,
as Seoul. The kings of Joseon oversaw massive BUT NEVER PUSHED; BEFRIENDED
advancements in government, science, and BUT NEVER COERCED;
KILLED BUT NEVER SHAMED”
technology, as well as a golden age of culture and Yi Sun-sin, in a letter to fellow admiral Son Ko-i
education. However, after several invasion attempts
from Japan and China in the 16th and 17th
centuries, the Joseon Dynasty entered a period of Sejong the Great
isolation from the outside world, when it became During his 32-year reign (1418–1450), the
known as the “Hermit Kingdom”. fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong,
revolutionized how the government ruled
the kingdom, improving the lives of ordinary
The turtle ship people. He realized it was important for
One of the famous technological everyone to have access to education and
achievements of the Joseon knowledge, and personally
Dynasty was its warship, the created the Korean alphabet.
Geobukseon. Known as the “turtle He also encouraged scientific
ship” because of its turtle-shell research, which led to
shape, it had a protective roof and developments
was armed with many cannon. It in agriculture,
was a formidable force at sea and astronomy,
helped Admiral Yi Sun-sin defeat and medicine.
the Japanese during the Imjin War. Fire-breathing dragon
At the front of the ship
was a wooden dragon
head. This hid a cannon
or a burner that released
Hidden surprise fire and smoke, striking
A layer of straw was placed fear into the enemy and
over the protective roof to also helping to conceal
lure enemy boarders onto the ship’s movements.
the sharp spikes.

Hangul script
Before Sejong the Great’s reign, the kingdoms
of Korea had used classical Chinese as their
writing system. It was complex, which meant
that only the educated could read and write.
In 1446, a new alphabet was created, called
Hangul, which used 28 simple vowels and
consonants in blocks of syllables.
a
h g/k

eu

n t/l

A new way to write

The new script of Hangul was originally read
from top to bottom, though today it is read from
left to right. Consonants were based on the
shapes the mouth made when speaking them.
98 the age of exploration THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 623 The number of years the
Ottoman Empire lasted.

Great sultans Murad I Bayezid I Mehmed II

Murad I conquered The son of Murad I, In 1444, after his
The Ottoman Empire was ruled Adrianople, a city Bayezid I continued father gave up the
by a leader known as a sultan. in the Byzantine his father’s conquest throne, a 12-year-old
The sultan had complete control Empire, and made it of Europe. He also Mehmed II briefly
over the empire. The role of the the capital of the defeated and united ruled for two years.
sultan normally passed from father Ottoman Empire. rival states in His father was
Murad expanded the Anatolia. In 1402, persuaded to return.
to son. Towards the later years of
empire north into Bayezid I clashed After his father died,
the empire, most of the sultan’s Europe and large with the Mongol Mehmed II conquered
responsibilities were given to areas of the Balkans. Timurid Dynasty, the Byzantine capital
key government officials. suffering a major of Constantinople
defeat at Ankara. (modern-day Istanbul).

Timeline 1362–1389 1389–1402 1444–1446 / 1451–1481

The Ottoman GROWTH

OF THE
Empire EMPIRE
The Ottoman
EUROPE

In the late 13th century, Osman I, a tribal warlord, Empire grew

conquered lands in Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey) that rapidly over a
period of 200 Istanbul
belonged to the Byzantine Empire. With these regions years. It claimed
Adrianople

under his control, he established the Ottoman Empire. land from the
Muslim empires
The Ottomans raised large armies, and with their military in North Africa and
might, they quickly expanded their empire into eastern Europe, the Byzantine
North Africa, and the Middle East. The capital of the empire Empire in
was eventually moved to the city of Constantinople, which the eastern Europe.
Cairo
Ottomans also called Istanbul. By the 16th century, the Ottoman
Empire had entered a golden age under the rulership of several
inspiring leaders, who encouraged military discipline, science, Key
art, and architecture. However, poor leadership and competition
The empire in 1512
with other powers in Europe and Asia eventually contributed to
The empire in 1520
the empire’s decline. The empire was dismantled in 1922 and
its central region became the Republic of Turkey. The empire in 1566 AFRICA
The empire in 1639

WARFARE ARCHITECTURE
The Ottoman army played The Ottoman Empire had
an important role in the creative architects who
rise of the empire. Cavalry designed many buildings,
units and elite troops such as mosques, palaces,
known as the Janissaries and public baths, that
helped the empire win were built in the many
many carefully planned regions they conquered.
battles. In the 15th century, Ottoman buildings were
the Ottomans became decorated with geometric
skilled gunsmiths and built BOOTS designs and were made
huge cannons that were from lavish materials, such
used to besiege cities as exotic woods, mother of
during conflicts. pearl, and gold.

ZIRH GOMLEK
(MAIL-AND-PLATE-COAT)

Exquisite patterns
The Blue Mosque in
Istanbul was built in the
17th century. Its interior
is decorated with
CHICHAK KILIJ KALKAN patterned tiles and
(HELMET) (SWORD) (SMALL SHIELD) stained-glass windows.
 30 million The population of the Ottoman
Empire at its peak in 1683. 20,000 The approximate number of tiles that were used
to decorate the interior of the Blue Mosque. 99

Selim the Grim Suleiman the Selim II Mehmed IV

Leading aggressive Magnificent The son of Suleiman After his mentally
military campaigns, Of all the Ottoman the Magnificent, ill father lost power,
Selim the Grim sultans, Suleiman the Selim II did not Mehmed became the
expanded the Magnificent ruled inherit his father’s sultan at the age of
Ottoman Empire the longest. His reign skill for governance. six. He was too
greatly. In 1517, he marked the height He was distracted by young to rule, so the
defeated the Muslim of the empire’s the luxuries of royal role of the sultan
empire of the golden age. He also life and relied on his changed. Most of its
Mamluk Dynasty, expanded Ottoman chief minister, powers were given
taking control of borders, encouraged Mehmed Sokollu, to to a new position,
North Africa and trade, and improved govern the empire. the chief minister.
the Middle East. the navy.

1512–1520 1520–1566 1566–1574 1648–1687

ARTS OF THE GOLDEN AGE OTTOMAN SCIENCE Astronomers

Many forms of art, such as pottery and embroidery, Scholars in the Ottoman Empire learned At the observatory
flourished in the Ottoman Empire during the 16th from the classical scientists of the in Constantinople
and 17th centuries. An imperial painting school was previous Muslim empires. They wrote (modern-day Istanbul),
mathematician and
established and the art of handwriting, known as new encyclopedias of medicine and astronomer Taqi
calligraphy, was practised. The Ottoman Empire was drew maps of the world. The empire al-Din used the first
well known for its beautiful pottery, known as Iznik also contributed to advances in astronomical clocks
ware, as well as elaborately designed rugs and astronomy and mechanical engineering. to study the stars.
carpets, and intricately decorated tiles.
ASIA

Baghdad

17TH-CENTURY DECORATED 16TH-CENTURY DECORATED

OTTOMAN PLATE OTTOMAN TILES
100 the age of exploration THE PRINTING REVOLUTION 105 ce The year tradition says paper
was invented in China.

Ink pads
“Like a new star, it will scatter Before each press, oil-based ink

the darkness of was added to the metal blocks of

type held in place inside the forme.
ignorance” Workers known as “beaters” used
round ink pads to dab the sticky
ink evenly across the type.
Johannes Gutenberg, on his new
printing press, c.1450

The printing workshop

Johannes Gutenberg developed
a more efficient printing press,
easy-to-make moveable metal
Moveable metal type type, and a new reliable and
Gutenberg, a goldsmith, used his Pulling the lever
versatile oil-based ink. He also
knowledge of metals to create The worker who operated the
press was called a “puller”. He divided the printing process into
hard-wearing metal blocks, known
pulled the lever across to press the parts, with specialized workers
as moveable type. Every block had
a back-to-front letter on one side. damp paper against the inked responsible for each stage.
forme, one page at a time.
It was placed into a frame, known
as a “forme”, to spell out a word or
sentence for printing. The moveable
type could then easily be reordered
ready for printing the next page.

Forming the words

About 300 different sorts
of type were needed to
produce the Gutenberg
Bible, from punctuation
marks to upper- and
lower-case letters.

Damp paper The printing press

The stiff paper had to Gutenberg based the design Quality control
be softened with water of his printing press on Each page was read and
before printing, to help screw presses used at the checked to make sure
the ink to stick to it. time to make wine. the print was accurate.
 2,500 The approximate number of type blocks
used per page in the Gutenberg Bible. 48 The number of original Gutenberg Bibles
that are known still to survive today. 101

The Printing Revolution The Gutenberg

Bible
In the mid-1450s,
In around 1450, German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg perfected Gutenberg used
his printing press
a new printing process. His innovation transformed how people to produce a
shared ideas and information across the world. 1,286-page,
two-volume Bible.
Until the 15th century, books were rare and expensive. They were usually Although his
written and copied by hand and could take years to complete. Johannes printing press was much faster than writing
Gutenberg invented an efficient printing press that allowed him to produce by hand, it still took him several years to
quality prints over and over again. By 1500, there were more than a print around 180 copies – 45 on calfskin and
135 on paper. Once printed, each Bible was
thousand of Gutenberg’s presses across western Europe, manufacturing decorated with hand-drawn illustrations,
millions of books. For years, reading had been the privilege of nobles, at the request of its owner – usually a
scribes, and priests, but as books became more affordable for all parts prominent and wealthy church leader.
of society, a new educated class began to emerge.

The evolution of printing

Timeline
Gutenberg didn’t invent moveable type –
wooden and ceramic type were invented
in China in the 11th century, and metal
type was first used in Korea during the
13th century. But Gutenberg’s printing
process was so efficient that it hardly
Drying line changed until the 19th century, when
The newly printed advances in steam power meant that
damp pages were presses could operate at higher speeds.
hung up so the paper
and ink could dry.
Steam power

1811
In Germany, inventor
Friedrich Koenig and
engineer Andreas
Friedrich Bauer designed
a steam-powered press.
It used cylinder rollers
to print on both sides
of the paper.

1886 Linotype machine

German inventor Ottmar
Mergenthaler’s machine
allowed workers to
assemble lines of metal
type, known as “slugs”,
using a keyboard. This was
much quicker than ordering
type by hand and greatly
sped up the process.

Photocopying
1960s

The photocopier machine

transformed how
documents and
pages were copied
in offices around the
world. Its dry printing
process, known as
xerography, used
powdered ink and heat
to create copies.

Digital technology
Today

Large-scale modern
printing presses
can print thousands
of colour pages per
minute, while computers
The Gutenberg Bible
and wireless printers
Finishing touches The completed Bibles were all
let people print easily
An artist or “illuminator” added sold, with some selling for the
at home too.
elaborate decorations known as price of 30 florins, an enormous
illuminations to the printed pages. amount of money at the time.
 the age of exploration
Early Slavs called Viking traders the “Rus”,
102 EARLY RUSSIA which may have meant “the people who row”.

Early Russia THE DUCHY OF MUSCOVY

After the fall of Kiev to the Mongols, Russia split into many small
In the 7th century, Slavic tribes started to settle in the principalities. The Duchy of Muscovy, centred around Moscow,
northwest of modern-day Russia. From these small slowly grew more powerful and became the centre of the Russian
Orthodox Church. Chosen by the Mongol rulers to collect taxes
beginnings grew one of the world’s mightiest empires.
from all the other principalities, Muscovy eventually gained
The tribes unified in the 9th century and began to expand their enough power, wealth, and influence to unify Russia and raise
an army to defeat their Mongol overlords.
territory. Important trade routes between Europe and Asia helped
early Russian principalities – small states governed by a prince
in the name of a Grand Prince – to grow wealthy. The Russians
adopted Christianity, and under different forms of government, Russia expands
early Russia continued to expand its borders, finally becoming The monarchs of Moscow used their wealth to purchase land,
the Russian Empire in 1721. gaining control over most of the Moscow basin. In 1380, Grand
Prince Dmitry Donskoy expanded Moscow’s control further and
conquered the surrounding states of Rostov and Ryazan. Further
gains under Dmitry’s successors, Vasily I and Vasily II,
KIEVAN RUS strengthened Moscow’s power in the region.

Established in the 9th century, Kievan Rus was the first state to occupy
what is now Russian territory. Over the next four centuries, it grew to
become one of the largest and wealthiest powers in Europe. At its peak A
I
it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the AV
D IN
south, before being invaded by Mongol warriors in 1237. AN
SC

RUSSIA

Vologda
Novgorod

Moscow Suzdal
Smolensk
Ryazan
0 500 1,000 km

0 250 500 miles

Expansion of Russian territory

1300 Muscovy territories
acquired by 1533

Ivan the Great

In 1462, Ivan III (known as Ivan the Great) came to
power. He continued to extend the realms of Moscow,
expanding north into Novgorod, as well as south
into modern-day Ukraine. He also drove out the
Mongols and installed himself as supreme ruler
The Rurik Dynasty Invitation to rule in 1485. By the end of his reign, he had tripled
Rurik, along with his the size of the Duchy of Muscovy and had
The Rurik Dynasty was established by the Viking chieftain two brothers, were started to take land away from the state
Rurik, who united the warring Slavic tribes of the region. invited by the Slavs princes and give it to his loyal nobles.
The Rurik Dynasty survived the Mongol invasion of to rule over them.
Kievan Rus, ruling Russia for more than 700 years. IVAN THE GREAT

Timeline c.650–862 880–972 988 1019–1054

Early Russia Slavs and Vikings Expansion of Kievan Rus The Russian Orthodox Church Yaroslav the Wise
In the 7th century, Slavic tribes Rurik was succeeded by Prince Oleg, Seeking closer ties with the Kievan Rus flourished under
From its formation as began to migrate beyond their who expanded his lands to the south. Byzantine Empire, Grand Prince Yaroslav, who created new
homelands in central and eastern Oleg captured the Slavic city of Kiev, Vladimir, now known as Vladimir laws and strengthened the
Kievan Rus, through the
Europe. Some moved east, settling which he made his capital in 882, the Great, made the Eastern state through military
rise of Moscow, to the in what is now northwest Russia. and founded Kievan Rus. The new Orthodox Church the official campaigns and foreign
rule of the tsars, Russia In the 9th century, Viking traders state controlled the river trade religion of Kievan Rus, forcing diplomacy. He also continued
continued to expand. By from across the Baltic Sea began routes between Scandinavia and mass baptism on his subjects. the spread of Christianity.
the time that Peter the to sail down the region’s rivers, the Byzantine Empire, growing rich He also married a daughter of the
Great became the first and opened up trading links with by trading fur, wax, and honey, as Byzantine emperor, and oversaw
the Slavs. Rurik, a Viking chieftain, well as slaves. The state expanded the beginning of a golden age in
emperor of the Russian
united the warring tribes of the quickly in the 10th century under art, architecture, and learning.
Empire, it had become region. He set up a new capital Grand Prince Sviatoslav, who took
the largest country in at Novgorod in 862. Balkan lands to the south. SEAL OF
GRAND
the world. PRINCE
YAROSLAV
THE WISE
 Moscow’s famous St. Basil’s Cathedral was built
under the orders of Ivan the Terrible in 1552. 97% of people in the Russian Empire were
peasants at its formation in 1721. 103

THE TSARDOM OF RUSSIA Cossacks Yermak Timofeyevich

In 1581, Cossack leader Yermak
In 1547, Ivan the Terrible was crowned the The Cossack peoples originated
Timofeyevich successfully invaded
around the Black and Caspian
first tsar (“supreme ruler”) of all Russia. During western Siberia with 840 soldiers and
seas. Fiercely independent, they
the period of tsardom, Russia transformed conquered the tribes living there. He
formed warrior bands of light helped to expand Russia’s borders.
into a major European power, expanding its cavalry, who often rebelled
territory east into Siberia and gaining land on against the Russians. Later, they
its western borders. Though tsars held political allied with the Tsardom of
power, their authority was limited by the Russia, helping to defend it
Church and nobles. From 1682, Tsar Peter I against Mongol attacks and to
(later known as Peter the Great) reduced the extend its borders to the east.
In the 18th century, the Cossacks
influence of the nobles, and proclaimed himself
emperor of the Russian Empire in 1721. lost their independence, and “BE PATIENT,
males were forced into Russian COSSACK, AND YOU
military service. Their bravery WILL ONE DAY BE
and skill were much feared by
Serfdom their enemies. A CHIEFTAIN”
The noble class created a system called serfdom to Russian proverb
control the poorest peasants, known as serfs. They
were forced to work on the land owned by their noble
masters, and – like slaves – could be bought or sold.
They were also conscripted into the army at times of
war. Catherine the Great massively expanded serfdom
in the late 18th century to feed Russia’s growing
empire. The system was finally abolished in 1861,
under Tsar Alexander II.

Total number of serfs

45% Free people By the end of the 18th century,
over half of Russia’s population
(between 15 and
20 million people)
were privately
owned serfs.

55% Serfs

“IT IS BETTER TO BEGIN The first parliament The first Romanov tsar
The Zemsky Sobor elected
ABOLISHING SERFDOM The tsars used councils of advisers to discuss issues that
the first tsar of the Romanov
FROM ABOVE THAN WAIT FOR affected the state. Early councils, called dumas, were made up Dynasty, Mikhail I. Here he is
of boyars (noblemen). As the Tsardom of Russia expanded in the
IT TO BEGIN ABOLISHING 16th century, the Zemsky Sobor (“Assembly of the Land”) was
shown at the front of the steps,
receiving news of his election
ITSELF FROM BELOW” formed. Regarded as Russia’s first parliament, it was made up of from the Zemsky Sobor.
Alexander II, in a speech to Moscow nobles, 1856 religious and military leaders, boyars, landowners, and merchants.

1237–1253 1283–1380 1547–1584 1598–1613 1613–1676

Mongol invasion Rise of the Duchy of Muscovy Ivan the Terrible The Time of Troubles Early Romanov rulers
After Yaroslav’s death, Kievan In the late 13th century, Daniel I, son of A brutal leader, Ivan IV was known as The Rurik Dynasty came to an To restore order after the
Rus split into separate, Rurik Prince Alexander Nevsky, helped Ivan the Terrible because of his short end in 1598 when Fyodor, Time of Troubles, Mikhail
warring principalities, and to establish the Duchy of Muscovy in temper and the harsh punishments Ivan IV’s son, died childless. Romanov, brother of Ivan
became vulnerable to attack. the city-state of Moscow. he handed out. He even There followed a period of the Terrible’s first wife, was
In 1237, Batu Khan led an In 1380, an army led murdered his own son. crisis as conflict sprang up selected as tsar. Mikhail’s rule
invasion by a group of by Prince Dmitry However, during the between the boyars (nobles), saw the biggest territorial
Mongol warriors known as Donskoy early part of his reign he landowners, and merchants, expansion in Russian history
the Tatars. Each prince was defeated the was a reformer, and and foreign states tried to lay as most of Siberia was
made to pay tribute to their Tatars in established the first claim to the throne. In 1607, conquered. The reign of his
Mongol overlords, who battle, giving Zemsky Sobor Poland claimed the throne successor, Alexis I, saw many
ruled the region for more birth to the idea of (parliament). and invaded Moscow. After wars and rebellions. Alexis
than 200 years. a Russian nation. five years of civil war, a also produced a new code
Cossack army threw out of law that officially
GRAND PRINCE OF
the Polish invaders. defined serfdom.
MOSCOW DMITRY HELMET OF
DONSKOY TSAR IVAN IV
Voyages of
exploration
European merchants travelling
to Asia over land were often heavily
taxed or attacked by marauders.
In the 15th and 16th centuries,
European nations funded naval
voyages to search for new trade
routes to Asia.
European powers led many expeditions
across the Atlantic, as well as around
Africa, to find these new routes. As new
lands and civilizations became known
to Europe, the world became more
connected than ever before. Goods,
religions, and ideas were traded and
exchanged across huge distances for
the first time. However, European powers
also exploited these new lands, draining
their natural resources and sometimes
enslaving the native populations.

1415–1460
Portuguese Prince
Henry the Navigator 1492
financed many naval In search of a western
expeditions down the trade route to Asia,
west coast of Africa. Italian explorer
Christopher Columbus
became the first
1497 European to discover
England financed the Americas.
a search for a
northwestern trade 1498
route to Asia, which Vasco da Gama became
saw Italian explorer the first European to
John Cabot land sail around Africa and
in Newfoundland, in arrive in India,
modern-day Canada. establishing new
maritime trade
1507 routes for Portugal.
German mapmaker
Martin Waldseemuller 1519–1522
drew a map of the Portuguese explorer
“new world”, naming Ferdinand Magellan
it “America” after led a five-ship
Italian explorer expedition to sail
Amerigo Vespucci. around the world. He
died before completing
the journey, and only
1541-1542 one of his ships made
In an eight-month the journey home.
journey, Spanish
explorer Francisco de 1577–1580
Orellana sailed along English explorer Sir
the whole of the Francis Drake became
Amazon River. the first captain to lead
a successful voyage
around the world.

The Strait of Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan sailed through the channel
between the South American mainland and the
islands of Tierra del Fuego. He discovered that
it was the safest route from the Atlantic to the
Pacific Ocean. The channel was later named
after him – the Strait of Magellan.
106 the age of exploration CONQUEST OF THE AMERICAS

Conquest of EARLY
EXPLORERS NORTH

the Americas Hispaniola, the large

Caribbean island explored
AMERICA
St. Augustine

M
by Christopher Columbus Mexico
After Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas lf of

e
Gu

x
in 1492, became the centre Havana

ic
o
in 1492, Spanish explorers and soldiers crossed the of Spanish operations in
Panuco Cub
a Hispaniola
Tenochtitlàn Veracruz
Atlantic in search of fortune and new lands to conquer. the Americas, which they Santiago
called the New World. Acapulco Trujillo de Cuba
ean Sea
Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish invaders, Rumours of gold and the Caribb
known as conquistadors (conquerors), plundered gold and silver search for a route to Asia Panama
and seized land, bringing to an end the great Aztec, Inca, and led the first conquistadors PACIFIC
Maya civilizations. Equipped with armour, guns, and horses, to explore more widely. OCEAN
Within 20 years, they Key
they destroyed cities, killing thousands of people. They brought Juan Ponce de León 1513
with them European diseases such as measles, flu, and smallpox, had mapped the whole Hernán Cortés 1518–1535
of the Caribbean,
against which the native people had no natural resistance. After Francisco Pizarro 1531–1533
and began to explore Hernando de Soto 1539–1542
the Spanish conquered the Americas, they forced the people to Cajamarca
the American mainland. 0 1,000 2,000 km
convert to Christianity, destroying their old way of life.
0 500 1,000 miles
Cuzco

SPANISH SUCCESS The conquest of the Incas

The Spanish found it easy to defeat the When Francisco Pizarro reached Peru with his
small army in 1532, the Inca Empire had been
native people – Cortés only had an army of
weakened by internal rivalries. Pizarro tricked
about 600 men, while Pizarro conquered the
the emperor Atahualpa into a meeting, ordered
vast Inca Empire with 180 men. The Spanish his men to open fire on the Incas, and took the
invaders fought with steel swords, guns, and emperor prisoner. Pizarro demanded and
cannons, and had horses (then unknown in received a huge ransom in gold and silver,
the Americas). The native warriors fought before having Atahualpa treacherously killed.
with more basic weapons – clubs, javelins, Pizarro marched his men to Cuzco, the Inca
and arrows, which could not pierce capital, which fell without a struggle. Inca
European armour. resistance to Spanish rule had ended by 1572.

The end of the Aztec Empire

When Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico in Skilled craftspeople
1519, he headed for Tenochtitlán, capital This Inca drinking vessel was carved from wood.
of the vast Aztec Empire. The Aztec ruler The Incas were skilled craftspeople, but after the
Moctezuma II thought the Spaniards were Spanish conquest many were forced to abandon
messengers from their Aztec god Quetzalcoatl their crafts and work in the silver and gold mines.
and welcomed them into the city. Two years
later, Cortés returned to the Aztec capital
with his army and destroyed Tenochtitlán,
ending nearly 200 years of Aztec rule. Defeating the Maya These bars and dots
By the time the Spanish arrived in represented numbers.
the 16th century, the great cities
of the Maya civilization had long
been abandoned. The Maya lived
in scattered towns and villages in
the northern Yucatan Peninsula
of Mexico. In 1521, the king of
Spain granted the conquistador
Francisco de Montejo the right to
take over the Yucatan, but it proved
difficult because of the scattered
Maya strongholds. De Montejo’s son
eventually completed the conquest in
1546, although the last remote Maya
stronghold didn’t fall until 1697.

Painted codex
This Maya codex (a folding book)
Moctezuma II greets Cortés was sent to Europe during the
In Tenochtitlán, Cortés was given gifts of Spanish conquest. It is one of
gold and silver by Moctezuma, fuelling the the few books that were not
conquistador’s greed for the precious metals. destroyed by the conquistadors.
 When the Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico in
1519, he burned his ships so that his crew could not desert him. 1521 The year the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán – home to
300,000 people – was destroyed by the conquistadors. 107

Seeking new worlds

The conquistadors were often
soldiers or the sons of minor
noble families. The conquest
of the Americas offered them
a chance to become rich.
When they arrived in the
Americas, they found food
plants such as potatoes and
ATLANTIC tomatoes as well as animals
OCEAN such as guinea pigs and
llamas, previously unknown
in Europe. Although many
of the conquistadors were
Spanish, some European Juan Ponce de León Hernán Cortés Francisco Pizarro Hernando de Soto
adventurers joined the In 1513, Juan Ponce de León After hearing stories about A ruthlessly ambitious man, In 1539, Hernando de Soto
conquest, helping to lay the landed on the southeast coast the treasures of the Aztec Francisco Pizarro went on set sail from Cuba for
foundations of a vast Spanish of North America. He named rulers, Cortés abandoned his several expeditions to the North America. He landed
Empire in the Americas. the area Florida (Spanish for law studies in Spain to make Americas. In 1532, backed by in Florida and three years
“land of flowers”). When he his fortune in the Americas. the Spanish king, he led his later reached the banks of
SOUTH couldn’t find gold, he took In 1519, he led an expedition own expedition to conquer the Mississippi River – the
AMERICA slaves instead. to invade Mexico. the Inca Empire of Peru. first European to do so.

SEARCHING FOR Silver mine

In 1545, the Spanish invaders found the world’s
GOLD AND SILVER greatest source of silver in Potosí (in present-day
Many of the conquistadors were lured to Bolivia). They transported more than 30,000 African
the Americas by rumours of a fabulously slaves to work in the Potosí mines. By the end
rich city ruled by a king covered in gold, of the 16th century, about 60 per cent of the
called El Dorado (meaning “The Golden One”). world’s silver came from Potosí.
It was never found, but huge quantities of
gold and silver plundered from the great
civilizations were loaded into the treasure
ships bound for the Spanish port of Seville.
By the end of the 16th century, Spain had
become the wealthiest nation in Europe.

Gold from Peru

This gold ceremonial knife survived the plunder.
Most of the gold seized by the conquistadors
was melted to make gold coins.

“We Spaniards know a sickness

of the heart that only
gold can cure.” Rich mountain
Hernán Cortés, when greeted by Moctezuma’s A mining town sprang up around the source of the
messenger, 1521 silver – Cerro Potosí (Spanish for “Rich Mountain”).

BANNING RELIGION
The Catholic religion was important to the
Spanish, and the conquistadors banned
the native religions. Their expeditions to the
Americas were always accompanied by a
priest, who was responsible for converting
the native people. The conquistadors also
destroyed temples, burned books, and
executed local priests.

Aztec gods
The Aztecs worshipped many gods.
The feathered-snake god Quetzalcoatl
was the god of creation. He is shown
here (left) in combat with his brother
Tezcatlipoca, the destructive god.
108 the age of exploration THE REFORMATION 282 The number of printing
presses in Europe by 1500.

The Reformation EARLY

REFORMERS
For 1,000 years, the Roman Catholic Church was the
Although Martin Luther is
only branch of Christianity in western Europe and it seen as the person who
was a powerful force in people’s lives. Even rulers started the Reformation,
he was not the first to
were subject to the laws laid down by its leader, the
criticize the Church’s
Pope. But by the 16th century, the Roman Catholic teachings – Jan Hus in
Church had become deeply unpopular. Bohemia (in modern-day
Czech Republic) and John
At this time, members of the clergy – bishops, priests, and Wycliffe in England held
monks – were believed by many people to be greedy and similar views 100 years
corrupt. In 1517, a monk named Martin Luther nailed his earlier. But other
95 Theses, a list of protests against the practices of the reformers quickly
Catholic Church, to the door of a church in Wittenberg in followed Luther’s lead. By
Germany. This started a religious revolution that has come to the 1530s, Protestantism
be known as the Reformation. The upheaval it caused spread
had split into two main Martin Luther
branches: Lutheranism Luther was angry that the Church was selling
quickly through Europe, leaving a lasting division between and Calvinism. “indulgences”, allowing rich people to buy
Roman Catholics and Protestants – people who followed new pardons for their sins. After continuing his
branches of Christianity that sprang from the Reformation. attacks against this practice, Luther was
excommunicated (excluded from the
Church) in 1521.

THE SPREAD OF Key

COUNTER-REFORMATION
PROTESTANTISM Mainly Protestant areas
Alarmed by the spread of Protestantism,
the Catholic Church launched the Counter-
By 1600, Protestantism was Mainly Catholic areas
Reformation. Its aim was to strengthen the
widely spread throughout
loyalty of Church members and prevent
northern Germany, Switzerland,
people leaving. The Jesuits, a new teaching
the Dutch Republic, England,
order of priests backed by the Pope,
Scotland, and Scandinavia.
established schools and colleges to improve
France was predominantly
the quality of religious education. To make
Catholic, though significant BRITAIN
worship more attractive, churches were
numbers of Protestants lived
built in a beautiful and ornate style, and
in parts of the south and west. GERMANY church music was encouraged. The Roman
Spain, Portugal, and Italy
Inquisition, a church court, was created to
remained Catholic.
FRANCE judge heretics (people accused of denying
Catholic beliefs).

Catholic rulers, or their

ITALY
SPAIN Bench of envoys, attended
presiding as observers
cardinals

The power of the press

First developed in Germany in around 1450, the
printing press was still a relatively new technology
when Luther wrote his 95 Theses. Printed copies of
his text, translated from Latin into German, were
widely circulated. Luther was one of the first people
to realize the power of the printed word to reach a
wider audience. The stream of pamphlets and books
put out by him and other reformers helped
Protestantism to spread more rapidly. Assembled bishops
and priests

The Council of Trent

War of words An assembly of Catholic Church leaders,
This German propaganda sheet attacked the called the Council of Trent, met three times
Catholic practice of selling indulgences to fill between 1545 and 1563 to discuss ways of
the money chests of the Catholic Church. reforming the Church.
 900 The approximate number of monasteries and
other religious houses closed down by Henry VIII. 8 million people died from disease and famine
during the Thirty Years’ War. 109

THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND

When the Pope would not allow King Henry VIII to
divorce his first wife, he made himself supreme head
of the Church in England. The country became Protestant
under Edward VI, then Catholic again under Mary I.
Elizabeth I restored Protestantism in England in 1558.

Ulrich Zwingli John Calvin

A priest and friend of Luther, Zwingli led the Frenchman John Calvin fled from Catholic
Reformation in Switzerland. He wanted to France to Switzerland in 1535, where he
simplify worship and believed that what was established a stricter version of Luther’s
written in the Bible was more important Protestantism, known as Calvinism. The Tudors
than the Church’s laws. This painting of the Tudors shows each of the family at the height
of their reign. Henry VIII is in the centre, with Mary I on his right.
To his left are a nine-year-old Edward VI, and Elizabeth I.

THE WARS OF
RELIGION
Arguments over religion
plunged Europe into a series
of violent wars. In the
Spanish-ruled Netherlands,
Protestants rebelled against
the harsh policies of Philip II
of Spain, leading to the Dutch
Wars of Independence (1568–
1648). Thousands of French
Protestants (Huguenots) were
massacred in Paris on a single
day in 1572 during the French
Wars of Religion (1562–1598).
The deep divide between
Catholics and Protestants was
the immediate cause of the
Thirty Years’ War, which
brought most of Europe into
conflict from 1618 to 1648.

Battle of White Mountain

Fought near Prague in Bohemia
(in modern-day Czech Republic) in
1620, the Battle of White Mountain
was the first major conflict of
the Thirty Years’ War. The
Bohemian Protestants were
defeated by the Catholic troops
of the Holy Roman Empire.

IN SOME PARTS
OF GERMANY,
THE POPULATION FELL BY

UP TO 40%
DURING THE
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
 110 the age of exploration THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 16 The number of years it took
to build the Taj Mahal.

KABUL

PANIPAT

Tomb of Babur SHAHJAHANABAD

Babur conquered the
Afghan city of Kabul in
1504. He was a lover of Battle of Panipat
gardens, and asked to be Babur’s army won
buried in the garden he a great victory at
had created in Kabul. Panipat in 1526,
defeating the AGRA
Delhi Sultanate,
which ruled this
part of India.
Jama Masjid
Shah Jahan moved the Mughal capital Taj Mahal
from Agra in 1639 to the walled city of Shah Jahan built the famous Taj
Shahjahanabad (known as Old Delhi Mahal in Agra as a tomb for his
today), where he built the Jama Masjid, beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Shah
one of the world’s largest mosques. Jahan himself was also buried here.

Key Trade in Surat

The port of Surat was a meeting
The Mughal Empire in 1606 Baji Rao
place for European, Arab, and
Territory gained by the Indian traders. It prospered The greatest general of the
Mughals by 1707 under the Mughals before being Maratha Empire, Baji Rao
sacked by the Maratha king (1700–1740) never lost a battle.
Shivaji in 1664. He contributed to the rapid
expansion of the Marathas over
the entire Indian subcontinent.

SURAT

The Maratha Empire

The Marathas were a Hindu warrior people
living around the city of Pune in the west of
India. In the mid-17th century, the Marathas
began to conquer the surrounding
lands. By 1797, the Maratha PUNE
Empire stretched from
Peshawar in the north to
Tanjore (modern-day

The Mughal Empire

Thanjavur) in the south.

Peshawar
In the 16th century, Babur, a warlord from Central
0 500 1,000 km Asia, invaded a small region of northern India.
0 250 500 miles His descendants built a great empire that, by the
end of the 17th century, extended over most of
modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
MA RAT H A
EMP IR E
The Mughal emperors were descended from the Mongol people
of Central Asia. Like the north Indian rulers Babur defeated,
Ar a b ia n
Pune they were Muslims, following the religion of Islam. Under
Sea Mughal rule, Islamic art and culture, especially miniature
Bay of
Be ngal painting and architecture, flourished. Babur’s grandson, Akbar,
expanded the Mughal Empire south into regions that he won
from Hindu princes. Muslims and Hindus initially lived side by
I ND I AN Tanjore
side in relative peace, as Akbar allowed the Hindus to worship
O CE AN
their own gods. But relations worsened as the rule of the
Key
Mughals became more intolerant in the late 18th century.
Maratha Empire at its
greatest extent in 1797 Many local Hindu rulers, such as the Maratha of southwest
India, began to revolt, weakening Mughal power.
 150 million The population of the Mughal
Empire in around 1700. 1 million The number of soldiers in the Mughal
army during the reign of Aurangzeb. 111

Mughal and Maratha rulers

Timeline
The Mughal Dynasty ruled India from
1526 to 1857 under 18 emperors. The
greatest of these rulers lived during
the 16th and 17th centuries, the golden
age of the Mughal Empire. The empire’s
rapid decline after 1700 was due in part
to the growing success of the Marathas,
who formed their own kingdom based
in western India.
The British take control CALCUTTA
From 1696, the British East
ALLAHABAD India Company was based at
Babur

1526–1530
Fort William near Calcutta The founder of the Mughal dynasty of emperors,
(modern-day Kolkata). In 1757, Babur was born in Fergana (now in Uzbekistan)
the Company, which had its own in Central Asia. A soldier from the age of 15, he
armed forces, attempted to seize conquered Herat and Kabul in Afghanistan before
control of the region. At the Battle invading India in 1526. Babur was a poet and
of Plassey, its forces defeated the wrote a book of memoirs, the Baburnama.
Nawab of Bengal, a prince who His name means “tiger” in Persian.
ruled the area in the name of the
Mughals. It was a decisive victory.
The Mughal Empire had all but Akbar the Great

1556–1605
collapsed at this time, and the The grandson of Babur, Akbar was the third Mughal
way was open for the British to emperor. By the time of his death, he ruled
take control of India. over most of India. He was tolerant of
other religions and gave Hindu
princes positions at his court.
Like all the Mughal emperors,
Fort of Allahabad he was a great patron of the
Akbar’s great fort at arts, blending Islamic,
Allahabad was the centre Persian, and Indian
of Mughal control in traditions. His reign
northeast India. It was built coincided with that of
at the meeting place of the Elizabeth I of England.
Ganges and Jamuna rivers,
a sacred site for Hindus.

Shah Jahan

1628–1658
The fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, is best known
for building many beautiful palaces, mosques, and
tombs, including the Taj Mahal in Agra, the Shalimar
Gardens in Lahore, and the Jama Masjid and Red
Sivaganga Fort Fort in Delhi. When false rumours of his death
King Shivaji’s half-brother Venkoji spread in 1657, war broke out among Shah Jahan’s
captured Tanjore (modern-day four sons. His third son, Aurangzeb, took control and
Thanjavur) in 1674, where he threw him in prison, where he died eight years later.
established a Maratha kingdom,
BIJAPUR Gol Gumbaz ruling from Sivaganga Fort
Bijapur was the capital of a Muslim (now called Thanjavur Palace).
Aurangzeb
1658–1707

sultanate (state) in central India. The Aurangzeb’s conquests in the south of India
sultans of Bijapur built great tombs for expanded Mughal territory to its greatest extent.
themselves, the most famous of which Aurangzeb ruled his subjects strictly, introducing
is the Gol Gumbaz mausoleum of Sultan laws to ban music and dancing, and destroying
Mohammad Adil Shah. Bijapur became hundreds of Hindu temples. He forced his Hindu and
part of the Mughal Empire in 1686. It other non-Muslim subjects to pay high taxes to fund
briefly gained independence in 1724, his constant wars. After his death, the Mughal Empire
but was later conquered by the first fell quickly apart under a succession of weak rulers.
Maratha emperor, Rajaram II, in 1760.

TANJORE
Shivaji
1674–1680

Shivaji came from the Bhonsle clan of Maratha

warriors in the west of India. He led a Hindu
campaign of resistance against the Muslim rulers of
Bijapur before beginning to push back against the
Mughals. Regarded as the founder of the Maratha
Empire, he named himself king in 1674 in a
The expansion of traditional Hindu ceremony.
Mughal rule
The spread of the Mughal Empire
beyond its initial northern territories
was mainly due to two emperors:
Akbar, who imposed Mughal power
right across India from the Arabian
Sea to the Bay of Bengal, and
Aurangzeb, who conquered all but
the far south. The Marathas’ power
base was around Pune in the west.
The Scientific
Revolution
In the 16th and 17th centuries,
pioneering thinkers made major
scientific discoveries that changed
the way people looked at the world.
This period of progress is known as
the Scientific Revolution.
Instead of relying on the accepted
teachings of the Church and philosophers,
scientists tested new ideas and theories
through observation, investigation,
and experimentation. Helped by new
inventions, their discoveries laid the
foundations of modern science.

1543
Polish astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus 1610
calculated that Earth Italian scientist Galileo
and other planets orbit Galilei observed four
the Sun, challenging the moons in orbit around
Church’s teaching that Jupiter, and supported
the Sun circled Earth. Copernicus’ idea of
Earth orbiting the Sun.
He also discovered
1628
mountains on the
English physician
Moon and sunspots.
William Harvey proved
that the heart pumps
1637
blood around the body.
French philosopher
René Descartes
published his influential
book titled Discourse
1656 on Method. In it he
Dutch inventor argued that all ideas
Christiaan Huygens should be questioned.
built the first pendulum
clock, which was
more accurate than 1665
previous clocks. English scientist
Robert Hooke published
Micrographia – a book
1672 about his study of minute
English physicist objects observed through
Isaac Newton carried a microscope. He was
out an experiment also the first person to
that proved that white describe plant cells.
light is made up of
different colours.
1676
Anton van Leeuwenhoek,
a Dutch scientist, made
1687 powerful microscopes
Isaac Newton was the that magnified objects
first scientist to explain up to 270 times. This
how the movement of allowed him to observe
the planets is governed bacteria swimming in
by gravity (an invisible a drop of water.
force that pulls all
matter together).

Galileo and his telescope

Galileo built a telescope that allowed him
to see further than previous models had
and in 1609, he demonstrated his device
to the ruler of Venice, who helped to
fund Galileo’s research. Here, he is shown
standing to the right of his telescope.
114 the age of exploration EARLY COLONIAL AMERICA

Colonial life Roanoke Island Québec The slave trade

English settlers founded a French explorer Samuel Champlain About 20 African slaves
When the first Europeans arrived colony on Roanoke Island founded Québec on the St. Lawrence arrived at Jamestown,
in North America in the 16th off the coast of what River in modern-day Canada. It Virginia, on board two
century, the land was inhabited is now North Carolina. became the capital of New France, English armed ships, which
by groups of Native American But the settlement failed. which included all French colonial had seized a Spanish
farmers. By the 18th century, When a ship returned in territory in North America. ship carrying slaves to
the number of European settlers 1590 with much needed Mexico. Purchased by
supplies for the settlers, English tobacco growers,
numbered about 250,000. The St. Augustine there was no sign of they were the first of
colonies established their own Founded by the Spanish, St. Augustine any of the inhabitants. thousands of Africans to
schools and churches, and the in Florida was the first permanent Their fate has remained endure slavery in colonial
country of origin of the settlers – European settlement in North America. a mystery. North America.
English, French, Dutch, and It was constructed as a fort to prevent
Florida, part of the Spanish Empire,
Spanish – influenced the lifestyle
from being colonized by French settlers.
of each region.

Timeline 1565 1587 1608 1619

Jamestown Church Storehouse

Every settler was A large timber-framed
In 1607, a party of 104 English men arrived expected to attend storehouse stood in
on the eastern shores of North America to start the prayer services the centre of the fort.
Women settlers
a settlement. The site chosen was near the The first women arrived in held in the church.
James River, which was deep enough to allow 1608. In addition to working
large ships from England to anchor nearby. in the home, they undertook
The settlement was named Jamestown, and after much of the farm labour.
a difficult few years, it became the first successful
English colony in North America. The early
settlement consisted of timber-framed houses
protected by a triangular palisade (fence).

River
Some of the first settlers
may have died from
drinking brackish water
(a mixture of salt and fresh
water) from the river.

Trading with Powhatans

The local Native American
More than half Powhatans traded food with
the settlers in exchange for Canoe
of the Jamestown settlers tools, copper, and trinkets. The Powhatans travelled on
Timber building
died from disease or starvation the river in canoes they made
The walls of the single-room,
by hollowing out trees with
during the terrible winter fire and oyster-shell tools. timber-framed houses were
of 1609–1610. made of daub, a sticky mixture
of clay, grass, and animal dung.
1621 The date the Pilgrim Fathers and local Wampanoag people held the
first Thanksgiving to celebrate Plymouth colony’s first harvest. 13 The number of British colonies
founded between 1607 and 1733. 115

New Amsterdam Harvard College First newspaper Reaching the Pacific

Dutch traders bought The first college in North America was Printer Benjamin Harris Travelling by canoe along
the island of Manhattan founded by British colonists in Cambridge, of Boston, Massachusetts, the rivers of northwest
from local Native Massachusetts. It was named Harvard after published the first Canada, Scottish fur trader
Americans. They named Reverend John Harvard, who donated newspaper in Britain’s and explorer Alexander
it New Amsterdam, part his library of books and part of his wealth North American colonies. Mackenzie reached the
of the Dutch colony of to the college upon his death. Today, It was called Publick coast of the Pacific Ocean.
English settlers the New Netherlands Harvard is the oldest Occurrences. Harris, He was the first European
A group of religious English settlers that lay along the fertile university in the US. however, failed to obtain to complete the gruelling
known as the Pilgrim Fathers reached Hudson River. The English permission from the east-west overland crossing
the eastern coast of North America on a seized the prosperous governor of Massachusetts, of North America. His party
ship called the Mayflower. They started settlement in 1664, who ordered every copy included six fur trappers and
a settlement in Plymouth, Massachusetts, renaming it New York. to be seized and destroyed. two Native American guides.
where they could practise their religious
beliefs without being persecuted. They
only just survived their first winter.

1620 1626 1636 1690 1793

Early colonial The Powhatans

Jamestown lay in

America
Marshy site
Jamestown was built territory belonging to
on low-lying marshy the Native American
land riddled with Powhatan people.
mosquitoes that During the first winter,
caused malaria and
Europeans first began arriving in North America in
the Powhatans
other illnesses. the 16th century to set up colonies. Many were lured supplied the settlers
by stories of gold or fertile soil for farming. Others with maize (corn) and
showed them how to
wanted to escape religious persecution.
grow crops in their
In the 16th century, French settlers established forts on the new environment.
But later on relations
St. Lawrence River in what is now Canada. They traded with
between the two Pocahontas
the Native Americans, exchanging guns and tools for animal furs. groups grew more Pocahontas, the
Further south, British settlers established colonies along the east hostile, and conflicts daughter of Chief
coast of what is now the US, while the Spanish focused on New were frequent. Powhatan, married a
Spain. The European powers fought each other for control over settler, John Rolfe,
in 1614.
these territories, and there were often conflicts with the Native
American people, who originally occupied the lands.
King Philip’s War
Disputes over land between Europeans
and Native Americans often exploded into
war. In 1675, a leader who took the name
Defences King Philip led an uprising against the
Projecting defence colonies of New England (Massachusetts,
structures called bulwarks
Rhode Island, and Connecticut). Many towns
were built at each corner of
the triangular settlement. were attacked before King Philip was hunted
down and executed in 1676. Thousands of
Native Americans were killed or made slaves.

Colonial territories Key 0 500 1,000 km

This map shows European British territory 0 250 500 miles

possession of land in North Spanish territory

Hudson
America in 1750. France and French territory Bay

Britain had claimed most of the Unclaimed land

RU
PE
eastern areas of North America. RT’
S LAND
Florida, Mexico, and California St. Lawrence
River Québec
were under Spanish control. Hudson
River
European countries also colonized C
E
Plymouth
the Caribbean islands. Large parts
N

IES
A

New York
ON
R

of North America, however,

NTIC OCEAN
F

COL

remained unexplored and Jamestown

W

ISH
NE

VI Roanoke
unsettled by Europeans CE Island
BRIT

RO
at this time. YA
ATLA

LT
PAC

Y St. Augustine
Cannon O
F
IFI

N
Cannons were EW
C O

used to defend Gulf of

C

SP

Mexico
EA

the settlement
A
IN
N

from attack.
116 the age of exploration THE DUTCH GOLDEN AGE 8 The number of months it took to sail from
Amsterdam to Batavia in the 17th century.

The Dutch THE STOCK

EXCHANGE
Golden Age The Dutch economy
boomed as a result of
its overseas trade. Goods
In the 17th century, the Dutch Republic (present-day
from all around the
Netherlands) became one of the wealthiest countries in world were brought to
the world. Its growing prosperity created a golden age Amsterdam and stored
in which Dutch science, art, and architecture flourished. in the city’s warehouses
before being sold on.
The Dutch Republic came into being in 1581 when the seven northern In 1611, a group of
provinces of what was then the Spanish Netherlands formed a union Amsterdam merchants
to free themselves from Spanish control. After a long war, they gained built the Stock Exchange
as a place to meet with
their independence in 1609. Despite being the smallest of the European
traders and exchange
powers, in less than a century, the new Dutch Republic had successfully information. The main
created a vast overseas trading empire through a combination of trading activity took
seagoing expertise, a strong navy, and clever business practices. place in a large open
courtyard surrounded
by pillars. Each pillar
THE DUTCH EAST was numbered, to
indicate where people
INDIA COMPANY could find traders and
In 1602, the Dutch government make their deals.
gave the Dutch East India
Company the sole right to
trade in Asia. By 1611, it was
Pillars of trade
controlling the profitable spice The Amsterdam Stock
trade into Europe and soon Exchange could hold
became the world’s largest up to 5,000 people. No
trading company. It had the shouting was allowed,
power to start wars, make and children and beggars
treaties with other countries, were kept out.
and create new colonies. The
company’s headquarters were
at Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) THE DUTCH
on the Indonesian island of EAST INDIA COMPANY
Java. For nearly 200 years, WAS THE FIRST
East Indiaman COMMERCIAL COMPANY
the Dutch East India Company
Large sailing ships known as East Indiamen sailed TO SELL SHARES ON THE
dominated overseas trade. regularly between Amsterdam and Batavia. STOCK EXCHANGE.

KEY DISCOVERIES
NETHERLANDS
Dutch scientists and inventors made important
NEW
NETHERLANDS
New Amsterdam discoveries in the 17th century. Spectacle-maker
(New York)
PACIFIC Hans Lippershey built the first telescope in 1608.
NEW SWEDEN OCEAN
A T LA N T I C
O CE A N Christiaan Huygens, an astronomer, discovered
FORMOSA
SINT ARGUIN
DUTCH Saturn’s largest moon in 1655. The following year,
MAARTEN ISLAND
NETHERLANDS INDIA he built the first pendulum clock. Self-taught scientist
GORÉE GOLD COAST DUTCH EAST
ANTILLES SETTLEMENTS
P AC IF I C DUTCH
ISLAND
SÃO TOMÉ CEYLON INDIES Anton von Leeuwenhoek made incredibly accurate
OCEAN GUIANA & PRÍNCIPE microscopes in the 1670s and was the first
DUTCH Recife Luanda Batavia
Key BRAZIL ANGOLA
INDIAN OCEAN person to describe bacteria. A lens was fixed
Dutch possessions or
ST. CAPE
HELENA COLONY MAURITIUS in a hole on a
territory held temporarily
by the Dutch during brass plate.
the 17th century Cape
Town
Simple microscope
Dutch East India
Company headquarters
0 3,000 6,000 km Leeuwenhoek’s tiny
Trade route 0 1,500 3,000 miles device zoomed in
on detail that was
invisible to the
THE DUTCH EMPIRE naked eye.

The Dutch became the leading trading nation by capturing Portuguese forts
in the East Indies (present-day Indonesia) and Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka).
They founded Cape Colony (now in modern-day South Africa) and seized
territories from Spain and Portugal in South America. While the Dutch East The object to
India Company dominated trade in Asia, the Dutch West India Company be viewed was
was set up in 1621 to control trade in the Americas and West Africa. Handle held by a pin.
At the height of its power, the Dutch East India Company
owned more than half of the world’s seagoing ships. 1.3 million The estimated number of paintings produced
by Dutch artists between 1640 and 1660. 117

DUTCH ART
There was a great demand for paintings among
wealthy merchants during this period. Instead of
producing religious paintings, Dutch painters such
as Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, and Frans Hals
developed new styles. They painted portraits and
scenes of everyday life that showed people
working or enjoying themselves.

Making lace
Vermeer specialized in painting domestic scenes such as
this incredibly detailed work called The Lacemaker (1669).

A GROWING CITY Population explosion

Amsterdam was the leading Amsterdam’s growing prosperity and
atmosphere of tolerance attracted
city in Holland (the largest of
large numbers of immigrants. Many
the Dutch Republic’s seven
arrived in the Dutch city to escape
provinces). In the early from religious persecution in their
17th century, three major own country. As a result, Amsterdam’s
canals were built around population soared in the 17th century.
the medieval city centre.
Amsterdam’s wealthiest
inhabitants lived in splendid
houses overlooking these
canals, while new
neighbourhoods were built
around the outskirts of the
city to provide housing for
a growing population.
POPULATION IN 1600 POPULATION IN 1650
60,000 200,000

Ring of canals
This map of 1690 shows the ABOUT 60 PER CENT OF THE
city’s distinctive half-moon DUTCH POPULATION
shape with its network of
canals, which has remained LIVED IN SMALL
largely the same to this day. TOWNS OR CITIES.
118 the age of exploration EDO JAPAN 90 The number of battles fought by Tokugawa
Ieyasu to unify Japan under his rule.

Edo Japan Kabuki theatre Lighting

Theatres were often open all day,
One of the most popular entertainments Extra seating with performances of historical
of Edo Japan was kabuki theatre, a The area above the plays, everyday stories, and dance
In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu, head new style of comic dance-drama, often stage was only used to interludes happening one after the
depicting scenes from daily life. Kabuki seat audience members other. When night fell, performances
of the powerful Tokugawa clan, was livelier than Noh, Japan’s older, when the rest of the continued with torches and lanterns
theatre was full. to light the stage.
became shogun – the supreme more graceful form of theatre. The
colourful, exciting kabuki performances
military ruler of Japan. He brought attracted large crowds of people.
an end to Japan’s internal wars and
moved the capital to Edo, a remote
fishing village that later became
the city of Tokyo.
The Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan in
the name of the emperor for more than
250 years. The third shogun, Tokugawa
Iemitsu, did not trust Europeans and their
Christian religion. He expelled them from
Japan, with the exception of a small Dutch
trading post, and in 1639, he banned
Japanese people from travelling abroad.
The country was cut off from the outside
world until 1868. This period of isolation
was a time of peace and stability, in which
the power of the warrior class known
as the samurai declined. Closed to the
outside world, Japan began a golden age
of prosperity and great cultural activity.

Noisy fans
Spectators clapped loudly
and shouted the names of
their favourite actors.

Top boxes
The wealthiest audience
members occupied the boxes
(masu-seki) at the top of the
theatre, which gave the best
view of the stage.

Costumes
The actors’ brightly
patterned costumes
were not always
easy to wear. They
could weigh as much
as 20 kg (44 lb).

Raised walkway
Actors entered or exited the stage
along a raised walkway called a The audience pit
hanamichi, meaning “flower path”. The cheapest seats were in
The walkway was also used to the pit, which was divided
play out important scenes. into separate square boxes.
15 Tokugawa shoguns ruled over
Japan during the Edo period.
The first kabuki play was performed
in 1603 in the city of Kyoto. 1868 The year the city of
Edo was renamed Tokyo. 119

Roofed stage Art and entertainment

The stage was covered by a roof to
make it seem as if the play was being The wealthy people living in Edo and
performed outside. Kabuki was based other urban centres referred to the
on earlier dance-dramas performed cultural entertainments of the city
in front of temples or shrines. as ukiyo, meaning “floating world”.
Poets, painters, and craftspeople
created works of great elegance
and detail. Art and entertainment
became more affordable and
reached a wider audience. Many
of the important pastimes and
practices recognized today as part Woodblock printing
Artists created simple but beautiful
of traditional Japanese culture
pictures by applying ink to carved wooden
emerged during the Edo period.
blocks and pressing sheets of paper onto
them. This early-19th-century print shows
Mount Fuji, Japan’s most sacred mountain.

Geisha Sumo wrestlers

In Edo Japan, geisha were women Sumo, a form of wrestling, became a
entertainers who danced, sang, and popular entertainment in the Edo period.
played the shamisen, a traditional The first professional sumo wrestlers
stringed instrument. They wore colourful were often former samurai warriors
kimonos (robes) and elaborate make-up. who needed a new source of income.

Stage scenery
The portable
scenery (kakiwari)
was hand-drawn.
Platform
Stage

Stagehands
were always Rope passed
dressed in black under platform

Stage machinery
Kabuki actors An actor stood on a platform to
Revolving stage Male actors played both make a dramatic entrance onto,
The stage had a revolving male and female parts. This or disappearance from, the stage.
mechanism for rapid tradition has been maintained The platform was raised or lowered
scene changes. to the present day. by stagehands working below.
120 the age of exploration THE ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The Atlantic THE SLAVE TRIANGLE

slave trade
The slave trade involved Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
European traders shipped goods such as cotton cloth
to West Africa in exchange for slaves. The ships then
crossed the Atlantic, where merchants sold their
Between the 16th and 19th centuries, about human cargo at a profit before returning to Europe
12 million Africans were bought as goods, packed into laden with goods such as sugar and coffee to sell.
ships, and sent across the Atlantic to the Americas,
where they were sold as slaves.
EUROPE
ucts
prod
The settlement of the Americas in the 16th century by Europeans tation
n
led to the growth of the African slave trade. The purpose of Pla

ds
N ORT H

goo
this trade was to give settlers an endless supply of free labour AMERICA

Manufactured
ATLANTIC
by forcibly uprooting men, women, and children from their
OCEAN
homes and resettling them on the other side of the world.
The vast majority of the slaves were taken from western We s
AFRIC A
t Indies
Africa. Many died on the terrible journey across the Atlantic,
and those that survived were sold at auction houses. Slaves En
sla
were the legal property of their owners, and the majority of ve
dA
fric
the slaves were forced to work on plantations (large estates SOU T H a ns
growing crops such as cotton). It was not until the end of the 0 2,000 km AMERICA
19th century that the slave trade was abolished. 0 1,000 miles

FOR SALE
On reaching the Americas, the
slaves were immediately sold
in auctions. Families and friends
who had managed to stay together
on the long journey from Africa
were often separated, never to
see each other again – the highest
bidder did not always want to
buy the entire family. In a system
known as a “scramble”, some
buyers paid the captain a fixed
sum beforehand. As soon as the
gates were opened, they rushed
in to grab the slaves they wanted.
Once purchased, the slaves were
given new names and had to learn
a new language. Forced to work
long hours, a third of all slaves died
within three years of their arrival,
fuelling the demand for more.

A slave auction
Plantation owners preferred young,
healthy men who could work long
hours. They fetched a higher price
than women and children.

IN 1860, ON THE
EVE OF THE
US CIVIL WAR,
THERE WERE 4 MILLION
AFRICAN AMERICANS
IN SLAVERY.
18 The estimated number of hours a slave was
made to work during the harvest period. 100,000 The number of slaves shipped from Africa to the
Americas each year in the late 18th century. 121

Slave forts The Middle Passage

Some African rulers became wealthy from the The voyage from Africa to
trade in slaves. They sent raiding parties far the West Indies and North
inland to seize people, marching them to slave America was known as the
forts built by European trading companies on the 48% Portugal Middle Passage. To maximize
profits, up to 600 slaves
West African coast. The captives were held in 26% Great were crammed into tiny
cells until the arrival of the next slave ship. Britain spaces below deck. The men
were chained to prevent
them from rebelling. Food
and water were scarce, and
there was no sanitation on
1% a voyage that lasted up to
Denmark 10 weeks. Many slaves
2% US 8% Spain 11% France died on the voyage.

4% The Dutch Republic

Slave-trading nations
By the mid-16th century, Portugal and Spain The lack of space
were sending slaves across the Atlantic to meant that slaves had
their colonies in Brazil and the Caribbean. to lie on their backs.
In 1713, Britain won a 30-year contract to
supply slaves to Spain’s colonies, and by the A slave ship
Cape Coast Castle mid-18th century nearly 75 per cent of all This illustration shows the
This slave fort in Ghana was used by British traders slaves sent across the Atlantic were carried interior of the 18th-century
in the 18th century. Its cells held up to 1,500 slaves. in Portuguese or British ships. British slave ship Brookes.

LIFE IN CHAINS
Most of the Africans shipped to
the West Indies or North America
ended up working on plantations.
White overseers (supervisors)
ANKLE SHACKLES
hired by the plantation owners
would whip them if they did not
work hard enough, or shackle
them if they tried to escape.
Slaves had no legal rights, and
many were branded with their
owner’s mark. Any child born to
an enslaved mother was legally a
slave for life, and even old people
were expected to work.

BRANDING IRON WHIP

ABOLITION
The Quakers (members of a
Christian group) led the first
protests against slavery in
North America and Britain.
After a 20-year campaign,
William Wilberforce, a British
politician, helped bring about
the end of British involvement
in the Atlantic slave trade in
1807, but slave ownership
remained legal in British
colonies until 1834. The
publication of the anti-slavery
novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin by
Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852
boosted calls for the abolition
of slavery in the US. This came
Road to freedom
about in 1865 when the US
Harriet Tubman, a former slave (seen here on the far left),
government passed the 13th led more than 300 slaves to freedom along the Underground
Amendment – a law making the Railroad. This was a network of secret escape routes and safe
practice of slavery illegal. houses organized by abolitionists in the early 19th century.
Absolute
monarchs
In 17th- and 18th-century Europe,
many nations’ rulers were absolute
monarchs. This meant they were
in total control of their states and
empires, making the laws and
deciding when to go to war.
These rulers believed that their authority
came from God, not from their subjects,
and therefore they had a divine right
to rule. As absolute monarchs, they were
free to act as they wished, and didn’t
have to obey their own laws – everyone
else had to obey their decisions. The
rulers lived in splendid palaces and filled
their royal courts with nobility.

1682
King Louis XIV of France
made the Palace of 1703
Versailles outside Paris Tsar Peter I of Russia,
his principal residence. known as Peter the
Louis had ordered the Great, created a new
original chateau to be capital city, which he
enlarged and expanded named St. Petersburg
over the previous two after his patron saint.
decades into a complex
that could accommodate
1721
his entire government.
Peter the Great of Russia
won the Great Northern
1740
War against Sweden.
Frederick II, later
This victory made the
known as Frederick the
Russian Empire a major
Great, became king of
power in Europe.
Prussia, a German state.
His wars with Austria
and several Polish 1764
states doubled the size Catherine II of Russia,
of Prussia, but he known as Catherine the
also reformed the Great, had a new wing
government and was a built in the Winter
great patron of the arts. Palace in St. Petersburg
to house her vast
1772 collection of paintings
The rulers of Russia, and porcelain. Today,
Austria, and Prussia it forms part of the
divided a third of Hermitage Museum.
Poland’s land between
themselves in the First 1783
Partition of Poland. Catherine the Great
expanded the Russian
1789 Empire southward to
Poor people in France, the Crimea, a peninsula
resentful of the luxuries in eastern Europe, to
enjoyed by the royalty give Russia a port on
and nobility, began a the Black Sea.
revolution that brought
an end to the monarchy.
The French Revolution
triggered the decline of
absolute monarchy
in Europe.

At the court of King Louis XIV of France

King Louis XIV moved his entire court to the
Palace of Versailles, insisting that his nobles live
there, too. The vast palace contained more than
700 rooms, 1,200 fireplaces, and 67 staircases.
THE AGE OF REVOLUTION
In the mid-18th century, new technological innovations and
revolutionary ideas began to transform the world. The Industrial
Revolution spread from Britain, changing how people lived and
worked. Struggles for independence in North and South America
inspired revolutions in Europe. New ideas about nationhood led
to European expansion across Africa, South Asia, and the Pacific.
126 the age of revolution TIMELINE OF THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

ZULU
SHIELD 1879: The Anglo-Zulu War 1888: The Benz Patent-Motorwagen
Fought between the British and After German inventor Karl Benz
the Zulu Kingdom, the six-month designed his petrol-powered
Anglo-Zulu War ended in a British automobile, his wife and business
victory. The British made the Zulu partner Bertha Benz generated
lands into a colony. publicity for the car by driving it
106 km (66 miles) across Germany.
BENZ PATENT-MOTORWAGEN

1871: The Unification 1861–1865: The US Civil War

of Germany The US was torn apart by a
King William I of Prussia bitter civil war in which states
became the first emperor of a in the North and South fought
united Germany. In the same each other over the enslavement
year, the states of Italy also of African Americans and the
united into a single nation. rights of individual states.

CIVIL WAR NAPOLEON GUN

Timeline of the
age of revolution 1821–1830: The Greek War of Independence
The Greeks fought to free themselves from
After the American War of Independence, ideals the rule of the Ottoman Empire. With the
assistance of Britain, France, and Russia,
of freedom and equality were taken up by groups Greece won the war in 1830, and became an
all over the world. At the same time, the Industrial independent state in 1832.

Revolution transformed everyday life, as people GREEK GENERAL

THEODOROS KOLOKOTRONIS
moved from the countryside to work in factories. SIMÓN
BOLÍVAR
The people of South America liberated their continent from
Spanish and Portuguese rule. In Europe, the French monarchy
was abolished, the Greeks won independence, and Germany and
Italy both unified into single nations. But countries old and new
still looked to increase their territory, using new technology to
achieve their aims. The US spread westward, causing conflict with 1810–1825: South American Wars
Native Americans. Most of Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, The struggle to end 300 years of
Spanish and Portuguese rule in South
and the Pacific Islands were colonized by European powers. America was led by revolutionaries
such as Simón Bolívar. By 1825, all
of Spain’s colonies except Cuba and
Puerto Rico had been liberated, while
Portugal lost control of Brazil.

1756–1763: The Seven Years’ War 1765: Steam power

Fought across five continents, the Seven Scottish engineer James Watt
Years’ War was the first wide-scale global developed a steam engine that was
conflict. Britain and France struggled for more efficient than previous models.
colonial supremacy in North America and Watt’s steam engine provided the
India, while the ongoing tensions between power needed to run factory machines
Prussia (in modern-day Germany) and on a massive scale, beginning the
PRUSSIAN KING
FREDERICK II’S MILITARY COAT
Russia drew in allies on both sides. JAMES WATT’S STEAM ENGINE
Industrial Revolution.
 127

1890: The Battle of Wounded Knee 1892–1954: Ellis Island

With millions of people from THE 1903 WRIGHT FLYER
The Battle of Wounded Knee was
the last major conflict between US around the world travelling to
soldiers and Native Americans. the US to live, Ellis Island in 1903: The first powered flight
It ended in the massacre of up to Upper New York Bay served In North Carolina in the US, aviation
200 Sioux – members of the largest as a centre for processing and pioneers the Wright Brothers designed
NATIVE AMERICAN Native American group living on managing new arrivals. the first successful powered aircraft,
GHOST DANCE SHIRT flying it four times in a single day.
the northern plains. STATUE OF LIBERTY

1865: Lister’s antiseptics 1858–1947: British Raj

British surgeon Joseph Lister began to Britain took control of India in a
use antiseptic substances on surgical period known as the British Raj.
instruments, open wounds, and The British built railways and
dressings. The antiseptics destroyed schools, but they also denied local
germs and prevented infection from rulers and people a share in
spreading. The death rate at his political power.
SURGICAL TOOLS
hospital fell by two-thirds.
BRITISH-BUILT INDIAN TRAIN

1829: Revolutionary engine 1836: The Oregon Trail

In England, trials were held to In the 19th century,
decide which steam engines would be thousands of US settlers
used on the Liverpool and Manchester headed west in search of new
Railway – the world’s first inter-city line. land to farm. They set out in wagons
Reaching a record speed of 47 km/h along the Oregon Trail, with the first
(29 mph), Robert Stephenson’s settlers arriving in Oregon in 1836.
Rocket won the trials. COVERED WAGON
STEPHENSON’S ROCKET

1803–1815: The Napoleonic Wars 1789–1799: The French Revolution

For more than a decade, the newly created Anger against the monarchy and
NAPOLEONIC republic of France was at war with much of nobility boiled over into revolution in
PISTOL
the rest of Europe. Under the leadership France. The king, and later many
of the ambitious French emperor Napoleon nobles and anyone labelled as an
Bonaparte, a series of victories brought “enemy of the revolution” were
much of Europe under French control. executed by guillotine.

GUILLOTINE

1775–1783: The American 1788: The First Fleet

War of Independence The first British colonists arrived in
Angered by rising taxes, the 13 British Australia on the ships of the First
colonies of North America rebelled Fleet. They were mostly convicts –
against British rule. The war ended sent to Australia to serve out their
with a victory for the colonists, sentences – and their guards. They
creating the United States of America. established the first colony at Sydney.
COLONIAL ARMY
KNAPSACK HMS SIRIUS OF THE FIRST FLEET
128 the age of revolution THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR

The Seven THE WAR IN EUROPE

Years’ War
In 1740, Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia (then part
of Austria). Backed by France and Russia, Austria wanted to
regain control of Silesia, and when the Prussian king marched
his troops into Saxony (an Austrian ally) in 1756, it signalled
Fought between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years’ War the start of the Seven Years’ War. During the conflict, both
was the first global conflict. It involved every major sides experienced triumphs as well as heavy losses.
European power of the time, with the fighting taking
place in the Americas, Africa, and Asia as well as Europe.
In the early 18th century, France and Britain were constantly
trying to seize each other’s colonial territories in North America,
the Caribbean, and India. When, in 1756, growing tensions
between the major powers in Europe erupted into war, Britain
supported the north German kingdom of Prussia, while France
(previously an ally of Prussia) switched its allegiance to Austria.
The stage was set for the fighting to spread to different parts
of the world. In some countries the war is known by different
names – in the US, the colonial conflict is known as the
Battle of Rossbach
French and Indian War. At the Battle of Rossbach (1757), Frederick II led his troops to his greatest
tactical victory, defeating the much larger French-Austrian force.

WAR IN NORTH AMERICA

France and Britain had already been
fighting each other for two years before
the main war began in Europe in 1756.
Both sides had Native American allies,
and most of the fighting took place in
New France (the name given to France’s
North American territories).

E URO PE
George Washington
N ORT H
The commander of the British AMERIC A
colonial army in Virginia
was George Washington
(who later became the first
president of the US). In 1754,
he led an ambush against
the French at Fort Duquesne,
triggering the French and
AF RIC A
Indian War.

Key battles
In 1759, British General James Wolfe sailed
his army down the St. Lawrence River to seize
the French fortress of Québec. The following year,
Britain defeated the French at Montreal. Nearly SOUT H
all of France’s North American territories were AM ERIC A

now in the hands of British forces.

GLOBAL CONFLICT
Fighting in the Seven Years’ War
took place across five continents.
Outside the main European
conflict, it gave rise to a number Key
of smaller conflicts, such as the Austria, Russia, France, and Spain
Fantastic War (1762–1763) with allies

Battle for Québec between Spain and Britain’s Prussia, Britain, and Portugal
A small British force crossed the St. Lawrence River long-time ally, Portugal. with allies
to take the defenders of Québec by surprise.
186 The number of troops led by George Washington
on his expedition to Fort Duquesne in 1754.
The end of French power in India marked the rise of British
influence in India, which lasted for nearly 200 years. 129

Warring monarchs EUROPEAN ARMIES

The war in Europe was shaped by the ruling monarchs of the time. The sizes of the armies involved in the conflict are
A brilliant military leader, Frederick II was crowned king of Prussia
shown here. Helped by British forces, Frederick II
in 1740, the same year that Maria Theresa became ruler of Austria,
battled against the combined forces of Russia,
while Peter III succeeded as tsar (emperor) of Russia in 1762.
Austria, and France.

RUSSIA AUSTRIA FRANCE PRUSSIA BRITAIN

333,000 201,000 200,000 145,000 90,000

COLONIAL RIVALS
Frederick II Maria Theresa Peter and Catherine The colonial rivalry between Britain and France spread
Within months of becoming Austria’s Maria Theresa On becoming tsar, Peter III the war around the world. In India, Britain won the
king, Frederick II set about was only 23 when she made peace with Prussia, battle of Plassey in 1757 against the ruler of Bengal
transforming his small came to the throne. bringing the war to an end.
(a French ally) and, in 1761, seized the key French port
kingdom into a major Although she made her His wife, Catherine the Great,
of Pondicherry. Britain also captured French bases in
military power. He reformed husband Emperor Francis I led a plot to get rid of him
his army, and often led his co-ruler, she guided and ruled Russia alone for West Africa and the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe
troops into battle. Austria’s foreign policy. the next 34 years. and Martinique. With Spain’s entry into the war on the
French side in 1761, fighting spread to the Spanish
colonies in the Philippines, Cuba, and South America.

ASIA

Battle of Plassey
Despite being outnumbered by six to one,
the British force defeated a French-backed
Indian army at the Battle of Plassey.

PEACE TREATIES
By 1763, all sides
wanted to stop fighting.
The Treaty of Paris made
peace between Britain
and France and their
allies, while the Treaty of
Hubertusburg ended the
war between Prussia and
Austria. In Europe, Prussia
was left in possession of
The total number of deaths Silesia. Britain took
in the Seven Years’ War control of French North
is estimated at between America and gained
900,000 and colonies in India and the
Caribbean, making Britain
1.4 million.
The Treaty of Paris
the world’s leading France, Britain, and Spain
colonial empire. signed the Treaty of
Paris in 1763.
130 the age of revolution THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial
Changing landscape
The industrial age changed the landscape forever as
mills and factories were built, and coal was mined

Revolution on a much larger scale. Cramped streets of houses

sprang up around the new workplaces, while tall
factory chimneys pumped filthy smoke into the
atmosphere. A network of canals and locks linked
Pollution
Burning coal to power
the steam engines
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid the industrial centres to trading ports and cities. created pollution in the
economic and social change, beginning in Britain new industrial towns.

in the mid-19th century and spreading to Europe Wheel power

The winding wheel hoisted
and the US. The process of industrialization saw the basket that carried
miners and coal carts up
people move from farming jobs in the countryside and down the shaft.
to find work in new factories, mines, and mills.
A number of technological inventions brought about the
revolution. Improvements in agriculture made it possible
to produce more food to feed a growing population, but
they also meant that fewer farm workers were needed
to work on the land. New industrial technologies also
allowed items such as cloth, pottery, and tools to be
mass-produced in factories. The wealthy were eager
to buy machine-made goods and to invest in new
industrial businesses, and their money drove the
revolution forwards.

Wooden carts
Coal was loaded onto
shallow wooden carts
with iron wheels.

Upcast shaft
Coal was hoisted to
the surface through
upcast shafts.

Steam engine
In 1712, Thomas Newcomen designed
a steam engine to pump floodwater out
of mines. James Watt’s design of 1765
(shown above) transformed the jerky
up-and-down action of Newcomen’s
engine into a smooth, efficient motion Furnace
that turned a wheel. Watt’s improved The furnace ventilated
steam engine was quickly put to use, the mine and removed
driving machines in factories and mills. poisonous gases.

Pit props
Wooden pit props
Child labour stopped the mine
Poor families could not afford from collapsing.
to send their children to school,
so children as young as five
worked in mines and factories.
Their small fingers made them
good at fiddly jobs and they Downcast shaft Horses
could squeeze their bodies into A second shaft was used Horses and pit
tight spaces. But accidents were to winch workers down in ponies were used to
frequent, causing terrible a large wicker basket pull small wooden
injuries and even death. called a corf. carts underground.
500 The estimated number of steam engines in
use in British mines and factories by 1800. 100,000 km (60,000 miles) of thread could be produced in a
12-hour shift using a single 100-horsepower engine. 131

Canal barge Textile mill

New networks of canals New machines that increased
allowed goods to be the production rate of cloth
transported from mills in the 1770s led to the
and factories straight to creation of large textile mills.
large towns, where they
were sold in shops.

Working in the mills

Mill owners tended to employ
women and children because they
could be paid less than men. It was
hard work keeping the fast-moving
machines running. A moment’s
carelessness, and a mill worker might
easily lose a finger – or worse.

Railway bridge
The development of the railways
led to great feats of engineering
as tracks were laid and viaducts,
bridges, and tunnels were built.

Steam train
By the 1850s, railways had
replaced canals as the principal
means of transport in England,
with steam locomotives hauling
long lines of trucks.

Workers’ cottages
Factory and mine owners housed
their workers in rows of cheaply
built homes. Many were not provided
with clean water or proper sewage
systems, so disease was rampant.

Coalface
Miners dug their way
horizontally along a coal
seam, hacking away at the
coalface with pickaxes.

Railways
By the early 19th century, locomotives – steam engines
that moved – were being used to pull heavy loads in mines Chimney
and quarries. One of the pioneers of steam locomotion was
George Stephenson. In 1825, he oversaw construction of
the world’s first public railway, which ran between the
towns of Stockton and Darlington in the north of England.
Boiler
Driver
Water Coal stood
barrel box here

Shallow coal seam

Smaller seams did not have The Rocket
tracks or horses so women
Stephenson’s
and children, crawling on
most famous
all fours, hauled the coal.
locomotive was
Trappers the Rocket, which
Trapdoors kept air flowing through reached a record
the mine. They were opened and shut speed of 47 km/h
by young children called trappers. (29 mph) in 1829.
American
independence
In the late 18th century, people
living in the British colonies on
the east coast of North America
demanded an end to British rule,
and set about creating their own
independent nation.
The colonists were angered by the taxes
imposed on them by the distant governing
body – the British parliament – without
their consent. Riots turned to war as the
Americans fought for independence.
Eventually, the British were defeated
and forced to withdraw, leading to the
establishment of a new nation – the
United States of America.

1764
The British
enforced a tax on
sugar coming into 1765
the colonies. The Stamp Act was
passed by the British
parliament. This
imposed a tax on
all legal documents,
1770
books, and newspapers
During a protest in
used by the colonists.
Boston, Massachusetts,
British soldiers fired
on rioters, killing five 1773
of them. Colonists protesting
against favourable
taxation treatment for
British-imported tea,
1775 threw a shipment of tea
Colonial armies defeated into Boston Harbor, an
British forces at the event known as the
battles of Lexington and Boston Tea Party.
Concord, Massachusetts,
starting the American 1776
War of Independence. On 4 July, representatives
of the 13 colonies in
Congress adopted the
Declaration of
1778 Independence, which
France declared war set out the reasons for
on Britain in support ending British rule.
of the Americans.
Soon afterwards, Spain
joined the alliance 1781
against Britain. The surrender by the
British at Yorktown,
Virginia, brought the
War of Independence
1783
to an end.
Britain signed the
Treaty of Paris, confirming
the independence of the
United States of America.

The Declaration of Independence

Thomas Jefferson, a lawyer who later
became the third US president, was
responsible for writing most of the
Declaration of Independence. He is
shown here presenting the first draft
to Congress in June 1776.
134 the age of revolution THE EXPANSION OF THE US

Wagon train Families on the trail

For safety, settlers travelled Whole families of pioneers
Forced removal together in long lines, or made the journey. Young
To make room for settlers, the Indian trains, each with about 30 children, the sick, and the
Removal Act of 1830 forced the Cherokee wagons. Sometimes there very old rode on the wagon.
and other Native American nations to leave were as many as 200 wagons.
their lands in the southeast and relocate in
Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.

Trail of tears
The march west was so terrible, the Cherokee
named it “the trail of tears”. Thousands of
Cherokees died of disease or starvation.

Californian Gold Rush

In 1848, news spread that gold had been
discovered in California, a remote, unpopulated
area on the west coast. Within five years, Wooden wheels
250,000 immigrants arrived there from all Wheels were made of wood with a
over the world in the hope of finding gold. thin rim of iron to prevent wear.
Even today, their tracks are Iron axles
evident along parts of the trail. The axles were made
of iron to withstand
the heavy jolting over
rough terrain.

Expanding the frontier

Between 1780 and 1850, the US frontier was pushed west
across the continent from the original 13 colonies on the
east coast. Territory was acquired through various purchases,
treaties, and wars. In 1803, France sold its vast territory in the
Midwest, known as the Louisiana Purchase. Other territories
Come to California! were gained from Spain, Great Britain, and Mexico.
Posters and advertisements encouraged settlers
to try their luck in the goldfields of California.
O R EG O N CO U N T RY
( T R E AT Y W I T H G R E AT B R I TA I N )
1846 C E D E D BY G R E AT B R I TA I N
1818
Land incentive C E D E D BY G RE AT BRI TAI N
184 2
In 1862, to help push the westward O re go n C i t y
expansion, the US government offered M issouri
Americans a free plot of land in the west BOUG H T Mi
F ROM F R ANCE ss
if they lived on it for at least five years. ( LOUIS IANA PURCH A S E )
iss

1803
ipp
i

Or
eg
io

EAN

on
Oh

Tra
CED ED BY il
MEX ICO U N ITED STATES
TIC OC

I n d e p e n d e n ce,
1848 BY 1800
PACIFI

M i ss o u r i
LAN

A N N E X E D BY
C O

U N I T E D STAT E S
TE XA S 1810 1813
AT

ANNE XE D
CEA

F ROM M E XICO
G A DS D E N 1845
P U RC HA S E FLO RI DA
N

1853 CED ED BY SPA I N

C E D E D BY 1819
A new life S PA I N
0 500 1,000 km 1818
For some freed slaves the offer of a plot of
ex ico
land was one of the few ways they could 0 250 500 miles f M
Gulf o
make a new life for themselves.
The first large wagon train to Oregon in 1843
included more than 100 wagons and 1,000 settlers. c.80,000 The number of gold seekers who
headed to California in 1848.
Between 1800 and 1900, the population of the
US increased from about 5 million to 76 million. 135

The expansion
Food and supplies
The wagons were packed
with food to last the
journey, as well as guns and
tools, and a few treasured
items from home.
Prairie schooner
The covered wagons were
known as prairie schooners
because their shape
of the US
resembled a sailing ship After gaining independence in 1783, the US
(schooner) in full sail.
began to expand its territory west and south
from the original 13 colonies on the east coast.
Within 70 years, the young nation had taken
possession of vast areas of North America.
Many Americans believed that it was part of their
destiny to settle new lands for wheat farming and
cattle ranching. The expansion west was further
fuelled by the discovery of gold in California in 1848,
which also brought thousands of immigrants from
around the world. But as settlers spread westward,
they came into conflict with the Native Americans,
removing them from their traditional lands and
forcing them into reserves.

Canvas cover
The canvas cover was
waterproofed and supported
on a hooped wooden frame.
In bad weather, both ends
were pulled close.

Hardwood
brakes

Water barrel
Barrels fixed to the
side of the wagon held
enough water for up
to two days.

Front wheels
The front wheels were
smaller than those at the
back, making it easier to
steer the wagon.

The Oregon Trail

Lured by the prospect of free land and a better
life, many families sold everything they owned
in search of new opportunities in Oregon Country Travelling on foot Oxen team
(the present-day states of Oregon, Washington, To reduce the weight of Oxen usually pulled
and Idaho). They made the perilous journey along the wagons, most men and the wagons as they were
women walked the trail. cheaper, stronger, and easier
the Oregon Trail in covered wagons – a journey
to work than horses.
that stretched about 3,200 km (2,000 miles)
from Missouri to Oregon.
136 the age of revolution COLONIZING AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC

Colonizing EUROPEAN
EXPLORERS
Australia and
Mariana
Islands
Willem Janszoon, a Dutch PHILIPPINES
explorer, was the first recorded M i c r o n e s i a Marshall

the Pacific
European to land with his crew Islands
in Australia in 1606. Spanish Borneo
and Portuguese explorers soon
New
From the 17th century to the 19th century, followed. Another Dutch Guinea Tuvalu
Solomon
explorer, Abel Tasman, sailed Islands
European nations expanded their presence to, and charted, the island that
Samoa
Fiji
in the Pacific Ocean. is now called Tasmania. Over a Vanuatu

century later, British explorer Tonga

Explorers, mapmakers, and merchants set sail to New
and mapmaker Captain James AUSTRALIA Caledonia
look for new trading opportunities and build new Cook embarked on a voyage
seaports. They explored and charted Australia, New that took him along the eastern
Zealand, and the many Pacific islands. Throughout coasts of Australia and New
the region, governments, merchants, and missionaries Zealand. On later expeditions,
set up colonies. Early colonists came into contact he charted the Hawaiian coasts
and areas of the Pacific Ocean Tasmania
with indigenous people and claimed their land. NEW
and Antarctica.
European diseases spread throughout the local ZEALAND
populations, and violent conflicts broke out over
land ownership and local tribal rights.
0 2,000 4,000 km

0 1,000 2,000 miles

AUSTRALIA Prisoner colonies

The Aborigine people had lived in Australia Most of the early colonists sent to
for more than 50,000 years before the Australia against their will were
British started colonizing the coastline in convicted criminals. They worked the
land, built roads and settlements, and
the late 18th century. At first, the local
prepared the new colonies for future
Aborigines were welcoming. However,
settlers. The convicts became skilled
as more land was taken away from them, in many trades, from farming and
fighting broke out, and tens of thousands shepherding to shoemaking and
of Aborigines died in the clashes. By the tailoring. Many finished their prison
early 19th century, British settlements sentences in Australia and received
had spread all along the coast. In 1827, Certificates of Freedom, allowing
Britain laid claim to all of Australia. them to marry and buy land.

Unfamiliar animals
Many Australian animals, especially marsupials Sydney settlement, 1788
such as kangaroos and wallabies, were unknown The first British colony was
to Europeans. Explorers described them as a established in Port Jackson in 1788
combination of cats, apes, meerkats, snakes, rats, and was named Sydney, after the
and squirrels. Some of the first explorers, curious British Home Secretary Lord Sydney.
about how they tasted, hunted the local wildlife.

Gold rush
In 1851, gold was discovered in
New South Wales (southeastern
Australia), leading to a gold rush.
Ships arrived from Britain,
Europe, the US, and China,
loaded with passengers hoping
to mine and sell the gold to
become rich. Within 10 years,
gold had also been discovered
in neighbouring states Victoria
and Queensland, and the
number of colonists there
doubled from 450,000
Latrobe gold nugget
to more than 1 million.
Kangaroo Discovered in 1853, the Latrobe
British artist George Stubbs was one of the first Nugget was one of the largest
people to paint a kangaroo in 1772. He based his clusters of cubic gold ever
artwork on sketches brought back by explorers. found, weighing 717 g (25 oz).
 1803 The year British navigator Matthew Flinders became the first
European to sail with his crew all the way around Australia. c.160,000 The number of criminals that were sent
to Australia between 1788 and 1850. 137

Hawaii
EFFECT ON INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
The number of British and European colonists that arrived
in Australia and New Zealand rose sharply from the early
19th century. As the colonist numbers grew, indigenous
PACIFIC populations fell. Colonists unintentionally spread diseases,
OCEAN such as influenza, smallpox, and measles, killing many
Galapagos
K i r i b a Islands indigenous peoples. Colonists also claimed land, and this
t i SOUTH led to violent clashes and further declines in populations.
Marquesas AMERICA
Islands
Society
Islands 85.1% Non-indigenous 85.1% Non-indigenous
Niue Tahiti
Cook 14.9% Maori 3.4% Aboriginal
Islands Gambier
Islands Easter
Island

Key
Ferdinand Magellan 1520–1521 Falkland
Willem Janszoon 1605–1606
Islands
Abel Tasman 1642–1644
James Cook 1768–1771
Matthew Flinders 1802–1803
NEW ZEALAND AUSTRALIA
POPULATION IN 2013 POPULATION IN 2016

NEW ZEALAND AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS Missionaries

The indigenous Polynesians were living on the Pacific islands for more than Christian missionaries played an important role in the relations
between colonists and local tribes across the Pacific islands, and
3,000 years and the Maoris were living on New Zealand since the 13th century
they provided education and medical support. In New Zealand,
before European explorers arrived. After the explorers Tasman and Cook visited
they taught the Maori tribes how to read and helped them to
New Zealand, European whalers, missionaries, and traders came to the region. create a written Maori language.
British colonists eventually settled on the islands in 1840 after agreements were
made with the Maoris. Over the next 50 years, other islands in the Pacific
were claimed by representatives from Britain, France, Germany, and the US.

Christianity reaches Hawaii

In the 1820s, the people of Hawaii started to convert
to Christianity as missionaries arrived from the US.

Whaling
In the late 18th century,
European whalers hunted
many whale species that
migrated through New
Zealand seas, trading their
meat and blubber. Whaling
stations and posts were set
up throughout the region.

Maoris and Europeans The Treaty of Waitangi

On 6 February, 1840, the
Europeans first arrived in New Zealand in the mid-17th South Sea whaling
British leaders and Maori
century. For the next 200 years, the indigenous Maori Whaling boats needed
chiefs signed the Treaty of
tribes fought against – but also sometimes traded Waitangi. This gave Britain large crews and the
with – the European settlers. Maoris traded their the right to buy land in whaling industry
potatoes, figs, and flax for European guns. New Zealand. employed many Maoris.
 the age of revolution
The guillotine was nicknamed
138 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION the National Razor.

The guillotine Guillotine blade

Louis XVI Introduced into France in 1792, A sharp, heavy steel blade
In 1791, both Louis XVI and Marie the guillotine was designed so dropped onto the victim’s neck,
Antoinette tried to escape from France that criminals could be executed severing the head from the body.
but were caught. Taken back to Paris as painlessly as possible. The
and imprisoned, the king was executed device was named after the
for treason in 1793 by guillotine. humane doctor, Joseph-Ignace
Guillotin, who proposed its use.
Previous methods of execution
were far more brutal and horrific.
Basket
The victim’s
head was
caught in a
plain woven
Public basket.
executioner

French Wooden
tricolour flag scaffolding
Coach
The king was taken to his
execution in a coach – other
prisoners would have been
transported on a cart.

City square
Guillotines were set up in city squares.
In Paris, Place de la Révolution (Revolution
Square), now named Place de la Concorde,
was the scene of many executions.
Women were very active during the The French revolutionaries used the The tricolour French flag was first
revolution and led many of the marches. slogan: “liberty, equality, fraternity”. used during the French Revolution. 139

The French
Storming of
“The king must die, so that the
the Bastille
country can live.” On 14 July, 1789,

Maximilien Robespierre, 1792

End of a king
Revolution about 600 people
attacked the Bastille,
a medieval fortress in
Paris. It was used as a
Violent riots in Paris in the summer of 1789
Up to 20,000 people gathered prison and symbolized
to watch the beheading of marked the start of the French Revolution, royal authority. The
the former king Louis XVI on and led, three years later, to the execution rioters freed the
21 January, 1793. Nine months seven prisoners held
later, Marie Antoinette was
of King Louis XVI. inside, and seized the
executed during the Reign of weapons and gunpowder, marking
Like many European countries in the 18th century,
Terror, a period when people the start of the revolution. The storming
labelled enemies of the
France was an absolute monarchy. The king, who of the Bastille prison on 14 July is still
revolution were tried and ruled with the aid of a small group of privileged observed as France’s national day.
sentenced to death. Between aristocrats, had complete power over his subjects.
18,000 and 40,000 people are A series of poor harvests and rising food prices
estimated to have died during meant that thousands of people were starving
the terror campaign. throughout the country, especially in Paris. Anger Robespierre
and resentment against the king, and his queen, French lawyer
Maximilien de
Marie Antoinette, boiled over into revolution, Robespierre emerged
changing France and Europe forever. as a champion of the
poor and supporter of
Red bonnet
human rights. But the
A red cap decorated
with a tricolour
extreme measures he
badge was worn as a took against fellow
symbol of revolution. revolutionaries he
regarded as political
enemies unleashed the Reign of Terror.
Robespierre himself was executed by
guillotine in July 1794.

Rights of Man
The Declaration of
the Rights of Man
and the Citizen,
published in 1789,
was an important
document that set
out the aims of the
new revolutionary
government. Although
there was no mention
of the rights of women,
the document stated
that all men were
equal under the law, and that people
should be allowed to govern themselves.

Sans-culottes
The Paris revolutionaries were called
san-culottes (no shorts) because they
wore loose trousers. Only wealthy
men wore silk breeches.

Tricoteuses
The market women of Paris
took an active part in the riots
against the king and queen.
During the Reign of Terror,
a group would sit and watch
the public executions. They
National guardsmen were known as the Tricoteuses
The National Guard was a citizens’ (knitting women) because they
army set up to enforce law and knitted red bonnets for the
order after the revolution. revolutionaries as they waited
to heckle the victims.
 the age of revolution
At the height of France’s conquests, more than
140 THE NAPOLEONIC WARS 44 million subjects lived under French rule.

The Napoleonic Wars The Battle of Austerlitz

On 2 December, 1805, Napoleon’s army
Napoleon Bonaparte was a brilliant soldier who made himself had one of its greatest victories when it
defeated the armies of Austria and Russia
Emperor of France. From 1803 to 1815, he led France in the at Austerlitz in present-day Czech Republic.
Napoleonic Wars, which spread French power throughout Europe. Napoleon is seen here (to the right, on the
grey horse) after the battle.
The Napoleonic Wars were the continuation of the French Revolutionary
Wars of 1792–1802. These were fought between the new French Republic,
which wanted to revolutionize Europe, and major monarchies (mainly
Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia), which wanted to end the French
Revolution and bring back the king. In 1802, Britain and France signed
a treaty to end the conflict. Both sides failed to keep the peace and the
Napoleonic Wars began in 1803. Napoleon, who was by this time sole
ruler of France, led the French army in a series of triumphant
campaigns to conquer much of Europe.

KINGDOM
OF NORWAY Borodino
Key (1812)
KINGDOM

RUS
Extent of French Empire OF SWEDEN
in 1812
French-dependent states
North
KINGDOM OF
Sea

SIA
in 1812 DENMARK
French allies in 1812 USSIA
Lübeck F PR

N E
(1806) O MO
Battle D
BRITAIN NG GRAND
KI
Jena–
DUCHY OF
WARSAW
M
PI
Leipzig
Waterloo Auerstädt (1813) RE
(1815) (1806)
Ligny CONFEDERATION
Austerlitz
AT LA N T I C (1815) OF THE
RHINE (1805)
OCEAN AUSTRIAN
FRENCH SWITZERLAND ILL
EMPIRE
EMPIRE
YR

KINGDOM
IAN

OF ITALY
PR

Vitoria OTTOMAN
OV

IN
(1813) Elba CE
PORTUGAL S EMPIRE
Salamanca
(1812) Corsica
Bussaco KINGDOM
(1810) KINGDOM OF NAPLES
KINGDOM
OF SPAIN OF SARDINIA
KINGDOM
OF SICILY
i t e r r a n e
M e d
0 250 500 km
Trafalgar a
(1805) n 0 125 250 miles
S e a

Europe under Napoleon

Napoleon changed the map of Europe. He joined the Low Countries
(modern-day Netherlands and Belgium) and parts of Italy to the
French Empire, abolished the Holy Roman Empire that ruled over
much of western and central Europe, and placed his brothers and
generals on thrones throughout the continent. In 1812, only Britain,
Portugal, Russia, and Sweden remained outside Napoleon’s control.

Timeline 1795–1802 1804 1805 1806

Napoleon Rise to power Emperor of France Battle of Trafalgar Ruler of Europe

As an artillery officer in On 2 December A British fleet commanded After his crushing
Born on the Mediterranean defeat of Austria and
the revolutionary French Napoleon crowned by Admiral Nelson destroyed
island of Corsica in 1769, army, Napoleon put down himself Emperor the French navy at the Battle Russia at the Battle
Napoleon began his a rebellion in Paris, and was of France in Notre of Trafalgar. Nelson was of Austerlitz, Napoleon
military education in given command of the army Dame Cathedral in killed just before the ruled supreme. He
France at the age of 10. in Italy. Major successes Paris before crowning British victory. occupied much of
When he became ruler against the Austrians and his wife Josephine as Germany and ended
later in Egypt made Napoleon empress. The same the 1,000-year-old
of France, he appointed Holy Roman Empire
a national hero. He took year he introduced
talented and loyal officers part in a successful plot the Napoleonic Code, by persuading
from all backgrounds as to overthrow the weak a system of laws Emperor Francis II
his generals. He won his revolutionary government, based on the to abdicate.
battles because he was and became First Consul principles of the
a superb strategist. (ruler of France). French Revolution.
4 million The estimated number of soldiers recruited
by force to fight in Napoleon’s campaigns.
Austerlitz is also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors because Napoleon,
Alexander I of Russia, and Francis II of Austria were present on the battlefield. 141

1812 1812 1813 1814 1815

Russian catastrophe Battle of Leipzig Abdication and exile Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon invaded Russia. After After his humiliating retreat Napoleon refused to Having escaped from Elba in March 1815,
a narrow victory at Borodino, he from Russia, Napoleon met surrender. His enemies Napoleon led his army in the Battle of
marched on Moscow but found the further defeat at the Battle pursued him to France. As Waterloo. But his defeat marked the end
city abandoned. As the cold Russian of Leipzig, also known as the the allied army approached of the Napoleonic Wars. He was exiled to
winter set in, he was forced to Battle of Nations, which was Paris, some of his generals the remote island of St. Helena in the
retreat. Most of his army perished. fought from 16–19 October, persuaded him to abdicate. Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.
1813. His vast army of He was sent into exile on
nearly 185,000 men was the Italian island of Elba,
outnumbered by more and Louis XVIII, brother
Battle of Salamanca than 300,000 troops from of the last French king
The Duke of Wellington led British, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Louis XVI, was restored
Portuguese, and Spanish forces to and Sweden. The Battle of to the French throne.
win the Battle of Salamanca, a Leipzig was the largest The victorious allies met
turning point in the Peninsular War land battle in Europe in Vienna to plan the
(1808–1814) against Napoleon’s before World War I. remaking of Europe.
army in Spain.
The liberation of
Latin America
Spanish and Portuguese colonies
in the Americas, collectively known
as Latin America, were liberated
from European control in a series
of revolutions from 1810 to 1825.
In the late 18th century, the Spanish set
up new laws that limited the power of
Criollos (people of Spanish blood who
were born in the Americas). This angered
the people of Latin America, who saw it
as an attack on their rights. In the south
of the continent, the Argentinian General
José de San Martin led a campaign to
liberate Argentina, Chile, and southern
Peru from Spain. Simón Bolívar, a
Venezuelan, was the inspirational leader
who freed the northern part of the
continent, earning the nickname of
El Libertador (the Liberator). Meanwhile,
Crown Prince Dom Pedro of Portugal
declared Brazil’s independence after
his father, the king, returned to Portugal
from Brazil in 1821.

1810
An uprising in Mexico
marked the start of 1811
the Mexican War A republic
of Independence. was declared
in Venezuela,
but it collapsed
1816 within a year.
Argentina declared
its independence
from Spain.
1817–1818
José de San Martin
1819–1821 crossed the Andes
After liberating New from Argentina to
Granada (present-day begin the liberation
Colombia, Panama, of Chile.
Venezuela, and Ecuador),
Simón Bolívar became
the first president of the 1821
independent state of Spain accepted
Gran Colombia. the independence
of Mexico.
1822
Crown Prince of
1825
Portugal Dom Pedro
Upper Peru, the last
became the first
Spanish outpost in
emperor of Brazil after
South America, was
declaring independence.
liberated and named
Bolivia, in honour
of Simón Bolívar.

The Battle of Ayacucho

Fought in December 1824 in the Andes Mountains
of Peru, the Battle of Ayacucho was the last great
battle of the wars of independence. A force of
6,000 soldiers defeated and destroyed a much
larger Spanish royalist army, freeing Peru.
144 the age of revolution THE RISE OF NATIONS 39 The number of states in the German
Confederation at its creation in 1815.

Home Rule in Ireland

The island of Ireland became part Belgian independence
of the United Kingdom in 1801. Following the unification of
But nationalist groups demanded Holland and the “Austrian
Home Rule – Ireland’s right Netherlands” (Belgium), the
to rule itself. Belgian people rose up in
rebellion in 1830 and won their
independence. Leopold I became
the first king of Belgium in 1831.

DUBLIN

BELGIUM

The rise
of nations Revolutions in France PARIS
The Napoleonic Wars of 1803–1815 spread The French people rebelled
the idea of revolution across Europe. Many against both King Charles X in
1830, and his successor, Louis
people who shared a single language and Philippe I, in 1848. These
culture believed that they should be one monarchs were overthrown.
Louis Philippe was the last
nation, and have the right to rule themselves. ever king of France.

In the 19th century, some parts of Europe were divided into

small states whose people desired a united national identity. FRANCE
In other regions, the people were inspired to rebel against
their rulers. These revolutionaries wanted freedom to elect
their own governments, and to determine their own futures.
AL

SPAIN
UG
RT
PO

MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Karl Marx’s Communist Manifesto, which encouraged working
people to rise up in revolution, was published in 1848. 1,089 The number of volunteers who joined
Garibaldi’s army of liberation in Italy in 1860. 145

A year of revolutions
In 1848, a wave of revolutions spread
across Europe, but the revolutionaries did
not share the same goals. In France, they
wanted more freedom. In Germany, people
wanted unification and democratic rule.
People in parts of Italy and Hungary
fought to leave the Austrian Empire.
The unification of Germany The revolutions were bloody, but most
Prussia and Austria fought for did not succeed in changing things.
control of the states in the
German Confederation, with The Congress of Vienna
Prussia claiming victory. In Held in 1814–1815, the Congress
1871, King William I of Prussia of Vienna created a treaty to
became the first emperor of reshape Europe after the
a united Germany. Napoleonic Wars. It gave power
back to many of the old European
monarchies, and created the
German Confederation.

GERMANY

VIENNA

AUSTRIA HUNGARY
Revolution in Berlin
When people rose up in Berlin in
modern-day Germany in 1848, the
army was sent in to clear the people
from the streets, killing hundreds.

ITALY

The unification of Italy

The kingdoms of northern Italy
were united under King Victor
Emmanuel of Sardinia-Piedmont,
while General Giuseppe Garibaldi
took control of the south. In 1860,
when the two met at Teano,
Garibaldi gave Victor Emmanuel
the south, making him king of
a unified Italy.

A century of change
The 19th century was a time
of change in Europe. Greece,
Serbia, and Bulgaria won
their independence from the The Greek War of Independence
Ottoman Empire, and Italy and In 1821, uprisings against Turkish
rule began in Greek-speaking
Germany both became single,
parts of the Ottoman Empire.
unified states. Around Europe, With Britain, France, and Russia
ordinary people fought to supporting them, the Greeks won
demand greater political rights. independence in 1832.
146 the age of revolution MEDICAL ADVANCES
Until the introduction of anaesthetics (in the mid-19th century),
patients had to be tied down during an operation.

The operating theatre

In the 19th century, operations often took
place in public in a central space surrounded
by rows of raised seats, as in a Roman
or Greek theatre, hence the term
“operating theatre”.

The public
Early theatres were
open to the public,
with both men and
women watching
operations.

Work uniform
Surgeons covered
themselves in long aprons
but wore their everyday
street clothes underneath.

Teaching aid
Human skeletons, which
were often obtained
from workhouses, were
used to teach anatomy to
medical students.

Blood drip tray

A wooden tray, filled
with sawdust, was
placed under the
operating table to soak
Painless surgery up the patient’s blood.
The earliest forms of anaesthetics were
alcohol, herbal brews, or even a blow to
the head. Sleep-inducing anaesthetics Making surgery safer
came into use in the 1840s. To make In 1865, British surgeon Joseph Lister
the patient unconscious, an anaesthetic began experiments to improve
such as ether or chloroform was cleanliness in the operating theatre.
inhaled from a damp cloth or mask. He sprayed carbolic acid onto surgical
instruments, open wounds, and
dressings. This antiseptic substance
“The very first requirement in destroyed germs and prevented

a hospital is that infection from spreading. By 1866,

the death rate among patients Bone saw
it should do the sick no harm.” at his hospital had fallen Surgeons used saws
by two-thirds. to cut through bone
Florence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing, 1859 as quickly as possible.
In the mid-19th century, French scientist Louis
Pasteur showed that bacteria cause disease. 1849 The year British-born Elizabeth Blackwell became
the first woman to qualify as a doctor in the US. 1860 The year Florence Nightingale
set up the first nursing school. 147

Medical students Medical science

Timeline
Large numbers of medical students,
who were almost all men at this
Five thousand years ago, the ancient
time, crowded the benches. Egyptians used herbs to treat all sorts
of ailments – from ingrowing toenails
to crocodile bites. But the ancient Greek
physician Hippocrates (460–370 bce)
was the first to reject the commonly held
belief that sickness was the will of the
gods. Since then, doctors have continued
to examine the causes that lead to disease.

Islamic medicine

1025 ce
Persian physician Ibn Sina (also
known as Avicenna) compiled The
Canon of Medicine – a five-volume
encyclopedia that contained all
the medical knowledge known at
that time. His work described how
to recognize and treat illnesses,
and was the standard medical
textbook throughout the Islamic
world and medieval Europe.

Anatomical studies

1543
Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius dissected
the cadavers (corpses) of executed criminals
to make detailed studies of the human body.
He published his findings in an illustrated book,
De Humani Corporis Fabrica.

Blood circulation

1628
English physician William Harvey showed that
the heart’s pumping action circulates blood around
the body through the arteries before returning it
through the veins. Until then, doctors had followed
the ideas of ancient Greek surgeon Galen, who
believed that blood was made in the liver.

Vaccination

1796
Edward Jenner, an
English physician,
developed a
smallpox vaccine.
He injected a sample
of cowpox (a similar
but milder disease)
into a boy to build
up his immunity.

Washstand X-rays
1895

Early surgeons washed German physicist Wilhelm

their hands but didn’t wear Röntgen discovered waves of
rubber gloves until 1898. energy that passed through flesh
but not bone, creating bone images

Medical advances
on photographic plates. He named
them X-rays. His discovery allowed
doctors to see inside the human
body for the first time.
Although scientists in the 17th and 18th centuries
revolutionized the medical understanding of Penicillin
1928

Alexander Fleming, a Scottish

the human body, it was not until the 19th century bacteriologist, accidentally
that groundbreaking advances changed the discovered a substance in
a mould that destroyed
Surgical instruments
course of medicine. bacteria. Fleming called
this substance penicillin —
Saws and other tools
for the operation were In the 19th century, the development of effective it was the first effective
antibiotic to be manufactured.
laid out on a table. pain-numbing anaesthetics meant that patients no longer
suffered from intolerable pain and allowed surgeons to
Heart transplant
1967

perform more complex operations. Doctors also began to In South Africa, surgeon Christiaan Barnard
understand the role played by germs in spreading disease. carried out the world’s first successful human
This led to greater cleanliness in the operating theatre. heart transplant. Although the recipient of
the heart died 18 days later of pneumonia, the
By the end of the 19th century, the pioneering work of heart worked until his death, signalling a new
scientists in improving healthcare techniques led to a era in heart transplant surgery.
dramatic drop in infection rates throughout the world.
148 the age of revolution THE US CIVIL WAR
The majority of the fighting in the war took
place in the states of Virginia and Tennessee.

The US Civil War NEW TECHNOLOGY

The US Civil War was one of the first industrial wars in history,
Between 1861 and 1865, the US was torn apart into making use of modern technologies developed during the course
north and south by a bitter civil war. The two sides of the 19th century. The war was fought across a wide area, so
railways were critically important in carrying troops and supplies
fought over the enslavement of African Americans to where they were needed on the front lines. Generals were
and the rights of individual states. able to communicate with each other by telegraph.

The southern states had always relied on African American

slaves to work on plantations of cotton and tobacco – crops that Weapons GATLING GUN

were vital to their economy. The industrial cities of the North, Fast-firing repeating rifles, such as the
Spencer rifle, were used for the first
by contrast, had little need for slaves, and public support for time in the Civil War. The widely used
the ending of slavery grew in the north in the 1850s. The 1860 “Napoleon” field gun could hit a target
election of President Abraham Lincoln, a leading supporter of up to 1,600 m (5,250 ft) away. Also
the abolishment of slavery in the US, kick-started the conflict. developed at this time was the Gatling
gun, an early machine gun.

THE UNION AND THE CONFEDERACY

By February 1861, seven southern states – South Carolina,
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas – had
Ironclad battleships
broken away from the rest of the US. On 4 February, they agreed to
Steam-powered battleships protected by iron or steel plates were
form a separate government, the Confederate States of America. The known as ironclads. The first-ever battle between ironclads was fought
first shots of the war were fired at Fort Sumter in South Carolina on in the Civil War in 1862, on the James River estuary in Virginia.
12 April, and within three months, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina,
and Tennessee had joined the Confederates. Twenty-three states
remained in the Union, including the slave-owning “border states”.

War photography
The Civil War was one of the
first conflicts to be extensively
photographed. Dozens of
Division of the states in 1864 photographers toured the
US Territories
Union states battlefields, and their stark
Shown as uncoloured on the map, the
Confederate states US Territories were regions considered images of soldiers, dead and
part of the United States but yet to be alive, brought shocking scenes
”Border states”
admitted as states. One, Nevada, of the war to the public
US Territories became a state in 1864. around the world.

Timeline 12 April, 1861 17 September, 1862 13 December, 1862 1 January, 1863

A nation divided Fort Sumter attacked Battle of Antietam Confederate victory All slaves to be free
Confederate troops under Brigadier The bloodiest day of fighting Fortune swung back to the President Lincoln gave new
When seven US states seceded General Beauregard fired on Union in the entire war took place Confederate side at the Battle of purpose and direction to
soldiers who were guarding Fort at the Battle of Antietam, Fredericksburg, in Virginia. General the war by issuing the
(broke away) from the Union to
Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. in which nearly 23,000 Burnside, newly appointed by Emancipation Proclamation.
form the Confederacy, President These were the first shots to be soldiers were wounded or Lincoln to command the Union This was an order freeing all
Lincoln refused to recognize the fired in the Civil War. killed. The Union army army, led 120,000 troops to attack slaves in the Confederate
new government, and called on suffered the most casualties, a Confederate force of 80,000 – by states. Of course, this could
them to rejoin the Union. The but managed to halt the far the largest number of men to not happen until the Union
Confederates refused, and tried advance of General Robert E. meet in any conflict of the Civil had won the war against the
Lee’s Confederate forces into War. Burnside was decisively Confederates, but his words
to gain control of federal forts in
the Union state of Maryland. defeated – a victory that gave would eventually lead to
the south. The stage was set for The next day Lee was fresh hope to the Confederates and the freeing of millions of
a bloody war that would last allowed to lead his shattered led to complaints that the Union’s African American slaves.
for the next four years. army back to Virginia. generals were doing a bad job.

THE BATTLE AT FORT SUMTER

 625,000 American soldiers died
in the US Civil War. $2.1 billion The estimated cost
of the US Civil War. 149

THE BATTLE OF
GETTYSBURG
The most famous battle of the
Civil War was fought over three
days, from 1 to 3 July 1863,
around the small town of
Gettysburg in Pennsylvania.
The Confederates attacked,
confident they would win, but
the Union army did not give
way and eventually won.
The battle had the heaviest
casualties in the war. Four
months after the battle,
President Lincoln visited the
site and delivered a famous
speech known as the
Gettysburg Address. In it, he
said that the US was “dedicated
to the proposition that all men
are created equal”.

Heavy losses
An estimated 51,000 soldiers were
killed, wounded, or listed as missing
in the Battle of Gettysburg.

RECONSTRUCTION RECONSTRUCTION
The slow process of rebuilding ENDED IN 1877,
the economy of the south, left AND MANY STATE
in ruins after the war, is known
as Reconstruction. Before
GOVERNMENTS
IMMEDIATELY REVERSED THE
rejoining the US, each state of NEW RIGHTS GIVEN TO
the Confederacy had to agree AFRICAN AMERICANS,
to amendments to the US MAKING IT HARD FOR THEM
Constitution – the supreme law TO VOTE, GO TO SCHOOL,
of the nation – that ended OR FIND PAID WORK.
slavery, granted citizenship to
African Americans, and gave
the vote to all male citizens.

AFRICAN AMERICANS VOTING IN

RICHMOND IN VIRGINIA, 1871

3 March, 1863 4 July, 1863 15 November, 1864 9 April, 1865 14 April, 1865
First African- Vicksburg captured March to the Sea Lee surrenders to Grant Assassination of Lincoln
American Union troops captured the The capture of Atlanta in The Confederate capital of President Lincoln was shot
regiment Confederate fortress of Georgia by Union General Richmond, in Virginia, fell while attending a play at
The first official Vicksburg, on the Mississippi William T. Sherman in on 3 April. The Virginian Ford’s Theatre in Washington,
regiment of River, after a two-month September was a heavy blow Confederate army was DC. He died the next morning.
African-American siege. It was a major turning to the Confederates. Although exhausted. To avoid further A funeral train took 14 days
soldiers, the 54th point in the war, coming a deep inside enemy territory, losses, Confederate General to transport his body back for
Massachusetts day after the Union victory Sherman decided to march his Robert E. Lee surrendered to burial in his hometown of
Infantry Regiment, at Gettysburg. The Union army all the way from Atlanta General Ulysses S. Grant at Springfield, in Illinois.
was formed to fight now controlled the length to the coast at Savannah. He Appomattox Court House in
in the Union army. of the Mississippi River, ordered his men to live off the Virginia. By May, all the
dividing Louisiana, Texas, land and destroy farms and Confederate armies had
and Arkansas from the rest factories on their way. This stopped fighting. The war
of the Confederate states, brutal “scorched earth” policy was finally over.
SERGEANT HENRY F. MEMORIAL
STEWARD OF THE
and cutting off supplies. inflicted lasting damage. TO PRESIDENT
54TH MASSACHUSETTS LINCOLN IN
INFANTRY WASHINGTON, DC
 the age of revolution
Long-distance cattle drives
150 LIFE IN THE OLD WEST could last about three months.

Sioux camp
Cattle ranching The largest Native American group living
In the 19th century, cattle ranching developed on the northern plains were the Sioux. Framework
on the Great Plains and became an important They lived a nomadic lifestyle, moving Up to 20 long poles were
type of farming in the American West. from place to place so that they could used for the tepee framework.
Cowboys, who included European settlers, follow the migrating bison herds. The These were tied at the top,
Mexicans, and freed African American slaves, Sioux depended on the bison for food but forming a cone shape.
worked on the ranches. They rounded up nothing was wasted. They used the hide for
thousands of cattle, taking them to rail making clothes, blankets, and the covering
towns ready for shipment. for their portable tepees, while bones and
horns were used for making tools and toys.

Setting camp
Women were responsible for
building and dismantling tepees
as well as preparing food and
making clothes and tools.

Hard work
Being on a cattle drive was hard, dusty work.
Cowboys often spent up to 15 hours a day working.

Frontier towns
Towns with simple wooden buildings and
unpaved streets sprang up all over the
rugged American West. Land was cheap
but life was not easy with the lack of
basic food supplies. Some frontier towns
were quickly abandoned. Others, such
as Dodge City in Kansas, thrived.

Medicine man
The medicine man was an
important figure in Sioux life.
His chants and rituals protected
the tribe from evil spirits.
DODGE CITY IN 1878

Law and order

The American West
was often a dangerous
Life in the Old West
place to live. Organized
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Native American tribes
groups of bandits stole inhabited the Great Plains west of the Mississippi River.
cattle, held up railway But their way of life changed with the arrival of the
trains, and looted
towns. The sheriffs first European settlers in the 1840s.
struggled to enforce
the law. They put up Known as Plains Indians, these Native Americans lived by hunting
“Wanted” posters, the huge herds of bison that grazed the grasslands. By the end of the
offering rewards for 19th century, thousands of European settlers had taken over their
help in tracking down hunting land for farming and cattle ranching. The settlers also built
notorious criminals. towns and railways, and hunted the bison to extinction, leading to
WANTED POSTER bitter conflict between the two communities.
 600,000 The estimated population of Native Americans in
1800. By 1900, the figure had dropped to 250,000. 151

Dried meat Painted designs Bison hide

Thin strips of bison Some tepees were painted About 16 bison hides were sewn
meat were dried on with symbolic shapes and together to make the tepee cover.
Smoke flaps
racks in the sun to make sacred animals. Pins made from bone held the
Smoke from the fire
a long-lasting food hides together.
inside escaped through
called pemmican.
flaps that opened at
the top of the tepee.

Skilled horse riders

Sioux were excellent
horse riders. Many
rode bareback, hunting
bison at full gallop.

Making leather
To make bison leather, the women
stretched a hide, scraped it clean
with a bone tool, and then smoked
it over a fire to soften it.

Cradleboard Fire Wounded Knee massacre

Babies were kept safe in A small fire inside In 1890, up to 200 Sioux were killed
a cradleboard (a lace-up leather the tepee was used or injured by US soldiers at Wounded
bag on a wooden frame). It could both for cooking food Knee Creek in South Dakota. The Sioux
be strapped to the carer’s back and keeping the
belonged to the Ghost Dance religious
or hung from a saddle. tepee warm.
movement that promised the return of
Native American culture, and many were
wearing Ghost Dance shirts. After the
massacre, the Sioux were forced to
13 million bison accept life on reservations (small areas
of land put aside for them), making it
roamed the Great Plains in 1840.
impossible for them to continue their
By 1885, only 200 were left. traditional, nomadic way of life. GHOST DANCE SHIRT
152 the age of revolution THE AUTOMOBILE 16 km/h (10 mph) – the top speed
of the Benz Patent-Motorwagen.

The history of car design

The automobile

Timeline
At first, the automobile was a slow,
dangerous, and unreliable way to
travel, but throughout the 20th century, Before the car, people travelled long distances
it developed into a sophisticated, high-
performing machine. Today, safety and using horse-drawn carriages. But in 1888, the first
environmental concerns have encouraged petrol-powered, horseless vehicle went on sale to
car manufacturers to design driverless
and electric-powered vehicles.
the public, kickstarting the age of the automobile.
The automobile evolved little by little throughout the
Ford Model T

1908
The first car to be mass-produced, the Model T was
19th century, with different engineers experimenting in
cheap and quick to produce. For 12 years, every workshops around the world. But it was Karl Benz from
vehicle sold was black, as this was the fastest drying Germany, helped by his wife Bertha, whose three-wheeled
paint colour at the time.
design became the first automobile available for sale to the
public. Powered by an internal combustion engine, the Benz
Patent-Motorwagen inspired fear and suspicion at first – it
was banned by the German government, and the Catholic
Church called it the “devil’s carriage”.

Spinning flywheel Cooling tank

This horizontal, heavy Water stored in the cooling
disc helped to keep the tank prevented the engine Padded seat
engine running smoothly. from overheating. Without suspension
Volkswagen Beetle
1938

to aid the automobile’s

German dictator Adolf Hitler commissioned
stability, it was a bumpy
this reliable, family vehicle as a “people’s car”
ride for passengers.
(or Volkswagen in German). Designed by Ferdinand
Porsche, the five-seater could transport two adults
and three children. In 1972, the Volkswagen Beetle
became the world’s best-selling car, overtaking the
Ford Model T’s previous record of 15,007,033
vehicles sold.

Willy’s Jeep
1940

World War II prompted Internal combustion engine

manufacturers to design The automobile’s engine worked
the Jeep, a tough, in a similar way to petrol-powered
four-wheel drive car that car engines today. It burned fuel
could cope on all sorts of
inside a cylinder to produce gases
terrain. This military
that pushed tiny pistons up and
vehicle was light and
down. These pistons in turn
sturdy enough to be
dropped by parachute
pushed a crankshaft that made
from a helicopter. the rear wheels rotate.

MINI
1959

As cars became cheaper,

the world’s roads clogged up
with traffic. Manufacturers
started building smaller
vehicles for towns and
cities, with the MINI
becoming a British icon.
Historic journey
Karl Benz invented the first
Toyota Prius automobile, but it was his wife
1997

One of the first hybrid cars, the Toyota Prius was Bertha who made it a commercial Carriage wheels
powered by both a petrol engine and an electric success. In 1888, she secretly took The steel-lined rear
motor, helping to reduce its toxic emissions. the car and drove her two sons from wheels were large, like
Mannheim to Pforzheim in Germany. those of a traditional
horse-drawn carriage.
Although the car broke down
several times, Bertha fixed each
issue, successfully completing the
106-km (66-mile) journey. News of
the achievement hit the press and
sales of the Motorwagen took off.
 1891 The year the first car accident
took place, in Ohio in the US. 1896 The year the first speeding ticket
was given to a reckless driver. 153

Mass production
In 1913, American businessman Henry Ford
introduced a new moving assembly line at
his car factory. He separated production
of the car, the Model T or “Tin Lizzie”, into
different stages, with specialized workers
adding parts to every vehicle as it rolled
along a mechanized moving belt. Ford’s
moving assembly line sped up car
manufacturing, making cars increasingly
SIDE VIEW affordable for the public. By the 1920s,
car manufacturers around the world were
producing vehicles in the same way.

Brake lever
A hand lever was used to
slow the vehicle.

Viewing point
Like a horse-drawn carriage,
Benz’s automobile had a high
seat to allow good visibility.

Steering lever
Instead of a steering
wheel, the driver changed
direction using an upright
lever called a tiller.
Moving assembly line
Between 1908 and 1927 the Ford Motor
Company built more than 15 million Model Ts.
Every 10 seconds a newly finished car rolled
off the assembly line, ready to drive.

Hollow frame
The Motorwagen
had a tube-shaped, Racing cars
steel framework. The dawn of the 20th century saw a huge
rise in the popularity of cars. In order to win
sales, manufacturers competed with one
another to produce the fastest and most
powerful car, shown off in the new sport of
motor racing. The first official race was held
in France in 1895. Since then the sport of
motor racing has flourished, from the
extreme speeds of Formula 1 to the Le Mans
24-hour race, a yearly endurance test.

Paris-Bordeaux-Paris
In 1895, French engineer Emile Levassor crossed
the finish line of the world’s first automobile race.
Bicycle tyre He completed the 1,180-km (732-mile) route
The thin-spoked, rubber-lined from Paris to Bordeaux and back again driving at
front wheel was based on the an average speed of 25 km/h (15 mph).
design of a bicycle wheel.
US immigration
In the 19th century, millions of
people left their homes to travel
to the US, fleeing natural disasters,
religious persecution, and poverty
in Asia and Europe.
For those seeking refuge and work, the
US was seen as a land of opportunity.
People arrived by boat from Asia into San
Francisco and from Europe into New York.
By the early 1900s, the immigration
centre at Ellis Island in Upper New York
Bay was the country’s busiest entry point,
processing an estimated 5,000 individuals
a day. Some stayed in New York, but many
chose to travel further inland, to Chicago,
the Midwest, or all the way to California.

1845–1849
In Ireland, a fungus
destroyed the country’s
potato crops, causing
widespread famine. To
1881–1924
avoid starvation, 500,000
More than two million
people travelled to the US.
Jews from Russia,
Austria-Hungary, and
1892 Romania arrived in the
Ellis Island Immigrant US, fleeing poverty,
Station opened as a US violence, and racism.
point of entry from
Europe. It became the
centre of immigration 1900–1910
into the country. As sea travel became
more affordable, more
than two million
February 1907 Italians moved to
Japan agreed to restrict the US to escape
its people from leaving poverty at home.
to settle in the US,
amid fears in California
that Japanese arrivals
were taking jobs from
April 1907
US workers.
The Port of New York
had the busiest month
in its history, receiving
1910–1940 197 ships carrying
A million immigrants, more than 250,000
including Chinese, passengers in total.
Japanese, Indians, and
Mexicans, were processed
on Angel Island in the 1920s
San Francisco Bay. Public opinion turned
against immigration,
as newcomers were
1924 blamed for high
To control the number of unemployment and
arrivals, a law was passed a lack of housing.
that required people to
register overseas before
they travelled to the US.

Gateway to America
When immigrants arrived, they were
examined by doctors looking for signs of
physical illness or mental health problems. In
this photograph from 1907, immigrants wait
in “pens”, having passed the first inspection.
156 the age of revolution AGE OF EMPIRES 193 km (120 miles) – The length
of the Suez Canal.

European possessions in Africa

Britain
SPANISH
France
MOROCCO
Germany
Belgium
RIO DE ORO TUNIS
Portugal
ALGERIA
Italy FRENCH
Spain
MOROCCO LIBYA
Independent FRENCH The Benin Expedition
In 1897, in Benin in West Africa, a
WEST AFRICA group of British officers was ambushed
and killed. Two months later, British
forces captured Benin and stole its FRENCH
bronze treasures as punishment.
GAMBIA EQUATORIAL
AFRICA
PORTUGUESE
GUINEA

NIGERIA
SIERRA
LEONE
CAMEROON
TOGO
LIBERIA RIO MUNI
GOLD COAST

GABON

The War of the Golden Stool

In 1900, the British governor

Age of empires of Ghana demanded that the

Ashanti tribe give him their
golden stool, a throne considered
by the Ashanti to be sacred.
CABINDA
During the 19th century, the desire for wealth, They refused, and war broke out.
land, and resources led European nations to seek Although the British won and
ANGOLA
increased their control in Ghana,
power and influence far beyond their borders. the Ashanti successfully guarded
the golden stool.
A wave of colonization took place, in which wealthy,
powerful European countries invaded and ruled over
territories outside Europe. Britain, France, Germany,
Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain divided the continent of
Africa between them, claiming large areas of land and taking GERMAN
political and economic control. Of all the European powers, SOUTHWEST
Britain built the largest empire, acquiring the most territory, AFRICA
including India, Australia, New Zealand, and the West Indies.

The British Raj The “unequal treaties” Rubber

British rule in India, known as the “British After China lost the Opium Wars (1839–1842 and plantation
Before crates
Raj”, lasted from 1858 to 1947. India was 1856–1860), France and Britain made China sign
of rubber
described as the “jewel in the crown” of the a series of agreements, later called the “unequal were exported
British Empire. The British treaties”. These treaties forced China to give up abroad, they
introduced democracy and control of its ports and give away large areas of were checked
railways to India, but they territory to other nations. by colonial
exploited the country overseers.
economically and denied
Southeast Asia
local rulers and people a
share in resources, crops, In Europe, the Industrial Revolution increased
and political power. demand for rubber, oil, and tin, all of which
Southeast Asia could supply. Seeking access
British train
to these resources, the British took control
This British-built train on the Malay Peninsula and across Myanmar,
still carries passengers on and the French took over Vietnam, Cambodia,
the Darjeeling Himalayan CANTON (MODERN-DAY GUANGZHOU), A TREATY PORT and French Indochina (modern-day Laos).
Railway today.
10 million The estimated number of Congolese people
killed under King Leopold II of Belgium.
The only two African countries to remain independent were
Abyssinia (now known as Ethiopia) and Liberia. 157

Suez Canal
Opened in 1869, the French-
designed Suez Canal linked the
Mediterranean Sea and the Red
Sea. This impressive feat of
engineering dramatically cut
journey times from Asia to
Europe, as ships no longer had
to sail around Africa.

EGYPT
Abyssinian victory
Belgian Congo In 1896, an Abyssinian army
King Leopold II of Belgium made the led by Emperor Menelik II
Congo his personal possession from defeated an invading Italian
1885 to 1908. It was the largest private force, successfully defending
estate ever possessed by a single its independence.
person. A brutal leader, he was
responsible for millions of deaths, and FRENCH
stripped the country of its natural SOMALILAND
resources, including elephant ivory.
BRITISH
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SOMALILAND
SUDAN
ABYSSINIA
N
L IA AND
ITAALIL
M
BRITISH SO
EAST AFRICA
European exploration
Explorers set out to discover
and map new lands. They
BELGIAN CONGO were often sponsored by
GERMAN governments eager for
EAST AFRICA territorial expansion. It was
a dangerous occupation and
many paid with their lives.

RHODESIA

IQ UE
MB
ZA
MO MADAGASCAR
The Boer Wars
BECHUANALAND The Boers were descendants of
the original white Dutch settlers
in southern Africa. Between
1889 and 1902, the Boer states
of the Republic of Transvaal
and the Orange Free State
fought to end British control of
ORANGE South Africa and its gold mines.
FREE
STATE The Anglo-Zulu War
In 1879, the British fought a war with
the Zulu Kingdom in southeast Africa.
The British suffered a humiliating defeat Scramble for Africa
UNION OF in the Battle of Isandlwana in January,
By the late 19th century, many
but defeated the Zulu Kingdom in July
SOUTH AFRICA and turned it into a colony. European nations were competing
for control of Africa. Between 1882
and 1899, Britain seized Egypt,
Diamond mining Nigeria, Kenya, the Sudan, and
In 1867, diamonds were discovered in Rhodesia, and established
South Africa. Mining these diamonds made possession of South Africa. From
British businessman Cecil Rhodes one of 1884 to 1885, parts of East and
the world’s richest men, but the black West Africa were acquired by
labourers working underground in the Germany. In 1885, King Leopold II
mines were exploited and underpaid. of Belgium took over the Congo.
158 the age of revolution EARLY FLIGHT $1,000 The amount it cost to build
the first Wright Flyer.

Early flight
The Wright brothers’ first flight
The 1903 Wright Flyer took off from
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in the US.
Humans have yearned to fly for thousands of years, Orville Wright piloted the plane lying
Rudder
down, steering it with movements of
but it wasn’t until 1903, when the Wright brothers’ his hips. The 1903 Wright Flyer was
A rudder set behind
the wings yawed
engine-powered aircraft 1903 Wright Flyer took to the heavier than air, but the engine and (turned) the aircraft
propellers drove the plane forwards to right and left.
skies, that the dream of human flight became a reality. stop it from crashing back to the ground.
The invention of lightweight engines in the late 19th century Propeller
Two 2.4-m (8-ft) wooden
made powered flight possible, leading the Wright brothers to propellers powered by
try out new flying designs. They tried for years to get a plane the engine drove the
in the air, and keep it there. In December 1903, they tossed plane forwards.
a coin to see who would pilot their latest design. The older
brother Wilbur won, but that first test was unsuccessful.
In a later trial on 17 December, Orville Wright piloted their
aircraft for 12 seconds, just skimming above the sands of
the North Carolina coast for a distance of 37 m (121 ft).
This short flight changed history.

Lightweight structure
The body of the plane
was made of wood,
covered with finely
woven cotton cloth.

First flights
Efforts to fly date back as far as 1000 bce
when the Chinese strapped people to huge
kites, but the first flight carrying a person
that wasn’t tied to something on the ground
didn’t take place until the late 18th century.
Support wires
Strong metal wires helped the Early attempts at flight
wooden structure of the plane Taking to the skies was an
to keep its shape. extremely risky business. Over
the centuries, in attempts to
copy the flight of birds, people
Wings strapped “wings” made of
Outer wing The aircraft had a wood or feathers to their
The pilot pulled on wires wingspan of 12.3 m arms. They then launched
connected to the outer wing to roll (40 ft 4 ins). themselves off high structures,
(move the left wing down and often with disastrous results.
the right wing up, or vice versa).
 Water stored in a tank next to the pilot Later on in the day of its first flight,
kept the Flyer’s engine from overheating. the Flyer was damaged beyond repair. 159

Powering the propellers

A bicycle chain
connected the engine
to the propellers so
that it could turn them.

Elevator control
Engine The pilot controlled the plane’s
A home-made petrol engine pitch (up and down movement)
powered the two propellers with a lever connected by a
mounted behind the wings, pulley system to the elevators.
driving the plane forwards.

Pilot controls Elevators

To steer the plane Orville Wright lay Moveable horizontal
flat in a cradle and moved his hips surfaces called elevators
from side to side to pull on wires angled the aircraft nose
connected to the wing tips and rudder. up and down.

First balloon The Flying Man

Two paper-makers from German aviation pioneer Otto Lilienthal made
France, the Montgolfier more than 2,000 flights in gliders in the late 19th
brothers, noted that century, taking off from the top of an artificial hill
heated air flowing into he had built especially for the purpose near Berlin.
a paper bag made the His gliders had no tail and were little more than
bag rise. In 1783, they EARLY DIRIGIBLE a pair of wings, controlled by the movements he
demonstrated this made with his body. A hero of the Wright brothers,
with a sensational Lilienthal became known as “the Flying Man”.
Dirigible
hot-air balloon flight He died in 1896, from injuries he suffered when
Many inventors sought ways to steer “lighter than
carrying a sheep, a one of his creations crashed to the ground.
air” vehicles. In the 19th century, French engineer
duck, and a rooster as Jules Henri Giffard built a “dirigible”, a type of
passengers. The first airship; a canvas bag that was 44 m (143 ft) long
manned flight took and could hold 3,200 cubic metres (113,000 cubic
place later that year feet) of the gas hydrogen, which is lighter than air.
with Jean-Francois In 1852, steered by a pilot and powered by an
Pilatre de Rozier and THE MONTGOLFIER engine, Giffard’s airship proved that controlled OTTO IN
BROTHERS’ BALLOON FLIGHT
François Laurent flight was possible.
d’Arlandes on board.
THE MODERN WORLD
From the beginning of the 20th century, innovations in travel and
communications connected humans across the world like never
before. Conflicts became global, with many nations involved in
wars far away. But in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, this
connection has also given people new opportunities, allowing
ideas of freedom and equality to spread around the world.
162 the modern world TIMELINE OF THE MODERN WORLD

1961: The Berlin Wall 1969: Woodstock LOCKHEED F-117A

NIGHTHAWK
The East German government At the end of the 1960s, a STEALTH BOMBER
built a barrier to prevent decade of change in music and
people escaping fashion, the Woodstock Music 1990–1991: The Gulf War
Soviet-controlled East and Art Fair took place in the Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded the
Germany for democratic US. Half a million people turned oil-rich nation of Kuwait. Allied forces,
West Berlin. The wall was 1960S ELECTRIC
up to listen to the most famous led by the US, attacked the Iraqis in
torn down in 1989. GUITAR musicians of the day. “Operation Desert Storm”.

WATCHTOWER ALONG
THE BERLIN WALL

1955: The bus boycott

In Montgomery in the US, Rosa
1960: The Year of Africa Parks, an African American woman,
The process of decolonization in refused to give up her bus seat to a
Africa reached its peak in 1960, white passenger, inspiring a boycott
when 17 countries, including 14 of the city’s buses to protest
former French colonies, declared against the separation of black and
their independence. white people on public transport. REPLICA MONTGOMERY BUS

Timeline of the
modern world 1942: The Final Solution
German dictator Adolf Hitler
World War I, and later World War II, brought finalized plans to murder the Jewish
many nations into global conflict. Millions of population of Europe. Millions of
people were forced into concentration
people from all over the world, both soldiers camps where they lived in terrible
and civilians, were killed. conditions until they were killed.

STAR OF DAVID
In the 1920s, people tried to forget the horrors of World IDENTIFICATION BADGE
War I. New music and dances became popular, and cinema
developed into a form of entertainment. But the next decade
was hard for many, as the world economy crashed and dictators
began to take power in Europe, leading to another global war. In USS ENTERPRISE CV-6
the aftermath of World War II, weakened empires lost control of
their overseas territories. The US and the Soviet Union emerged 1941: The US
as rival superpowers, struggling for dominance by involving enters the war
themselves in regional wars. Yet the end of the war also brought new Until 1941, the US refused
to take sides, but when Japanese
optimism and freedoms, with young people creating new ways to forces attacked Pearl Harbor, a naval base in
express themselves through fashion and music. In the 21st century, Hawaii, the US responded by declaring war.
thanks to advances in communication technology, there is a greater Germany then declared war on the US.
awareness of the discrimination faced by many people in their daily For Britain, the US was a welcome ally.
lives, as well as the damage humans have caused to the environment.

1914: World War I A HAMMER AND 1920s: The Jazz Age

After Austria-Hungary SICKLE, A SYMBOL OF After the hardships of World
SOVIET COMMUNISM
invaded Serbia, other War I, the US enjoyed a period
countries joined in, and the of optimism, as people sought
1917: The Russian Revolution
war became global. Millions fun and frivolity. Jazz music
For 300 years the Romanov family
were killed as new inventions, WORLD WAR I became very popular, along
had controlled Russia, but they were
such as tanks and poison gas, made BRITISH TANK with exciting new dances.
overthrown by a communist revolution
conflict deadlier than ever before.
that established the Soviet Union. 1920s SAXOPHONE
 163

NELSON MANDELA 2001: The War on Terror 2014: Pepper the robot
ON A SOUTH AFRICAN On 11 September, 2001, the Islamic SoftBank Robotics revealed their
BANKNOTE
terrorist group Al-Qaeda carried new robot, Pepper. The robot can
1994: President Nelson Mandela out attacks in New York and recognize faces, and can analyse
Nelson Mandela became the first black Washington, D.C. The US declared a a person’s expressions and tone
president of South Africa, ending decades “war on terror”, launching wars in of voice to detect emotion.
of Apartheid – a system of discrimination Afghanistan and later Iraq.
against black people within the country.
PEPPER

US CHINOOK CH-47 1949: The People’s

Republic of China
Chinese communist leader Mao
1955–1973: The Vietnam War Zedong proclaimed the communist
War erupted between North and South Vietnam. The US People’s Republic of China.
entered the war in 1965 on the side of South Vietnam, Mao led the country as chairman
while the Soviet Union and China supported the North. until his death in 1976.
People protested worldwide about US involvement.

BOOK OF QUOTATIONS FROM

CHAIRMAN MAO ZEDONG

1945: End of World War II 1947: The Partition of India 1948: Creation of Israel
After five years of brutal fighting, At its independence India was After the horrors faced by Jews
World War II ended when the US divided in two: a Muslim-majority during World War II, a Jewish
dropped two atomic bombs on Japan. Pakistan and a Hindu-majority homeland was created in Palestine in
Tens of thousands of people were India. Millions of people found the Middle East. The Palestinian Arabs
killed instantly, and Japan themselves on the wrong side were angry at the arrival of millions
“FAT MAN” surrendered shortly afterwards. of the new borders. of Jews and years of conflict followed.
ATOMIC BOMB

SPANISH MAUSER 1893 RIFLE

1939: World War II begins
Adolf Hitler invaded Poland, prompting
Britain and France to declare war on 1936–1939: The Spanish Civil War 1934–1945: Adolf Hitler
Germany. Hitler quickly conquered Spanish General Francisco Franco led In Germany, Adolf Hitler
much of Europe, including France, his forces to victory in the Spanish became Führer (leader).
although Britain remained an obstacle Civil War. He became the military He persecuted Jews
to his domination. dictator of Spain, and went on to rule across Europe and his
the country for the next 40 years. ambitions led to the
outbreak of World War II.

1927: The “Talkies” 1929: The Wall Street Crash

The first feature film to After the optimism of the 1920s,
include sound, The Jazz the US economy crashed, causing
ROOSEVELT
Singer marked a new era in the Great Depression. The effects MEMORIAL TO THE
cinema. Clapper boards were were felt around the world. GREAT DEPRESSION
used to synchronize the In 1933, President Franklin D.
action in a scene with Roosevelt introduced his New Deal
CLAPPER BOARD
separately recorded sound. to help the US economy recover.
164 the modern world WORLD WAR I 65 million soldiers fought
in World War I.

World War I RECRUITMENT

When war broke out, each country
In July 1914, war broke out in Europe. As countries involved had a national army, but
rushed to support their allies, they were drawn into a few were ready for such a long,
drawn-out war. Armies needed more
fight that soon escalated into a global war that is now
soldiers, and lots of them. Many
known as World War I. civilians were conscripted – forced
to join the armed forces by law.
The Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey – Others volunteered to fight, driven
battled against the Entente Powers (who later became known as by a sense of national duty. All
the Allies) – Britain, France, and Russia, joined by Italy in 1915 governments used inspiring posters
and the US in 1917. Equally matched, each side tried to grind to create support for the war.
down the other, inflicting high numbers of casualties using huge,
unprecedented amounts of firepower. Most of the fighting took Poster campaign
place in trenches dug by the armies, as each side fought to gain This French poster is encouraging people
to raise money for the war effort.
and defend territory from their enemy.

LEAD UP TO THE WAR SUBMARINE WARFARE

At the start of the 20th century, European
“The lamps are From 1915, German U-boats (short for
countries grew increasingly hostile towards each
other. Germany had only become a unified nation
going out all “Unterseeboot”, meaning “submarine boat”)
took the war underwater. They attacked
in 1871, but its ruler, Kaiser Wilhelm II, began over Europe.” unarmed merchant ships carrying supplies,
building up its navy, kickstarting an arms race with including food, to Britain – almost starving
Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign
Britain. With the aim of supporting each other if Secretary, 1914
the country into submission by 1917.
conflict did arise, France and Russia joined together Germany’s new naval tactics horrified the
in a military alliance against their rivals Germany world. Submarine warfare was seen as
A continent at war
and Austria–Hungary. Britain drew close to France Eventually the war was fought on three uncivilized and against the rules of combat
and Russia as one of the Entente Powers. Only a fronts in Europe – the Western Front, that had been followed in the past.
spark was needed to start a war. the Eastern Front, and the Balkan Front.

Key SW E D E N
The Allies

Central Powers RUSS I A N

EAST E MP I R E
Neutral countries BRITAIN PRUSSIA

NETHERLANDS

GERM AN Y
BELGIUM Eastern Front
LUXEMBOURG

Western Front

F RAN CE AUST R I A-
SWITZERLAND
HU N G A RY
L
A
UG

ROMANIA
RT

I T

S PAIN SERBIA
PO

MONTENEGRO BULGARIA
Y
L

ALBANIA OT TO MA N E MP I R E
German U-boat
Balkan Front Throughout the war, German U-boats sank 5,554
GREECE
Allied merchant ships and warships. Conditions
onboard the U-boats were hot and cramped.

Timeline June 1914 July 1914 October–November 1914 February 1915–January 1916

A global war Franz Ferdinand assassinated Declarations of war Battle of Ypres Gallipoli campaign
Archduke Franz Ferdinand – heir to When Austria-Hungary After Germany invaded British, French, Australian, and
When war broke out in July the Austria-Hungary Empire – and his declared war on Serbia, Belgium intending to deliver New Zealand troops launched an
wife were shot in Sarajevo in Bosnia. it was given support by its a decisive blow to the attack on the Gallipoli Peninsula
1914, the Central Powers and
The killer belonged to a Serbian ally Germany. Russia French military, they in Turkey, aiming to take control
the Allies thought it would be revolutionary group. Austria-Hungary backed Serbia and encountered French and of the country. The attack failed
finished by Christmas. But blamed Serbia for the killing. declared war on Austria- British forces in Flanders. – about 58,000 Allied soldiers
World War I was to become Hungary, leading Germany A series of battles, known were killed.
the most brutal and destructive to declare war on Russia as the Battle of Ypres, were
conflict the world had ever and on Russia’s ally fought close to the northern
France. When Germany coast. The fighting was
seen, lasting for four years
invaded neutral Belgium savage, but the battle
and resulting in the deaths of on its way to attack ended in stalemate.
millions of soldiers and civilians. France, Britain declared
war on Germany.
 235 Allied spies were found guilty
of espionage by the Germans. 4.5 million artillery shells were fired during
the Battle of Passchendaele. 165

NEW TECHNOLOGY
The invention of new technologies made World War I
more deadly than any war previously fought. Each country
worked to improve their fighting methods, developing new
tools and techniques to gain an advantage over their enemy.
For the first time, soldiers in war had to contend with powerful
weaponry such as machine guns, poison gas, flamethrowers,
and explosive mines, as well as tanks and aircraft.

War in the skies

As technology developed,
planes became sturdier.
They were used to carry out
reconnaissance, drop bombs,
and fight battles in the skies,
with brave pilots called
“aces” becoming heroes.

Machine gun Fearsome tanks

This Schwarzlose machine gun First invented in Britain,
automatically reloaded after firing, tanks could travel over
allowing soldiers to shoot rapidly. rough, muddy terrain,
It was one of the main weapons of acting as a shield for Allied
the Austro-Hungarian army. soldiers as they advanced.
They were used for the
first time in 1916 at
the Battle of the Somme.

SECRET WAR THE HOME FRONT

Both sides used espionage, or spying, to gain secret World War I had a huge impact on
information about the enemy. Spies listened in on their civilians, particularly in Belgium and
enemy’s communications, and code breakers tried to France, where a lot of the fighting
crack the codes that were used to send secret messages took place on the Western Front.
via telegraph and radio. Male and female secret The effects of war were felt not just
agents worked in disguise in enemy territory on the battlefield but also at home.
to find out as much information as possible, On this “Home Front”, many civilians
but many were caught and imprisoned. faced food shortages and rationing,
and as millions of men went off to
fight, women took over their jobs.
Pigeon with message canister By the end of the war, millions of
A secret message could be civilians had lost their lives.
delivered to and from the
battlefield by inserting it into
a canister, then attaching
the canister to the leg
of a carrier pigeon.
Zeppelin over London
Zeppelins were huge, slow-moving
German airships. Some flew in the skies
over London, dropping bombs on
shocked and terrified citizens.

May 1915 1916 July–November 1917 November 1918 28 June 1919

Sinking of the Lusitania Battle of Jutland Battle of Passchendaele Treaty of Versailles
A German submarine sank the In the only full-scale naval battle of The Allies, who sought to The German government signed a
passenger liner Lusitania, drowning the war, German and British navies destroy German submarine peace treaty at Versailles in
US civilians. German submarine fought each other off the Jutland bases on the Belgian coast, France, but its terms were very
attacks eventually led the US to join peninsula in Denmark. Both sides attacked German forces unpopular among Germans. The
the war on the Allied side in 1917. claimed victory, but Germany near Ypres. But torrential treaty stated that Germany and its
decided not to fight at sea again. rain turned the clay-soil allies were to blame for the war
battlefield into a muddy and had to pay compensation.
swamp, with tanks, troops,
Battle of the Somme and horses becoming stuck. Fighting ends
Fought in northern France near the The Allies gained just 8 km After losing a series of battles
River Somme, more than a million (5 miles) of territory, in 1918, Germany signed an
soldiers were killed or wounded in with more than 475,000 armistice (truce) with the Allies,
this four-month long battle. The Allies casualties on both sides. agreeing to end the fighting on
were unable to push through German the 11th hour of the 11th
lines and ended the attack after day of the 11th month.
heavy snow made fighting difficult.
166 the modern world THE WESTERN FRONT 100,000 The number of carrier pigeons used by Allied
forces to deliver messages during the war.

Pillbox
Raised, concrete shelters
allowed soldiers to fire
machine guns at the enemy
from a protected position.

Gas attack
Poison gas was
used for the first time
during World War I by
both sides. Soldiers used
gas masks to protect their
eyes, noses, and throats
from lethal fumes.

Sandbag
reinforcement
Sandbags filled with
earth prevented the
walls of the trenches
from falling in.

Sentry duty
Keeping watch on the enemy
was dangerous – soldiers on
sentry duty stood on a ledge
and peered over the top of
the trench to see.

Sniper attack
At night, hidden shooters called
snipers prepared to launch
attacks at dawn, by getting into
position behind trees close to
the enemy’s trench.

“What a bloodbath… Raiding party

hell cannot be this Soldiers crawled on their
bellies towards the enemy
dreadful” in surprise attacks.
Underground war
Both sides tried to place
explosives into enemy
Albert Joubaire, French soldier trenches by tunnelling deep
at Verdun, in his diary, 1916 under no-man’s land.

Battlefield nurses
Women drove ambulances and
worked as nurses on the Western
Front, helping soldiers injured in
battle. These battlefield nurses
treated many types of wound, Barbed wire
including poison gas burns, No-man’s land was criss-
shrapnel injuries, and infections. crossed with barbed
wire and traps to slow
down enemy attacks.

Christmas truce No-man’s land at night

On Christmas Day 1914, some soldiers from The German and Allied soldiers fought
both sides called a ceasefire along parts of the over an area between their trenches
Western Front. They crossed no-man’s land to known as “no-man’s land”. Much of the
sing carols, exchange gifts, and play football. action took place at night under the cover
The army generals were angry when they heard of darkness, as this was the safest time for
what had happened and tried to prevent this soldiers to surprise the enemy, recover
type of truce happening again. casualties, and repair trench defences.
32,200 km (20,000 miles) of trenches had been
dug by the end of World War I. 11 a.m. The time the armistice ending World War I
came into effect on 11 November, 1918. 167

The Western Front

Casualties Bright light
Soldiers killed in action would Flares were used to
often lie in no-man’s land light up the enemy’s
for days until it was safe for trench at night.
their bodies to be collected. By Christmas 1914, World War I had reached a
stalemate. The German advance across western
Over the top Europe had been stopped by Allied troops. Both sides
Soldiers used ladders dug in, building a zig-zagged line of deep trenches
to climb out of the
trench and advance which became known as the Western Front.
across no-man’s land.
The Western Front stretched 645 km (400 miles) from
the coast of Belgium to the border of Switzerland. Over the
next few years, the two sides fought with bullets, shells, and
poison gas to capture just a few kilometres of territory from
their enemy. Soldiers lived in constant fear of attack and
suffered tough conditions in the trenches, which were
cold, wet, and full of rats.

Support trench
A second trench behind the
front trench provided another
line of defence support.

Field telephone
Telephones were used to
relay orders along the
Western Front. Dogs and
carrier pigeons were also
used to transport messages.

Officers’ dugout
Duckboards Soldiers’ shelter An officers’ shelter deep
Trenches were wet and Soldiers took shelter underground offered
muddy, so these wooden and rested in holes some comfort, and plans
planks were laid to help cut into the side of were made there for
keep soldiers’ feet dry. the trench wall. future advances.
The Russian
Revolution
By the start of the 20th century,
the Romanov family had ruled
over Russia for 300 years, but
after years of war and famine, the
people began to demand change.
Nicholas II, the ruling tsar (emperor),
was slow to react to calls for reform,
which were led by the Bolsheviks – a
communist political party that argued
resources should be shared equally
among the people. His poor handling
of wars with Japan and Germany
fuelled unrest, and in 1917 two
dramatic revolutions took place,
eventually transforming Russia from
a monarchy into the world’s first
communist state – the Soviet Union.

1905
Russia’s humiliating
defeat in the Russo-
Japanese War led to
strikes and protests 1914–1918
against the rule of During World War I,
Tsar Nicholas II who Russia suffered
was blamed. catastrophic losses
fighting against
March 1917 Germany. Again, Tsar
After a series of Nicholas II was blamed.
public protests about
food shortages and
poor living conditions, October 1917
Tsar Nicholas II The Bolsheviks seized
abdicated (renounced power from the provisional
the throne). government, which had
been in power since March.
In July 1918, Nicholas II
1917–1922 was arrested and executed.
Civil war between the
Bolsheviks and anti-
communist forces ended 1918
in a Bolshevik victory, The Bolsheviks became
allowing the party to known as the Russian
consolidate its power. Communist Party. They
signed a peace treaty
with Germany, taking
Russia out of World War I.
30 December, 1922
The Russian
Communist Party
founded the Soviet From 1924
Union (USSR) – the Soviet politician
world’s first Joseph Stalin took
communist state. power. He used
violence to eliminate
his opponents and
military force to occupy
European countries.

Revolutionary leader
Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) was the
founder and leader of the Bolsheviks. He
was a passionate public speaker and made
stirring speeches to crowds of workers,
soldiers, and peasants, urging them to
support the ideals of the revolution.
170 the modern world BOOM AND BUST IN THE US 1927 The year The Jazz Singer, the first movie
with sound, appeared in US cinemas.

THE ROARING TWENTIES Boom and bust

in the US
In the 1920s, fun, fashion, and entertainment became the order
of the day. Young women known as “Flappers” outraged the older
generations with their short skirts, bobbed hairstyles, and rebellious
behaviour. Although the US government banned alcohol between
1920 and 1933, illicit bars known as “speakeasies” emerged, where After World War I ended in 1918, many Americans
young people could socialize and enjoy new dances such as the greeted the 1920s with a sense of optimism. The
twisting Charleston. Jazz – a new African-American music style –
economy grew, and people had more money to spend
became so popular that the decade became known as the “Jazz Age”.
on luxury items and entertainment. But the good times
didn’t last. At the end of the decade, the economy
collapsed, leaving many Americans in poverty.
At the start of the 1920s, the US was quick to recover from the
war’s drain on its resources, and experienced a “boom” period
of economic growth. Factories switched from producing goods
intended for the war effort to making consumer items, such as
household appliances and cars. Newspapers and magazines
were full of adverts for these new goods, selling the public a
glamorous lifestyle. The misery of the war made its survivors
determined to have a good time, and they flocked to sporting
events, dance clubs, and the cinema. But between 24 and
29 October, 1929, the party came to an abrupt end when the
economy went “bust”. The next decade brought with it the Great
Depression – a period of mass unemployment and hardship for
millions of people, not just in the US but around the world.
The Jazz Age
Trumpeter and singer Louis Armstrong, playing here with King
Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band, was one of jazz music’s biggest stars.

CONSUMER GOODS RISING SKYSCRAPERS New heights

During the 1920s, factories began to The economic boom in the US brought Construction of the iconic
mass-produce time-saving devices such with it the need for more office space. 102-storey Empire State Building
as vacuum cleaners and washing machines. Tall buildings, or “skyscrapers”, were the in New York City began on 17
March, 1930, six months after the
Banks let people pay in instalments, making answer. New developments in technology,
Wall Street Crash, despite the poor
these new goods more affordable. especially steel, made it possible for
state of the economy. It opened to
skyscrapers to reach unprecedented
the public on 1 May, 1931, 45
heights and architects competed to see days earlier than scheduled.
who could build the tallest building. In the
1920s, these super-high structures were a
symbol of US confidence, but they became
an important source of jobs, and hope,
during the troubled times of the 1930s.

Buy it now! Race to the top

Colourful, catchy adverts persuaded Americans to buy Each day, 3,400 workers constructed the building,
new items for their homes. This poster for vacuum completing an average of four and a half floors per
cleaners promised US housewives more leisure time. week. The building was finished in just 410 days.
12 million The number of Americans
unemployed in 1932.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke to the US population every week
during his “fireside chats”, which were broadcast on national radio. 171

THE GREAT DEPRESSION

For years, Americans had bought small Tallest tower
To guarantee its position
shares in companies, or stocks, hoping as the world’s tallest
to get rich from their profits. But between building, architects
24 and 29 October, 1929, the New York topped the skyscraper
stock market crashed. Stock prices with an aerial.
slumped, quickly becoming worthless, in
what became known as the “Wall Street The Dust Bowl
Crash”. It triggered the Great Depression, During the 1930s, severe droughts and dust storms hit the US,
which lasted until the late 1930s. affecting 4,000 sq km (1,500 sq miles) of land from Texas to
Nebraska. Soil turned to dust, causing crops and livestock to die.
Unable to grow anything, 200,000 farmers migrated to California.

Hoovervilles
Unable to repay bank loans, more than two The New Deal
million people lost their homes during the Great In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt
Depression. In major cities, large shanty towns, became US president, promising
or slums, sprang up. They were nicknamed a “New Deal” to help the country
“Hoovervilles”, after President Herbert Hoover, recover. He pledged assistance
who was blamed for the economy’s collapse. for the poor and launched huge
public projects to boost the
economy and to create more
jobs for the unemployed.

Stepped back
The building’s design was
stepped, to allow sunlight to
reach the street below.
172 the modern world AGE OF DICTATORS 1934 The year Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini
first met, in Venice, Italy.

Political extremes
By the end of the 1930s, democracy was
under threat. Dictators, many of whom
were either communist or fascist, were in
power in many different countries across
Europe. Communist dictators believed in
government control of the economy and
resources, while fascist leaders were
extremely nationalistic. They rejected
democracy, and communism.

GERMANY
Age of
dictators
The 1930s was a time of economic
hardship around the world and many
people were poor, unemployed, and FRANCE
desperate. Across Europe, strong leaders
seized control, in some cases using force. These
extreme, all-powerful rulers were called dictators. The Spanish Civil War
General Franco led
Although many of these dictators promised a better future for their nationalist forces to
citizens, their ruthless policies were responsible for the deaths of victory in the Spanish
millions of people. They rejected democracy, glorified war, used Civil War, defeating
the republicans and
violence to crush their political opponents, and stoked racial divisions.
overthrowing the
democratic government.

SPAIN
AL

MADRID
UG
RT
PO

LISBON

General Francisco Franco

Antonio de In Spain, army leader General
Franco became dictator in 1939
Oliveira Salazar
after three years of civil war. His
Antonio Salazar became
fascist regime would be in power
prime minister in 1932.
for the next 40 years.
He went on to form a
conservative, nationalist
dictatorship, using
censorship and the help
of his secret police.
13 The number of five-year plans that were developed between
1928 and 1991 to modernize the Soviet Union’s economy.
Stalin was born Josef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili.
He changed his name to Stalin, meaning “Man of steel”. 173

Reichstag fire Five-year plans

In 1933, Hitler used a In an effort to modernize
fire at the Reichstag, the the country’s economy, Stalin
parliament building, as an introduced new policies for
excuse to declare a state farmers. But they backfired,
of emergency, allowing resulting in famine and the MOSCOW
him to take complete deaths of millions.
control of the country.

Adolf Hitler
In Germany, economic struggles
BERLIN increased popular support for
Adolf Hitler’s fascist Nazi Party.
He became Führer (leader)
in 1934. He persecuted Jews
across Europe and his imperial
ambitions led to the outbreak SOVIET UNION
of World War II.

Engelbert Dollfuss
In 1932, Austrian Chancellor
Engelbert Dollfuss established
an authoritarian regime,
VIENNA abolishing all other political
parties. He modelled his
politics on Mussolini and
AUSTRIA BUDAPEST
Italian fascism.
HUNGARY

Joseph Stalin
Communist Joseph Stalin came
to power in the Soviet Union in
1924. He seized total control of
the state and the economy. He
strengthened his power by
using propaganda to shape
public opinion.

ROME

ITALY
Fascist symbol
Mussolini chose the
ancient Roman image of
an eagle clutching a
bundle of sticks (a symbol
of collective strength) to
represent Italian fascism.

General Miklos Horthy

In 1920, General Horthy’s
army overthrew Hungary’s
communist regime. Horthy
was an authoritarian ruler
Benito Mussolini who believed he was creating
The founder of fascism, a strong, united nation. He
Benito Mussolini, became ruled until he was arrested by
dictator of Italy in 1925. invading Nazi troops in 1944.
He called himself Il Duce
(The Leader) and used his secret
police to crush his opponents.
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
174 the modern world THE GOLDEN AGE OF CINEMA 90% of films made before
1929 have been lost.

The Golden Age

Lights Studio rigging
Moveable lights The “grip” was the person
allowed studios to that organized the
film indoors. equipment holding cameras

of Cinema and lighting in position.

Lights! Camera! Action! In 1895, the Lumière Gaffer

The electrician in
brothers in France developed the cinematograph, charge of the film’s
lighting was known
a device to capture moving pictures. By the late as the “Gaffer”.
1920s – the start of the Golden Age of Cinema –
their invention had inspired an industry of
filmmakers determined to entertain audiences.
As technology improved, films changed from silent, black-
and-white creations that were just a few minutes long to
feature-length, full-colour epics, gangster films, musicals,
and comedies with sound. By the 1930s, film studios
were producing films as fast as they could for audiences
desperate for light relief from the Great Depression – a
period of economic hardship for many around the world.
Hollywood, once a quiet suburb of Los Angeles, became
the home of the US film industry – its warm weather
perfect for filming outdoors all year round.

Camera operator
Many camera operators
spent 20 or 30 years at
the same studio, helping
to create a unique
studio style.

Creative vision
Directors were in charge of
everything creative. They
earned great recognition if
their films were well received.

1930s film set

Film studios employed
thousands of people who
carried out all sorts of jobs,
from actors and directors to
costume designers and film
editors. They worked tirelessly
on vast sets that were built to
mimic real life.

Synchronized sound
Films were silent until 1927, Long day
when the Warner Brothers studio Actors could wait
released The Jazz Singer, the first for hours at a time
“talkie”, marking a new era in cinema. to be filmed.
To synchronize the action in a scene Overworked
with sound that was recorded So that studios could churn
separately, a clapper board was out films as fast as possible,
struck to make a noise when actors could be made to work up
the camera started rolling. to 18 hours a day, six days a week.
 7,500 The number of films released by the
Hollywood studios between 1930 and 1945. 80 million The number of people who visited the cinema
each week during the 1930s in the US. 175

Animation Bollywood Special effects

One of the first cartoons ever to feature The Indian film As film technology
sound was Walt Disney’s Steamboat Willie, industry, popularly advanced, Hollywood
released in 1928. Just eight minutes long, it known as Bollywood, enticed people to
propelled Disney’s character “Mickey Mouse” is based in Bombay cinemas with jaw-
to stardom and started what became known (Mumbai). It is famous dropping special
as the Golden Age of Animation. for big-budget films, effects. In 1977,
vibrant song-and- the film Star Wars,
Pioneer of animation dance routines, and by American director
American artist and superstar actors who George Lucas, was
producer Walt Disney are adored by their released. Full of
(1901–1966) created
fans. The first incredible effects,
many classic animated Green screen
Bollywood film was it wowed audiences
films including, Snow Today, technology
White and the Seven Raja Harishchandra, and set a new standard
released in 1913. for thrilling films. lets film editors add a
Dwarfs (1937) and background to a scene
Cinderella (1950). BOLLYWOOD DANCERS after it has been filmed.

Changing scenery Star power

To create a background behind the Some actors became household
actors, an image was projected names and huge celebrities,
onto a large canvas screen. including Shirley Temple, who
began her career when she was
just three years old. The public
and private lives of famous
stars were carefully controlled
by the studio they worked for.

Quick change
Time was money, and
studios kept up a relentless
pace during filming, with
actors changing costumes
and make-up on set.

Make-up artist
Specialists used make-up
to help transform actors
into their characters.
Actors often had to report
for hair and make-up at
4 a.m. each day.

Extra
Some films had a cast of
thousands, with extras
playing lots of different
smaller parts.

Avoiding mistakes Cable

The script supervisor ensured that Cables trailed across the floor
props, costumes, hair, and make-up of the set, providing power
were consistent in each scene. to cameras and lights.
176 the modern world WORLD WAR II BEGINS 6 The number of weeks it took for
Germany to conquer France.

World War II
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane was the
RAF’s most formidable aircraft

begins
during the Battle of Britain. It was
capable of inflicting serious damage
on the enemy with its eight .303 in
(7.7 mm) machine guns. The wings
In 1939, a war erupted in Europe that would go on of the Hurricane were partially
covered with canvas rather than
to span most of the globe. With hundreds of millions metal, allowing engineers to repair
of people caught up in the conflict, World War II a plane quickly if it was damaged.

became the deadliest war in history.

Though some countries were neutral, much of the world was
Lethal guns
divided between two opposing sides: the Axis (led by
The Hurricane’s eight
Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (initially led by machine guns were
Britain and France, later joined by the Soviet Union, the US, positioned four in a
row on each wing.
and China). When Germany, under dictator Adolf Hitler,
invaded Poland in 1939, the world was astonished by the
ferocity of the attack. This was the beginning of a brutal
six-year war, which cost millions of lives.

Supermarine Spitfire
Fast, light, and powerful,
this supreme fighter plane
played a decisive role in
the Battle of Britain.
The Battle
Pilot
of Britain British pilots were
Aircraft were used throughout often young and
the war for bombing raids, aerial hastily trained.
fights, and to support land battles.
Germany planned to master the
skies over Britain before launching
a land invasion, but suffered its
first setback in the Battle of
Britain. The Luftwaffe – Germany’s
air force – fought Britain’s Royal
Air Force (RAF) in dogfights
(close-up aerial battles) over
southeast England, but the
RAF gradually won control.
 22 The average age of a British
pilot in the Battle of Britain.
In Poland, about 5.5 million people died during
the war – one-sixth of the country’s population. 177

Heinkel He 111 Germany advances

TIMELINE
Germany’s Heinkel He 111 bomber enjoyed
After World War I, European leaders
early success in the war. It could take heavy
damage and still remain airborne, but was were wary of more fighting, but Adolf
no match for the modern fighters of the Hitler’s foreign policy made conflict
RAF and so became obsolete before the war inevitable. Aiming to create a Greater
ended. After the Battle of Britain, German Germany in Europe, Hitler expanded
Heinkel He 111 pilots switched to attacking his army, annexed German-speaking
British cities and industrial sites. Austria in 1938, and invaded
Czechoslovakia in March 1939.

The invasion of Poland

1 Sept 1939
Hitler’s tanks blasted deep into Polish territory.
Poland’s allies, Britain and France, declared war
on Germany but failed to launch an attack, and
Poland was crushed in little over a month.

Battle of the Atlantic

1939—1945
Throughout the war, Hitler tried to starve Britain
by attacking ships carrying food and weapons from
Experienced flyer Messerschmitt Bf 109 the US. Supply ships were bombarded constantly
German pilots usually These German fighter by aircraft and U-boats (German submarines).
had more combat planes were heavy
experience than and had a short range,
British pilots. which hampered
Blitzkrieg

May–June 1940
their effectiveness.
In May 1940, German forces attacked Belgium,
the Netherlands, and France using dive bombers,
tanks, and infantry to break through weak points
in Allied defences. This aggressive tactic, called
Blitzkrieg or “lightning war”, shocked and
overwhelmed the Allies.

Radar on the ground

Radar (Radio Detection
And Ranging) was vital to
the British. It allowed the
Dunkirk evacuation
26 May–4 June 1940
RAF to track incoming
enemy planes and take The German advance
off in time to meet them. trapped 380,000 Allied
troops on the northern
coast of France. Most
were rescued and
returned to Britain
by naval ships and
hundreds of civilian
volunteer vessels.

The Blitz
Sept 1940–May 1941

After losing the Battle

of Britain, Hitler began
a bombing campaign
on British cities and
ports at night, called
the Blitz, but British
defences held firm.
Children were
evacuated away from
the bombing to safety
in the countryside.

Operation Barbarossa
June 1941

Hitler ordered his troops to invade the Soviet

Union. He aimed to capture land for Lebensraum
or “living space” for the German population.
178 the modern world THE HOLOCAUST 1,500,000 The number of Jewish children
who died during the Holocaust.

Anne Frank
Anne Frank, a German-born
Jewish girl, recorded her
experiences, hiding with her
family from the Nazi regime in
German-occupied Amsterdam in
her diary. She died at the age of
15 in Bergen-Belsen concentration Hiding place
camp, but her diary survived. Anne and her
It was published in 1947. family hid for
two years in DENMARK
the attic of an
Drancy Amsterdam
Established in 1941, townhouse.
Drancy served as both
a prison and transit
camp. In total 65,000
Jews were deported
from Drancy to camps
in eastern Europe. Wannsee Conference
In January 1942, high-
ranking Nazis met at Wannsee
to discuss the “Final Solution”
– a plan to murder all the
AMSTERDAM WANNSEE
Jewish people in Europe.
NETHERLA
NDS
BELGIUM GERMANY

Dachau
The first Nazi concentration
camp, Dachau, opened for
political prisoners in 1933.
DRANCY CZECHOSLOVAKIA
NUREMBERG

Nuremburg laws DACHAU AUSTRIA

Passed by the Nazis in 1935, the
Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of their
German citizenship, restricted the jobs
they could do, and later forced them to
wear yellow Star of David badges.

FRANCE

Persecution in Europe ITALY

The German state persecuted Jews
across German-occupied Europe.
Concentration camps
Thousands were massacred in the Those imprisoned in
Soviet Union after it was invaded concentration camps
by Axis forces in 1941. Jews from were separated from
the rest of Europe were loaded on their families and forced
trains and taken to be killed in to carry out hard labour.
death camps in Poland or to work Conditions were appalling
as slaves in concentration camps. and many were worked
Victims did not know where they or starved to death.
were being taken or what might
happen to them there.
15,000 The number of concentration camps
established across German-occupied Europe. 10,000 The number of Nazi war criminals
imprisoned after World War II. 179

Warsaw Ghetto
When Germany invaded
Poland in 1939, Jews were
The Holocaust
forced into ghettos – During World War II (1939–1945), the
restricted urban areas
controlled by Nazi troops.
German anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) Nazi Party,
The Warsaw Ghetto held led by dictator Adolf Hitler, systematically
more than 300,000 people
in awful conditions.
imprisoned and killed Jewish people in
Europe. This is known as the “Holocaust”.
LATVIA
By 1945, about 6 million Jews, as well as 5 million
Romanies, Soviet prisoners of war, political
LITHUANIA prisoners, homosexuals, and disabled people, had
been murdered by the Nazis. Millions more were
imprisoned in concentration camps (huge prisons).
EAST The Holocaust officially ended after Allied forces
PRUSSIA defeated Hitler and the German army in 1945. When
the camps were liberated by Allied soldiers, they
found victims sick and traumatized.
TREBLINKA

WARSAW
CHELMNO
SOBIBOR POLAND
SOVIET UNION

AUSCHWITZ
MAJDANEK

BELZEC

Death camps
At death camps set up in Poland,
the Nazis murdered millions of
Jews by gassing them to death
in locked chambers. This image
Auschwitz shows a room full of thousands
The largest of the
HUNGARY of shoes collected from people
Nazi death camps, killed in the gas chambers at
more than 1 million Belzec death camp.
people died here.

YU
GO
SLA
VIA
ROMANIA

Key
Death camp

BULGARIA Deportation route

Extent of Axis control,
December 1941
World War II
in Africa
During World War II, fighting in
North Africa saw the opposing sides
push each other’s forces backwards
and forwards across the desert
between 1940 and 1943.
After Italy entered the war on the side
of Germany in June 1940, British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill dispatched
troops to North Africa to support those
already stationed in Egypt. There, he
hoped to remove the Italians from their
colony in Libya. Forces from Britain and
its colonies won a decisive victory against
the Italians, but then German dictator
Adolf Hitler sent the brilliant general
Erwin Rommel to Africa. Rommel
reversed some of the British gains,
and extended the North African
Campaign for another two years.

September 1940
Benito Mussolini,
dictator of Italy,
ordered the invasion
of Egypt, which was February 1941
occupied by the Hitler dispatched
British. Within General Erwin Rommel
months, his troops to North Africa. His
were overwhelmed forces drove Britain
by Allied forces. back through Libya
towards Egypt.
From April 1941
Australian troops
November 1942
captured Tobruk in
Lieutenant-General
eastern Libya and
Bernard Montgomery,
then resisted German
commander of the
attempts to take it back
British Eighth Army,
in an eight-month siege.
defeated Rommel at
El Alamein in Egypt.
It was a turning point in
November 1942 the war in North Africa.
Commanded by US
General Dwight D.
Eisenhower, a series of
British and American May 1943
landings and assaults US troops eventually
brought reinforcements, helped force the
including US tanks. surrender of German
and Italian forces in
Tunisia after a long
struggle. Almost
250,000 troops were
taken prisoner, and all
of North Africa was
in Allied hands.

General Erwin Rommel

Rommel was nicknamed the “Desert Fox” for his
capable leadership of German and Italian forces
in the North African Campaign. A national hero
in Germany, Rommel was highly respected by
his counterparts in the British army.
182 the modern world WORLD WAR II BECOMES GLOBAL 90% of Japanese torpedoes struck a US
ship during the Pearl Harbor attack.

Island hopping
World War II
The control centre
The Island, the ship’s
The US navy adopted a strategy of “island-hopping”. The aim main control centre, had
was to quickly capture and control strategic islands along a

becomes global
a narrow base to save
path towards the Japanese mainland, bringing US bombers space on the flight deck.
within range of the country in preparation for an invasion. It held the navigation
bridge and the flight
deck control, which
Key World War II began in Europe, but by late oversaw all planes
taking off and landing.
Japanese Empire, 1931
Japanese gains by 1942
1941, the conflict had spread worldwide.
Extent of Japanese
expansion PAC I F I C
While the Allied forces fought for survival
Allied advances JAPAN
OCEAN against Hitler’s army in Europe, Japan began
INDOCHINA
to expand its empire in Southeast Asia.
Pearl
BURMA Harbor
In December 1941, Japan attacked European- and
THAILAND Hawaii
PHILIPPINES US-controlled territories across Southeast Asia. But
MALAYA
by mid-1942, Japan’s advance was halted by the
New
Singapore Guinea US, the only country powerful enough to thwart its
DUTCH
0 2,000 km EAST INDIES imperial ambitions.
0 1,000 miles

Ready for anything

Planes could launch or land
at either end of the ship,
in case part of the flight
deck was damaged.

Onboard weaponry
The aircraft carrier’s
machine guns were
protected by shielded
Crew living space
mounts and used to
More than 2,000 people,
defend the ship against
including sailors, pilots,
dive bombers.
mechanics, and cooks,
Underwater protection lived on board. The ship
Camouflaged hull Upright walls, or “bulkheads”, held enough supplies
The USS Enterprise (CV-6) was within the ship’s hull were up to last for months at sea.
painted in different shades of blue to 4 cm (2 in) thick and made
to make it harder for enemy of steel to limit the damage
planes and ships to spot it at sea. caused by enemy torpedoes.

Timeline 7 December, 1941 4–7 June, 1942 August 1942–February 1943

The Allies fight back Pearl Harbor Battle of Midway Battle of Stalingrad
Hoping to destroy the US navy’s Pacific Japan suffered a huge Hitler’s ambition to expand
By late 1941, Hitler’s domination Fleet in one devastating blow, Japan defeat at the Battle of into eastern Europe suffered
of Europe was almost complete. launched a surprise attack on the US Midway when four of its a major setback when his
But after a series of victories in naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. aircraft carriers and 3,500 troops were trapped by the
the first two years of the war, In response, the US of its sailors and airmen Soviet army in the city of
Germany’s military was starting entered the war were lost. The only aircraft Stalingrad, Russia. Suffering
against Japan and carrier lost by the US was from frostbite, and short of
to weaken. As the US joined the
Germany. It became the USS Yorktown. The food and ammunition, the
fighting in December 1941, a powerful new ally Japanese navy never German army was forced to
the war was beginning to turn for Britain and the recovered from the losses it surrender. In total, 2.2 million
in favour of the Allies. Soviet Union. experienced during the soldiers died during the
Battle of Midway. Battle of Stalingrad.
 36 The number of days it took for US forces to capture
the island of Iwo Jima from Japan in 1945. 8.15 a.m. The moment the atomic bomb struck
the city of Hiroshima on 6 August, 1945. 183

Folded wings
When planes weren’t in
the air, their wings were
Flight deck
kept folded to save space.
The ship’s flight deck was
250 m (828 ft) in length.

Planes in position
A lift below deck raised
the aircraft one-by-one
from the hangar to the
flight deck.

Hangar
The hangar was the height
Engine room
of two decks and had space
The engine room generated enough
to store 90 aircraft when
power for the ship to travel at
they weren’t in use.
32.5 knots – about 60 km/h (37 mph).

Kamikaze Women at work

tactics In the US, with the
As Japan was forced country’s men sent
to retreat, its military abroad to fight, new job
The Grey Ghost resorted to desperate opportunities opened up
tactics. The airforce for women. American
During World War II, the US and Japan
filled aircraft with women entered the
used aircraft carriers – enormous floating workforce in huge
bombs and crashed
air bases – to get their planes into position numbers. They were
them deliberately
ready to fight. The USS Enterprise (CV-6) encouraged to work on
into the decks of US
took part in more battles against Japan and British warships. farms, in shipyards,
than any other US ship. On three In total, 34 US railway companies, and
occasions, the Japanese navy thought warships were sunk aeroplane manufacturers
they had sunk it and announced it had by these Japanese Ready for battle to support the war effort. Recruitment campaign
gone down, earning the aircraft carrier kamikaze attacks. Kamikaze pilots wore a Posters inspired women
its nickname “The Grey Ghost”. hachmaki, a traditional to take on jobs done
Japanese headcloth. previously by men.

6 June, 1944 February 1945 April 1945 6 and 9 August, 1945

D-Day landings Dresden Germany falls Atomic bombs
After two years of planning, the With Germany almost Soviet forces entered Berlin, The war had ended in Europe but
Allied invasion of western Europe, defeated, Britain and the taking control of the city after Japan refused to surrender. On
“Operation Overlord”, began. Nearly US unleashed a series of fierce street fighting with German 6 August, 1945, the world’s first
200,000 troops were ferried across devastating air raids on troops. Hitler committed suicide atomic bomb to be used in war,
the English Channel to capture five major German cities to stop and Germany surrendered. nicknamed “Little Boy”, was
beaches in Normandy, France. military resistance and dropped over Hiroshima in Japan.
crush civilian morale. The Three days later, a second atomic
bombing of Dresden in bomb, “Fat Man”, was released over
February 1945 created a Nagasaki. Tens of thousands were
huge firestorm which killed killed immediately and thousands
an estimated 25,000 people, more died later from the effects of
most of whom were civilians radiation. Japan finally surrendered
or refugees. on 14 August, 1945.
184 the modern world DECOLONIZATION 1 million people are estimated to have died in the
months following the Partition of India.

Decolonization SOUTH ASIA

The campaign to end British
World War II was the final blow for colonialism (powerful rule over the vast Indian
countries or empires controlling other regions around the subcontinent started long
before World War II. The
world). Weakened by years of conflict, empires could not Indian National Congress,
control their overseas territories as the people of Asia, founded in 1885, was the main
Africa, and the Caribbean called for independence. opposition movement against
British rule. The All-India
By 1945, the Japanese, Italian, and German empires had fallen, and Muslim League was formed in
their colonies were occupied by other powers or came back under 1906 to protect the rights of
local control. But many other colonies, mostly under British, French, Indian Muslims. In 1947, India
or Dutch rule, still wanted to govern themselves. Some colonies gained independence and was
gained independence through peaceful means, but often the divided into two independent
states: India and Pakistan.
European powers refused to let go. The process of decolonization
– giving a colony its own political independence – also coincided
with the Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union. Both of
these powers interfered in the running of newly independent states.

AFRICA Ghana independence

The Gold Coast, a British colony in
From the 1950s onwards, many African
West Africa, had been demanding
countries gained independence from colonial independence since 1947. In 1949,
rule. For some African nations the transition nationalist Kwame Nkrumah
to independence was violently opposed by formed the Convention People’s
the ruling colonizers, such as in Algeria where Party (CPP), an organization
France was determined to keep control. In the fighting for self-governance. MAU RI TAN I A
MALI
1970s, Portugal also fought bitter wars to Nkrumah began a campaign N I G ER
C HAD
SENEGAL
maintain control of Angola and Mozambique. of non-violent opposition.
Independence was proclaimed
for the new nation of Ghana on N I G ERI A
6 March 1957, with Nkrumah
A false start becoming prime minister.
REPUBL I C OF
UPPER VOLTA
C EN T RAL
AFRI C AN
REPU BLI C
Egypt had gained independence TOG O
I VORY
from Britain in 1922, but COA ST
DAHOMEY
Britain still interfered in the G ABON
C AMEROON
government and controlled D EMOC RAT I C
REPU BLI C OF
the Suez Canal (an important T HE CON G O
REPU BLI C
OF CON G O
waterway in Egypt used by
many countries to trade with
each other). In 1956, the
Egyptian president, Gamal
Abdel Nasser, declared the
Suez Canal to be the property
of Egypt. Britain, France, and The Year of Africa
Israel responded with force,
In 1960, 17 countries, including 14
but withdrew after pressure
former French colonies, declared their
from the US, the Soviet Union,
independence in what became known
and the United Nations.
Kwame Nkrumah
as the Year of Africa. By 1990, every
As prime minister, Nkrumah improved country in Africa was independent.
GAMAL ABDEL NASSER
education, roads, and health facilities.

Timeline 1946 1949 1954 1957

Southeast Asia The Philippines Indonesia French Indochina Malaya

Since the 1930s, the In 1945, the leader of Indonesia’s In the late 1940s, the Part of the Malayan
Japan had invaded Southeast Philippines had been pushing nationalist movement proclaimed the French struggled to Communist Party declared
for independence, but World independent Republic of Indonesia. In control its colonies in war on Britain in 1948.
Asia during World War II, driving
War II interrupted the fight 1949, the Dutch recognized Indonesian Indochina – Vietnam, Laos, Independence was not given
out the old colonial powers. After for self-governance. The independence after four years of war. and Cambodia. Nationalist to the Federation of Malaya
the war, these colonial powers Philippines was the first uprisings against French until 1957. In 1963, the
returned, but many countries did Southeast Asian country to rule began to take their British colonies of Sabah,
not want them back. Nationalist gain its freedom after World toll, and a French military Sarawak, and Singapore
movements (groups supporting War II, when the US granted defeat at Dien Bien Phu in joined the Federation to
it formal independence Vietnam prompted peace form Malaysia. In 1965,
political independence), stirred
on 4 July, 1946. negotiations. After an Singapore became an
up by Japanese occupation, agreement was reached independent state.
demanded self-rule. in 1954, French Indochina
came to an end. A 10-CENT STAMP
SOLD IN MALAYA ON
INDONESIAN INDEPENDENCE FIGHTER INDEPENDENCE DAY
21 days – the length of Gandhi’s
longest fast in peaceful protest. 54 internationally recognized nations were
created in Africa after decolonization. 150,000 The estimated death toll in
the French-Algerian conflict. 185

Civil disobedience The Partition of India

The campaign for independence in After independence in 1947,
India was led by Mohandas Gandhi. the British divided India into
He used a campaign of civil two: a Muslim-majority
disobedience (non-violent defiance) Pakistan and a Hindu-majority
called satyagraha. From 1917, he India. Pakistan itself was split
organized protests, made inspiring into two regions on either side
speeches, disobeyed British laws, of India: West Pakistan and
and called on Indians to stop buying East Pakistan (East Pakistan
British goods. He was jailed many later became the nation of
times, but his insistence on not Bangladesh). Millions of
using violence gained him the name Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims
“Mahatma”, meaning “Great Soul”. found themselves on the
wrong side of the new
borders. During the “Great
Migration”, 6 million Muslims
crossed into West Pakistan,
Mohandas Gandhi and 4.5 million Sikhs and
Gandhi encouraged Indians to weave Refugee camp in Delhi, India Hindus went to India.
their own clothes by spinning cotton During the “Great Migration”, tens of thousands were
instead of buying British products. driven into refugee camps all over the continent.

THE CARIBBEAN
The US exerted strong political,
military, and economic influence over
the Caribbean throughout the 20th
century. After the Spanish-American
War in 1898, Spain handed control of
Cuba and Puerto Rico to the US, and
Puerto Rico became a US territory.
In 1915, the US invaded Haiti and
stayed in the country for almost 20
years. In Cuba, during a communist
revolution in 1959, the US-backed
A
A
LI president Fulgencio Batista was
M
SO forced out, ending direct interference
by the US in the country’s affairs.

Jamaican
independence
THE LEADER OF THE Norman W. Manley
AR

CUBAN REVOLUTION The British Caribbean was the founder of

SC

the Jamaican
GA

WAS FIDEL CASTRO In 1962, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became People’s National
DA

politically independent. This event ushered in a period

WHO RULED
MA

Party, seen here

of decolonization of the British colonies in the Caribbean, during Jamaica’s
Key CUBA UNTIL 2008 including Barbados, Grenada, the Bahamas, Dominica, and
St. Lucia. Many Caribbean countries joined the British
first Independence
Day celebrations.
Countries that gained
independence in 1960 Commonwealth, becoming self-governing nations while
retaining Britain’s monarch as their Head of State.

September, 1975 November, 1975 1997

New Guinea East Timor Hong Kong and Macao
During World War II, The Portuguese left East After 150 years, control of
Japanese forces occupied Timor in 1975, but it was Hong Kong returned from
New Guinea but were soon occupied by Indonesia. Britain back to China in
pushed back by Allied More than 100,000 East 1997. However, Hong
forces. After the war, Timorese people died in Kong’s government
Australia took control of the the following decades-long remained separate from
region. In 1975, Papua and conflict. In a referendum that of mainland China.
New Guinea became the run by the United Nations Control of Macao, the
independent state of Papua in 1999, Timorese people last colony in Asia, was
New Guinea, one of the last voted for independence. In returned to China in 1999.
colonies in the world to 2002, the UN supervised a
gain independence. transition to Timorese Handover celebrations
self-government. Victoria Harbour in Hong
Kong was lit up with
fireworks to mark the
historic handover to China.
 the modern world
The Soviet Union successfully tested its atomic
186 THE COLD WAR bomb for the first time on 29 August, 1949.

Era of tension The Death Strip Watchtower High-intensity lights

Timeline
The barrier consisted of two There were more than 300 Floodlights gave border
Although the US and the Soviet Union had fought on
concrete walls: the political watchtowers along the guards a better chance of
the same side during World War II, their relationship
boundary and the rear wall. length of the Berlin Wall. spotting anyone trying to
soon broke down into rivalry and distrust. They
The area in between was escape at night.
avoided direct conflict with each other but took
known as the “Death Strip”.
sides in “proxy wars” that erupted in smaller nations.

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

1949
Western Europe and the US formed
NATO, an alliance of democratic
countries. The Soviet Union and its
allies created a similar treaty, the
Warsaw Pact in 1955, in response. WARSAW PACT
BADGE

The Korean War

With the support of the US, South Korea fought 1950–1953
against an invasion by communist North
Korea. The Soviet Union and China supported
the North. The conflict ended in stalemate.

The Vietnam War

1955–1975

The US sent troops to support South Vietnam in its

brutal fight against communist North Vietnam. The
North was supported by the Soviet Union and China.
Viewing platform
The war dragged on and ended in defeat for the US.
Western tourists stood on
observation platforms to
The Hungarian Uprising
1956

see into the “Death Strip”.

The Hungarian people rebelled against their Soviet-
controlled government. Thousands were killed by
Soviet troops after the US failed to intervene.

The Berlin Wall

1961

Facing large-scale emigration, Soviet-influenced East

Germany erected the Berlin Wall, dividing communist
East Berlin from capitalist West Berlin.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

1962

The world came close to nuclear war when the Soviet

Union installed nuclear missiles on the island of
Cuba, close to the coast of North America.

The Prague Spring Wall graffiti

1968

Under new leader Alexander Dubček, Czechoslovakia The concrete face on the western side
experienced a period of freedom. Within months, of the wall was used as a blank canvas
Soviet troops invaded, restoring communist control. for paintings and protest messages.
This painting is called Some heads by
The fall of the Berlin Wall Thierry Noir, but much of the artwork
1989

Relations between the two superpowers began to was anonymous. The eastern side of
thaw in the 1980s, culminating in the Berlin Wall the wall remained blank because
being torn down. Germany was reunified a year later. people were forbidden to approach it.

The Iron Curtain

The Soviet Union installed communist Political boundary
regimes across Eastern Europe, sometimes The western side of
the wall was made up
using force. By 1950, it lay behind a wall of
of 45,000 concrete
communist states forming an East–West panels, each reinforced
divide that British politician Winston with steel and topped
Churchill called the “Iron Curtain”. It stretched with tubing.
6,800 km (4,225 miles) across Europe.
N
SWEDE

EAST
WEST BERLIN
BERLIN
DENMARK
Anti-vehicle ditch
V-shaped ditches were
Berlin UNION OF
NETH.
SOVIET dug all along the East
EAST POLAND
BEL. GERMANY SOCIALIST German border.
WEST REPUBLICS
GERMANY CZ
EC H (USSR) Sometimes reinforced
O S LO
VAKIA with concrete, they
C E

could stop almost any

F R A N

AUSTRIA HUNGARY
SWITZ.
type of vehicle.
YU ROMANIA
I TA

GO
SL
AV
LY

IA
Key BULGARIA
Soviet- 0 250 500 km
controlled area
Iron Curtain 0 250 miles
 8 The number of countries that were
members of the Warsaw Pact. 5,000 The number of people thought to have
fled East Germany across the wall. 187

The Cold War

Guarding the wall
Armed East German border guards
watched the wall constantly for
people trying to escape to West
Berlin. Guards had permission to In the aftermath of World War II, the world’s two
shoot anyone attempting to flee;
more than 130 East Germans died most powerful nations, the US and the Soviet Union,
trying to get across the wall. contested for military, cultural, and political supremacy.
The superpowers were divided over their political beliefs: the
Soviet system was based on communism (in which a central
government controls and distributes property) while the US
favoured capitalism (a system that encourages private ownership
of property). The two countries competed for dominance in many
ways, from space exploration to sport and technology. They raced
to develop more effective nuclear weapons, eventually
stockpiling enough to destroy the planet. The threat of nuclear
war prevented a direct battle, but their rivalry played out in a
“cold war” of propaganda and fear that affected the entire globe.

The Berlin Wall

The rear wall
The most visible symbol of the
On the eastern side, there Cold War was the Berlin Wall in
was a rear wall built of Germany. Erected by East Germany
reinforced concrete and in 1961, the 156-km- (97-mile-) long
topped with barbed wire. barrier prevented people from
escaping Soviet-controlled East
Germany for democratic West Berlin.
The wall divided families and friends
until it was torn down in 1989.

Spike mats
Sharp spikes at the bottom
of the wall deterred
potential escapees.

Patrols Signal fence

Border guards Touching the fence triggered
worked in pairs. a silent alarm to alert the
Only the most guards in the watchtower.
trusted guards
worked in the
Czech hedgehogs
“Death Strip”.
These X-shaped
steel beams
acted as a barrier
Dogs
against vehicles.
Guard dogs were
leashed to stakes
and could alert the
guards to any
escapees.
188 the modern world THE VIETNAM WAR 306,183 The number of US air attacks against North
Vietnam during Operation Rolling Thunder.

Fight for influence

The Vietnam War

Timeline
The US aimed to stop South Vietnam
from falling under the control of
communist North Vietnam, but In 1959, conflict broke out in South Vietnam
despite the superior military power
of the US, it was defeated. between pro-communist forces and the
anti-communist government. Eventually
The end of colonialism the US became involved, with the conflict

1954
Communist leader Ho Chi Minh’s troops defeated becoming the 20th century’s longest war.
the French army at Dien Bien Phu, ending 67
years of French control. The country was divided
into two zones – communist-controlled North
The communist North Vietnamese government
Vietnam and anti-communist South Vietnam. encouraged the unrest in South Vietnam, increasing
its support gradually by sending in the North
Declaration of war
Ho Chi Minh declared a March 1959 Vietnamese Army (NVA). The US, caught up in a
“People’s War” in South Cold War with the Soviet Union, feared the spread
Vietnam, intending to of communism in Southeast Asia. It joined the
eventually reunite the fighting in support of anti-communist South
two zones of the country
under his leadership. Vietnam, sending more and more troops, and
resulting in the loss of more than 50,000 US
The Ho Chi Minh trail lives. The US withdrew from the conflict in
May 1959

North Vietnamese forces began to create the Ho Chi

Minh trail – a network of routes leading from North
1973, before the fighting ended in 1975.
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia into South Vietnam,
which they used to transport soldiers and weapons.

Naval attack
1964

In the Gulf of Tonkin, a clash between the US

destroyer USS Maddox and North Vietnamese
torpedo boats led to the US pledging more
military support for South Vietnam.

“Operation
1965

Rolling Thunder”
In March, US President
Lyndon Johnson ordered
“Operation Rolling
Thunder”, a huge bombing
campaign against North Vietnam. The first US
Marines landed in South Vietnam, with army
ground troops arriving two months later. Cockpit
Inside the cockpit
The Tet Offensive
1968

there were seats for

During the festival of Tet, communist forces struck the pilot and co-pilot.
targets in towns and cities across South Vietnam. US
and South Vietnamese troops defeated the offensive,
but suffered a high number of casualties.

Changing policy
1969

As US public opinion
turned against the war,
US President Nixon
announced a policy of
strengthening the South
Vietnamese forces in
order to reduce the
number of US troops
in the country.

Kent State shootings

1970

Four students at Kent State University in Ohio in

the US were killed when the Ohio National Guard
opened fire on a crowd protesting about the war.
Front flank gunner
A gunner with an M60
US withdrawal
1973

machine gun sat in

In January, peace talks in Paris between the US and
position ready to fire.
representatives of the North Vietnamese government
ended in agreement to withdraw US troops by March.

Vietnam reunited
“Vietnam was lost
1975

North Vietnamese
troops marched into in the living rooms of America –
Saigon, reuniting the not on the battlefields of Vietnam”.
country and ending
the war. Marshall McLuhan, in the Montreal
Gazette, 16 May, 1975
By 1970, 18,000 tonnes of supplies were being
transported along the Ho Chi Minh trail each month. 23 The average age of a US soldier
killed during the Vietnam War. 189

US CH-47 Chinook Careful design

With two rotors, front and
Stable, agile, and fast, the US CH-47 Chinook
back, the Chinook was more
helicopter transported soldiers, vehicles, steady and stable in flight than
ammunition, and casualties quickly over other helicopters designed
Vietnam’s rugged jungle terrain. It had a with just one rotor.
hook underneath that allowed it to carry
heavy artillery to mountain positions
inaccessible by foot, and even to pick
up and move lighter aircraft.

Cabin window
In case of emergencies,
the cabin windows
could be jettisoned
US troops (thrown from the
Those personnel aircraft) so that soldiers
serving in the war were on board could escape.
from a variety of
different ethnic and
social backgrounds.

Engine power
The Chinook was
powered by two
gas turbine engines.
It was one of the
US army’s fastest
helicopters, with
a top speed of
315 km/h (196 mph).

Loading ramp
This ramp could be raised
or lowered, allowing troops
to load and unload cargo.

Transporting troops Onboard vehicle

The Chinook could The Chinook had space to carry
carry up to 33 fully a Jeep on board. The Jeep was
equipped soldiers. well-suited to Vietnam’s rugged
jungle terrain.

Guerrilla warfare Public protests

The NVA and the Viet Cong, a The Vietnam War was the first
pro-communist force in the south, used conflict to be reported on television,
guerrilla tactics against US soldiers. and many Americans were deeply
Hidden by jungle, they planted booby angered by the death and
traps or attacked US troops from a destruction they saw. Huge anti-war
distance, then quickly disappeared. demonstrations were organized
Unlike the US military, the NVA and around the country and some young
the Viet Cong were used to the terrain people refused the draft – the
and had the support of some locals. government’s order to fight.

Standing guard Anti-war demonstrations

Thousands of South Vietnamese In Berkeley in California, women
women fought for the Viet Cong. gathered to protest against the war.
 the modern world
Because of segregation, only 1 in 40 African
190 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Americans earned a college degree in the 1950s.

The Civil Rights MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

Movement
Martin Luther King, Jr. was born in 1929 in Atlanta, in the state
of Georgia. He was a Baptist minister and civil rights activist.
He organized many acts of non-violent protest and gave inspirational
speeches, playing a pivotal role in ending segregation in the US. King
In the 1950s, African Americans in the US faced won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, but in April 1968 he was
daily discrimination, such as being forced to assassinated by a white gunman.
use separate areas from white people in
public places and on public transport.
A growing number of African American civil rights
groups took a stand against segregation (the
separation of people based on skin colour). Many
adopted a policy of non-violence, protesting in a
peaceful manner. These activists faced attacks from
those who opposed an end to segregation. Eventually,
in the 1960s, laws were passed to outlaw
discrimination, but many African Americans still
struggled for basic rights and to be allowed to vote.

JIM CROW LAWS

“Jim Crow” was an insulting slang term for a black
person. The Jim Crow Laws were a series of regulations
that some states used to legalize the segregation of
black and white people in places such as schools,
restaurants, libraries, hospitals, and on public transport.
The laws also made it difficult for black people to vote.

Key
Segregated
Segregation optional
Integrated
No legislation

Educational segregation in the early 1950s

Each US state had its own laws about whether black
and white children could attend the same schools.

Timeline May 1954 1957 1957 1960

The fight for equality Brown v. Board of Martin Luther King, Jr. Little Rock Nine Greensboro sit-in
Education of Topeka and the SCLC Nine African American teenagers enrolled at When four black college
During the 1950s and 1960s, When nine-year-old Linda Martin Luther King, Jr. Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas, students sat down at a
black and white people came Brown tried to attend an became founder and where all 1,900 students were white. They “whites-only” lunch counter
together to demand equality for all-white school in Topeka, president of a new civil faced a hostile white crowd and had to be in a department store in
African Americans. This Civil Kansas, her enrollment was rights organization, the escorted to class by US army troops. They Greensboro, North Carolina,
Rights Movement challenged blocked. Her parents brought Southern Christian became known as the Little Rock Nine. they were refused service.
a lawsuit against the Topeka Leadership Conference The students remained
discrimination through lawsuits
Board of Education. This (SCLC). Working with the seated until closing time,
and non-violent protests. The resulted in a landmark ruling NAACP, its aim was to unite and returned with 300 more
struggle for political rights and by the US Supreme Court that African American churches students a few days later.
freedom was long and hard. segregation went against the across the South to advance This act of non-violent
Many participants often faced US Constitution. The Court the cause of civil rights protest, which was known
violent attacks by people who found in favour of the Browns using non-violent action. as a sit-in, inspired other
and banned segregation in sit-ins across the South.
wanted a “white-only” country.
government-run schools.
 c.21,000 people were arrested for rioting after
the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. 1970 The year that Black History
Month was first celebrated. 191

ROSA PARKS
Washington speech “I have a dream AND THE BUS
At the end of a march that my four little children
attended by 250,000
people in Washington, DC,
will one day live in a nation BOYCOTTS
Martin Luther King, Jr. gave
where they will not be judged An African American
a speech on the steps of by the colour of their skin” seamstress named Rosa
the Lincoln Memorial about Parks made history in
his hopes for the future for Martin Luther King, Jr., at a 1955 when she broke
African Americans. speech in Washington, DC, 1963
Alabama segregation laws
by refusing to give up her
bus seat for a white
person. She was a member
of the National Association
for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP),
a civil rights organization
founded in 1909. Her
arrest led to a year-long
boycott of the local bus
system, led by Martin
Luther King, Jr. The
protest brought worldwide
attention to the
discrimination faced by Taking fingerprints
African Americans. Rosa Parks was arrested when she refused to
give up her bus seat for a white passenger.

THE RIGHT
TO VOTE
Alabama
The Voting Rights Act
of 1965 was passed by
Georgia
President Lyndon Johnson,
with Martin Luther King, Jr.
Louisiana present when it was signed.
The law allowed black
Mississippi people the freedom to vote
without facing restrictions
Tennessee and intimidation. The
Voting Rights Act was
Texas one of the greatest
achievements of the Civil
Virginia Rights Movement. After it
was passed, the number of
African Americans who
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
turned up to vote soared,
particularly in the southern
Black voter registration states of the US.
1956 1966

1961 3 April, 1964 2 July, 1964 March, 1965 1968

Freedom rides “The ballot or 1964 Civil Rights Act Selma–Montgomery March 1968 Civil Rights Act
When new laws were the bullet” After years of protests Black people in southern states were often After Martin Luther King, Jr.
passed banning segregation Malcolm X was and intense international blocked from registering to vote. Protesters was assassinated, riots
on interstate buses, college a black Muslim pressure, the US Senate attempted to march 80 km (50 miles) from broke out across 125 US
students tested the laws by leader. In a speech brought the country a Selma in Alabama to the state capital, cities. President Johnson
taking “freedom rides” just before the step closer to equality by Montgomery, demanding the right to vote. urged Congress to quickly
throughout the South. They 1964 election, he passing the Civil Rights Act They faced brutal attacks from police. pass the Civil Rights Act.
encountered shocking said that civil rights of 1964. The law ended Commonly known as the
violence when they went would be attained segregation on buses, in Fair Housing Act, it allowed
into “whites-only” waiting either “by the ballot schools, and in other public equal housing opportunities
rooms and cafeterias, but or the bullet”. The places, and made racial for those attempting to
eventually bus and train speech encouraged discrimination in education buy or rent a home in the
companies were forced to African Americans to vote, but warned and employment illegal. US, regardless of race,
prohibit segregation. that violence was an option if the religion, or nationality.
government continued to prevent equality.
Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965.
192 the modern world THE 1960S 1966 The year Mary Quant started selling her
iconic miniskirts in London, England.

A decade of protests
The 1960s

Timeline
Inspired by the Civil Rights Movement
that started in the US in the 1950s, other
protest movements began to form in the After the hardships of World War II and recovery
1960s. Protesters marched for gender
and racial equality, human rights, better afterwards, the 1960s was a decade of optimism and
working conditions, the environment, and fun, as young people found exciting new ways to
the end of war in Vietnam. The turbulent
decade ended with riots and social unrest.
express themselves through fashion, music, and art.
Young people were inspired by new British pop and rock
bands such as The Beatles, The Who, and The Rolling Stones,
Women’s peace protest

1961
Women across the US marched in a one-day innovative fashion designers such as Mary Quant, and stylish
protest against the nuclear weapons of both the models including Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton. A “generation
US and the Soviet Union. This demonstration led gap” between young and old began to emerge, as young people
to the formation of a national organization –
Women Strike for Peace (WSP) – which rebelled against their parents, challenging not just their tastes
campaigned against nuclear weapons. in fashion and music, but their political views too.
Space Age fashion
Fashion designers were
March on Washington
1963

inspired by advances in
Nearly 250,000 people travelled to Washington, DC, space technology. They
to demand equal civil rights for African Americans. designed clothes using
The March for Jobs and Freedom was one of the futuristic colours and
largest rallies in history, and where civil rights modern materials.
leader Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his influential
“I Have a Dream” speech.

Colourful patterns
Some boutiques had
vivid street art on the
walls outside.

Flower power
1965

The hippie movement

5-point haircut
emerged in San
Working women needed
Francisco in the US.
an easy-to-maintain
The movement’s
haircut. Hairdresser Vidal
members, easily
Sassoon revolutionized
recognizable with their
women’s hair with his
long hair and colourful
iconic 5-point haircut.
clothes, peacefully
opposed the war in
Vietnam, giving flowers
to soldiers and police.

Summer of love
1967

Miniskirts
Thousands of young people travelled to San Popularized by British
Francisco to experience hippie culture. Influenced by designer Mary Quant,
Eastern religions such as Buddhism, they protested short miniskirts became
against violence, and embraced peace and love. a symbol of rebellious
youth culture.
Protests in France
1968

When student riots

broke out in Paris,
10 million workers
unhappy with the
government joined
them in a huge
general strike that
lasted two weeks.

Stonewall riots
1969

After a police raid sparked riots outside the

Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City’s Jaguar E-Type Photo shoots Fashion model
Greenwich Village, the US gay rights movement This British sports car Fashion photographers often Fashion photographers
was formed. It protested against the social and was fun to drive and photographed models on location turned teenage models into
political discrimination of gay people. hugely popular. in gritty urban settings. international stars.
 600 million The estimated number of
Beatles albums sold worldwide. 32 The number of acts that
performed at Woodstock in 1969. 193

Pop art Woodstock

Pop art, short for “Popular art”, emerged In 1969, the Woodstock
in the 1950s but flourished in the 1960s. Music and Art Fair took
Artists began to reject traditional painting in place on a small farm in
favour of bold colours and simple everyday upper New York State
imagery. They took their inspiration from in the US. The promotional
popular mass culture, comic books, and poster promised “3 days
advertising. The most famous pop artists of peace and music”. Half a
were Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, million people turned up to
who were both based in New York. the festival to listen to the
most famous musicians
of the day, including
Andy Warhol Jimi Hendrix, The Who, Jimi Hendrix
US pop artist Andy Warhol was fascinated Famed for his jazz-influenced guitar
and Janis Joplin.
by Hollywood film stars. He depicted solos, legendary guitarist Jimi Hendrix
famous actresses in his work many times. performed on the festival’s last night.

Swinging London
In the 1960s, London was at the
centre of fast-changing tastes in
fashion, music, and art, with US
magazine Time calling it “the
swinging city”. Young people flocked
to London’s busy shopping streets to
browse and buy the latest trends.

Afro hair
Inspired by the Civil Rights
Movement in the US, some
black British people chose
to wear their hair naturally
as a symbol of pride.

Mop tops
British band The
Beatles popularized this
floppy hairstyle, which
marked a change from
the more conservative
male haircuts of the
previous decade.

Block colour
Bright, bold,
geometric patterns
became popular.

Gender-neutral clothing
Mods and Rockers MINI Military clothing Fashion designers challenged traditional
“Mods” were people who wore parkas, The first MINI was sold in Yves Saint Laurent’s famous ideas of femininity and masculinity by
polo shirts, and rode scooters. They battled 1959. It became an iconic double-breasted pea coats ignited a creating unisex fashion that could
with gangs of motorbike-riding “Rockers”. symbol of 1960s Britain. trend for military-inspired fashion. be worn by anyone.
 the modern world
Saudi Arabia produces 10 million
194 CONFLICT IN THE MIDDLE EAST barrels of oil each day.

Conflict in the West Bank L E BA N O N

SY R I A
Tehran
AFG H AN ISTAN

Middle East
Baghdad
Jerusalem J O R DA N
I R AQ
IRAN

Gaza ISRAEL

K U WAIT
P
Throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries, er
si
EGY PT a
the Middle East has experienced a series of wars BA H R AIN
n
G
ul
f
between countries within and outside the region SAU D I
QATAR

R
ARABIA UAE
and among different religious groups.

e
O MAN

d
The Middle East is made up of many different religious

S
Arabian
groups, though the majority of people are Muslim Arabs. Sea

e
In 1948, the state of Israel was created in Palestine,

a
0 500 1,000 km
prompting anger across the Middle East, and sparking a YEMEN

conflict that is still ongoing today. More recently, in 2010, a 0 250 500 miles

series of pro-democracy uprisings, later known as the Arab

The Middle East today
Spring, led to unrest and upheaval across the region, while The Middle East is the common term used for the region consisting
civil wars in Syria and Yemen have worsened divisions. today of countries in West Asia as well as Egypt in North Africa.

IRAN The Iranian Revolution

After Saudi Arabia, Iran is the second In 1941, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi came to power
largest country in the region. Iran’s as Shah (king) in Iran, backed by the US. He
population is mostly made up of Shia introduced reforms inspired by the US, but this
angered conservative Shia Muslims. The Shah’s
Muslims, followers of a particular branch
main opponent was Ayatollah Khomeini, a Muslim
of Islam. Throughout the 20th century, cleric (priest), who wanted to create a government
Iran experienced regular political based upon Islamic beliefs. In 1979, when more
upheaval and war, most frequently than a million people took to the streets in
with its neighbour, Iraq. support of Khomeini, the Shah was forced to flee
and Khomeini was swept into power.
Public support
In 1979, more than a million Iranians demonstrated to
support Muslim cleric and leader Ayatollah Khomeini.

Tank war
Iran used British and US
tanks, such as this Chieftain,
in its fight against Iraq.
The Iran-Iraq War
With Iran in chaos after the revolution
of 1979, Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein,
invaded the country in 1980. He
blamed a dispute over a waterway
between the two states for the
outbreak of war. Both sides suffered
terrible losses in the fighting, which
saw the use of tanks, chemical
weapons, and trench warfare. A
ceasefire, organized by the United
Nations, was declared in 1988.

Timeline 1948 1948–1960s 1964 1967

Creation of Israel in Palestine Palestinian Palestine The Six-Day
Israel and Palestine
The United Nations proposed displacement Liberation War
During the Holocaust, millions of dividing the region of Palestine After the state of Israel Fearing an Arab
Organization
Jewish people were murdered into an Arab state and a Jewish was formed, more than The Palestine attack, Israel
by Germany’s Nazi Party. After state. Despite resistance from the 700,000 Palestinian Liberation launched a pre-
the war, the global community Muslim Arab Palestinians, the Arabs left the region. Organization (PLO) emptive strike
was determined to find the state of Israel was created. Palestinians called was established in against Arab
this their nakba, or Jordan. It aimed to troops along its
survivors a safe and permanent borders. Israeli
catastrophe. The bring various Arab
homeland. They chose British- Palestinians claimed they FORMER PLO forces seized
organizations under LEADER,
controlled Palestine, because were expelled, but Israel one banner, destroy YASSER ARAFAT territories from
Jewish people believe it to be insisted the Palestinians Israel, and create a Egypt, Syria,
the land promised to them by were not forced to leave. liberated Palestine. The PLO carried out and Jordan.
God. But the Arab people terrorist attacks against Israel, including
already living there objected, bombings and aircraft hijackings.
leading to years of conflict.
2010 The year of the Arab Spring – a series of pro-democracy
uprisings in multiple Muslim countries across the Middle East. 5.4 million The number of people who have fled
Syria since the civil war began in 2011. 195

THE GULF WAR THE WAR

In 1990, Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded oil-rich Kuwait, claiming that ON TERROR
it was rightfully part of Iraq. He refused the United Nations’ demand to In the 1980s, an Islamic
withdraw, and so military forces led by the US attacked and forced the terrorist group called
Iraqi army out of Kuwait during “Operation Desert Storm” in 1991. As “Al-Qaeda” formed in
they withdrew, Iraqi forces set fire to more than 600 Kuwaiti oil wells, Afghanistan. Their aim
destroying millions of barrels of oil and polluting the country. was to establish a Muslim
nation worldwide. On 11
September, 2001, they
carried out attacks in the
US, killing almost 3,000
people and prompting the
US to launch a “war on
terror”. The US invaded
Afghanistan to destroy
Al-Qaeda’s bases, and
then Iraq, searching for Scanning for explosives
Thousands of explosive mines were scattered
weapons it thought could around Iraq during the 2003 war. Here a US
be used against the West. soldier checks the ground with a metal detector.

REFUGEE CAMPS
The United Nations refugee agency estimated that in 2013, an
average of more than 30,000 people a day left their homes in
the Middle East because of conflict and persecution. Many
refugees take shelter in camps – temporary shelters that offer
safety, while they wait to be resettled in other countries.

Fires in the desert

US stealth aircraft, which were almost invisible to enemy radar, flew over the Kuwaiti
desert where uncontrolled oil-well fires burned for more than 10 months.

Oil production
The Middle East has the
largest oil reserves in the
world and many Middle
Eastern countries produce
and export oil. Although the
global demand for oil has
created wealth in the
Middle East, it has also led
to political and economic
interference by outside
powers who are keen to
keep the oil flowing.

Oil producer
The oil is transported across Safe space
the desert by long pipelines, Refugee camps offer life-saving aid like food, water, and medicine
ready for exporting abroad. during an emergency, though conditions are extremely basic.

1973 1979 1987–1993 1993 2000–2005

The Yom Kippur War The First Intifada Oslo Accords The Second Intifada
Syria and Egypt During the early 1980s, Hosted by US President Bill Clinton, After Israeli Prime Minister
launched a surprise Jewish settlements were Israeli and Palestinian leaders Ariel Sharon’s controversial
attack on Israeli-held established on Palestinian signed the first of the Oslo Accords, visit to the religious site of
lands to coincide with land, causing tensions in the designed to lead to a permanent Temple Mount in Jerusalem,
the Jewish holy day occupied areas to worsen. peace deal with mutual recognition Palestinian demonstrations
of Yom Kippur. They Palestinian Arabs in the between Israel and the PLO. escalated into rioting, and
hoped to win back West Bank and Gaza later suicide attacks, rocket
territory they had lost launched the Intifada launches, and sniper fire
to Israel during the Mutual recognition (meaning “popular uprising”) targeted at Israeli soldiers and
Six-Day War, but Israel US President Jimmy Carter worked against Israeli occupation citizens. Israel responded with
halted the advance. to improve relations between Israel with riots, strikes, boycotts, deadly force. This Second
and Egypt. Israel withdrew its forces and demonstrations. Israel Intifada cost more than 4,000
from the Sinai Peninsula and was accused of using Israeli and Palestinian lives.
returned the land to Egypt, which extreme force in response.
became the first Arab country to
officially recognize Israel’s existence.
Postcolonial
Africa
During the 1950s and 1960s, African
countries gained independence from
their colonial rulers. For some
Africans, this meant new freedoms
and opportunities straight away, but
most nations faced huge challenges
over the following decades.
Many countries experienced civil wars,
and different ethnic groups fought among
each other. Dictators seized power and
were then reluctant to let go, ruling for
decades through violence and fear. In
South Africa, the government favoured
the minority white population in a system
known as Apartheid (“separateness”).
Under this system, black people faced
many restrictions, such as where they
could live and work, and had fewer
political rights than white people. However,
in the 21st century, the future of Africa
looks brighter, with many nations having
greater political and financial stability.

1960–1965
Extreme violence 1963
erupted in the Congo The Organization of
(now the Democratic African Unity was
Republic of Congo) established to encourage
after the country cooperation between
gained independence African nations and
from Belgium. to fight colonialism
across the continent.
1971–1979
Idi Amin, president of
Uganda, led an eight- 1975–2002
year reign of terror The Republic of Angola
with widespread became independent of
violence until he Portugal but descended
was overthrown. into a civil war that
lasted many decades.
April–July 1994
In Rwanda, up to a
million Tutsis, an
May 1994
ethnic group, were
Nelson Mandela
killed by the Hutus,
became the first black
a neighbouring
president of South
ethnic group.
Africa, ending 300
years of white rule.
2004
Wangari Maathai, a
Kenyan feminist,
won the Nobel 2018
Peace Prize for her Ethiopia became
work to empower the fastest-growing
young women. economy in Africa.

The first free elections in South Africa

In an election rally, crowds show their
support for Nelson Mandela, who would
become the first black president of
South Africa in 1994. Mandela’s election
marked the end of Apartheid.
 the modern world
The South Korean car company Hyundai has five separate factories,
198 MODERN ASIA which together cover an area the size of 700 football pitches.

BOOMING ECONOMIES
Between the early 1960s and the 1990s, many Asian countries
Modern Asia
experienced rapid economic growth and fast improvement in Since World War II, several countries in Asia have
standards of living. They exported cheap-to-produce, high-tech developed wealthy, thriving economies. For the first
goods to the rest of the world and attracted foreign investment.
In 1997, the continent suffered a setback during the Asian
time in modern history, parts of Asia are richer than
financial crisis, when foreign investment declined, but it Europe and quickly catching up with the US.
recovered quickly.
After the devastation of World War II, many Asian countries
1300 Economic growth
needed to recover and rebuild. They set out to strengthen their
1200 This graph shows the economies by supporting the growth of industries that used
1100
economic growth of some their own natural resources, such as coal and oil, rather than
Asian countries from 1980
to 2005. Despite dips, the
relying on foreign imports. Governments put money into
1000
lines continue upwards. improving infrastructure – systems of communication, power,
900
and transport – then shifted their focus to high-tech industries.
Percentage of growth

800

700

600

500 JAPAN
400 After World War II, Japan concentrated on producing cotton, coal,
300 and steel to fund its recovery and rebuild its economy. The Japanese
200
education system produced highly skilled workers and gradually the
Key country began to focus on making high-tech products. Japan
100
Hong Kong suffered a recession in the 1990s and economic growth has since
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 South Korea slowed, but it is still one of the richest countries in the world.
Year Singapore

SINGAPORE
Singapore gained its independence in 1965, after breaking away
from neighbouring Malaysia. Since then, the tiny nation has
Sony Walkman
dramatically transformed, attracting investment from abroad Japanese company Sony sold
and becoming a global financial centre. 200 million of these portable
cassette tape players around
the world after they were
released in 1979.

Modern technology
Japan is a world leader in
technology, pioneering
advances in electronics and
robotics. It is home to many
world-famous brands, such as
electronics companies Sony and
Nintendo and car companies
Mitsubishi and Toyota, whose
products are popular with
consumers around the world.

Honda Asimo
Created in 2000, the
Honda Asimo (short for
“Advanced Step in
Innovative Mobility”)
was the first robot to
walk on two legs.

Nintendo Game Boy

The Port of Singapore Nintendo sold more than
Sheltered from the ocean and deep enough for large ships, Singapore’s main 18 million copies of its
harbour is one of the busiest ports in the world. Each year, more than 130,000 handheld games console,
ships visit the port, with a vessel arriving or leaving every two to three minutes. which was released in 1989.
2008 The year Beijing in China hosted the Summer Olympic Games,
which were watched by 4.7 billion people around the world. 6 m/s (20 ft/s) – the speed of the lifts in the
Petronas Towers in Malaysia. 199

SOUTH KOREA
South Korea has become one of the
world’s top exporters. Its popular exports
include Hyundai cars and Samsung
electronics, as well as cultural trends,
such as K-Pop (South Korean pop music)
and K-Beauty (South Korean cosmetics).

Shipping at Ulsan Port

Hyundai Motor Company produces a new vehicle every
10 seconds. From this port close to its factories, it
ships its cars to consumers around the world.

CHINA
In 1978, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping
approved new policies to open up China’s
tightly controlled economy to the world. He
invited foreign companies to invest in the
country, for the first time in many years.
With the labour of its gigantic population,
China produced and sold more goods than
any other country in the world, turning it
into an economic superpower.

MALAYSIA The Petronas Towers

Standing at 452 m
Malaysia gained its independence from Britain in 1957, later (1,482 ft) tall, these twin
becoming one of the world’s fastest developing countries due skyscrapers in Kuala
to its plentiful natural resources, such as oil, gas, tin, and fertile Lumpur, Malaysia, were Modern factories
the world’s tallest China modernized its factories by introducing
land. To modernize the economy, the government made it buildings until 2004, and new technologies. Workers were paid lower
easier to trade with foreign countries, invested in infrastructure, a symbol of Malaysia’s wages than in the West, which helped to attract
and reformed the country’s healthcare and education. economic success. financial investment from foreign companies.
200 the modern world A GREENER FUTURE 15 billion The number of trees cut down
around the world every year.

A greener future
Reduce, reuse, recycle
Every day humans produce three
million tons of waste, which is buried
in the ground, burned, or recycled. Solar panels
At the start of the 21st century, as human activity takes Concerned about the environmental These panels absorb
damage caused by huge mounds of
its toll on the environment, experts are calling for urgent waste, campaigners are encouraging
enough energy from the
Sun to meet the energy
action to prevent a global crisis. people to limit how much they create needs of the inhabitants.
in the first place, by buying less and
Since the Industrial Revolution, people have relied on fossil fuels reusing items where possible.
such as oil and coal for power, but burning these fuels releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a type of greenhouse
gas. It acts like a blanket around Earth, trapping in the Sun’s heat –
a phenomenon known as the “Greenhouse Effect”. Earth’s increasing
temperature is causing the polar ice caps to melt, sea levels to rise,
Green roof
and natural disasters such as hurricanes and floods to become more The plants take carbon
extreme. As scientists and politicians search for technological solutions dioxide from the air
and turn it into
to these environmental issues, many campaigners insist that the only
life-giving oxygen.
way to save the planet is to dramatically change the way we live.
Rainwater collection
The gutters collect rainwater,
Heat-proof glass
channelling it into a water
Triple-glazed windows
butt, where it is ready to be
prevent heat loss during
used in the garden.
winter and keep the house
cool in summer.
Compost bin
Wildlife-friendly garden
Cut grass and food scraps can
Having a variety of trees and
be left to rot, becoming compost
plants encourages wildlife to an
that provides valuable nutrients
area, reduces noise pollution,
for the garden.
and improves air quality.

Beehive
A single beehive contains an
average of 40,000 honeybees.
Bees help plants to reproduce by
transferring pollen between them,
but habitat destruction means the
number of bees is decreasing.

Allotment
As well as being a space to
grow fruit and vegetables, an
allotment provides a habitat for
many different insect species.

Feeding the population

One-third of the planet’s land is
already used for farming, but with
an expanding population to feed,
more and more land is needed to
grow crops and rear animals.
Extreme weather and natural
disasters such as drought and Rainwater tank Recycling bins
flooding are making farming less A large underground tank stores rainwater Glass, paper, plastic, and aluminium
predictable, while overfishing the and pipes it into the house, where it is waste is collected to be recycled
oceans has reduced fish stocks. used to wash clothes and flush the toilet. into new materials.
2°C (4°F) – the temperature rise beyond which climate
change will become irreversible, according to scientists. 1.6 billion The global population at the start of the
20th century. Today it is more than 7 billion. 201

Home turbine Renewable energy Rising sea levels

Vertical axis wind turbines Technological advances have now
work well in built-up areas. As sea levels rise, low-lying countries are
made it possible to obtain large
amounts of energy from natural at risk of being overwhelmed by water. Most
resources. At sea, wind is plentiful of the Marshall Islands, a collection of 12,000
and free. Unlike oil and coal, wind islands in the Pacific Ocean, are just a few
is a renewable resource, which metres above sea level. Wave-driven floods
means it won’t run out. The wind’s are becoming more frequent, threatening
energy turns the blades of this homes, crops, and fresh water supplies.
turbine, which are connected to a
generator. The generator converts
this energy into electricity to
power homes, schools, and offices.

Insulation
A layer of insulation
prevents heat from escaping.
Under water
Living green walls
Inhabitants of the Marshall Islands may be forced
Walls covered with carbon
to leave their homes if sea levels continue to rise.
dioxide-absorbing plants
act as a natural air-filter.

Low-energy lighting Endangered wildlife

These light bulbs are more
efficient than traditional bulbs, From corals in Australia to penguins in
with less energy lost as heat. Antarctica, wildlife across the world is
disappearing at an alarming rate. Habitat
Eco-friendly paint destruction caused by human activity is
This water-based paint doesn’t the main reason that
contain any substances so many species are
harmful to the environment.
at risk of extinction.

Under threat
Brick walls The number of
Brick absorbs heat and orangutans in the
then releases it slowly, wild is falling due
meaning that less to habitat loss.
energy is required
to heat the home.

Household appliances
White goods such as
washing machines, fridges,
and dishwashers are now
being designed to use less
water and electricity.

Heat exchanger
Cold water flows through pipes
underground, absorbing heat,
before it is returned to the
house to heat radiators, or to
be used for showers and baths.

Eco-friendly house
“We are facing a man-made Houses of the future will have as many
eco-friendly features as possible in order
disaster of global scale. Our
to reduce their “carbon footprint” – the
greatest threat amount of carbon dioxide they release
into the atmosphere. This house is
Electric car in thousands of years.
powered by the Sun and the wind. Its roof
An electric car does Climate change.”
not emit greenhouse is covered in plants, which absorb carbon
gases like petrol- or David Attenborough, British broadcaster, to dioxide from the surrounding air, and it
diesel-powered cars. the UN Conference on Climate Change, 2018 is well insulated to prevent heat loss.
202 glossary

Glossary
ABDICATION BUDDHISM COLONIZATION DECOLONIZATION
Formally handing over power A major world religion based on The act of sending settlers to The process of giving back political
or responsibility to another. the teachings of Buddha. establish a colony in another control to a former colony,
country, sometimes involving resulting in its independence.
ABOLITION CALIPH taking political control over
The act of doing away with The title of a political and the people already living there. DEMOCRACY
something completely. religious leader of an Islamic A political system in which people
empire, or caliphate. COLONY have power to control their
ALLIES/ALLIED FORCES An area under the political control government, usually by electing
People or countries working CAPITALISM of another state, usually in a politicians to represent their views.
together. In World War I and An economic system based on foreign country. The people that
World War II, the Allies or the private ownership of property settled there are called colonists. DICTATOR
Allied forces were the countries and free competitive conditions A leader who rules a country
fighting against Germany. for business. COMMUNISM alone, with no restrictions on
The political belief in a society in the extent of his or her power.
ANTI-SEMITISM CASUALTIES which ownership of property and
Prejudice and hostility towards People killed or injured as a result wealth is shared. DOMESTICATION
Jewish people. of war or an accident. The taming of wild animals to
CONCENTRATION CAMP make them useful to humans.
APARTHEID CAVALRY A prison camp for non-military
In South Africa, a government Military troops mounted on prisoners. At Nazi concentration DYNASTY
policy of racial segregation horseback. camps, prisoners included Jews A royal family ruling a country
that lasted from 1948 to 1994. and other groups considered for successive generations.
CE to be enemies of the state.
ARMISTICE Common Era. The years from EASTERN ORTHODOX
An agreement that is reached 1 CE to the present day. This CONFUCIANISM CHURCH
to end a conflict. abbreviation has largely replaced A Chinese religion based on the A form of Christianity, strongest
AD (Anno Domini, which is Latin teachings of Confucius. Followers in eastern Europe and West Asia,
ASSASSINATION for “in the year of our Lord”). are taught to respect people above that split from the Roman Catholic
The murder of a key figure by them in rank. Church in 1054 CE.
surprise attack, carried out for CITIZEN
political or religious reasons. A person who belongs to a city CONQUISTADOR EMPIRE
or a bigger community such as One of the Spanish conquerors A group of lands or peoples
AUTHORITARIAN a state or country. of Native American civilizations. brought under the rule of one
Term applied to leaders or government or person.
governments who exercise power CITY-STATE CONSTITUTION
with little or no regard for A city, and its surrounding A set of laws that determines the EXTINCT
democracy or other constraints. territory, that has its own political principles of a government. Describes a species that has no
independent government. living members.
AXIS POWERS COUNTER-REFORMATION
Nations on Germany’s side CIVIL RIGHTS The period of change in the FASCISM
in World War II, including The rights of citizens to be Roman Catholic Church after A political movement stressing
Italy and Japan. socially and politically equal. the Protestant Reformation. nationalism, which places the
This included internal reform strength of the state above
BARBARIAN CIVIL WAR and opposition to Protestantism. individual citizens’ welfare.
The name given by the Romans to A war fought by opposing
tribes outside the Roman Empire. inhabitants of the same country. CRUSADES, THE FEUDALISM
Military expeditions of the 11th to A social system that developed
BCE CIVILIZATION 13th centuries, in which Christian in medieval Europe and Japan, in
Before Common Era. The years Culture and way of life of people knights tried to seize the city of which people of the serving classes
before 1 CE (Common Era). This living together in an organized Jerusalem from the Muslims. (such as labourers and peasants)
abbreviation has largely replaced and developed society. pledged support to their overlord
BC (Before Christ). CULTURE in return for their protection.
COLD WAR, THE The customs, beliefs, and
BOLSHEVIK The period of hostility between behaviour shared by a society. GREAT DEPRESSION, THE
A faction within the Russian the West and the communist A period of drastic decline in
Social Democratic Party that countries dominated by the Soviet DAIMYO economic activity, marked by
later became the Communist Union. It lasted from shortly after A lord in medieval Japan who widespread unemployment and
Party in 1918. World War II until 1989. owed allegiance to the shogun. hardship, in the 1930s.
 203

GUERRILLA WARFARE NATIONALISM RENAISSANCE, THE STALEMATE

A war fought by people who are Loyalty and devotion to a nation, A period of European history, A situation where further
not part of regular uniformed and the political belief that its beginning in the 14th century, action by either side in a conflict
armies and who use tactics such interests should be pursued as the when art and literature were appears impossible.
as ambush and sabotage. primary goal of a political policy. influenced by the rediscovery of
knowledge from the ancient world. STATE
HERESY NEANDERTHAL A country – or a region within a
Beliefs that are considered to be An extinct species of hominin REPUBLIC country – and its people. A state
in conflict with a religious group’s closely related to our own species. A country without a monarch or is ruled by a government.
established beliefs. emperor. Modern republics are
NOMADIC usually led by presidents. STOCK EXCHANGE
HOLOCAUST Describing people who move from An organization that allows
The mass murder of the Jews by place to place without establishing REVOLT trading in shares of companies
the German state in World War II. a permanent settlement. An organized uprising intended to and other financial assets.
overthrow whoever is in authority.
HOMININ PEASANT SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
A member of the biological group A worker on the land, usually an REVOLUTION The part of Africa to the south
that includes humans and their agricultural labourer. A sudden and fundamental change of the Sahara Desert.
extinct relatives. in society brought about by an
PERSECUTE organized group of protestors. Can SUBCONTINENT
IMMIGRANT To oppress or harass a person or also be used to mean a major A large landmass that forms part
A person who moves to a new group because of their origins change in the way that people of a bigger continent. Usually used
country from abroad in order to or beliefs. do or think about things. to refer to the Indian subcontinent.
settle there permanently.
PHARAOH ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH SULTAN
INDIGENOUS Title given to a king in ancient The largest group within the The title given to a ruler in some
When applied to people, the word Egypt. People believed that the Christian faith, led by the Pope Islamic empires and kingdoms.
indigenous describes the original pharaohs had sacred powers. and based in Rome.
settlers of a country or region. SUPERPOWER
PHILOSOPHY SAMURAI A country with great political
ISLAM A set of ideas or beliefs. A Japanese warrior who owes and military power, capable of
A religion based on the teachings allegiance to a daimyo and follows influencing international politics.
written in the Qu’ran. Followers PILGRIM a strict code of honour.
believe in one God, who revealed A religious person who makes TREASON
his message to the prophet a journey to a holy place. SCRIPT The crime of betraying one’s
Mohammad in the 7th century CE. The written characters that country.
PREHISTORIC make up a writing system,
MAUSOLEUM Dating from prehistory – the time such as an alphabet. TREATY
A large tomb, or an impressive before the invention of writing. An official, written agreement
building for housing several tombs. SEGREGATION between warring parties to
PROPAGANDA Separation, particularly of one bring hostilities to an end.
MESOPOTAMIA Method used to change and control race from another within a
The region of modern-day Iraq how people think and behave. racist social system. TRENCH
lying between the Tigris and It may take the form of posters, A ditch dug by soldiers for
Euphrates rivers, where many of broadcasts, or air-dropped SERF protection against enemy fire.
the earliest civilizations began. leaflets, for example. A peasant who is obligated to
undertake agricultural work on TRIBUTE
MISSIONARY PROTESTANTISM their lord’s land. Money or goods paid to a state
A religious person who seeks out A form of Christianity, resulting or monarch in recognition of their
and persuades others to adopt his from the Reformation, which SHOGUN superior status.
or her religion. is separate from the Roman A military leader who ruled Japan
Catholic Church. in the name of the emperor. TSAR
MONARCHY The title of the rulers of Russia
A type of government in which a RECONNAISSANCE SIEGE from the 15th century until 1917.
king or queen is recognized as the Taking a preliminary look at an To surround a city or fortress with
head of state, whether or not they area before sending in troops, the intention of capturing it. UNITED NATIONS
hold real power. usually in order to locate an A global organization set up after
enemy. SLAVE World War II to help maintain
MUSLIM A person who is held as the international peace, security,
A follower of Islam. REFORMATION, THE property of another. and cooperation.
A religious movement of the 16th
NATION century, in which many Christians SPECIES WEST, THE
An independent country, or a in Europe broke away from the A group of organisms that are Europe and North America, or
group of people who share traditions and teachings of the similar to, and can breed with, their ideals and culture when seen
historical or cultural ties. Roman Catholic Church. each other. in contrast to other civilizations.
204 index

Index
Page numbers in bold type refer Anubis 24 Bastille, storming of the 139 canals 117, 130, 131 cohorts (Roman army) 51
to main entries Apartheid 163, 197 Batavia (Java) 116 canoes, outrigger 82–3 Cold War 186–7
apartment blocks 53 battering rams 79 capitalism 187 Colombia 142
9/11 195 apes 10 Bauer, Andreas Friedrich 101 carbon dioxide 200 colonization
1960s 162, 192–3 Arabs 194 Baybars, Sultan 78 carbon footprint 201 age of empires 156–7
Arafat, Yasser 194 Bayezid I, Sultan 98 Caribbean 106, 121, 128, 129, colonial rivalry 129

A Archaic Age 29
architecture
Ottoman 98–9
Beatles, the 192
Belgian Congo 157
Belgium
185
Carnac (France) 18
cars 152–3
decolonization 162, 184–5
early colonial America 114–15
Colosseum (Rome) 49
Abbasid Dynasty 59, 67, 84
abolition 121 Renaissance 94 independence 144 Carter, Jimmy 195 Colossus of Rhodes 41
Aborigines 12, 136 Argentina 142 World War I 164, 167 Carthaginian Empire 32, 48 Columbus, Christopher 93,
absolute monarchy 139 Aristotle 31, 94 Benin, Kingdom of 80 castles 104–5, 106
absolutism 122–3 Arminius 9, 54 Benin Expedition 156 Crusader 78–9 communism
Abu Simbel 24–5 armour Benz, Karl 126, 152 Japanese 64 age of dictators 172–3
Abyssinia 157 medieval European 70 Bergen-Belsen 178 Çatalhöyük 17 China 163
Adena culture 74 Roman 50–1 Berlin 145 catapults 79 Cold War 186, 187
Afghanistan 110, 111 see also warriors; weapons Berlin Wall 162, 186–7 Catherine II (the Great) of Russia Russian Revolution 162, 169
Africa art Black Death 71 122, 129 Soviet Union 169
decolonization 162, 184 1960s 193 Blitz, the 177 cattle ranching 150 Vietnam War 188
first humans 12–13 cave 14 Blitzkrieg 177 cavalry, Roman 51 concentration camps 162, 178–9
postcolonial 196–7 Dutch 117 blood circulation 147 cave art 14 Concord, Battle of 132
Scramble for 156–7 Edo Japan 119 Boer Wars 157 Celts 8, 36–7 concrete 53
slave trade 120–1 Ottoman 99 Bolívar, Simón 142 Central America, ancient Confederate States 148–9
sub-Saharan kingdoms 80–1 Renaissance 93, 94–5 Bolivia 142 civilizations 86–7 Confucianism 46, 47
World War II in 180–1 ukiyo 119 Bollywood 175 centuries (Roman army) 51 Congo, Democratic Republic of
African Americans 148–9, 162, Artemis 31 Bolsheviks 162, 169 CH-47 Chinook helicopter 188–9 197
190–1 Ashikaga shogunate 65 bombing campaigns 177 chain mail 70 conquistadors 106–7
agriculture Ashoka the Great 8, 42–3 Bonaparte, Napoleon 127, 140–1 Champa Kingdom 72 Constantine I, Emperor 60
first farmers 16–17 Ashurbanipal of Assyria 20 books, printed 101 Champlain, Samuel 114 Constantinople 60, 61, 62, 78,
Incas 87 Asia Borodino, Battle of 141 Chandra Gupta I 42 92, 98
aircraft modern 198–9 Boston 115 Chandra Gupta II 42 Cook, Captain James 136, 137
early 127, 158–9 see also countries by name; Boston Tea Party 132 Chandragupta Maurya 42 Copernicus, Nicolaus 93, 112
Vietnam War 188–9 Southeast Asia Botticelli, Sandro 94 Charlemagne, Holy Roman Córdoba 59, 60, 66
World War I 165 assembly lines 153 Boudicca, Queen 37 Emperor 55, 58, 61 Corinth 29
World War II 176–7 Assyrian Empire 20, 21 Brazil 121, 142 Cherokee 134 Cortés, Hernán 92–3, 106, 107
airships 159 astronomy 99, 112, 116 Britain Chichen Itza 87 Cossacks 103
Akbar the Great 110, 111 Asuka Period 64 Anglo-Saxons 55 child labour 130 Counter-Reformation 93, 108
Akhenaten, Pharaoh 23 Atahualpo, Emperor 106 Battle of Britain 176–7 Chile 142 cowboys 150
Akkadian Empire 20 Athena 31 Celts 36–7 China Criollos 142
Aksum, Kingdom of 80 Athens 28, 29, 30 colonial empire 111, 114–15, first emperor 8, 34, 44–5 crops 16, 17, 26, 27
Al-Qaeda 195 Atlantic, Battle of the 177 127, 128, 129, 132, 136–7, golden age 76–7 Crusades 59, 61, 62, 78–9
Alaric I of the Visigoths 54 atomic bombs 163, 183, 186 156–7, 184–5 Han 8, 46–7 Cuba 126, 185
Alexander the Great 8, 28, 40, Attila the Hun 34 and India 111, 156 Ming 59, 88–9 Cuban Missile Crisis 186
42 Augustine of Canterbury 60 Industrial Revolution 130–1 modern 199 culture see art; cinema; drama;
Alexander Nevsky, Prince 103 Augustus, Emperor 9, 49 Napoleonic Wars 140, 141 People’s Republic of 163 literature; music
Alexandria 40–1 Aurangzeb 111 Roman conquest 37, 48, 49 unequal treaties 156 Cyrus the Great of Persia 21, 38
Alighieri, Dante 94 Auschwitz 179 Seven Years’ War 128, 129 Chola Dynasty 72 Czechoslovakia 177
Allahabad, Fort of 111 Austerlitz, Battle of 140–1 slave trade 121 Christianity 69, 73, 137
Allied powers 176
Along the River during the
Qingming Festival (Zhang
Australia, colonization of 127,
136–7
Australopithecus afarensis 10
World War I 164–5
World War II 176–7, 180, 183
British East India Company 111
Crusades 78–9
power of the Church 60–1
Christmas truce (1914) 167
D
D-Day landings 183
Zeduan) 76–7 Austria 144, 145, 177 Brown, Linda 190 Churchill, Winston 180, 186 da Gama, Vasco 104
Amazon, River 104 Dollfuss regime 173 Brunelleschi, Filippo 94 Cicero 94 Dachau 178
American War of Independence Napoleonic Wars 140, 141 Buddhism 42, 47, 73, 96 cinema 163, 174–5 Dai-Viet Empire 72
127, 132 Seven Years’ War 128, 129 buffalo 150, 151 city-states Damascus 67, 78
Amin, Idi 197 Austro-Hungary 164 building materials Greek 28 Darius I of Persia 9, 38, 39
Amsterdam 116–17, 178 automobiles 126, 152–3 Egyptians 27 Sumerian 20 Dark Age (Greece) 29
An Lushan 76 auxiliaries 50 Romans 53 civil disobedience 185 death camps 162, 179
anaesthetics 146, 147 Avicenna 147 Bulgaria 145 Civil Rights Acts (1964/1968) Declaration of Independence
anatomy 112, 147 Axis powers 176 Byblos 32 191 132–3
Ancestral Puebloans 58, 74–5 Ayacucho, Battle of 142–3 Byzantine Empire 58, 62–3, 92, Civil Rights Movement 162, Declaration of the Rights of Man
Angkor 72 Aztecs 87, 106 98, 102 190–1, 192 and the Citizen 139
Angkor Wat 72–3 Classical Age (Greece) 28, 29 decolonization 142–3, 162,
Anglo-Saxons 55
Anglo-Zulu War 126, 157
Angola, Republic of 197
B C Claudius, Emperor 49
Cleopatra VII 41
cliff dwellings 74–5
184–5, 197
Delhi 93, 110
Delphi 28
Babur 93, 110, 111 Cabot, John 104
animals Babylonian Empire 20, 21, 41 Caesar, Julius 37, 48, 49 climate change 200–1 democracy 30
Australian 136 bacteria 116 Cairo 66 Clinton, Bill 195 Democritus 31
domestication 16, 17 Baghdad 68 California 134, 135, 154 clothing Deng Xiaoping 199
selective breeding 17 siege of 84–5 Caligula, Emperor 49 early humans 15 Denisovans 12, 13
spread in Polynesia 82 Bangladesh 185 caliphs 66, 67 Egyptians 26 Descartes, René 112
animation 175 barbarian invasions 62 Callias, Peace of 39 Roman soldiers 50–1 diamonds 157
Antarctica 136 Barnard, Christiaan 147 calligraphy 99 Viking 69 dictatorships 172–3
anti-war protests 189 Basil II, Emperor 62 Calvin, John 109 Clovis I of the Franks 55 diet 14, 16, 26
Antietam, Battle of 148 basket weaving 74 Cambyses II of Persia 39 Clovis people 13 digital technology 101
antiseptics 146 Bast 24 Canada 114, 115, 128 coal mining 130–1 Diodorus of Sicily 40
 205

dirigibles 159 fascism 172–3 Golden Stool, War of the 156 homes internal combustion engine 152
Disney, Walt 175 fashion, 1960s 192, 193 Goryeo Dynasty 96, 97 Ancient Puebloans 74–5 Intifadas, First and Second 195
divine right 122 Fatehpur Sikri 110 Goths 54 Celtic 36–7 Intihuatana 86
Djoser, Pharaoh 22 Fatimid Dynasty 67 granaries 27 early colonial America 114 inventions, ancient Chinese 46
DNA 13 Fertile Crescent 16 Grand Canal (China) 47 eco-friendly 200–1 Iran-Iraq War 194
Dodge City 150 feudal system 70, 71 Grant, General Ulysses S. 149 Egyptian 27 Iranian Revolution 194
Dollfuss, Engelbert 173 fiefs 71 gravity 112 Roman 52–3 Iraq 20, 162, 194, 195
Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem) Final Solution 162, 178 Great Depression 163, 170, 171, Sioux 150–1 Ireland
67 First Crusade 78 174 Viking 68–9 famine 154
domestication 16, 17 Fleming, Alexander 147 Great Northern War 122 hominins 10–11, 13 Home Rule 144
domus, Roman 52–3 flight, early 158–9 Great Plains Homo erectus 8, 11 Iron Curtain 186
Dorset people 75 floods 17, 26, 200, 201 hunters 75 Homo floriensis 12 Isis 24
Drake, Francis 104 Florence 94 Native Americans 150–1 Homo habilis 10 Islam 58, 73, 185
drama Flyer, 1903 Wright 158–9 Great Pyramid of Giza 41 Homo heidelbergensis 11 Crusades 78–9
cinema 174–5 Forbidden City (Beijing) 88–9 Great Stupa (Sanchi) 42–3 Homo neanderthalensis 11 early Islamic world 66–7
Greek 30–1 Ford, Henry 153 Great Wall of China 34, 44, 88 Homo sapiens 11 medicine 147
Japanese 65, 118–19 Fort Sumter 148 Great Zimbabwe 58, 80–1 Hong Kong 185 Mughal Empire 110, 111
Drancy 178 forts, slave 121 Greco-Persian Wars 9, 39 Hongwu Emperor 88 Spanish Reconquista 60
Dresden, bombing of 183 fossil fuels 200 Greece, ancient 9, 28–9 Hooke, Robert 112 Israel, and Palestine 163, 194–5
Dubček, Alexander 186 Fourth Crusade 78 Greek culture 30–1 Hoover, Herbert 171 Istanbul 98
Dunkirk evacuation 177 France Hellenistic Age 40–1 Hoovervilles 171 Italy
Dust Bowl 171 absolute monarchs 122–3 influence of 29 Hopewell culture 74 colonial empire 157
Dutch East India Company 116 colonial empire 114–15, 184 medicine 147 Horthy, General Miklos 173 Mussolini and fascism 173
Dutch Empire 116, 136 French Revolution 122, 127, wars with Persia 9, 39 hot-air balloons 159 unification of 126, 145
Dutch Republic, Golden Age 138–9, 144 Greek War of Independence 126, Hubertusburg, Treaty of 129 World War I 164
116–17 Gaul 36–7, 48 145 Huguenots 109 World War II 176, 180
Napoleonic Wars 140–1 Greenhouse Effect 200 Hulagu Khan 84 Ivan III (the Great) of Russia 102

E Seven Years’ War 128, 129

student riots 192
Wars of Religion 109
Greenland 69
Greensboro sit-in 190
guerrilla warfare 189
human sacrifices 86
humanism, Renaissance 95
humans
Ivan IV (the Terrible) of Russia
93, 103
East Germany 162, 186, 187
East Timor 185
Easter Island 83
Eastern Orthodox Church 62,
World War I 164–7
World War II 183
Franco, General Francisco 172
guillotine 138, 139
Gulf of Tonkin 188
Gulf Wars 162, 195
ancestors 10–11
early 14–15
evolution and migration 8,
J
Jabal al-Nour 67
102 Frank, Anne 178 Gupta Empire 42 12–13 Jamaica 185
Eastern Roman Empire 62 Franks 55, 61 Gutenberg, Johannes 61, 92, Hungary Jamestown, Virginia 92, 114–15
eco-friendly houses 201 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 164 100–1 and Austrian Empire 145 Janszoon, Willem 136
economic growth, Asian 198 Frederick II (the Great) of Gutenberg Bible 61, 92, 101 Horthy era 173 Japan
Ecuador 142 Prussia 122, 128–9 Hungarian Uprising 186 Edo period 92, 118–19
Edo period 92, 118–19
Edward VI of England 109
Egypt
freedom rides 191
French Indochina 184
French Revolution 122, 127,
H Huns 34
hunter-gatherers 12, 13, 14, 16,
74–5
emigration 154
medieval 58, 64–5
modern 198
Hadrian, Emperor 49
colonial rule 157 138–9, 144 Hadrian’s Wall 49 Hussein, Saddam 162, 195 World War II 162, 163, 176,
independence 184 French Revolutionary Wars 140 Haiti 185 Huygens, Christiaan 112, 116 182–3, 184
Middle East conflict 195 frontier towns 150 Halicarnassus 41 hybrid cars 152 Jazz Age 162, 170
Egypt, ancient 8, 9, 22–3 Hallstatt culture 36 hyoid bone 15 Jebel Irhoud cave 12
daily life 26–7
Ptolemaic Dynasty 41
religion 24–5
G Hals, Franz 117
Hammurabi of Babylon 20
Han Dynasty 8, 46–7 I
Jefferson, Thomas 132–3
Jenner, Edward 147
Jerusalem 67, 78
Galen 147
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 180 Galilei, Galileo 112–13 Hanging Gardens of Babylon 41 ianua 52 jewellery, early 15
El Alamein, Battle of 180 Gallipoli campaign 165 Hannibal 32 Ibn al-Haytham 66 Jews, persecution of 162, 163,
El Dorado 107 Gandhi, Mohandas 184–5 Hanno the Navigator 33 Ibn Battuta 66, 67 178–9
Ellis Island (New York) 127, 154 Gaozu, Emperor 46 Harvard College 115 Ice Age 12, 14 Jia Yi 45
Emancipation Proclamation 148 Garibaldi, Giuseppe 145 Harvey, William 112, 147 Iceland 69 Jim Crow Laws 190
Empire State Building (New Gaul 36–7, 48 Hatshepsut, Queen 23 Iemitsu, Tokugawa 118 Jin Dynasty 47, 76
York) 170–1 geisha 119 Hawaii 82, 136, 137 Ieyasu, Tokugawa 64, 65, 118 Joan of Arc 60
USS Enterprise 182–3 Genghis Khan 84 Hawker Hurricane 176 illuminations 101 Johnson, Lyndon 191
environmental issues 200–1 Genko War 65 heart transplants 147 Imjin War 93, 97 Joplin, Janis 193
Ephesus 41 Germany Heian Period 58, 64 immigration, United States 127, Joseon Dynasty 93, 96–7
espionage 165 Cold War 186–7 Heinkel He 111 177 154–5 jousting 70
Ethiopia 197 Germanic peoples 9, 54–5 Hellenistic World 40–1 imperialism, age of empires Justinian I, Emperor 58, 62
Etruscans 48 Hitler and the Nazi Party 163, Hendrix, Jimi 193 156–7 Jutland, Battle of 165
Euphrates, River 20–1 173 Henry VIII of England 109 Incas 86–7, 106–7
Europe
age of dictators 172–3
age of empires 156–7
unification of 126, 145
World War I 164–7
World War II 162, 163, 176–83
Henry the Navigator 104
Heracles 31
Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 64, 65
India
ancient 8, 42–3
British Raj 111, 127, 156
K
kabuki theatre 118–19
Celtic 36–7 germs 147 hieroglyphics 23 cinema 175 Kabul 110, 111
emigration to US 154 Gettysburg, Battle of 149 Hinduism 42, 73, 110, 111, 185 independence and Partition Kamikaze tactics 183
medieval 70–1 Ggantija (Malta) 18 hippie movement 192 163, 184–5 Kanem-Bornu Empire 80
nationalism 144–5 Ghana 156, 184 Hippocrates 147 Mughal Empire 92, 93, 110–11 Kassites 21
Seven Years’ War 128–9 Giffard, Jules Henri 159 Hiroshima 183 religious influence 73 Kent State shootings 188
under Napoleon 140 Gilgamesh 21 Hispaniola 106 Seven Years’ War 129 Kenya 197
extinctions 82, 201 Giotto di Bondone 94 Hitler, Adolf 162, 163, 173, 176, Indian National Congress 184 Khafra, Pharaoh 22
global warming 200–1 177, 179, 180, 182, 183 Indian Removal Act 134 Khmer Empire 58, 72–3

F Göbekli Tepe (Turkey) 18–19

gods and goddesses
ancient Egyptian 24
Hittites 21
Ho Chi Minh 188
Ho’amana 82
indigenous populations,
colonization and 136, 137
Indo-Aryans 42
Khomeini, Ayatollah 194
Khufu, Pharaoh 23
Khwarazmian Dynasty 84
factories 130–1, 153, 170
farming ancient Greek 30–1 Hollywood 174 Indonesia 184 Kievan Rus 102, 103
ancient Egypt 26–7 Viking 69 Holocaust 162, 178–9 Indus Valley civilization 9, 42 King, Martin Luther Jr 190–1,
early 9, 16–17 Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) 111 Holy Land 59, 78–9 Industrial Revolution 126, 192
land 200 gold Holy Roman Empire 58, 61, 130–1, 200 King Philip’s War 115
Mesopotamia 20 Australian gold rush 136 140 infection 147 kites 158
North American cultures 74, Californian gold rush 134 home front, World War I 165 Innocent III, Pope 78 kiva 75
75 New World 107, 115 Homer 30 insulae 53 Kleisthenes 30
206 index

knights 70–1 Mary I of England 109 navigation, Polynesian 83 Parthenon (Athens) 29 Rao, Baji 110
Knights Hospitaller 79 mass production 153, 170 Nazi Party 173, 178–9 Partition of India 163, 185 Raphael 94–5
Koenig, Friedrich 101 Mathai, Wangari 197 Neanderthals 11, 12, 13 Passchendaele, Battle of 165 Re-Horakhty 24, 25
Kofun Period 64 Mauryan Empire 8, 42 Nelson, Admiral Horatio 140 peace protests 192 recycling 200
Kongo, Kingdom of 81 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 41 Nero, Emperor 49 Pearl Harbor 162, 182 Reformation 93, 108–9
Korea Maya civilization 87, 106 Netherlands Pedro, Crown Prince of Portugal refugees
dolmen fields 19 Medici, Lorenzo de 9493 colonial empire 114, 116 142 Middle East 195
early 96 medicine, advances in 127, 146–7 Dutch Golden Age 116–17 pendulum clocks 116 Partition of India 185
Joseon 93, 96–7 megaliths 18–19 Dutch Wars of Independence penicillin 147 Reign of Terror 139
Korean War 186, 187 Mehmed II, Sultan 98 109 Peninsular War 141 religion
Krak des Chevaliers (Syria) 78–9 Mehmed IV, Sultan 99 Northern Renaissance 94–5 Pericles 28 ancient Egyptian 24–5
Kublai Khan 84 Mekong River 72 New Amsterdam 115 Persepolis 38–9 ancient Greek 30–1
Kushan Dynasty 34 Menelik II of Abyssinia 157 New Deal 163, 171 Persian Empire 9, 20, 21, 28, Aztec, Inca and Maya 86, 107
Kuwait 162, 195 Mentuhotep II, Pharaoh 23 New Granada 142 38–9, 40 Celtic 37
Mergenthaler, Ottmar 101 New Guinea 82, 185 perspective 95 China 46, 47

L Mesa Verde 58, 74–5

Mesopotamia 9, 20–1, 42
Messerschmitt Bf 109 177
New World 104, 106–7
New York 115, 127, 154, 170–1
New Zealand 58, 82, 136, 137
Peru 86–7, 142
Peter I (the Great) of Russia 103,
122
early Russia 102
Germanic paganism 54
Mesopotamia 20, 21
La Tène culture 8, 36
Lagash, Battle of 21 Mexico 86, 87, 93, 142 Newcomen, Thomas 126, 130 Peter III of Russia 129 missionaries 137
land bridges 13 Michelangelo 93, 94 Newgrange (Ireland) 18 pharaohs 22–3, 26 Persian 39
language microscopes 93, 112, 116 Newton, Isaac 93, 112 Pharos of Alexandria 40–1 power of the Church 60–1
Celtic 36, 37 Middle East Nicholas II of Russia 169 Philip II of Spain 109 Reformation 93
early humans 15 conflict in the 194–5 Nightingale, Florence 146 Philippines 184 Southeast Asia 73
Laos 72 Crusades 78–9 Nile, River 17, 22, 26–7 philosophers, Greek 30–1, 94 Vikings 69
Lascaux cave paintings 14 Midway, Battle of 182 Nixon, Richard 188 Phoenicians 9, 32–3 Rembrandt 117
law and order migrations nobility 26, 70, 71, 122, 139 photocopying 101 Renaissance 93, 94–5
Babylon 20 human 12–13 Nobunaga, Oda 64, 65 photography 148 renewable energy 201
Old West 150 Polynesian 82 Norte Chico 86 pigeons, carrier 165 reservations, Native American
Lebanon 32 US immigration 127, 154–5 North America Pilgrim Fathers 115 151
Lee, General Robert E. 148, 149 mills 130–1 cultures of 58, 74–5 Pizarro, Francisco 106, 107 revolutions (1848) 145
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 93, Ming Dynasty 59, 84, 88–9 early colonial America 92, plague 71 Reza Pahlavi, Shah 194
112, 116 Mini 152 114–15 Plassey, Battle of 111, 129 Rhodes 41
legions/legionaries 50, 51 Minoan Age (Greece) 9, 29 exploration and conquest of plate armour 70 Richard I (the Lionheart) of
Leif Erikson 59, 69 missionaries 137 104, 106–7 Plato 30, 31, 94 England 78
Leipzig, Battle of 141 Mississippian culture 58, 74 life in the Old West 150–1 PLO (Palestine Liberation Roanoke Island, North Carolina
Lenin, Vladimir 168–9 moai statues 83 Seven Years’ War 128, 129 Organization) 194 114
Leonardo da Vinci 95 Moctezuma II 106 slavery 92, 120–1 Pocahontas 115 Roaring Twenties 170
Levassor, Emile 153 Model T 152, 153 Viking discovery of 59, 69 Pohnpei 82 Robespierre, Maximilien de 139
Lexington, Battle of 132 monarchy see also Canada; United States Poland robots 163, 198
Li Yuan 76 absolute 122–3 North Vietnam 163, 188 German invasion of 176, 177 Rocket 127, 131
Libya 180 and feudal system 70, 71 Northern Renaissance 94–5 partition of 122 Rolling Stones 192
Lilienthal, Otto 159 monastic orders 61 Northern Wei Dynasty 47 Warsaw Ghetto 179 Roman Catholic Church 60–1,
Lincoln, Abraham 148, 149 Mongke Khan 84 Northwest Coast cultures 75 political prisoners 179 108, 109
Lindisfarne 59, 69 Mongol Empire 59, 65, 72, 76, nuclear weapons 192 pollution 130 Romanies 179
linotype 101 84–5, 88, 96, 102, 103 Nuremberg Laws 178 Polynesia, expansion of 82–3 Romanov Dynasty 103, 162, 169
Lippershey, Hans 116 Montejo, Francisco de 106 nursing, battlefield 166 Ponce de León, Juan 107 Romans 48–9
Lister, Joseph 146 Montgolfier brothers 159 Pop art 193 army 50–1
literature, Greek 30
Little Rock Nine 190
Loki 69
Montgomery, Lieutenant-General
Bernard 180
Montreal 128
O
Ogedei 84
population growth 17, 117, 200
porcelain, Ming 59, 89
Portugal
and the Celts 36–7
daily life 52–3
Empire divided in two 62
Lombards 55 Moors 59, 60 oil production 195 colonial empire 92, 104, 121, and Germanic tribes 54–5
London, 1960s 192–3 Moscow 102 Olmecs 86 126, 136, 142 Punic Wars 32
longhouses, Viking 68–9 moveable type 100, 101 Olympic Games 28, 29 Salazar dictatorship 172 Roman Empire 9, 49
Louis XIV of France 93, 122–3 Mughal Empire 92, 93, 110–11 Onin War 65 Poseidon 30 Roman Republic 9, 48
Louis XVI of France 138–9 Muhammad 58, 66, 67 operating theatres 146–7 Potosi 107 Rome
Louisiana Purchase 134 mummification 24 Operation Barbarossa 177 Powhatans 114, 115 Christianity 60–1
Lumière brothers 174 Murad I, Sultan 98 Operation Desert Storm 162, 195 Prague Spring 186 fall of 9, 49, 54
Lusitania 164 Muscovy, Duchy of 102, 103 Operation Rolling Thunder 188 printing 61, 92, 100–1, 108 Rommel, Erwin 180–1
Luther, Martin 93, 108 music Oregon Trail 127, 134–5 prisoner colonies 127, 136 Romulus and Remus 48
1960s 192, 193 Orellana, Francisco de 104 Protestantism 108–9 Rontgen, Wilhelm 147

M early humans 15
jazz 162, 170
Muslims see Islam
Organization of African Unity
197
Osiris 24
Prussia 122, 128–9, 140–1, 144,
145
Ptolemy 41
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 163, 171
Rossbach, Battle of 128
Royal Air Force (RAF) 176
Macao 185
Macedonian Empire 8, 40 Mussolini, Benito 173, 180 Oslo Accords 195 Puerto Rico 185 rubber plantations 156
Machu Picchu (Peru) 86 Myanmar (Burma) 72 Ostrogoths 54 Punic Wars 32, 48 Rujm el-Hiri (Syria/Israel) 19
Mackenzie, Alexander 115 Mycenaean Age (Greece) 29 Ottoman Empire 62, 92, 98–9, pyramids Rurik Dynasty 102, 103
Magellan, Ferdinand 92, 104 mythology, Greek 30–1 126, 145 ancient Americas 86, 87 Russia 144
Makah tribe 75 ancient Egypt 22–3, 41 absolute monarchy 122
Malacca 73
Malaya 184
Malaysia 72, 73, 199
N P Q
early 93, 102–3
Napoleonic Wars 140, 141
Russian Revolution 162, 168–9
Nabopolasser of Babylon 21 Pacific Ocean 82–3, 115
Malcolm X 191 Nagasaki 183 colonizing 136–7 Qin Dynasty 44, 46 Seven Years’ War 128, 129
Mali Empire 81 Nan Madol 82 Pagan Empire 72 Qin Shi Huangdi 8, 44–5 World War I 164
Mamluks 67, 78 Napoleon I, Emperor 140–1, 144 paganism, Germanic 54 Quakers 121 see also Soviet Union
Mandela, Nelson 163, 196–7 Napoleonic Wars 127, 140–1, 144 Pakistan 163, 185 Quant, Mary 192 Russian Civil War 169
Mao Zedong 163 Nara Period 64 Palestine, and Israel 163, 194–5 Québec 114 Russo-Japanese War 169
Maoris 58, 82, 137 Narmer, Pharaoh 23 Panama 142 Québec, Battle for 128 Rwanda 197
mapmakers 104 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 184 Panipat, Battle of 93, 110
Maratha Empire 110, 111
Marathon, Battle of 39
March on the Sea 149
nations, rise of 144–5
Native Americans 114, 115, 126,
127, 134, 135, 150–1
Papacy 60–1, 109
Paris 139
Paris, Treaty of (1763) 129
R S
racing cars 153 Sadat, Anwar 195
Maria Theresa, Empress 129 NATO 186 Paris, Treaty of (1783) 132 railways 127, 131 Sahara Desert 13, 80
Marie Antoinette 138–9 natural disasters 200, 201 Parks, Rosa 162, 191 Rameses II, Pharaoh 8, 23, 24–5 Sahelanthropus tchadensis 8, 10
 207

Saigon 188 Socrates 31, 94 Teano 145 Cold War 186, 187 Wilhelm I, Kaiser 126, 145
St. Augustine, Florida 114 Somme, Battle of the 165 telescopes 93, 112–13, 116 expansion of 127, 134–5 Wilhelm II, Kaiser 164
St. Lawrence River 114, 115, 128 Song Dynasty 59, 76 Temple, Shirley 175 Gulf Wars 162, 195 Willy’s Jeep 152
St. Petersburg 122 Songhai Empire 59, 81 Temple of Abu Simbel (Egypt) immigration 127, 154–5 wind turbines 201
Saladin 78 Soto, Hernando de 107 24–5 imperialism 185 Wolfe, General James 128
Salamanca, Battle of 141 South Africa 157, 163, 196–7 Temple of Artemis (Ephesus) 41 independence 132–3 women
Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 172 South America Temüjin see Genghis Khan Vietnam War 188–9 Khmeri 73
samurai 64–5 ancient civilizations 86–7 Tenochtitlán 87, 106 World War I 164 peace protest 192
San Bushmen 12 exploration and conquest of Terracotta Army 44–5 World War II 162, 180, 182–3 in postcolonial Africa 197
San Francisco 154 104, 106–7 terrorism 195 see also North America Viking 69
San Martín, José de 142 liberation of Latin America Tet Offensive 188 Ur 21 World War II 183
Sanskrit 42 126, 142–3 Thailand 72 Urban II, Pope 78 woodblock printing 119
Sargon of Akkad 20 slavery 120–1 Thales 31 Urnfield culture 36 Woodstock 162, 193
Saudeleur Dynasty 82 South Korea 199 theatre see drama Uruk 20, 21 World War I 162, 164–5, 169,
Saxony 128 South Vietnam 163, 188 Thebes 29 Uthman ibn Affan 67 170, 177
Schism, East-West 59, 61 Southeast Asia Theodora, Empress 62–3 Western Front 165, 166–7
science
advances in medicine 127,
colonial rule 156
decolonization 184–5
Empires of 72–3
Theodosius I, Emperor 60
Third Crusade 78
Thirty Years’ War 109
V World War II 162, 163
in Africa 180–1
becomes global 182–3
146–7 vaccinations 147
Islamic scholars 66 Southern Christian Leadership Thor 69 van Eyck, Jan 95 beginning of 176–7
Ottoman 99 Conference (SCLC) 190 Thoth 24 Vandals 48 Wounded Knee, Battle of 127,
Scientific Revolution 112–13 Soviet Union Three Kingdoms (China) 47 Venezuela 142 151
Scotland 69 Cold War 162, 186–7 Three Kingdoms (Korea) 96 Verdun, Battle of 165 Wright, Orville and Wilbur 127,
Scramble for Africa 156–7 formation of 169 Thule people 75 Vermeer, Johannes 117 158
sculpture 94 Stalin era 173 Thutmose III, Pharaoh 23 Versailles, Palace of 122–3 writing
Scythians 34 Vietnam War 188 Tigris, River 20–1 Versailles, Treaty of 165 cuneiform 9, 20
sea levels, rising 200, 201 World War II 176, 177, 182, time, measurement of 17 Vesalius, Andreas 147 Hangul script 97
Second Crusade 78 183 timelines Vespucci, Amerigo 104 hieroglyphics 23
segregation 190–1 see also Russia age of exploration 92–3 Vicksburg 149 Phoenician 32
Sejong the Great 97 Spain age of revolution 126–7 Victor Emmanuel II of Italy 145 Wu, Emperor 47
selective breeding 17 colonial empire 92–3, 104, ancient world 8–9 Vienna, Congress of 144, 145 Wu Zetian, Empress 76
Selim I (the Grim), Sultan 99 106–7, 114, 115, 121, 126, medieval world 58–9 Vietnam 72
Selim II, Sultan 99
Seljuk Empire 78
Selma-Montgomery March 191
136, 142
Dutch Wars of Independence
109
modern world 162–3
Timofeyevich, Yermak 103
Tobruk, siege of 180
Vietnam War 163, 186, 188–9,
192
Vikings 59, 68–9, 102
X
x-rays 147
Serbia 145, 164 Franco and Spanish Civil War Tokugawa shoguns 118 Visigoths 54 Xerxes I of Persia 9, 38, 39
serfdom 163, 172 Tokyo see Edo period Vladimir the Great of Kiev 61 Xian, Emperor 47
medieval European 71 Reconquista 59, 60 Toltecs 87 Volkswagen Beetle 152 Xuanzong, Emperor 76
Russian 103 Spanish-American War 185 tombs voting rights 30, 191
Set 24
settlements, first 17
settlers, European 150
Sparta 28
Spartacus 48
special effects 175
Ming 89
pyramids 22–3
tools 13, 14, 17
voyages of exploration 88,
104–7, 136–7 Y
Yang, Emperor 47
Seven Wonders of the Ancient
World 41
Seven Years’ War 126, 128–9
Spice Islands 73
Spitfires 176
Srivijaya Empire 72
Toyota Prius 152
trade
Atlantic slave trade 120–1
W Yaroslav the Wise 102
Yi Seong-gye, General 97
wagon trains 127, 134–5 Yi Sun-sin, Admiral 93, 97
Shah Jahan 110, 111 Stalin, Joseph 163, 169 Dutch Empire 116 Waitangi, Treaty of 137 Yom Kippur War 195
Shang Dynasty 44 Stalingrad, Battle of 182 early colonial America 114 Waldseemuller, Martin 104 Yorimoto, Minamoto 58, 65
sheep 16, 17 steam engines 126, 130 Han China 46, 47 Wall Street Crash 163, 171 Yorktown, Siege of 132
ships steam power 101, 126 Ming China 88 Wannsee Conference 178 Ypres, Battle of 164
aircraft carriers 182–3 Stephenson, George 131 Mughal Empire 110 War on Terror 163, 195 Yuan Dynasty 84, 88, 96
Mayflower 115 Stephenson, Robert 127, 131 Phoenician 9, 32–3 Warhol, Andy 193 Yuezhi people 34
Phoenician 32–3 steppes, people of the 34–5 spices 73 Warring States Period 44
Polynesian outrigger canoes
82–3
slave 121
stock exchange
Amsterdam 116–17
New York 163, 171
Viking 68
voyages of exploration 104
Trafalgar, Battle of 140
warriors
Germanic 55
medieval knights 70–1
Z
Zeppelins 165
turtle ships (Geobukseon) Stonehenge (England) 19 Trail of Tears 134 Ottoman 98 Zeus 30
92–3, 96–7 Stonewall riots 192 Trajan, Emperor 49 Roman 50–1 Zhang Zeduan 76–7
US Civil War 148 Strait of Magellan 104–5 trebuchets 79 samurai 64–5 Zheng He 88
Viking longships 69 submarine warfare 164, 177 trench warfare 166–7 Terracotta Army 44–5 Zhou Dynasty 44, 76
Shivaji 111 Suebi 54 Trent, Council of 93, 108 Viking 69 Zimbabwe, Kingdom of 80–1
shoguns 64–5 Suez Canal 157, 184 Tricoteuses 139 Warsaw Ghetto 179 Zoroastrianism 39
Shrimpton, Jean 192 Sui Dynasty 47, 76 tsars 103 Warsaw Pact 186, 187 Zulu Kingdom 126, 157
Siberia 34 Sukhothai Empire 72 Tubman, Harriet 121 Washington, George 128 Zwingli, Ulrich 109
Sidon 32 Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan Tula 87 Washington, DC, March on 192
siege warfare 79 92, 99 Tunisia 180 Waterloo, Battle of 141
Silesia 128, 129 sultans, Ottoman 98–9 Turkey 98 Watt, James 126, 130
silver, New World 107 Sumatra 72 Tutankhamun, Pharaoh 23 weapons
Singapore 198 Sumerians 20, 21, 42 Twiggy 192 Crusades 79
Sioux 150, 151 Summer of Love 192 Tyre 32 Germanic warriors 55
Sivaganga Fort 111 sumo wrestling 119 Joseon Korea 96
Six-Day War 194
skyscrapers 170–1
slaves
Surat 110
surgery 146–7
Sydney 127, 136
U medieval European 70–1
Roman 50–1
samurai 65
U-boats 164, 177
Atlantic slave trade 120–1 Syria 78, 185 Uganda 197 US Civil War 148
in colonial America 92, 114 Umayyad Dynasty 67 World War I 165
freed 134
US Civil War 126, 148, 149
Slavs 102
T Underground Railroad 121
unequal treaties 156
Union States 148–9
weaving 69
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley,
Duke of 141
Tahiti 82
society Taizong, Emperor 76 United States Western Roman Empire 62, 81
early Russia 103 Taj Mahal (India) 92, 110 boom and bust 170–1 whaling 137
Germanic 55 Tang Dynasty 59, 76 Civil Rights Movement 162, White Mountain, Battle of the
Japanese 64 tank warfare 162, 165, 194 190–1 109
Roman 49 Tasman, Abel 136, 137 Civil War 120, 126, 148–9 Who, the 193
208 acknowledgments

Acknowledgments
The publisher would like to thank the following people 49 Alamy Stock Photo: Ruslan Gilmanshin (fcr); Loop 99 akg-images: Roland and Sabrina Michaud (br). (br); Imperial War Museum, London (c). 163 Alamy Stock
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Mani Ramaswamy for editorial assistance; Jane Ewart, Carlsberg Glyptotek Museum, Copenhagen (fcra). Turkey / Sonia Halliday (ftl). Dorling Kindersley: Royal Armouries (cb). 164 Bridgeman Images: British
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