Wildlife conservation in India

Wildlife resources constitute a vital link in the survival of the human species and have been a subject
of much fascination, interest, and research all over the world. Today, when wildlife habitats are
under severe pressure and a large number of species of wild fauna have become endangered, the
effective conservation of wild animals is of great significance. Because every one of us depends on
plants and animals for all vital components of our welfare, it is more than a matter of convenience
that they continue to exist; it is a matter of life and death. Being living units of the ecosystem, plants
and animals contribute to human welfare by providing

• material benefit to human life;

• knowledge about genetic resources and their preservation; and

• significant contributions to the enjoyment of life (e.g., recreation).

Human society depends on genetic resources for virtually all of its food; nearly half of its medicines;
much of its clothing; in some regions, all of its fuel and building materials; and part of its mental and
spiritual welfare. Considering the way we are galloping ahead, oblivious of what legacy we plan to
leave for future generations, the future does not seem too bright. Statisticians have projected that
by 2020, the human population will have increased by more than half, and the arable fertile land and
tropical forests will be less than half of what they are today. Genetic resources are treated as
inexhaustible mineral resources, but we need to care about them. It is here that the concept of
management and conservation of wildlife comes into play, because anything that is not human or
undomesticated is ‘wildlife’. Presence or absence of an animal or plant in a region is determined by
ecological and historical factors. Animals and plants are living indicators of the characteristics of
their environment; their ranges mark the places where environmental conditions are the same or
similar. To interpret the range of a species properly, it is necessary to know, in detail, the conditions
required for the species to live and thrive. The science of zoogeography has both ecological and
historical aspects. On this basis, the world can be divided into six zoogeographical regions:

Nearctic North America and Greenland

Palaearctic Eurasia, without India

Ethiopian Africa, south of the Sahara

Oriental India and Indochina

Australian Australia and New Zealand

Neotropical South and Central America, and the Antilles

India is the seventh largest country in the world and Asia’s second largest nation with an area of
3,287,263 𝑘𝑚2 , a national border of 15,200 km, and a coastline of 7516 km. For administrative
purposes, India is divided into 28 states and union territories and is home to more than 1 billion
people, which is approximately 16% of the world’s population. Ecologically, India can be divided into
three main regions:

• the Himalayan Mountain system;

• the peninsular India subregion (woodlands and desert); and

• the tropical rain forest region.

A great wealth of biological diversity exists in these regions and in India’s wetlands and marine
areas. This richness is shown in absolute numbers of species and the proportion of the world’s total
they represent (Table 1).

Table 1. Number of species in India and the world.

Group Number of species in India (SI) Number of species in the world (SW) SI/SW (%)
Mammals 350 4629 7.6
Birds 1224 9702 12.6
Reptiles 408 6550 6.2
Amphibians 197 4522 4.4
Fishes 2546 21,730 11.7
The people of the Indian subcontinent were once blessed with some of the most profuse
natural gifts: verdant forests, water-stocked Himalayan ranges, rich coastal fish resources,
productive estuaries, grassy pastures, and bountiful river systems. Abundant rain and fertile soils
added to this plentitude. Years of mismanagement, however, have degraded our forests, wounded
our coastline, and poisoned our aquifers with devastating results. Today, India contains 172 species
(2.9% of the world’s total number) of animals that are considered to be globally threatened by the
IUCN. These include 53 species of mammals, 69 species of birds, 23 species of reptiles, and 3 species
of amphibians. Extinction is somehow classified as ‘biological reality’ because no species has, as yet,
existed for more than a few million years without evolving into something different or dying out
completely. Extinction is threatening all species, but most of the time smaller animals, like bats and
rodents, face this threat more than other animals. We, however, tend to focus on the charismatic
flagship species, which we like to see and which fascinate us. Success in evolution is measured in
terms of survival: failure, by extinction. Most recent extinctions can be attributed, either directly or
indirectly, to human demographic and technological expansion, commercialized exploitation of
species, and human-caused environmental change. These factors, in turn, have affected the
reproductive rate of endangered species and their adaptability to changing environmental
conditions. Concern for wildlife is, in fact, a concern for ourselves. In this paper, I would like to
address the threat of extinction with respect to four species: the royal Bengal tiger and blackbuck
(mammals), the great Indian bustard (bird), and the gangetic gharial (reptile).

‘Project Tiger’ and Conservation Practices

Tigers once inhabited a vast area from Turkey to the east coast of Russia and China, north to Siberia
and south to the Indonesian island of Bali. The royal Bengal tiger, Panthera tigris tigris, has always been
an integral part of the life and legend of India. At the beginning of the 1900s, the Indian tiger
population was estimated at 40,000 animals. The first official estimate, done in 1972, recorded only
about 1800 tigers. This led to the establishment of a task force under the Indian Board of Wildlife,
and based on their recommendations, ‘Project Tiger’ was launched on 1 April 1973 with the
following objectives:

• to maintain a viable population of tigers in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural, and
ecological values; and

• to preserve, for all times, areas of biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit,
education, and enjoyment of the people.

At the beginning of the project, 9 tiger reserves were created. Currently, there are 27 tiger reserves
in over 17 states. These reserves cover a total area of 37,761 𝑘𝑚2 .

Current Status of Royal Bengal Tigers in India

India has over half the world’s tiger population. Every two to four years, a comprehensive tiger
census is conducted throughout India (Table 2). The first census was conducted in 1972, and 1827
tigers were recorded. Establishment of Project Tiger in 1973 led to an increase in the tiger
population; the 1989 census recorded 4344 tigers, which led to self congratulations within Project
Tiger. But the next census in 1993 recorded only 3750 tigers, a decline from four years earlier. Of
these tigers, 1266 (36%) were within the boundaries of the 19 Project Tiger reserves, but to
conservationists, this came as a final warning.

Royal Bengal Tigers and the Sundarbans

The Sundarbans is an area of 10,000 km2 of mangrove forest on the southern edge of the Ganges-
Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta in India and Bangladesh. It is considered to be the largest prograding
delta in the world, and is an open, dynamic, heterogeneous ecological system that is resilient to
disturbance from within the forest and waterways, but is sensitive to disturbance from the outside,
particularly to changes in the flow of freshwater. The Sundarbans is a high quality wildlife
conservation area of regional and international importance, but a series of incremental acts
designed to bring more food, fiber, and material into production has damaged the Sundarbans
ecosystem. The Indian part of the Sundarbans covers 9630 km2 and has been declared a Biosphere
Reserve. Project Tiger covers 2550 km2 of this area, of which 1692 km2 is the core area (National
Park) and has been declared a World Heritage Site. This unique mangrove forest area has the largest
population of tigers in the wild. Improved management has helped restore a wide variety of flora
and fauna. In this area, wildlife management occurred essentially by monitoring the investments
made and evaluating its effects. The last census in December 2001 recorded 271 tigers in the
Sundarbans. The Sundarbans is one single ecosystem, however, and tigers do not know political
borders; hence, there is a need for cross-border censuses to ensure more accurate estimates of tiger
numbers are obtained. India and Bangladesh proposed conducting a joint tiger census in the
swampy Sundarbans delta, and on 14 January 2004, the two countries jointly began the world’s
largest tiger census. The composition and dynamics of the tiger population are quite encouraging,
and the last census showed the presence of about 360 animals in the wild. Tranquilization and
translocation of aberrant tigers has been perfected in the state of West Bengal where the
Sundarbans is located. Stray tigers are captured in trap cages or tranquilized and released back into
the wild after veterinary care and examination. This is one way that an aberrant tiger gets a second
chance at freedom. The people of the Sundarbans now perceive that tiger protection efforts serve
their own interest. Irrespective of caste, creed, religion, or social standing, people take pride in their
very own royal Bengal tiger.
India’s Tiger Poaching Crisis

Evaluation of the tiger’s conservation status revealed shattering news in the early 1990s with the
discovery of large scale poaching and trafficking for the illegal international trade in tiger parts. The
huge demand for tiger bones, destined for use in Oriental traditional medicine outside of India and
as a macho supplement, is an added threat to India’s tiger population. Practically every part of the
tiger, from its whiskers to its tail, is used in traditional Chinese medicine. According to an estimate by
the U.S.-based World Watch Institute, people in China and elsewhere in the Far East pay high prices
for tiger bones and other tiger parts, with a single tiger’s produce fetching up to U.S.$5 million.
Poaching is done by mafia gangs and is a part of the thriving trade, which is thought to fund, to a
great extent, insurgency in north India. In 1993–94, 36 tiger skins and 667 kg (1470 lbs) of tiger
bones were seized in north India. Poachers use one of three methods to kill wild tigers: poison, steel
traps, or firearms. The estimated cost for the poachers for each tiger killed is $1 for poisoning, $9 for
trapping, and $15 for shooting, distributed among four poachers. If charged and proven guilty, the
maximum punishment is three years in jail and/or Rs.25,000 (U.S.$600) in fines. There is no
minimum sentence. The Wildlife Protection Society of India has made a concerted effort to gather
accurate information and document cases of tiger poaching and unnatural deaths of tigers
throughout India. Government sources state that 596 tigers are known to have been killed from
1994 to 2002; however, a nongovernment organization puts that number much higher . Although
international trade in tiger products has been banned under the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), only 8 out of the 14 countries within the
tiger’s range comply with it.

Constraints to Tiger Conservation

New protection measures proposed by the Committee for the Prevention of Illegal Trade in Wildlife,
1994, have been prepared but not implemented, and little effective action has been taken in the
field. Eighty percent of the tiger reserves do not have an armed strike force to serve as an effective
infrastructure for combating poaching. The forest guards are often out-gunned by poachers. Wildlife
crime is the second biggest illegal occupation in the world after narcotics, and it should be
recognized as such. Large developmental projects, such as mining and hydroelectric dams, are also
taking their toll on the tiger’s habitat. Habitat loss is considered to be the number one threat to the
future of wild tigers in India.

The Global Tiger Forum and Achievements of Project Tiger

The International Conference on Tigers was held at New Delhi in March 1990, and was attended by
countries within the tiger’s range. A majority of the participant countries joined to establish a new
organization—The Global Tiger Forum. The main aim of the forum is to protect the tiger from
extinction at the global level. Anywhere that tigers live today is high quality wildlife habitat. The
success of Project Tiger has shown that no species, however important, can be conserved in
isolation. Active involvement of the local people in the management of parks has made conservation
measures more effective, and resource sharing ensures reciprocity of commitment. Project Tiger has
completed more than 30 eventful years as the largest and most successful conservation project of its
kind in the world. The project’s achievements are as follows:

• Better management of the reserves has improved the status of flora and fauna, and the
endangered species have shown signs of recovery. There has also been an improvement in the
carrying capacity of the habitat.
• Biogeographically representative areas of the tiger reserves have shown better signs of ecological
security and preservation.

• The project has played a major role in providing education to, and recreation facilities for, the
people.

• Enhancement programs include the management of buffer areas and tourism facilities in tiger
reserves.

The landscape will continue to change, directly and indirectly, at the hands of humans, and as
emphasized earlier, survival of humankind depends on maintaining the ecological balance among
the living systems of the earth. New management and research initiatives have started a new era in
tiger conservation.

Current Status of the Blackbuck /Indian Antelope

The blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), or Indian antelope, is exclusive to the Indian subcontinent and is
one of the most elegant antelope species in India. Its striking sandy color and beautiful spiraled
horns make it unquestionably the most splendid specimen of the antelopes. It is also the swiftest
long-distance runner among animals; at the slightest hint of danger, it can run for about 10 km at 60
km/h. A buck with five does constitutes a family. Given protection, blackbucks breed prolifically. The
blackbuck was once very abundant, but constant persecution by humans has sadly reduced its
numbers, and it is now considered to be an endangered species. The blackbuck is no longer found in
regions where it used to thrive. It was distributed throughout the plains of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu, and was hunted by the princely states with the
help of trained cheetahs. The blackbuck is essentially an animal of open, flat, or slightly undulating
terrain, and reaches its greatest abundance in areas covered with thorn and dry deciduous forests.
With the destruction of forests, however, the animal has adapted to wastelands and agricultural
fields. After the disappearance of the cheetah in the early 1960s, the blackbuck population
exploded, and the species was found in large numbers in the central and southern parts of Punjab. It
began to be branded as a crop raider and was hunted indiscriminately, especially during the ‘grow
more food campaign’. Its flesh was relished by all. The blackbuck was listed under Schedule I of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and Punjab and Haryana honored it as their state animal. Now there
are about 4000 blackbucks in the Abohar area of Punjab, Rajasthan, and Haryana states. Only about
5% of Punjab’s total geographic area is forested, and much of this occurs in small strips along roads,
railway lines, and canals where one cannot expect much wildlife to occur. Various forms of reserve
forests have been established, but they form only 2% of the total area of the state. Additionally, only
2% of this space has been left to the many species of animals that occur there. There are five wildlife
sanctuaries in Punjab. In the case of the blackbuck, the Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary has been
established under the aegis of the Bishnoi community of the area. The Bishnoi are a predominately
agricultural Hindu community which disallows felling of trees as well as killing of all wild animals,
including birds. The strict policy of local cooperation and noninterference towards the local wildlife
has provided protection to peafowl, partridges, hares, jungle cats, nilgai, and other wild animals.
Undoubtedly, the protection afforded to blackbucks by the Bishnois is laudable, but the government
should also develop a plan to save the species.

Current Status of the Great Indian Bustard

The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) is a large, handsome bird of the shortgrass plains of
the Indian subcontinent. It shared its habitat with the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara
(Gazelle bennetti), nilgai (Boselephus tragocamelus), wolf (Canis lupus), fox (Vulpes bengalensis),
jackal (Canis aureus), and wild cat (Felis chaus), but is now confined to a few pockets in Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka states in India. The great Indian bustard is
an endangered species with less than 1000 surviving individuals. Ironically, it is the state bird of
Rajasthan and an indicator of the health of the grassland ecosystem of the Indian plains, but it is on
the brink of extinction. The great Indian bustard forages, shelters, displays, and breeds in the
grasslands, and its absence is the first warning signal that grasslands are deteriorating. In the early
1980s, five states undertook conservation measures for the great Indian bustard, and eight
protected areas were declared (Table 4). Despite these measures, the state of the bustard has
deteriorated sharply during the last 10 years. In the Rajasthan, which is considered as the stronghold
of the species, there were 131 birds in 2001, 97 in 2002, and 85 in 2003.

The major problems that face the survival of the great Indian bustard include

• habitat destruction and deterioration. Too many domestic animals are causing disturbances during
the breeding season, and habitat has been lost due to the conversion of grasslands and wastelands
to crop fields;

• poaching. This is widespread in parts of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan;

• increased numbers of blackbuck and nilgai. Conservation measures for the great Indian bustard
that were adopted by the local people have resulted in crop damage due to increased numbers of
blackbuck and nilgai; hence, there is resentment among villagers towards the conservation
movement, in general, and the bustard, in particular;

• corruption and total mismanagement of bustard sanctuaries; and • lack of clear cut policy on land
use and domestic grazing in India.

The Need for ‘Project Bustard’

Conservation measures in India have shown that by identifying an indicator species and focusing
attention on it and its habitat, a substantial part of the natural ecosystem can be protected, which
benefits an array of threatened species. The following is a proposed list of objectives for initiating
‘Project Bustard’:

1. conserve the habitat types of the great Indian bustard and its associated species;

2. establish, with the cooperation of the state government and local people, more bustard
conservation areas;

3. supervise and coordinate management of bustard conservation areas;

4. coordinate long-term studies on bustards and their habitats in different states;

5. produce educational material for publicity, and for decision makers, stakeholders, students, and
others; and

6. integrate bustard habitat conservation with national grazing policy and overall land use patterns.

The Bombay Natural History Society is a pioneer in promoting the conservation of the great Indian
bustard, and undertakes intensive campaigns to educate and encourage the Government of India to
take appropriate measures to reverse the declining trend of the species.
Current Status of the Freshwater Gangetic Gharial

The gangetic gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a thoroughly aquatic crocodilian and a resident of deep,
fast flowing rivers. It is primarily a fish-eating species and uses sandbanks for nesting. The gangetic
gharial used to have wide range over all of Indochina, but today it is the most endangered of all the
crocodilians. A gharial status survey conducted in Nepal indicated there were 60 individuals in the
wild. In the Sind region of Pakistan, there are only one or two gharials remaining. The species is
practically extirpated in Bhutan and Myanmar. The situation in Bangladesh is much worse. No
gangetic gharials are found in the wild there due to heavy impacts from fishing activities and habitat
degradation.

Conservation

The gangetic gharial was brought back from the brink of extinction by restocking programs that
were initiated first in India in 1975, and then in Nepal in 1978. In India, there are nine protected
areas, with a total area of nearly 3000 km2 that are designated for gharial management. Gharials are
captive bred for release at six breeding centers. Eggs are also collected from wild nests for captive
rearing and release. More than 3000 juveniles have been released at 12 sites, and follow-up surveys
suggest there has been an overall increase of more than 1500 individuals in the wild population. In
some areas, however, the restocking program has not resulted in population increases, although
some gharials remain. In Nepal, 432 individuals were released to the wild between 1978 and 1994.
By collaborating with its neighboring countries, Pakistan is also trying to improve the status of this
unique animal. Although the gangetic gharial is virtually extirpated in Pakistan, there are plans to
start a restocking effort with assistance from Indian institutions.

Threats to Gangetic Gharial Conservation

The high cost of captive breeding and the paucity of additional release sites threaten gharial
conservation efforts. Increasing interactions between riverside human populations and the gharial,
as well as the negative effects of agriculture and fishing restrict successful gharial populations to a
few stretches along isolated and protected rivers. Gharial migration out of protected areas has been
identified as a significant factor that is slowing population recovery.

Priority Projects for Gangetic Gharial Conservation

The following projects are considered to be a priority for conserving the gangetic gharial:

• use of population and habitat viability analyses (PHVA) to develop future conservation strategies

• development of a national management plan in India and implementation of the

• population modelling

• continued restocking of gharials

• continuous monitoring of protected and restored populations

• analysis of genetic diversity and the effects of a bottleneck in the founder stock

• increased public education

• survey of gangetic gharial status and distribution in Pakistan

• establishment of a captive-rearing center in Pakistan

• expansion of the restoration program in Nepal

• gangetic gharial status survey in the river systems of Myanmar

• To maintain the stability of food chains. Killing of animals disturbs many food chains.
• To preserve the gene pool.
• When we conserve wildlife , many species of wildlife are saved from extinction. Extinction of
certain animals will lead to ecological imbalance in nature.
• Some animals are great help to people. For example snakes. The snakes eat rats and mice
who damage the crop fields. If snakes are killed then there will be no animal to stop the
vermins from destroying the crops.
• It helps to preserve endangered species.

The disadvantage of wildlife

• If any wild animal came interaction with humans then, it might injure.
• It does not have any laws.
• It does not have a pattern of living.
• There is always a sense of danger in the wildlife.

Steps for promoting wildlife conservation

• The governments of different countries form different laws for restricting the hunting of
animals

• They also ensure immediate actions if anyone attempts such an act

• Many natural sanctuaries are built to preserve natural habitats for future generations

• To promote the survival of endangered species, many natural parks and sanctuaries
provide habitats to endangered animals to breed

• Wildlife Conservation also ensures the protection of natural habitats from pollution and
other human activities

• Pollution may ruin the natural environment of animals

• So, the governments of many countries prohibited Industrial work near the forest

• Reduced meat-eating is increasingly being promoted by various organisations, both for

• Governments of many countries have restricted or even banned hunting

• People have to pay a large fine if they hunt without permission

• Kaziranga National Park, Assam

• Periyar National Park

• Jim Corbett National Park

• Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan

• Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh

• Manas Wildlife Sanctuary

Wildlife habitat and species around the world are facing a crisis. It is estimated that global
warming may cause the extinction of 15–37% of species by 2050. This is another aspect
which needs attention because we could lose about 1.25 million species. Unlike other
environmental losses, this one cannot be reversed because nature does not give second
chances to biodiversity. If we take into consideration the conventional reasons why wildlife
is disappearing in Asia, India is doing far better than other countries. India has launched an
extensive protected area network of research institutions in which legislation, socio-
economic factors, and wildlife research are playing a great role. The Central Zoo Authority
plays a key role with zoos in programming research activities related to the conservation and
propagation of wild animals. Planned research activities include studies on wildlife biology,
genetic variability, speciesspecific nutritional requirements, animal behavior,
epidemiological surveys, and disease diagnosis through postmortem examination. The
future depends on interaction between captive and wild animals, preservation of
biodiversity, and genetic and demographic variations of species. India still has 65% of Asia’s
tiger population, 85% of the Asian rhino population, 80% of the Asian elephant population,
and 100% of the Asiatic lion population. These are all highly endangered and poached
animals.