Emr 2201 Engineering Materials I Year 2 Bsc. Marine Engineering

EMR 2201 ENGINEERING MATERIALS I
YEAR 2 BSc. MARINE ENGINEERING

Pre-requisite: EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science
Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to;
1. understand the production methods and use of common metals and alloys
2. understand the production of polymers and ceramics
3. understand the use of asbestos and the health hazards
4. understand the occurrence and different forms of corrosion.
Course objectives
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
 select effectively the following metals and their alloys for specific application: steels, aluminium,
copper, Nickel, Titanium, Magnesium and Zinc
 prevent harmful effects of corrosion on metals and their alloys
 select and use polymers and ceramic materials.
 take necessary precautions when using asbestos
Course description
Alloy steels: Types, properties and uses.
Aluminium and its alloys; methods of production of commercial aluminium, wrought and cast alloys.
Copper and alloys: Methods of production of commercial copper, brasses, bronzes and cupro-nickel
alloys.
Special alloys: Uses and characteristics of nickel, titanium, magnesium and zinc alloys.
Polymers; manufacture, types, structure, properties and uses.
Ceramics; manufacture, types, properties and uses.
Corrosion; types and prevention.
Asbestos: Use and hazards.
Competences:
1. Maintenance and Repair of shipboard machinery and equipment (STCW A-III/1).
2. Operation, surveillance, performance assessment and maintaining safety of propulsion plant and
auxiliary machinery (STCW A-III/2).
Course text books
1. Higgins, R.A. (1994) Properties of Engineering Materials, Hodder & Stroughton, 2nd Ed.
2. Michael F.Ashby and David R.H Jones (July ,2006), Engineering Materials –Introduction to their
properties and applications, CRC Press
3. Kenneth G.Budinski and Michael K Budinski (2009), Engineering Materials- properties and
selection, Prentice Hall, 9th ed.
References
1. Srivastava, C.M. & Srinivasa, C. (1991) Mechanical Properties of Materials, Wesley Eastern.
2. Pascoe, K.J. (1962) An Introduction to the Properties of Engineering Materials, van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1st Ed.
3. Jastrzebski, D. Z. (1997) The Nature & Properties of Engineering Materials, John Wiley & Sons.
4. Howard Irving Chapelle (1994), Boat building: A complete Handbook of wooden Boat
Construction, Newton & Company
5. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology
Grading Policy
Assignments 5%
Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs) 10%
Lab work 15 %
End of Sem Exam 70 %
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the
structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the basis of
these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of properties.
The field of materials engineering and science is often defined by the interrelationship between
four topics—synthesis and processing, structure and composition, properties, and performance.
What are the Responsibilities of Materials Engineer?

Phase -1 of design process – Drawing the basic design.
Phase -2 of design process – Selection of Proper Materials, i.e. selection of material according to
many parameters e.g.
 Mechanical loads,
 Wear,
 Electrical insulation,
 Thermal properties, ………… and
 Availability and cost.
This includes;
Selection of the proper manufacturing process or processes, (sums to what is called “The
Technological Root”)
1. Proper choice (selecting) of substitute (alternative) materials when needed,
2. Contributing and Evaluating Materials tests results,
3. Studying and Composing Materials Data sheets before placing an order,
4. Doing Research Activities to enhance materials performance.
CHAPTER ONE
METALS
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes—ferrous and
nonferrous. Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast
irons.
FERROUS ALLOYS:
Ferrous alloys are those of which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities
than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction materials.
Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:
 iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s crust;
 metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and
 ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide
range of mechanical and physical properties.
The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.
Classification of ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys can be classified into the following classes according to Fe-C phase diagram
 Iron up to 0.008%C
 Steels: steel 0.008%C to 2.14%C. Commercial steels alloys contain up to 1.5%C
 Cast Irons: 2.14%C -6.7 %C. In most commercial up to 4.3%C
IRON- CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

Phase transformations Fe - C phase diagram

(i) Peritectic reaction (horizontal line at 1493°C)
(ii) Eutectic reaction takes place (4.3% C, 1130°C). This can be represented as
(c) Eutectoid (0.76%C, 723°C), the eutectoid transformation can be expressed as
The eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite is called pearlite. The eutectic mixture with 4.3%
carbon is called ledeburite. Pearlite and Ledeburite are considered as independent structural
constituents which can influence markedly the properties of alloys. Most often pearlite has a
lamellar structure and rather high strength properties.
Development of microstructure in equilibrium cooling
Eutectic structure: The microstructure for this eutectoid steel that is slowly cooled through the
eutectoid temperature consists of alternating layers or lamellae of the two phases ( α and Fe3C)
that form simultaneously during the transformation. Mechanically, pearlite has properties
intermediate between the soft, ductile ferrite and the hard, brittle cementite.
Hypoeutectoid (less than eutectoid) alloy is a composition to the left of the eutectoid, between
0.022 and 0.76 wt% C. Cooling an alloy of this composition is represented by moving down the
vertical line in Austenite γ-phase exists as a single phase at point c but as cooling proceeds below
line MO α develops along the grain boundaries and grows in size. After crossing the eutectoid,
the remaining γ- phase transforms into pearlite. The α phase developed before crossing the
eutectoid is referred to as proeutectoid while the α phase in the pearlite is known as eutectoid α.
The resulting microstructure at room temperature will be a mixture of pearlite and proeutectoid
α.
Hypereutectoid The formation of hypoeutectoid steels is analogous to hypoeutetoid steel with
the only difference being the formation of proeutectoid cementite in place of proeutectoid α.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.7: Formation of microstructure (a) eutectic (b) hypoeutectoid (c) hypereutectoid
STEELS
Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying
elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0
wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration, namely,
into low-, medium-, and high carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group according to
the concentration of other alloying elements.
1. Plain carbon steels
Contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese.
Types of plain carbon steels
Depending on the percentage composition of carbon, plain carbon steels are classified into three
groups;
 Low carbon steel
 Medium carbon steel
 High carbon steel.
Low carbon steel
Low carbon steels have less than 0.3% carbon content and are often referred to as mild steels. It
is not possible to harden mild steel by heat treatment. Strengthening is accomplished by cold
work. Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. These alloys are relatively soft
and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable,
weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce. Typical applications include
automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets
that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
Medium carbon steels

Have carbon concentrations between about 0.3 and 0.7 wt%. These alloys may be heat treated by
austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They are
most often utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered martensite.
 Are popularly known as machinery steels
 Are easily hardened by heat treatment.
High carbon steels

Have carbon contents between 0.7 and 1.4 wt%, are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile
of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition and, as
such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge.
 They are called hard steels or tool steels
Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying
elements. e.g.
• Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a
little manganese.
• For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations.
Heat treatment of plain carbon steels

The process of heat treatment is undertaken to soften the metal, to change the grain size, to
modify the structure of the material and to relieve the stress set up in the material after hot and
cold working. All heat-treating operations consist of subjecting a metal to a definite time-
temperature cycle, which may be divided into three parts: Heating, holding at temperature
(soaking), and cooling. The various heat treatment processes commonly employed in engineering
practice as follows:-
1. ANNEALING
a) Spherodizing
Spherodite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 7000C for over 30 hours. The
purpose is to soften higher carbon steel and allow more formability. This is the softest and most
ductile form of steel. Here cementite is present.
b) Full annealing
Carbon steel is heated to approximately above the upper critical temperature (550-650) for 1
hour. Here all the ferrite transforms into austenite. The steel must then cooled in the realm of 38
per hour. This results in a coarse pearlite structure. Full annealed steel is soft and ductile with no
internal stress.
c) Process annealing
The steel is heated to a temperature below or close to the lower critical temperature (550-650),
held at this temperature for some time and then cooled slowly. The purpose is to relive stress in a
cold worked carbon steel with less than 0.3%wt c.
d) Diffusion annealing:-
The process consists of heating the steel to high temperature (1100-1200). It is held at this
temperature for 3 hours to 20 hours and then cooled to 800-850 inside the furnace for a period of
about 6 to 8 hours. It is further cooled in the air to room temperature. This process is mainly used
for ingots and large casting. It is also called isothermal annealing.
2. NORMALISING
The process of normalizing consist of heating the metal to a temperature of 30-500 c above the
upper critical temperature for hypo-eutectoid steels and by the same temperature above the lower
critical temperature for hyper-eutectoid steel. It is held at this temperature for a considerable time
and then quenched in suitable cooling medium. The purpose of normalizing is to refine grain
structure, improve machinability and improve tensile strength, to remove strain and to remove
dislocation.
3. HARDENING
The process of hardening consist of heating the metal to a temperature of 30-500 c above the
upper critical point for hypo-eutectoid steels and by the same temperature above the lower
critical temperature for hyper-eutectoid steels. It is held this temperature for some time and then
quenched. The purposes of hardening are to increase the hardness of the metal and to make
suitable cutting tools.
4. AUSTEMPERING
It is a hardening process. It is also known as isothermal quenching. In this process, the steel is
heated above the upper critical temperature at about 8750 c where the structure consists entirely
of austenite. It is then suddenly cooled by quenching it in a salt bath maintained at a temperature
of about 250 – 5250 c.
5. MARTEMPERING
This process is also known as steeped quenching or interrupted quenching. It consists of heating
steel above the upper critical temperature and quenching it in a salt bath kept at a suitable
temperature.
6. TEMPERING
This process consists of reheating the hardened steel to some temperature below the lower
critical temperature, followed by any desired rate of cooling. The purpose is to relive internal
stress, to reduce brittleness and to make steel tough to resist shock and fatigue.
Fig. Heat Treating Processes

Surface Hardening
In many engineering applications, it is desirable that steel being used should have a hardened
surface to resist wear and tear. At the same time, it should have soft and tough interior or core so
that it can absorb any shocks. Case hardening is the process of hardening the surface of metal,
often a low carbon steel by infusing elements into the metal surface forming a hard, wear
resistance skin but preserving a tough and ductile interior. This type of treatment is applied to
gears, ball bearings, railway wheels. The various case hardening processes are as follows:-
 Case Carburizing
 Cyaniding
 Nitriding
 Flame/induction hardening
Case Carburising
It is a method used for producing hard surface on ductile steel. It involves introduction of
additional carbon into the surface of mild steel, producing a composite material consisting of low
carbon steel within a thin case of 0.5-0.7 mm thickness of high carbon steel. The principal
methods of carburising are:
 Pack carburising: parts are heated above the upper critical temperature in contact
with wood or barium carbonate, within a cast iron container.
 Gas carburising: parts are heated above the upper critical temperature in a furnace
with an atmosphere of methane or mixed hydrocarbon gases.
Three stage heat treatment is given to carburised parts to achieve desired properties:
1. refining the core structure by heating to a value above the upper critical temperature
for the core composition, followed by rapid quenching
2. hardening the case by heating to just above the lower critical temperature, followed
by quenching
3. tempering the case: Heating between 200–7000C and quenching in still air or liquid.
Cyaniding
Steel components are heated in a bath of molten sodium cyanide and sodium carbonate at
temperature of 9500C. During the treatment, both carbon and nitrogen diffuse into the surface of
the steel. Formation of hard iron nitride contributes to the surface hardening of the steel. After
cyaniding, parts undergo the three stage heat treatment mentioned above.
Nitriding
Not suitable for plain carbon steels. Suitable for special alloy steels containing chromium and
molybdenum. Parts for nitriding are first heat treated to produce the best core properties.
Machining to final dimensions is then carried out, while the material is still in soft condition,
allowing for the small growth of 0.02 mm that occurs during nitriding. Nitriding is, then, carried
out by heating the steel parts at about 5000C in a gas–tight chamber, in atmosphere of ammonia.
The ammonia dissociates at the steel surface into nitrogen and hydrogen and nitrogen is absorbed
by the steel. Advantages of nitriding include:
• An extremely hard surface is formed
• Treatment is conducted at comparatively low temperatures, minimizing cracking and
distortion
• No subsequent heat treatment is necessary.
Flame and Induction Hardening:-
Flame or induction hardening are process in which the surfaces of the steel is heated to a high
temperature (by direct application of flame from an oxyacetylene burner or by induction
heating), then cooled rapidly using water this creates a case of martensite on the surfaces. A
carbon content of 0.4%-0.6%wt c is needed for this type of hardening. Typically uses are
shackles of a lock, where the outer layer is hardened to be file resistant and mechanical gears,
where hard gear mesh surface are needed to maintain a long service life. Other applications
include crankshaft and axles.
Limitations of plain carbon steels

1. Poor resistance to corrosion and oxidation or scaling at high temperatures.
2. They suffer rapid softening at elevated temperatures (i.e., above 3000C) thus limiting their
use in high speed metal cutting operations and other high temperature operations.
3. They have low hardenability i.e., large sections cannot be effectively hardened hence
their use is restricted only to thin sections that can be full-hardened effectively.
4. Decrease in ductility as the carbon content increases.
5. Maximum tensile strength obtainable in plain carbon steels and steels having reasonable
toughness and ductility is about 700 MPa.
2. Alloy steels
These are steels with other alloying elements in addition to carbon required to introduce new
properties that are not available in plain carbon steels. They also improve and extend the existing
properties of plain carbon steel.
What classifies a steel as an Alloy Steel; > 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu
Alloy steels are classified into:
1. High–alloy steels – alloy elements are added in large percents (>20%) to improve on corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temperatures.
2. Low–alloy steels – alloy elements are added in small percents (<5%) for the purpose of
increasing strength and hardenability.
Alloying elements used in steels
Most common alloy elements are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt,
silicon, and copper.
Manganese (Mn)
 combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
 >1%
 increases hardenability
 11% to 14%
o increases hardness
o good ductility
o high strain hardening capacity
o excellent wear resistance
 Ideal for high speed tool steels
Nickel (Ni)
 increases strength, stability and toughness
 improves response to heat treatment especially in large sections.
 In large amounts, provides special electrical and magnetic properties.
 Improves forming properties of stainless steel.
 12% to 20% Nickel AND low amounts of Carbon possess great corrosion resistance
Chromium (Cr)
 Usually < 2%
 increase hardenability and strength
 Offers corrosion resistance by forming stable oxide surface hence provides stainless
property in steel.
 typically used in combination with Ni and Mo to form the well-known nickel-chrome"
stainless" steels in extensive use throughout the world for high performance and heat
resistant applications.
 used widely in tool steels and in electric plates.
Molybdenum (Mo)
 Usually < 0.3%
 increase hardenability and strength
 Mo-carbides help increase creep resistance at elevated temps
 typical application is hot working tools
Vanadium (V)
 Usually 0.03% to 0.25%
 increase strength without loss of ductility

Tungsten (W)
 helps to form stable carbides
 retention of hardness and toughness at high temperatures.
 used in tool steels, dies, valves, magnets, etc.
Copper (Cu)
 0.10% to 0.50%
 In small amounts improves atmospheric corrosion resistance
 Reduced surface quality and hot-working ability
 used in low carbon sheet steel and structural steels
Silicon (Si)
 About 2%
 increase strength without loss of ductility
 provides high electrical resistance and enhances magnetic properties
 used in electrical machinery.
High–Speed Tool Steels
High speed tool steels are widely used for cutting metals where hardness must be retained at
elevated temperatures.
High carbon steels alloyed with tungsten and chromium are used as hard wearing metal– cutting
tools, which retain their high hardness at temperatures up to 6000C. e.g. Composition of
commonly used high-speed tool is 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium and 0.8% carbon.
Cobalt (5-10 %) is often added as it improves the red hardness and cutting ability.
In addition to heat resistance, high speed tool steels have the desirable properties of high
hardness, high compressive strength and outstanding wear resistance.
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments,
especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Stainless steels are divided into three classes on
the basis of the predominant phase constituent of the microstructure:
Ferritic Stainless Steels: Are composed of the ferrite (BCC) phase. Are the most corrosion
resistant because of the high chromium contents and nickel additions; they are produced in the
largest quantities. Are hardened and strengthened by cold work because they are not heat
treatable.
Properties:
 Are magnetic
 Poor ductility and formability
 When annealed they are superior than martensite stainless steels in machinability and
corrosion resistance
 Used extensively in deep drawn parts.
Applications; table ware, beer barrels, cutlery etc.
Austenitic stainless steels:

Have a composition of 18% Cr, 8%Ni and are relatively low carbon content of approximately
0.1%. They are generally the most widely used of the stainless steels. From the composition, the
main alloying elements are nickel which is an austenite stabilizer and chromium which is a
ferrite stabilizer.
Properties
 Non-magnetic in the stabilized austenite structure.
 However when cold worked, the austenite stainless steel tends to form ferrite and the
material becomes slightly magnetic. This effect of producing ferrite upon cold working
makes the steel difficult to machine.
 Has FCC crystal structure.
 Most ductile compared to the other types of stainless steels.
 They do not harden if heat treated, however they can be readily hot worked.
Martensitic Stainless Steels: Are capable of being heat treated in such a way that martensite is
the prime micro-constituent. Are iron-chromium alloy steels containing between 12-18%Cr and
high carbon content in the range of 0.15-1.2%C.
Properties
 Are magnetic under all conditions
 Has BCC crystal structure
 Have good resistance to corrosion and oxidation at high temperatures.
Applications; pump shafts, turbine blades, springs, ball bearing, surgical instruments, vessels,
and regulator valves.
Table 2 Typical analyses of grades of iron and steel
STEEL MAKING PROCESSES

Process involves;
1. oxidizing carbon in the pigeon and scrap metal used to lower levels necessary for type of
steel
2. oxidizing impurities in elements such as Si, Mn, S and P.
3. adding required alloying elements.
CAST IRON
Cast irons are selected grades of pig iron, which are remelted and cast in sand moulds. The
carbon contents is generally > 2.1% . Most commonly 3 to 4.5 %; Cast iron is widely used as an
engineering material because:
• Cheap
• They are easily melted and amenable to casting.
• High damping capacity
Cast iron contains large amount of carbon in the form of Fe3C (“cementite”). This composition is
not stable and decomposes under certain conditions:
Fe3C (cementite)→3 Fe(α) (Ferrite)+ C (graphite)
According to this breakdown of cementite, cast irons are classified as;
1. Grey Cast Iron
It is the least expensive and the most common variety. Typical carbon ranges are 2.5% to 4%. 1
to 3 % Si. The microstructure has micro flakes of graphite dispersed in a matrix of ferrite. Flakes
have no strength so they act as voids in the structure. Because graphite flakes contribute no more
to strength than so many voids, the tensile strength and elasticity of grey iron is considerably less
than that of steel. Nevertheless, grey iron is most widely used engineering material because of
the ease with which it will be used, its excellent machinability and good anti-friction properties,
vibration damping properties and stress relieving properties. The pointed ends of the flakes act as
notches and crack initiation sites. Therefore the material is very brittle and possess extremely
low ductility. Generally sold by class (20, 30, 40 up to 80 relating to its tensile or ultimate
strength).
Characteristics of Gray Iron:
• Low ductility (Elongation < 1%); brittleness due to the flake-like graphite
• Weak & brittle under tension
• Stronger under compression
• Excellent vibrational dampening
• Corrosion poor but better than most carbon steels.
• Wear resistant
• Weldability is poor but can be welded using oxyacetylene torch or electric arc
• Excellent machinability
• Possess excellent fluidity and relatively low shrinkage ensuring a high yield of good castings.
• Low cost owing to cheap raw materials that are economical to melt.
Applications include;
 large machinery parts with intricate shapes, general purpose cast iron,
 sewer pipes (due to better corrosion resistance than most steels)
 used in resistance grids for control apparatus of heavy duty D.C. motors due to its
ease of casting and electrical resistance properties.
2. White cast iron

White cast iron has a light appearance. White CI, so called due to its very white structure, can be
formed only during solidification.
It has carbon mostly as a "carbide," which makes white cast irons extremely hard and resistant to
abrasion. However, white cast iron is even more brittle than grey cast iron. Grades of white CI
depend on the amount of cementite in the surrounding structure.
Composition: 94% Fe, 0.5% C, 4% Fe3C, 1.5 % other impurities.
Properties;
 Hard, brittle and cannot be machined
 So called because the carbon is mostly in combined form
 Highly resistant to wear
 High tensile strength
 Obtained by rapid cooling of metal
 Poor fluidity hence does not fill the mould freely
Application;
 Used for parts subjected to excessive wear e.g. rim of freight car wheel or railway brake
blocks
3. Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast iron is the most versatile of cast irons. Also known as nodular CI.
DCI is alloyed with magnesium (Mg) in a small amount (0.05 wt. %) which precipitates out
carbon in the form of small spheres. This improves some of the mechanical properties gray CI
for instance, Ductility increased by a factor of 20, strength is doubled etc. This type of cast iron
is produced by a process called “chilling” which prevents graphite carbon from precipitating out.
Properties.
 It is strong and tough,
 easy to machine, and
 less expensive than other cast irons.
Applications;
 Ductile cast iron is used by automobile manufacturers to make crankshafts, truck axles,
engine rods and many other vehicle parts requiring more toughness.
 Ductile cast iron is also used by the modern cast iron pipe industry.
4. Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is the result of annealing white iron castings.
Malleable cast iron is made from reheating of white cast iron and maintaining the temperature at
8700C for 60 hours, then cooling slowly to allow cementite to dissociate as:
Fe3C→3 Fe+ C (graphite clusters or rosettes)
thus reducing to malleable cast iron. . Malleable CI differs from others in the shape of the
contained graphite which exists as tempered carbon nodules as compared with graphite flakes in
gray CI and true carbon spheroids in ductile CI. Two basic types of malleable CI are
“ferritic”and “pearlitic”. The third type “martensitic” is a pearlitic or ferritic grade that has been
heat treated and transformed to a martensitic structure.
Malleable cast iron is soft, tough and has superior machinability
Applications;
 Used to make connecting rods,
 Used in differential and steering gear housings, brake pedals, tractor springs, hangers and
washing machine parts, valve parts for trains, ships and other heavy-duty applications.
Selecting the proper metal alloy for a casting is difficult since the properties of the finished part
depend strongly upon the size and the shape of the part. This is very important to bear in mind
when deciding about the casting process.
Table: Grades of cast iron and their applications

Method of production of CI
Most CIs are produced by a process known as casting. By definition, Casting is a process in
which molten metal flows into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The
part produced is also called casting.
PRINCIPLES OF METAL EXTRACTION

In nature metals appear as ores which are chemical combination of the desired metals with other
metals or elements. Many methods of extraction are possible. The ore can be treated by:
 fire
 chemical
 electrical means
To obtain the required metals, sometimes before extraction is done, other chains of processes are
performed to obtain suitable ore concentrates. Such processes are called mineral dressing or ore
dressing. They involve communition, segregation and agglomeration.
Methods of Metal Extraction

i. Fire treatment (pyro-metallurgy)
This is a high temperature operation which involves application of high temperature for chemical
reduction of a metal compound to the metal. The process produces molten metal and a molten
slug in separate layers. A molten slag is usually composed of unwanted gangue compounds in
ores etc. example of this include extraction of iron, zinc etc.
ii. Chemical treatment
Generally a low temperature process and in aqueous condition. It is also known as
hydrometallurgy. After the ore dressing is done, roasting may be carried out to make the material
concentrate soluble. This is normally done by carrying out leaching after roasting by dissolving
the valuable metal into a rich liquor then recovering it. Good examples include; extraction of
[gold, uranium, beryllium, zinc etc.]
iii. Electro treatment
Also called electrometallurgy. Its widely used for extraction and refining of metals where there is
cheap and abundant supply of electric power. It involves electrolysis or decomposition of either
an aqueous solution or molten salt by passage of an electric current. Good examples involve
 extraction of Al, magnesium
 refining of zinc and copper.
NON- FERROUS METALS

ALUMINIUM
Aluminium is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clay mineral known as
bauxite. Pure aluminium has silvery colour and luster, while the commercial grades show a
characteristic bluish tinge.
Properties and Uses
 It possesses much greater corrosion resistance than ordinary steel.

 It is very good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
 Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after cold working.
 In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical transmission
and appliances to some extent.
 It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Aluminium may be alloyed with one or more alloying elements such as copper, manganese,
magnesium, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts the
soft and weak aluminium into hard and strong metal, while it retains its light weight. The main
alloys of aluminium are: Duralumin, Y-alloy and Magnalium which are discussed as follows:
Duralumin:
A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese, 0.5% magnesium and a
trace of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumnin. It possesses high strength
comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its corrosion resistance is much
lower as compared with pure aluminium. The strength of this alloy increases significantly when
heat treated and allowed to age for 3 to 4 days it will be hardened. The phenomenon is termed
age hardening. To improve upon the corrosion resistance of it, a thin film of aluminium is rolled
on the duralumin sheets. These sheets are known as Alclad by trade name and are widely used in
aircraft industry.
It is widely utilized in wrought conditions for forging, sheets, bars, tubes and rivets. It can be
worked in hot condition at 500°C. However, after forging and annealing it could also be cold
worked. Due to light weight and high strength this alloy may be used in automobile industry.
Y-Alloy:
It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy. The addition of copper to pure aluminium improves
its strength and machinability. Y-alloy contains 93% aluminium, 2% copper, 1% nickel and
magnesium. This alloy is heat treated as well as age hardened just like duralumin. A heat
treatment of Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in boiling water from 510°C and then
aging for 5 days develops very good mechanical characteristics in them. Since Y-alloy has better
strength amd hardness at elevated temperature than duralumin therefore it is much used in
aircraft cylinder heads and piston. It is also used in strip and sheet form.
Magnalium:
It is produced by melting the aluminium, 2 to 10% magnesium in a vacuum and then cooling it in
vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. About 1.75% copper is also added to it.
Due to its light weight and good mechanical characteristics, it is mainly used for aircraft and
automobile components for the manufacture of gearbox housing, vehicle door handles, luggage
racks, e.t.c.
Extraction of Aluminium from its ore
Step 1: Bauxite is crushed to produce relatively uniformly sized material. The ore is then fed into
large grinding mills and mixed with a caustic soda solution (sodium hydroxide) at high
temperature and pressure. The material finally discharged from the mill is called slurry. The
slurry contains a solution of sodium aluminate and undissolved bauxite residues containing iron,
silicon, and titanium. These residues gradually sink to the bottom of the tank and are removed.
Step 2: The slurry is pumped to a digester where the chemical reaction to dissolve the alumina
takes place. The slurry is heated to 1450 C from between 30 minutes to several hours. More
caustic soda is added to dissolve aluminum containing compounds in the slurry. The digestion
process produces a sodium aluminate solution.
Step 3: The slurry is pumped to settling tanks where settling is achieved primarily by using
gravity. Chemicals are added to aid the process. The impurities settle at the bottom while pure
alumina is pumped out of the top. The alumina particles suspended in a liquid is filtered to
remove the solid and washed to remove alumina and caustic soda.
Step 4: The liquor (remaining liquid alumina) is pumped to the precipitator. Fine particles of
alumina are added to start the precipitation of pure alumina particles as the liquor cools. Alumina
crystals begin to grow around the seeds, and then settle to the bottom of the tank where they are
removed and transferred to thickening tanks. Finally, it is filtered again then transferred by
conveyor to the calcination kilns.
Step 5: Calcination is a heating process to remove the chemically combined water from the
alumina hydrate. The alumina is heated in a kiln. Pure alumina, white in colour, is the result of
calcination. The caustic soda is returned to the beginning of the process and used again.
Step 6: Alumina is then converted to aluminium by the Hall-Heroult process. Direct current
(DC) is passes through the acryolite/ alumina mixture. When the electric current passes through
the mixture, the carbon of the anode combines with the oxygen in the alumina. The chemical
reaction produces metallic aluminum and carbon dioxide. The molten aluminum settles to the
bottom of the pot where it is periodically syphoned off into crucibles while the carbon dioxide
gas escapes. Very little cryolite is lost in the process, and the alumina is constantly replenished.
Step 7: Before casting into ingot for fabricating, the molten aluminum is treated to ensure
cleanliness and purity. Alloying ingredients are usually added to increase strength or provide
special properties. Traditionally, the metal is then cast into ingots of various shapes, sizes and
compositions for a number of uses.
COPPER
The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains 68% purity
known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%) copper which is
remelted and casted into suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an attractive
reddish brown colour.
Properties and Uses
(1) High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating vessels and appliances, etc.
(2) High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various shapes and forms
for various applications.
(3) Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior to nickel and
chromium plating
(4) High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun. Requires annealing after
cold working as it loses its ductility.
ALLOYS OF COPPER
Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and they have good
corrosion resistance. The common types of copper alloys are brasses and bronzes. The various
alloys of copper are discussed as follows:
1. Brass
All brasses are basically alloys of copper and zinc. Commercially there are two main varieties of
brasses:
(1) Alfa brass: Contains up to 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.
(2) Alfa-Beta brass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot working.
The tensile strength and ductility of brass both increase with increase in content of Zn up to 30%
zinc. With further increase in zinc content beyond 30%, the tensile strength continues to increase
up to 45% of Zn, but ductility of brasses drops significantly. β- phase is less ductile than α-phase
but it is harder and stronger.
Thus, there are various types of brasses depending upon proportion of copper and zinc.
Fundamentally brass is a binary alloy of copper with as much as 50% zinc. Various classes of
brasses such as cartridge brass, Muntz-metal leaded brass, Admirality brass, naval brass and
nickel brass depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc plus third alloying metal are
available for various uses.
Suitable type of brasses can undergo the processes of casting, hot forging, cold forging, cold
rolling into sheets, drawing into wires and extrusion for obtaining requisite special cross-section
bars. The melting point of brass varies according to its composition but most of the brasses in the
common range liquefy between temperatures of 840°C to 960°C. By adding small quantities of
other elements, the properties of brass may be greatly affected. For example, addition of 1 to 2%
zinc improves the machinability of brass. Brass has a greater strength than that of copper but has
a lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Brasses possess very good corrosion resistance and
can be easily soldered. Brasses are used in hydraulic fittings, pump linings, utensils, bearings and
bushes, etc.
2. Bronze
The alloy of copper and tin are usually termed bronzes. The useful range of composition is 75 to
95% copper and remainder tin. In general, it possesses superior mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance to brass. The alloy can be easily cold rolled into wire, rods and sheets. With
increase in tin content (up to a maximum of 20 % of tin), the tensile strength of bronze and its
corrosion resistance increases. It is then known as hot working bronze. But with increase of tin
content beyond the maximum, the tensile strength very rapidly decreases. Bronze is most ductile
with a tin constituent of about 5% but as the tin increases above this amount, the ductility
gradually decreases and practically disappears with about 20% of tin.
Bronze is generally utilized in hydraulic fittings, bearings, bushes, utensils, sheets, rods and
many other stamped and drawn products.
Commonly used bronzes include: phosphor bronze, gun metal, silicon bronze, manganese bronze
and muntz metal.
Extraction of copper from its ore
Copper is contained in sulphide ores. It is manufactured through a series of steps enlisted;
i. Roasting the ore: this involves exothermic reactions that provide heat and oxidize excess
iron so that It can be removed during the process along with silicates that are present in
the ore.
ii. Matte smelting: any copper which was oxidized is reduced by part of the remaining iron
sulphide so that the copper is not lost in in the smelter slag. the Cu then forms a low
viscosity matte that melts and separates from the silicate slag.
iii. Converting: the matte separated from the smelter slag is oxidized to produce sulphur
dioxide which escapes as a gas and iron oxide slag and metallic copper. Silica is added to
help for the iron oxide slag.
iv. Fire refining: blister copper from the smelter containing considerable amount of
dissolved oxygen and copper oxide is oxidized by adding hydrocarbons to reduce the
oxygen. The resultant copper is fire refined by transferring it to a second converter where
it is first blown with air to completely oxidize any sulphide present.
v. Electrolytic refining: for higher purity of the produced copper, the fire refined Cu is
electro-refined casting it into electrolytic anodes.
SPECIAL ALLOYS
ZINC AND ZINC ALLOYS

Characteristics of Zinc in its pure form
 Zinc is a bluish-grey metal

 Has HCP crystal structure
 Has a density of 7.14*103kg/m3
 M.P. 419 oC
 Good corrosion resistance hence used in sheet form as a corrosion resistance surface
or lining or protective coating on iron and steel in the form of galvanized or sprayed
surface.
 Difficult to cold work because of the HCP crystal structure lattice. Otherwise its
easily plastically deformed at temperature between 100- 150oC. i.e., hot working. can
be easily hot worked.
 It’s quite brittle at ordinary temperatures
 Has low strength
 Strengthened by alloying the zinc with other metals.
ZINC ALLOYS
The strength of Zn can be improved by alloying. The most commonly used alloying elements are
aluminium and or copper among others. i.e., the 4% Al in Zn or 1-2 % Cu in Zn is commonly
used for producing die-casting zinc alloys.
These alloying additions considerably increase the tensile strength of the zinc.
USES OF ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS

In its pure form
This includes
 Sheet zinc used for manufacture of dry cell battery cases where the zinc is the negative
electrode for the battery.
 The major use of zinc in industry is for Galvanizing steel sheets, structural sections and
nails used as protection against corrosion
 Used as a sacrificial anode to give cathodic protection to steel structures. Underground
pipelines and tanks
Uses of Zinc alloys

 Motor vehicle components such as carburetor bodies, fuel pump bodies and door handles
etc
 Commonly used for producing model toys
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Characteristics of pure magnesium
 Lightest industrial engineering metals with density of 1740 kg/m3
 Has HCP crystal structure hence it cannot be easily cold worked.
 Has low ductility of only about 5% elongation
 Can be hot-worked fairly easily.
 M.P 6490C
 Has high affinity for oxygen and burns in air with a blinding fierce white flame when
exposed in powder or chips form.
 Despite its high affinity for oxygen, it’s a stable metal with high resistance to corrosion at
high temperatures.
 Has low modulus of elasticity , E, hence low stiffness of about 44GN/m2
 Has low strength hence its not used unalloyed for structural engineering applications. Its
strength is considerably improved by alloying.
Magnesium alloys.
 The principal alloying element in magnesium is Aluminium added in amount up to 10%
Al.
 Mg-Al alloys can be strengthened by precipitation hardening and heat treatment.
 Other alloying elements that will give magnesium alloys that can be strengthened by
precipitation heat treatment are: zinc, zirconium, and thorium.
 For forming process, magnesium alloys are readily hot worked and can be easily cast into
shapes by both sand and die- casting methods.
Uses of
1. Pure magnesium
 As a sacrificial anode for cathodic protection of steel structures such as tanks,
underground pipelines and water heaters against corrosion. In such applications, the
Mg anodes are continuously corroded and have to be replaced periodically while the
steel work is protected.
 In fireworks since it oxidizes and burns with a bright flame at high temperatures.
 In painting industry for photo engraving because of its light weight and rapid but
controlled etching characteristics.
2. Magnesium alloys
 In aircraft construction industry as casting, forging and sheet materials for such
components as aircraft engine and gearbox casings, and very large castings of
intermediate compressor casings for turbine engines
 In motor vehicle industry for making ‘Mag wheels, engine crank chess, man folds,
engine blocks, seat frames and body in white etc.
Draw backs of Magnesium and its alloys
 Difficult to handle as molten metal because of its high affinity for oxygen.
 Poor ductility and formability because of its HCP crystal structure. However, the ductility
is improved above 2500C and by alloying which introduce more slip planes required for
plastic flow, in the lattice structure.
 Poor fatigue and stress corrosion resistance especially in the presence of a notch.
Note; Alloys of aluminum and magnesium are called light alloys.
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS
Characteristics of pure nickel

 It is silvery white metal
 Has FCC crystal structure
 M. P 14550C
 Density 8880kg/m3
 Excellent resistance to corrosion by alkalis and many acids
Use of pure Nickel
 Extensive use as an alloying element in steel and cast iron to improve on toughness and
impact resistance since it’s a grain refiner as it suppresses grain growth.
 It confirs outstanding corrosion resistance to steels when added in the range of 12-20%
Ni.
 30% Nickel steels called Invars has coefficient and hence used for sensitive measuring
devices.
 Commonly used as a cladding on mild steel plates and brass as protective coating.
NICKEL ALLOYS
 Generally noted for their outstanding strength and corrosion resistance particularly at
high temperatures.
 Can be forged and hot worked easily and are easy to weld. However, they are difficult to
form by casting
Types of Nickel alloys
1. Monel series (68% Ni, 30% Cu, 2% Fe)
Used in making;
 Steam turbine blades because of high corrosion resistance to high velocity high corrosion
temperature steam and chemical food handling plant industry.
 Used in parts of water pumps, propellers, domestic water storage tanks and parts
subjected to high temperatures, e.g. internal combustion engines valve seatings
particularly in light alloy cylinder heads owing to its excellent corrosion resistance
properties.
2. Inconel series
These are alloys for electrical resistance generally known as Nichromes. Examples include;
a. 80% Ni, 20% Cr alloys. Commonly used for heating elements for kettles, toasters,
electric furnaces,
b. 80% Ni, 14% Cr, 6% Fe alloys. For electric cooker heating elements.
3. Nimonic series
- Are the high temperature creep resistant alloys.
- Are Ni-Cr alloys containing between 55% and 80% Ni and around 20% chromium in
addition to smaller amount of carbon and other alloying elements such as titanium,
cobalt, iron and Aluminium.
- Their high creep resistance is due to finely dispersed precipitation of intermetallic
compounds of nickel with titanium and iron and also metallic carbides which are stable
up to high temperatures.
Uses
 Gas turbine blades and discs
 Flame tubes.

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EMR 2201 ENGINEERING MATERIALS I

YEAR 2 BSc. MARINE ENGINEERING

What are the Responsibilities of Materials Engineer?

IRON- CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

Phase transformations Fe - C phase diagram

(c) Eutectoid (0.76%C, 723°C), the eutectoid transformation can be expressed as

(a) (b) (c)

Medium carbon steels

High carbon steels

Heat treatment of plain carbon steels

Fig. Heat Treating Processes

Limitations of plain carbon steels

 increase strength without loss of ductility

Austenitic stainless steels:

STEEL MAKING PROCESSES

2. White cast iron

Table: Grades of cast iron and their applications

PRINCIPLES OF METAL EXTRACTION

Methods of Metal Extraction

NON- FERROUS METALS

 It possesses much greater corrosion resistance than ordinary steel.

ZINC AND ZINC ALLOYS

 Zinc is a bluish-grey metal

USES OF ZINC AND ITS ALLOYS

Uses of Zinc alloys

MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Characteristics of pure nickel

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