CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Fruits and vegetables have been proven as some of the most vital essentials in the human diet as

they are immune system boosters. Multiple researches and studies have proven that fruits and

vegetables contain certain phytochemicals and minerals which are essential in human

development. Internationally, an average of 2.8% of deaths is attributed by low fruits and

vegetable intake. Most of the population in Kenya especially those residing in urban areas have

diverted their eating habits to consumption of fruit for pulp or juice. The quality of the juice is

much dependent on the quality of fruits from which it comes. Pineapples, one of the fruits is

constantly attacked by pests in the farm, during transportation and storage or at the places of

juice production. Pesticides are also applied in fruits for post-harvest protection. As a result,

pesticides may be transferred from the fruits to the juice therefore being a lead route to human

exposure. Pineapples have a thick skin which is mostly discarded by consumers with the

argument that most of any pesticide residue will be thrown away with the skin. Pineapple peels

were used anciently to by herbalists to prevent several types of diseases due to its nutritional

value. The peels contain vitamin B, C, folate, thiamin, fibre, bromelain, pantothenic acid copper

and potassium.

After harvesting, handling may markedly decrease the amounts of pesticide residues in

pineapples for human consumption as a result of the peeling and washing process. However, the

non-edible parts including peels and skins constitute 10-60% of the total weight of the product.

Peels and skin are the main constituents of these wastes amounting to more than 50%.

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Consequently, the content of agrochemicals in pineapple wastes is to be monitored before or

during further processing that targets the separation or concentration of bioactive compounds

from the peels.

It is of importance to point out the health issues due to pesticide intake are not only

related to the toxicity level of the agrochemicals but also their concentration and exposure time.

Exposure to pesticides through consumption of these pineapple peels is almost continuous either

as a result of direct treatment or due to cross contamination.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Pineapple production in Kenya

2.1.1 Climate conditions for pineapple culture

Pineapples grow well in tropical lowlands and subtropics where the climate is warm and humid.

Favorable temperatures for pineapple culture range from 18 to 25c. Pineapples will produce fruits

under annual rainfall ranging from 650 to 3800mm well distributed annually. They grow well from sea

level up to 2000m above sea level. Pineapples do well in well-drained loam soils with an optimum PH of

4-5.

2.1.2 Land preparation

Pineapples are shallow-rooted and easily tampered by post-planting cultivation therefore, the

land should be well prepared before planting. Nitrogen is an essential element to increase the

total yield thus 7 tons of manure per hectare is applied to the field before planting to increase the

yield.

2.1.3 Propagation and planting

Vegetative propagation is used widely in commercial propagation of pineapples. Crowns, slips

and suckers are used as planting materials for pineapple growing. Selecting and sizing of plant

materials is of importance to ensure uniform plant growth. Simultaneous flowering of pineapples

is induced by smoke due to ethylene produced enabling control of harvesting time in response to

market demand.

2.1.4 Harvesting

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Pineapples are ready to harvest when they snap off at the bending of the fruit. Fresh pineapples

destined for the local market are plucked when almost ripe. Fresh fruits intended for export are

harvested green-ripe. For canning, the sugar to acid ratio is determined and pineapples are graded

according to sizes canneries only accept grade I and II.

2.1.5 Examples of Pineapple Pests

Nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica and Pratylenchus brachyurus

Root-knot nematodes result in distinct swellings on the roots of pineapples. The root lesion

nematodes develop brown spots on the roots which may cut through the roots causing pineapples

to die prematurely. In most instances, affected plants are stunted and with time wilt and die.

Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes)

The mealybug is a cross product of the pineapple wilt virus. Mealybugs are pink, oval, 3mm long

and covered with a whitish waxy secretion, which advances into waxy filaments around the

body. Mealybugs are common on roots of pineapples and on stems just above ground level. They

spread upwards to feed on the floral cavities and on the crown leaves. Feeding on leaves results

in yellowing and drying up of the leaf-tips which proceeds to the base of the leaves. Feeding in

the bloom cavities brings about wounds which are contaminated by fungal spores resulting in

black spot. Feeding on roots is linked to rotting of roots and eventually wilting of the plant.

Thrips (Thrips tabaci and Frankliniella schultzei)

Thrips are tiny, slim and brown insects with pale yellow hind wings that appear as yellow line

down the back body when it is at rest. Thrips are vectors of the yellow spot virus in pineapples

which is similar to the tomato spotted wilt virus. Blossom thrips feed on flowers resulting in

development of “dead-eye” in the pineapple fruit. Feeding on the crown ensues in concentric

ring patterns developing on crown leaves.

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2.2 Pesticide technology

2.2.1 Classification and properties

Pesticides are substances used to kill, repel or control certain forms of plant or animal life that

are considered to be pests. Pesticides are classified on the basis of chemical composition,

toxicity, mode of entry, formulations, mode of action and source of origin.

Toxicity

Toxicity is dependent on dose and time. The amount of substance and exposure to the substance

give rise to acute and chronic toxicity. Acute toxicity refers to adverse effects of pesticides to

living organisms after a single short term exposure. Acute toxicity may be measured as acute

oral, acute inhalation and acute dermal toxicity. Chronic toxicity is delayed poisonous effect

from exposure to a pesticide. Chronic toxicity concerns the general public and direct workers

because of potential exposure on food products, water and air.

Table 1: WHO recommended classification of Pesticides

WHO Class LD 50 for rats Examples

(Mg/kg body
wt.)
Oral Dermal
Ia Extremely Hazardous <5 < 50 Parathion, Dieldrin,
Phorate
Ib Highly hazardous 5 -50 50 – 200 Aldrin, Dichlorvos
II Moderately 50-2000 200- DDT, Chlordane
hazardous 2000
III Slightly hazardous Over 2000 Over Malathion
2000
U Unlikely to present 5000 or Carbetamide,
acute hazard higher Cycloprothrin

Pesticide function

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Pesticides are classified on the basis of pest organism they kill and their functions.

Table 2: Pesticides classification on the basis of pest organism they kill and pesticide function.

Sl. No. Type of Target pests/Functions Examples

pesticide
1. Acaricides Substances that are used to kill mites DDT, dicofol,
and ticks or to disrupt their growth or chlorpyrifos, permethrin,
development etc
2. Algicide Substances that used to kill or inhibit Copper Sulphate, diuron,
algae oxyfluorfen, etc
3. Antifeedants Chemicals which prevent an insect or Chlordimeform,
other pest from feeding azadirachtin, etc
4. Avicides Chemicals that are used to kill birds Strychnine, fenthion, etc
5. Bactericides Compounds that isolated from or Streptomycin, tetracycline,
produced by a microorganism or a etc
related chemical that is produced
artificially, which are used to kill or
inhibit bacteria in plants
or soil
6. Bird repellents Chemicals which repel the birds Diazinon, methiocarb, etc
7. Chemosterillant Chemicals that renders an insect Diflubenzuron
infertile and thus prevent it from
reproducing.
8. Desiccants Act on plants by drying their tissues Boric acid
9. Fungicides Chemicals which are used to prevent, Cymoxanil, thiabendazole,
cure eradicate the fungi. Bordeaux mixture
10. Herbicide A chemical that protect crops from Benoxacor, cyometrinil
softener injury by herbicides, but does not
prevent the herbicides from killing
weeds.
11. Herbicides Substances that are used to kill the Alachlor, paraquat, 2,4-D
plants, or to inhibit their growth or
development.
12. Insect attractant A chemical that lures pests to trap, Gossyplure, Gyplure
thereby removing them from crops
animals and stored products
13. Insect growth A substance that works by disrupting Diflubenzuron
regulator the growth or development of an insect

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 14. Insecticides A pesticide that is used to kill insects Azadirachtin, DDT,
or to disrupt their growth or chlorpyrifos, malathion,
development etc.

15. Larvicides Inhibit the growth of larvae. Methoprene

16. Lampricides Target larvae of lampreys which are Nitrophenol
jawless fish like vertebrates
17. Mammal A chemical that deters mammals from Copper napthanate,
repellent approaching or feeding on crops or trimrethacarb, etc.
stored products
18. Mating Chemicals that are interfere with the Disparlure, gossyplure,
disrupters way that male & female insects locate etc.
each other using airborne chemicals,
thereby preventing them from
reproducing
19. Molluscicides Substances used to kill slugs and Metaldehyde, thiadicarb,
snails. etc.
20. Moth balls Stops any damage to cloths by moth Dichlorobenzene
larvae
21. Nematicides Chemicals which are used to control Carbofuron, chlorpyrifos,
nematodes methyl bromide, etc.
22. Ovicides Inhibit the growth of eggs of insects Benzoxazin
and mites
23. Piscicides Acts against fishes Rotenone
24. Plant growth Substances alters the expected growth, 2,4-D, gibberellic acid,
regulators flowering or reproduction rate of plants etc.
25. Rodenticides Substances used to kill rats and related Strychnine,Warfarin, zinc
animals phosphide, etc.
26. Silvicides Acts against woody vegetation Tebuthiuron
27. Synergists A chemical enhances the toxicity of a Piperonyl butoxide
pesticide to a pest but that is not by
itself toxic to pest
28. Termiticides Kill termites Fipronil
29. Virucide An agent having capacity to destroy an Ribavirin
inactivate viruses
30. Miscellaneous - Aluminium phosphide,
sodium cyanide

Chemical composition

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On the basis of chemical composition, pesticides are classified as organophosphates,

organochlorines, carbamates and pyrethroids. Organochlorines are widely used as insecticides

such as DDT, which is used for the effective control of malaria in developing countries.

Organochlorines have a long term residual permanence in the environment after application due

to their low polarity, low solubility and volatility nature. Nevertheless, bioaccumulation of

organochlorines gives rise to hypertension, and cardiovascular disorders.

Organophosphates include organic compounds that contain phosphodiester bond in their basic

structure. Therefore, organochlorines decompose easily when applied to plants and soil causing

reduced environmental pollution. They operate by inhibiting acetyl cholinesterase which controls

the functions of the nervous system

Carbamates are highly soluble in organic solvents. Carbamates also inhibit acetyl cholinesterase.

Pyrethrins and pyrethroids have low water solubility while others such as deltamethrin are not

soluble in water. Moreover, pyrethrins easily decompose when exposed to light and they are only

slightly toxic to mammals and birds. Pyrethrins are considered the safest insecticides.

Mode of entry

Modes of entry are the ways pesticides come into contact with the targeted pests.

Sl. Type of Description Examples

No.
1. Pesticide
Systemic These are pesticides which are absorbed by plants or 2,4 –D,
Pesticides animals and transfer to untreated tissue glyphosate
2. Contact It acts on target pests when they come in contact Paraquat,
pesticides diquat
3. Stomach It enters the pest’s body through their mouth and Malathion
poisons digestive system
4. Fumigants Pesticides which acts or may kill the target pests by Phosphine
producing vapor and enter pest’s body through
tracheal system.
5. Repellents Repellents do not kill but distasteful enough to keep Methiocarb
pests away from treated area. They also interfere with

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pest’s ability to locate crop.

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