GEC 7

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Module 6:The Good Life

Overview

Everyone is in pursuit of the good life. We do certain things because we want to achieve a
life which will make us happy and content. By studying and working hard, we try to attain this
goal not only for ourselves but also for our loved ones and the rest of humanity. Good life may
vary and differ in the particular, however, we recognize universal truths that cut across
differences.

Objectives

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

°Explain the concept of the good life as posited by Aristotle;

°Define the good life in their own words; and
°Examine shared concerns that make up the good life to come up with innovative and creative
solutions to contemporary issues guided by ethical standards.

Module Contents

THE GOOD LIFE

Aristotle suggested that the good life includes both happiness and engagement (Hestir, 2008),
where happiness is defined as an activity of authentically expressing one’s excellences or virtues
(Sutton, 2020).

Aristotle studies in living the Good Life (nothing to do with looking seductive in dungarees and
willies) included advice like, moderation in all things.

Spice for the Good Lifeis any good human life should include opportunities to make use of and
develop our capacities to think, to deliberate and to reason.
NICOMACHEAN ETHICS AND MODERN CONCEPTS

Good life is the happy life or the contemplative life- the life of reason. Thus, Aristotle
develops in the Nicomachean Ethics or Theory of what is the good life for human
beings.The good lifeis, for a human being to live in the way that is most suitable for a human
that is according to reason.

3 concepts of good life, in the philosophy of Aristotle:

The Good Life: Aristotle

The Good Life: Plato
Aristotle and Virtue Theory

ARISTOTLE ON THE GOOD LIFE

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato, and a teacher of Alexander the Great. He
wrote on: physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, linguistics, politics, biology,
ethics, and zoology. His thought of multiple fields was consumed definite for millennia, and
his work in ethics and politics is still widely influenced today. He is one of the greatest thinkers
in the history of western philosophy.

Aristole views on living well begins with consideration of ends and means. Suppose I went a
car- the car is my end or goal.The means I choose depends on which is easier, quicker, likelier to
succeed. Thinking about the goal we are aiming at, and the means we will employ to reach that
goal is practical thinking.Purposeful action contrasts with aimless or thoughtless action, which is
action with no end in view.

He further said that without a plan for living, we don’t know what we are trying to do or why
we’re trying to do it. We need the right plan, which is one that aims at the final or ultimate end.
What is the final end of human life, the end that all of us ought to aim at.

For Aristotle, the final end of human life is to flourish, to live well, to have a good life.
He states that the good life consists in the possession, over the course of a lifetime, of all those
things that are really food for us.

According to Aristotle, they are:

Bodily goods – health, vitality, vigor, and pleasure

External goods – food, drink, shelter, clothing, sleep
Goods of the soul – knowledge, skill, love, friendship, aesthetic enjoyment, self- esteem, and
honor.

The first two goods are limited goods - we can have more of them we need. Goods of the soul-
are unlimited goods - we cannot have more of them we need. But surely knowledge of the good
life isn’t sufficient to actually living a good life. For example, that drinking alcohol is bad to
me but do it any way.

Aristotle argued that the way to bridge the gap between knowledge of the good life and actually
living it was through the development of a good moral character.And this entails developing
good habits. A good habits allow us perform certain actions without effort. We can have a
good habit of playing the piano, studying hard, or thinking well. We can also habitually make
good choices to avoid overeating or drinking too much for example.

In summary, the end, good, purpose (or meaning) of human life is to live well. We do thinking
accumulating, over the course of our lives, all the real goods that corresponds to our natural
needs; and we increase our chances of having good lives by cultivating good habits, and in
addition, we also need good luck.

The onward progress of science and technology is also the movement towards the good life.
Science and technology are one of the highest expressions of human faculties. They allow us to
thrive and flourish in life if we so desire it. Science and technology may also corrupt a person,
but grounding oneself in virtue will help him/her steer clear of danger.

_____________________

Module 7: When Technology and Humanity Cross

Overview

The good life entails living in a just and progressive society whose citizens have the
freedom to flourish. The human person has the autonomy to make choices which may enable
the flourishing of his/her self and society. As implied, everyone has absolute moral worth by
virtue of being human.
Human dignity is an ultimate core value of our existence. When we fully recognize and
appreciate this truth in ourselves and in all the persons around us, regardless of their status in
life, then we pave the way for a just and progressive society. It is in this kind of society that we
are able to become fully human - more free, more rational, and more loving. Human beings
become more free when we are empowered to make choices for our flourishing.
We become more rational when we are able to value and apply the principles of logic and
science in our lives. We become more loving when we ensure that human dignity lies at the
foundation of our endeavors, whether scientific or not. It entails knowing one’s fundamental
human rights that must always be protected in the face of changing conditions.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Evaluate contemporary human experience to strengthen the human person functioning
in society;
2. Discuss the importance of human rights in the face of changing social conditions and
technological development; and
3. Identify laws or policies in the country that protect the well-being of the person in
technological advancement and ethical dilemmas.
Module Contents
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) - is a historic document that was
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session on
December 10, 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the 58
members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favour, none against, eight abstained, and two did
not vote.
The UDHR consists of the first seven articles, considered as a “milestone document in the
history of human rights”. They are as follows:
ARTICLE I
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
ARTICLE II
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, se, language, religion, political or other opinion,
national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be
made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or
territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non self-governing or
under any other limitation of sovereignty.
ARTICLE III
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
ARTICLE IV
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited
in all their forms.
ARTICLE V
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
ARTICLE VI
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
ARTICLE VII
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in
violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has a long, blood history. Crafted in 1948,
after World War II, the UDHR now serves as a common understanding of what each person’s
fundamental rights are. These rights apply to everyone, everywhere. It is imperative that we
all know and live these rights to prevent injustice and oppression.
HUMANS VS. ROBOTS
The rise of the machines accompanying the progress in science and technology may render
humans useless. Manual labor is gradually being replaced by machinery. Computers become
more and more sophisticated. Robots, usually designed like human beings, are created to
perform complex, repetitive, or dangerous tasks. With the development of artificial
intelligence (AI), robots may also eventually act and decide like humans. In the Philippines that
machines adopt the nature of humans, there is a need to reflect on the ethical problems
posed by such development.
Currently, robots are better than humans at a number of things. Machines can perceive
beyond the human visual spectrum, they need a smaller mass of consumables (e.g., food), they
are more expendable, and they can be built to better tolerate environmental extremes (e.g.
cold and radiation).
As technology advances, more businesses will likely adopt fast-paced robots that can
maximize output and potentially displace humans worker altogether.
The development of society along with science and technology gives rise to more and more
complex issues. What is vital is that, at the very least, we are able to protect and exercise
human rights for everyone in our pursuit of the good life. It is important that amid these
developments, human beings become more free, more rational, and more loving in our practice
of science and technology.
As we examine contemporary issues in science and technology – information, genetically
modified organisms, nanotechnology, and climate change – we keep in mind that the building
of a just and progressive society entails the constant practice of the good. It may be exhibited
in exceptional scientific methodologies, personal virtue, social responsibility, and global
concern.
WHY THE FUTURE DOES NOT NEED US
“Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us” is an article written by Bill Joy (then Chief Scientist at
Sun Microsystems) in the April 2000 issue of Wired magazine. While some critics have
characterized Joy’s stance as obscurantism or neo-Luddism, others share his concerns about
the consequences of rapid expanding technology.
He argues that “our most powerful 21st
-century technologies- robotics, genetic
engineering, and nanotechnology are threatening to make humans an endangered species”.
He also argues that human beings face the realistic possibility of extinction because of
competition from intelligent robots, which are made possible by technological advancements.
Human nature may be corrupted when the powers of our mind, our rationality, and our
science and technology become manifest. It we are not able to rein in the vanity and
arrogance that much powers unleash, then we are on the way to destroying the world.

____________________________

Module 8: Information Society

Overview

Humans are surrounded on all sides by technology claiming to supply information:

television, smart phones, and internet devices, among others. However, do they all provide
information or just noise? More voices are trying to get our attention but how can we be sure
that they share knowledge and the truth?
Before the printed word, the written word was prevalent. Yet, the intent to carry
information has always been present. Words are informed with meaning given by the speaker
and intended for the listener.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the human and social impacts of the developments in the information age;
2. Discuss the evolution of technology from the ancient times to the present; and
3. Illustrate how social media have affected their lives.
Module Contents
A. INFORMATION
A word is a combination of sounds that represents something. It is this significance which
makes words distinct from just any kind of vocal utterance. Words are made up of sounds and
yet transmit something more significant. They transmit a message. The words are
“informed” because they carry “information”.
B. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE
In the human quest for understanding the natural world, the ability to name and classify
objects found in nature was seen as a first step in knowing. Thus, the scientific search for
truth early on recognized the usefulness of language and the ability it gave to make sense of
nature.
The idea of comprehending words as more than just combinations of sounds led the Greeks
to seek out the principles of everyday language. When talking to other people, for example, a
meaningful message is created using ordinary sounds. Its meaning is also not diminished by
multiplication – the speaker can use the same words over and over again to talk to ten, a
hundred, or even a thousand people separately or at the same time. Words, therefore, can
function across space and time without reducing, their meaning.
Plato’s principle of “One and the Many” refers to the underlying unity among diverse beings
in the natural world. For Plato, there is a common intrinsic nature shared by different objects,
which determines their real sense. Biologists devised a way to illustrate this principle using a
system differentiating between genus and species. Many species belong in one genus.
In the 21st century, we are aware more than ever that there is rich diversity in nature, which
technology has allowed us to discover (BANWA Natural Science, 2008).
C. MATHEMATICS AS THE LANGUAGE OF NATURE
Technology in the modern world is the fruit of science. Because the scientific method
helped people discover how nature behaves, they were able to control nature with technology.
A more accurate statement is: Since people have discovered the laws and language of nature,
they can develop technology that uses these laws and language for their benefit. This
language is mathematics, the great combination of Isaac Newton. Nature can be understood
because it speaks in the language of mathematics and the human brain, to a certain extent, can
comprehend this language (Wigner, 1960).
D. TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD
The ability to think and conceptually comprehend nature and the principles it follows
eventually leads to science. Western thinkers harnessed the forces of nature after
understanding them better. Lost in antiquity is the first sailing vessel that worked through the
power of the wind. Hero of Alexandria would invent a primitive steam engine in the first
century (Paul Davies, 1990).
E. THE PRINTING PRESS AND BEYOND
The power of the eidos, or idea, would be witnessed in the succeeding centuries of
development in the West. The ancient fascination with language gave rise to the preservation
of the words of earlier people at the same time when the West weakened itself due to
internecine warfare and conflicts. Throughout this dark period, the importance of the word-
the power to be informed as a human being- led to the transmission of ideas through hand-
copying. From this manual action would arise the technology that would transform cultures-
the printing press. The development of the printing press, which may be regarded as the
beginning of a true revolution, could be dated to the 15th century.
In the age of information, the transmission of ideas has undergone changes. Meaning and
depth are no longer conveyed strictly by rhetoric but rather by its electronic replacement, the
digital signal or digit. Such a digital world is a direct offspring of the progressing world of
technology built upon the many advances in science (Toffler, 1984).
F. THE WOLRD WIDE WEB
A more modern example of technology feeding upon itself is the 20th
-century tour of force:
the World Wide Web through the internet. Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented it as a way of
addressing data processing and information sharing needs among scientists for the European
Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). CERN’s atom smasher produces a huge amount of
scientific data every second. It thus required better data analyzers to work on the gathered
information in coordination with each other. While the telegraph and telephone had allowed
the transmission of information to transcend physical boundaries, processing a veritable ocean
and mountain of scientific data generated by the atom smasher needed a new medium.
The technology applied when a sailor rigs up a piece of cloth to catch the wind is the same
one that produces modern machines and devices, albeit less complex. Nevertheless, human
beings have always found a way to address their needs and discover new frontiers with
scientific thinking. Considering the many benefits we get from these technologies, we must
also be responsible in utilizing them to avoid harming others and ourselves.

____________________

Module 9: Biodiversity, Nano World and Gene Therapy

A. ON BIODIVERSITY
Overview
From the early times, when ancient philosophers of nature tried to explain all things as
coming from the elements of water, fire, air, or earth, science sought for the common
characteristic, a unifying element, in all of nature’s many phenomena. There was a growing
awareness of how all living things are related to each other, an idea called biodiversity.
This recognition started when naturalists began to classify organisms in the natural world
using taxonomy, a system devised by Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Taxonomy is the
hierarchical system of classifying and naming organisms. It builds on the ability of the mind to
find the common in the diverse, the One in the Many. It is a system commonly used today and
shows that though the living organisms in the world are so diverse, they still share many traits.
One of the basic laws of the living is that of self-preservation. An organism will sacrifice all
it has to ensure its survival. However, with a limited amount of resources, how do the many
living organisms of a diverse region survive? The energy needed to live is shared among the
elements of the living world, or passed on from one to another.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the interrelationships of society, the environment, and health;
2. Explain the process of genetic engineering; and
3. Discuss the ethics, implications, and potential future impacts of GMO’s.
Module Contents
1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
The Biodiversity International has released a module entitled “Law and policy of
relevance to the management of plant genetic resources (Bragdon, et al., 2005) which aims
to help professionals in managing, conserving, and using plant genetic resources for food
and agriculture. Modern biotechnology paves the way for new developments on food and
agriculture. It aims to develop new precision tools and diagnostics; speed up breeding
gains and efficiency; develop pest- and disease-resistant crops; combat salinity; drought,
and problems of agriculture; enhance the nutritional quality of food; increase crop varieties
and choice; reduce inputs and production costs; and increase profits (Bragdon, et al., 2005).
2. GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
A GMO is a plant, animal, microorganism, or other organism whose genetic makeup
has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (also called gene splicing), gene
modification, or transgenic technology. It is the result of a laboratory process where genes
from the DNA of one species are extracted and artificially inserted into the genes of an
unrelated plant or animal, also called genetic engineering (GE) or genetic modification (GM).
Because this process involves the transfer of genes, GMO’s are also known as “transgenic”
organisms.
Genetic modification aims to address issues with regard to food security, agriculture,
drug production, and nutrition. The information about the microbe and its reproduction
mechanism are contained in its gene structure.
In the process of recombinant DNA technology, the needed information for an organism
can be “borrowed” from another. Such a process means that a farmer can “design” an
organism to have the characteristics necessary to address particular issues. For example, a
farmer may want the crops to have less chance of getting bruised due to rough handling. If an
organism containing a gene that prevents bruising in the mature fruit employing the science of
genetics) could be found, then this characteristics could then be used to modify the crops
through the process of recombinant gene technology.
3. CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY
The protocol is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling,
transport, and use of living modified organisms (LMO’s) resulting from modern biotechnology
that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human
health. It takes a precautionary approach by making sure that countries are provided with the
data necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms
into their territory.
The Philippines recognizes the technologies that can be of particular help for its
development. Since the Philippines is one of the biodiversity “hotspots” in the world, it is
helpful to know how biotechnology will progress in the country. It was noted that the
Philippines has 3.8 points on its interest in food and biotechnology.
B. ON NANO WORLD
Overview

In the pursuit of science and technology, humans are now dealing more and more with a
world not seen by the naked eye. This is no surprise as the study of science keeps leading us
beyond the world of everyday. The information we search for is always available in nature but
we need tools to harvest it. The nano world, like the other scientific principles, provides both
knowledge and instrument to control nature.
Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Define the major potential and realized impacts of nanotechnology on society;
2. Analyze nanotechnology through the conceptual STS lenses; and
3. Examine the costs and benefits to society of nanotechnology.
Module Contents
1. WHY NANO?
The term “nano” refers to a unit meaning one billionth or ten raised to negative nine. For
example, a nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Hence, “nano” expresses a very tiny
amount or size.
Just as we not aware of the air we breathe or the molecules constantly feeding our cells at
every second, we are also not conscious of these very little particles. Since the nano world
cannot be seen by the naked eye, it was only recognized and identified after technology has
allowed for the discovery of nanostructures. Without the microscope and its attendant
technology, people would not even be aware of how this tiny world surrounds and affects us.
Nanotechnology refers to the manipulation of matter on an atomic or subatomic scale.
Some innovations developed in this field include microprocessors and strain-resistant fabrics.
In the future, as nanoscience and nanotechnology progress, more breakthroughs are expected
to arise in the different fields of science, hopefully resolving problems in health, environment,
and security, among others.
C. ON GENE THERAPY
Overview
When identifying the contribution of technology to biology, the first place to look would be
the field of human health. The whole vast concerns of human health including aging, disease
treatment and prevention, and diet and general lifestyle have greatly benefited from
technology. Medicine is one example of a scientific and technological innovation that made a
breakthrough in the area of human health. Before aspirin was even understood at the nano
level, it had been known for its effects. Pain and various forms could be relieved and softened
by this medicine. The aspirin was already an “old” technology in the areas of nano and gene
science can be incorporated to medicine. If new discoveries on the areas of molecular and
atomic physics are applied to the biological basic building blocks- the genes- even greater
technologies for human health may be found.

Objectives

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. Describe gene therapy and its various forms;
2. Discuss the prevalence of gene therapy in daily life; and
3. Explore the opportunities that may be opened by gene therapy in the future.
Module Content
A. What we should know about stem cell treatment in the Philippines

Manila, Philippines – In recent years, it’s common to hear beauty doctors in the
Philippines offering stem cell therapy as if it is a new-found medical fountain of youth, the
answer to all medical worries.
In various media platform, there are bombardment of advertisements from various
hospitals and clinics packaging stem cell therapy as “cure-all” remedy.
With such medical breakthrough, it begs the question on how equipped we are in
offering such services. We can’t help but ask the parameters on distinguishing the real
experts from seemingly fly-by-night clinics and medical centers.
Filipino-American doctor-lawyer Samuel Bernal, an expert in the fields of regenerative
medicine and regulatory law, said the public should take a lot of precautions.
“Be careful. Number one, stem-cell therapy is not a cure-all” (medical procedure),” he
said in an interview with the INQUIRER a few weeks after receiving the 2012 Presidential
Award for Filipino individuals and Organizations Overseas at the Malacañang Palace.
“He said that the goal of stem-cell therapy is not a longevity-anti-aging program. Stem
cell therapy is actually trying to allow the body to heal itself”. Educated at Johns Hopkins’
and Harvard Medical School, Dr. Bernal is currently a Professor Emeritus of Medicine at the
University of California-Los Angeles, member of American Association of Clinical
Oncologists, the American Association of Cancer Researchers, and a recognized cancer
investigator with the US National Institutes of Health.
As a lawyer, his legal expertise includes cases on medical malpractice, medical product
liability, as well as Federal Drug Administration (FDA) and Federal Trade Commission’s (FTC)
regulations in the testing, approval, advertising, and marketing of health products.
He explained stem cell treatment requires “analyzing at the molecular level what is
causing the problem or (what could be done) to prevent the problem”. “Stem cells are
just a small part of the molecular approach to medicine”.
Suppose scientists would like to fashion a gene to counter cancer cell growth. After
several steps of developing the technology, its success would still depend on its science and
implementation. To achieve the goal, the harmful gene has to be found among the 46
such structures in the ordinary cells of the person.
The specific part of the gene doing the problem should be identified. Afterwards, that
section of the gene must be removed and replaced with the “correct” or developed gene
part to complete the therapy. This process would then correct the misinformation
encoded in the whole gene.
The financial cost of this therapy is not trivial. Each of the steps mentioned requires
expertise and technological skill. Therefore, gene therapy can be costly.

____________________

Module 10: Climate Change, Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases

Overview

All the discussions regarding the interaction among science, technology, and society will
include with a current controversial topic – climate change. It is current in a sense that it has
been put under international spotlight since the start of the 21st century. Data that have been
accumulated are used by scientists to determine if there really is a significant change in the
earth’s climate. But what does climate change mean? Doesn’t the climate always change?
Climate is not similar to weather which is constantly changing. Climate refers to the long
run-term weather patterns prevailing over a given area of the planet. The term comes from a
Greek word Klinein meaning “to slope”. It evolved into klima, connoting a zone or region of
the Earth as characterized by its atmospheric conditions. In ancient Greece, the orb of the sun
stood at a high in the sky at noontime as ships sailed toward the north, and the daytime
temperature of the air would get colder. Hence the klima in the north was colder than in the
south.
Another consideration in explaining climate change is the interaction between the sun and
the Earth. The best way to visualize this relationship is to look at the orbit of the Earth around
the sun. With the sun in the center, the Earth moves in an elliptical motion.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. Explain how climate change happens;
2. Provide pieces of evidence to affirm the presence of climate change; and
3. Discuss the implications of climate change.
Course Contents
1. ON CLIMATE CHANGE
a. EARTH’S MOVEMENT AROUND THE SUN
While the orbit remains an ellipse, its position or orientation in space changes over time.
Due to the tilt of the Earth, the whole area does not receive an equal amount of sunlight. The
Earth spins around its own axis, an imaginary line from the North Pole to the South Pole, which
dips and wobbles gradually. The Earth could then be imagined like a spinning top or trumpo,
turning and wobbling in its path about the sun.
The center of the Earth’s orbital motion is the sun but the angle or orientation of the planet
around the sun makes all the difference. In discussing global warming or climate change, it
makes sense to start considering the orbit of the Earth. Sunlight falling upon the Earth warms
the planet. The amount of sunlight, however, is not constant since the orientation of the Earth
to the sun changes.
b. MILANKOVITCH PARAMETERS
The concern raises the question as to what causes such dramatic changes in the day-to-day
weather and climate. It was addressed as early as the 1930s by Slovak scientist and
meteorologist Milutin Milankovitch. His interest in the daily weather patterns led him to
investigate the deeper issues. Do weather and climate come ultimately from the sun so that it
is the sun and its relation to the Earth that accounts for the change in the climate? Is it
possible that as the distance of the sun to the Earth changes, the Earth is affected enough to
cause climate to change?
A contemporary scientists critiqued his work, saying that the effects of the change in the
radius of the Earth’s orbit, the change in the tilt of the spin of the Earth, and the wobble in the
spin axis (now called the Milankovitch parameters), while real, were each so small that they
could not alter the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth enough to cause a phenomenon like
the Ice Age. They felt he had a good idea but it was not enough to explain the event that was
being addressed. Milankovitch’s calculations indicated that there would indeed be a change
but seemed far too small to cause an Ice Age.
Milankovitch believed that there was on something so much to validate his theoretical
calculations. Even the electronic adding machine and modern computing devices and the
technology at hand, cannot prove that the mathematics was correct in changing climate.
Using the computer, scientists went back to the mathematical equations that described
how the sun-Earth relationship causes the climate change over thousands and even millions of
years. They have come to realize that changing the Milankovitch parameters over long
periods of time can indeed have a cumulative effect far greater than it appears at first glance.
This discovery is part of what has been called a “new” science called Chaos theory (Gleick,
1987).
In summary, it can thus be seen that science has been reviewing for decades the issue of
how and why the climate changes, especially with regard to explaining the Ice Age.
Milankovitch studied whether or not the direct amount of sunlight falling on Earth was the
cause of the Ice Age. He reasoned that over thousands of years, the relative position of the
Earth and sun changes, causing variations in the solar radiation reaching the Earth over
thousands of years.
With the advent of Chaos theory, it seems that the Milankovitch theory might in fact be
relevant to the question of long-term climate change (Stewart, 2002).
2. ON GLOBAL WARMING
The Milankovitch parameters seem to be part of the cause of climate change, though not
the only cause. Today, as the world considers climate change and its implications on food
security and national development, many nations are taking a deeper look at the science
behind the issue.
Most of the scientists who study climate change agree that the average temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere has been increasing by over 90% in the latter part of the 20th century (Rees,
2001).
The main reason for global warming is that there is no reference to human beings and their
actions. Global warming will happen as naturally as the suns rises and sets. Meanwhile, the
other side maintains that global warming is caused or greatly attributed by the actions of
human beings. It lays the blame on the actions of humanity, past and present.
An important visual is the sharpness of the CO2 increase around the beginning of the
present century. Some scientist believes that the level could reach an irreversible situation in
which the heat and temperature of the planet will be unstable and unpredictable. It should be
remembered as well that while CO2 is a known indicator of global warming, it is not the only
greenhouse gas to be concerned with.
3. ON GREENHOUSE GASES
The so-called greenhouse effect refers to how certain gases in the atmosphere trap the
heat of the sun. As early as 1859, British engineer John Tyndall wrote:
As a dam built across a river causes a local deepening of the stream, so our atmosphere,
thrown across the terrestrial (infrared rays, produces a local heightening of the temperature at
the Earth’s surface (quoted in Weart, 2003).
His words mean that the atmosphere contains certain gases that naturally capture the heat
from the sun and hold it in so that the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere becomes hotter
than it would be otherwise. This mechanism is good for the biosphere because without it, the
Earth’s atmosphere would be like that of Mars and Antarctica – extremely cold. Life can be
sustained as planet Earth due to these gases and other elements.
In the middle of the 19th century, Tyndall noted that the most prevalent of these
greenhouse gases is water vapor. Meanwhile, the amount of CO2 was miniscule. Tyndall,
however, was concerned as to what would become of the Earth’s atmosphere if
industrialization became widespread.
Industrialization is the conversion of an agrarian economy into an industrialized one on a
large scale. Since machines are primarily used in an industry, the production of electricity by
means of burning fossil fuel- usually coal – increases. In Tyndall’s time, manufacturing plants
were not as widespread so the by-product of burning fossil fuel, CO2, was not great enough to
be an issue.
In a century’s time, the situation changed. With the Second World War and the changes in
the geo-political arena, the industrialization of many nations has directly affected the amount
of CO2 in the atmosphere. This led Charles David Keeling, an American scientist in the mid-
20th century, to find out if the increased burning of fossil fuel and the consequent release of
CO2 in the atmosphere were changing the global temperature of the atmosphere. He began
to measure the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere of a place far away from the industrialized
nations- on an extinct volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean (Weart, 2003).
Scientists turned to history and technology to substantiate that there is a causal
relationship between high CO2 and high temperature levels. This issue concerns many nations
since not burning fossil fuels may mean not industrializing or modernizing.
4. ON FUTURE ACTIONS
This issue has implications on the environment and on the economy – burning of fossil fuels
is one of the major sources of electricity but also leads to higher amounts of CO2. All factors
must then be considered when resolving this issue. It we want to industrialize but at the same
time protect the environment, a balanced plan must be created.
Science has given humanity a tool for modernization. It allows for the emergence of
technology that spreads and applies knowledge for the attainment of the goof life. It must be
realized that science is more like a cookbook than a blueprint. It is open for experimentation,
innovation, and refinement. So like any good chef, reading it requires a fine sense of taste.