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M O C K B A
D. K L E T E N I K
P R O B L E MS
IN
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Edited by Prof.
N. YEFIMOV
Translated from the Russian by

O. S O R O K A
PEACE PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW
CONTENTS
Part One
PLANE ANALYTIC G E O ME T R Y
C h a p t e r 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry 9

§ 1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis. Coordinates on a
Straight Line ................................................. . . . . 11
§ 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in a Plane . . . . 14
§ 3. Polar Coordinates 16
§ 4. A Directed Segment. The Projection of a Segment on
an Axis. The Projections of a Segment on the Coordi
nate Axes. The Length and the Polar Angle of a Seg
ment. The Distance Between Two P o i n t s ......................... 20
§ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio . . . . 26
§ 6. The Area of a Triangle ...........................................................30
§ 7. Transformation of Coordinates .............................................. 31
C h a p t e r 2. The Equation of a Curve .............................................. 35

§ 8. A Function of Two Variables .............................................. 35
§ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve. Curves Rep
resented by Equations ............................. . . . 37
§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of a Given Curve . . . 40
$ 11. Parametric Equations of a Curve 44
C h a p t e r 3. Curves of the First O r d e r .............................................. 47

§ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line. The Slope-
intercept Equation of a Straight Line. The Angle
Between Two Straight Lines. The Conditions for the
Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two Straight
Lines ................................................................................................ 47
6 Contents
§ 13. I ncompl ete Equat ions of Straight Lines. Discussion

of a System of Equat i ons Representing Two or Three
St rai ght Lines. The Intercept Equat ion of a Straight
L i n e ......................................................................................................... 57
§ 14. The Normal Equat ion of a Straight Line The Pr obl e m
of Det e r mi ni ng the Distance of a Po i nt from a Straight
Line . . . 62
tij 15. The Equat ion of a Pencil of L i n e s ........................................... 68
§ 16. The Polar Equat ion of a Straight L i n e .................................73
Chapter 4. Geometric Properties of Curves of the Second

O r d e r ............................................................................................ 76
§ 17.The C i r c l e ............................................................................................. 76
§ 18.The Ellipse .........................................................................................83
§ 19.The H y p e r b o l a .....................................................................................97
§ 20.The Par abol a ................................................................................... 109
§ 21.The Polar E qua t ion of the Ellipse, Hyper bola and Pa
rabola 118
§ 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second O r d e r ......................... 118
Chapter 5. Simplification of the General Equat ion of a Curve

of the Second Order. The Equations of Some Curves
Encount ered in Mathematics and Its Applica
tions .......................................................................................... 121
§ 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second O r d e r .....................121
§ 24. Reduci ng the Equat ion of a Central Curve of the Sec
ond Order to Its Simplest Form .......................................... 124
§ 25. Reduci ng a Par abol i c E qua t ion to Its Simplest Form 128
§ 26. The E qua t ions of Some Curves Enc o u n te r ed in M a t h e
matics and Its Appl i c at i ons ................................................... 131
P a r t Two
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETR Y
Chapter 6. Some Elementar y Problems of Solid Analytic

Geometry . . . 139
§ 27. Rect angular Cartesian Coordinates in S p a c e .....................141
§ 28. The Distance Between Two Points. The Division of
a Line Segment in a Given Ratio ...................................... 143
Contents 7
C h a p t e r 7. Vector Algebra . . . 115

$ 29. The Concept of a Vector. The Projections of a Vector M5
§ 30. Linear Operations on V e c t o r s ..................................................118
§ 31. The Scalar Product of V e c t o r s ............................................... 155
§ 32. The Vector Product of V e c t o r s ................................................100
§ 33. The Triple Scalar Product ....................................................... 164
§ 34. The Triple Vector P r o d u c t ............................................... 166
Chapter 8. The Equation of a Surface and the Equations of

a C u r v e ................. 169
§ 35. The Equation of a S u r f a c e ..................................................... 169
§ 36. The Equations of a Curve. The Problem of the Inter
section of Three S u r f a c e s ..........................................................172
§ 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface with Elements
Parallel to a Coordinate A x i s ................................................... 173
Chapter 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a
Straight Line. The Equations of Quadric Surfaces 175
§ 38. The General Equation of a Plane. The Equation of
the Plane Passing Through a Given Point and Having
a Given Normal Vector ......................................................... 175
§ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes. The Intercept Equa
tion of a Plane .......................................................................... 179
§ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane. The Distance of
a Point from a P l a n e ..................................................................181
§ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line .........................................185
<; 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line. The Cano
nical Equations of a Straight Line. The Parametric
Equations of a Straight Line .........................................190
§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems Involving the Equation of
a Plane and the Equations of a Straight Line . . . 195
§ 44. The Sphere 202
§ 45. The Equations of the Plane, Straight Line and Sphere
in Vector N o t a t i o n ..................................................................... 209
§ 46. Quadric S u r f a c e s ........................................................................ 214
Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants . . . 230

§ 1. Determinants of the Second Order and Systems of Two
Equations of the First Degree in Two Unknowns . . 230
8 Contents
§ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations of the First

Degree in Three U n k n o w n s ........................................................233
§ 3. Determinants of the Third O r d e r .............................................234
§ 4. Properties of D e t e r m i n a n t s .......................................................235
§ 5. Solution and Analysis of a System of Three First-
degree Equations in Three U n k n o w n s ...................................239
§ 6. Determinants of the Fourth O r d e r ....................................... 242
Answers and Hints

Part One .........................................................* ............................ 244
Part T w o ........................................................ 284
Part One
PLANE
ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY
Chapter 1
ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS OF PLANE

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
§ 1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis.

Coordinates on a Straight Line
A straight line on which a positive direction has been chosen is called
an axis. A segment of an axis bounded by arbitrary points A and
B is called a directed segment if one af these points has been
designated as the initial point, and the other as the terminal point
of the segment. A directed segment with A as its initial point and
B as its terminal point is denoted by the symbol AB. The value
of a directed segment of an axis is defined as the length of the seg
ment taken with a plus or minus sign according as the direction of
the segment (that is, the direction from its initial to its terminal
point) agrees with the positive or negative direction of the axis. The
value of a segment A B is denoted by the symbol AB, whereas its
length is denoted by the symbol | AB |. If the points A and B
coincide, the segment determined by them is called a zero segment;
clearly, AB = BA = 0 in this case (a zero segment is considered to
have no definite direction).
Let there be given an arbitrary straight line a. We next choose
a segment as the unit for measurement of lengths, assign a positive
direction to the line a* (thereby making it an axis), and mark some
point on this line by the letter 0. We have thus established a
coordinate system on the line a.
The coordinate of any point M of the line a (in the chosen
coordinate system) is defined as the number x equal to the value of
the segment O M :
X = OM .
The point 0 is called the origin of coordinates; the coordinate of

the origin itself is equal to zero. We shall henceforth use the
notation M (x ) to indicate that the point M has x as its coordinate.
* In diagrams, horizontal axes usually have their positive direc

tion from left to right.
12 C/i. /. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
If and A12 (x2) are two arbitrary points of the line a,

then the formula
A4,/Vf 2 = x 2 — x t
expresses the value of the segment M,A42 and the formula
I Af,M2 \ = \x2— xl \
expresses the length of this segment.
1. Plot the points:

4 (3), 5 (5), C (-l), d ( |) , £ ( —y ), F ( V 2), and
H (—]/5 ).
2. Plot the points whose coordinates satisfy the equa
tions:
1) |*| = 2; 2 ) | jc— 1 | = 3; 3) |1—* | = 2; 4 ) | 2 + *| = 2.
3. Characterize geometrically the location of the points
whose coordinates satisfy the inequalities:
1) * > 2 ; 2) * — 3 < 0 ; 3) 12—* < 0 ; 4) 2x — 3 < 0 ;
5) 3 * - 5 > 0 ; 6) 1 < * < 3 ; 7 ) —2 < * < 3 ; 8) — > 0 ;
9) 10) § E f < 0 ; »)
12) ** —8 * + 15 < 0 ; 13) ** —8 * + 1 5 > 0 ;
14) ** + * — 1 2 > 0 ; 15) ** + * — 1 2 < 0 .
4. Find the value AB and the length \AB\ of the seg

ment determined by the points: 1) A (3) and 5(11);
2) 4(5) and 5(2); 3) A (— 1) and 5(3); 4) A (—5) and
6 (—3); 5) A (— 1) and 5 (—3); 6) A (—7) and 5 (—5).
5. Calculate the coordinate of a point A, given:
1) 5(3) and 4 5 = 5 ; 2) 5 (2 ) and 4 5 = —3;
1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis 13
3) B (—1) and B A = 2 \ 4) B (—5) and B A = —3\

5) B (0) and \AB\ = 2\ 6) B( 2) and |/1B| = 3;
7) B (— 1) and \AB\ = 5\ 8) B (—5) and |i4fl| = 2.
6. Characterize geometrically the location of the points

whose coordinates satisfy the following inequalities:
1) | * | < 1 ; 2) |* | > 2 ; 3) | x | < 2 ; 4) |*|S33;
5) Ix—2 | < 3 ; 6) U —5 |* S l; 7) \ x — W t^ 2 \
8) U - 3 | S s l ; 9 ) | jc+ 1 | < 3 ; 10) |* + 2 | > 1 ;
11) |.v + 5 | < 1; 12) \ x + 1 | ^ 2 .
AC
7. Determine the ratio in which the point C
divides the segment AB, given:
1) A (2), B (6) and C(4); 2) A (2), B (4) and C(7);
3) ^ ( —1), fl(5) and C (3); 4) 71(1), 5(13) and C(5);
5) 71 (5), 5 (—2) and C (—5).
8. Given the three points 71 (—7), B ( —1) and C(l).

Determine the ratio K in which each of these divides the
segment bounded by the other two points.
9. Determine the ratio ^ = >n which a given
point M(x) divides the segment M,Af2 bounded by given
points M t (xt) and M2 (x2).
10. Determine the coordinate r of a point M which
divides the segment M tM t bounded by given points /VI,^,)
and M 2 (x2), in a given ratio
11. Find the coordinate x of the midpoint of the seg
ment bounded by two given points 7W, (a:,) and M 2 (x2).
12. In each of the following, find the coordinate x of
the midpoint of the segment bounded by the two given
points:
M Ch- 1. Piemen Iary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
\.L Find the coordinate of a point M , given:

1) M , (3), M t (7) and ^ = ^ = 2;
2) A (2), B (—5) and ^ = - = 3;
3) C (— 1), D (3) and A= ^ =

4) - 4 ( - l ) , B(3) and ^ = - = - 2 ;
5) /4 (1), fl(—3) and X= — = - 3 ;
6) -4 (—2), B ( - 1) and ^. = ^ = - 1 .
14. Given the two points >4(5) and B ( —3). Find:
1) the coordinate of the point M symmetric to the
point A with respect to the point B\
2) the coordinate of the point N symmetric to the
point B with respect to the point A.
15. The segment bounded by the points A (—2) and
B(19) is divided into three equal parts. Determine the
coordinates of the trisection points.
16. Determine the coordinates of the end points A and
B of the segment whose trisection points are P ( —25) and
Q (—9).
§ 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates
in a Plane
A rectangular cartesian system of coordinates is determined by
the choice of a linear unit (for measurement of lengths) and of two
mutually perpendicular axes numbered in any order.
The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin of
coordinates, and the axes themselves are called the coordinate
axes. The first of the coordinate axes is termed the *-axis or
axis of abscissas, and the second, the //-axis or axis of ordinates.
The origin is denoted by the letter 0, the x-axis by the symbol
0 x y and the //-axis by Oy.
The coordinates of an arbitrary point M in a given system are
defined as the numbers
x = 0/Wx , y = 0 M y
(Fig. 1), where M x and M are the respective projections of the
point M on the axis Ox andy 0 y y 0 M X is the value of the segment
§ 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in a Plane 15
0 M X of the x-axis, and 0 M V is the value of the segment 0 M V of

the t/-axis. The number x is'called the abscissa of the point \1, and
the number y, the ordinate of M. The notation M (x, //) means that
the point A1 has the number x as its abscissa, and the number y as
its ordinate.
The axis Oy divides the entire plane into two half-planes, of
which the one containing the positive half of the axis Ox is called
the right half-plane, and the other, the left half-plane. In like man
ner, the axis Ox divides the plane into two half-planes, of which
the one containing the positive half of the axis Oy is called the
upper half-plane, and the other, the lower half-plane.
The two coordinate axes jointly divide the plane into four quad
rants, which are numbered according to the following rule: the first
quadrant is the one lying simultaneously in the right and the upper
half-planes; the second quadrant lies in the left and the upper half
planes; the third quadrant lies in the left and the lower half-planes;
and the fourth quadrant lies in the right and the lower half-planes.
17. Plot the points:

A (2, 3), B (—5, 1), C (—2, —3), D(0, 3),
E ( - 5 . 0), F (-i, ’ ).
18. For each of the following points, find the coordi
nates of its projection on the x-axis:
A (2, —3), B ( 3, - 1 ) , C(—5, 1), D (—3 , - 2 ) , £ ( - 5 , - 1 ) .
19. For each of the following points, find the coordinates
of its projection on the //-axis:
A (—3, 2), B (—5, 1), C (3, —2), D ( —1, I), E (—6, - 2 ) .
16 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
20. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with

respect to the axis Ox, to the following points:
1) A (2, 3); 2) B (—3, 2): 3) C (— I, —1);
4) D (—3, —5); 5) £ ( —4, 6); 6) F (a, b).
respect to the axis Oy, to the following points:
1) A ( — 1, 2); 2) B (3, — 1); 3) C (—2, —2);
4) D (—2, 5); 5) E ( 3, —5); 6) F (a, b).
respect to the origin, to the points:
1) A (3, 3); 2) B (2, —4); 3) C (— 2, 1);
4) D (5, —3); 5) £ ( —5, —4); 6) F (a, b).
respect to the line bisecting the first quadrant, to the fol
lowing points:
1) A (2, 3); 2) 5 (5, —2); 3) C (—3, 4).
respect to the line bisecting the second quadrant, to the
points:
1) A (3, 5); 2) B (—4, 3) C (7, —2).
25. Determine the quadrants in which a point M (x, y)
can be situated if:
1) x y > 0 ; 2) xy <. 0; 3) x —y — 0; 4) x + y — 0;
5) x + t / > 0 ; 6) x + y < 0; 7) x — y > 0; 8) x — y < 0 .
§ 3. Polar Coordinates
A polar coordinate system is determined by choosing a point 0,
called the pole, a ray OA drawn from that point and called the
polar axis, and a scale for measurement of lengths. When determin
ing a polar system, it must also be specified which direction of
rotation about the point O is to be considered positive (in diagrams,
counterclockwise rotation is usually taken as positive).
The numbers q = OM and 0 = < J AOM (Fig. 2) are called the po
lar coordinates of the arbitrary point A1 (in reference to the chosen
§ 3. Polar Coordinates 17
system); the angle 0 is here understood as in trigonometry. The

number q is called the first coordinate or polar radius*, and the
number 0, the second coordinate or polar angle (0 is also termed
the amplitude).
The notation At (q, 0) means that the point AJ has polar coordi
nates q and 0.
The polar angle 0 has an infinite number of possible values
(differing from one another by a quantity of the form ± 2 n n t where
n is a positive integer). That value of the polar angle which satis
fies the inequalities — is called its principal value.
In cases where a cartesian and a polar coordinate system are to

be used side by side, we shall agree: (1) to use the same scale; (2)
when determining polar angles, to regard as positive the direction
of the shortest rotation of the positive x-axis into the positive
y - axis (thus, if the axes of the cartesian system have their usual
position, i. e., with the axis Ox directed to the right and the axis
Oy directed upwards, then polar angles are also measured as usual,
i. e., are measured positively in the counterclockwise direction).
Under this condition, and provided that the pole of the polar
coordinate system coincides with the origin of rectangular cartesian
coordinates, while the polar axis coincides with the positive A - a x i s ,
the transformation from polar coordinates of an arbitrary point to
its cartesian coordinates is carried out by the formulas
X = Q cos 0,
y = q sin 0.
Under the same conditions,
Q = K ^ + t/2, tan 0 = -|-
* OM denotes here the length of the segment, understood as in

elementary geometry (that is, the unsigned length). The more cum
bersome symbol | OM | need not be employed in this case since the
points 0 and M are regarded as arbitrary points in a plane, rather
than points of an axis. We shall often use this simplified notation
in similar cases below.
18 Ch. /. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
will be the formulas for transformation from cartesian to polar

coordinates.
When using two polar coordinate systems in a single problem,
we shall agree to adopt the same positive direction of rotation and
the same scale for both systems.
26. Plot the following points given in polar coordinates:

4 (3 , £ ) . B (2, ji), C (3 , D (l 3 } ),
E (5, 2) and F ( 1, — 1).
(The points D, E and F are located approximately by
using a protractor.)
27. Determine the polar coordinates of the points sym
metric, with respect to the polar axis, to the points
A h (3. f ) . M ,(2 . M , [ 3.
/W4 (1, 2) and M s (5, — 1),
given in a polar coordinate system.
28. Determine the polar coordinates of the points
symmetric, with respect to the pole, to the points
M t (l, -J ), Af,( 5. £ ) , /V7, ( 2,
Mt (4. | - n ) and M, (3, - 2 ) .
given in a polar coordinate system.
29. In a polar coordinate system, A ^3, — anc^
B (5, — are two given vertices of a parallelogram ABCD;
the point of intersection of its diagonals coincides with
the pole. Find the other two vertices of the parallelogram.
30. Given the points A ^8, — and 5 ^ 6 , 3 -) *n
a polar coordinate system. Calculate the polar coordinates
of the midpoint of the segment joining the points A and B.
31. Given the points
y>(3. i ) , b { 2. - | ) . C (l, „), D ( 5, - £ n ) ,
£ (3, 2) and F(2, — 1)
$ 3. Polar Coordinates 19
in a polar coordinate system. The positive direction ol

the polar axis is reversed; determine the polar coordinates
of the given points in the new system.
M x (3, - ) , M 2 ( l, ■§ jt) . M, (2, 0).
M, (5, i ) . Ms ( 3, - f n ) and M . ( l , - . i )
in a polar coordinate system. The polar axis is turned so
that, in its new position, it passes through the point M x\
determine the coordinates of the given points in the new
(polar) system.
33. Given the points M x ^ 12, - n | and M 2 ^12, - - j i |
in a polar coordinate system. Calculate the polar coordi
nates of the midpoint of the segment joining M x and M 2.
34. Given the points Af, (qx, (),) and M 2(q2, 02) in a
polar coordinate system. Compute the distance d between
them.
35. Given the points M x ^5, — ^ and Af2 (^8, — — j in a
polar coordinate system. Compute the distance d between
them.
36. In a polar coordinate system, Af,^12# — —^ and
M 2 ^3, are two adjacent vertices of a square. Find
its area.
37. In a polar coordinate system, P^6, —y^71) anc^
Q ^4, are two opposite vertices of a square. Find
its area.
38. In a polar coordinate system, A ^4, — and
/ 7 \
B ^8, n j are two vertices of a regular triangle. Find
its area.
39. One vertex of a triangle OAB is situated at the
pole, and the other two vertices are the points A(Qlt 0J
and 5 ( q 2, 02). Calculate the area of the triangle-
40. One vertex of a triangle OAB is at the pole 0, and

the other two vertices are the points A ^5, and
B ^4, —^ . Find the area of the triangle.
41. Calculate the area of the triangle whose vertices
are A ^3, B ^8, ^ and C ^6, - j i j in polar co
ordinates.
42. The pole of a polar coordinate system coincides
with the origin of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and
the polaraxis coincides with the positive x-axis.
M ,(6 ,- ) . M t (5, 0), A f.(l0 . — .
M s ^8,Af„^12, — are points given in the po-
lar coordinate system. Determine the cartesian coordinates
of these points.
the polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis. ^ ( 0 , 5 ) ,
A M —3. 0), MAVS , 1), A M — V2, — 1/2). M s ( l , - V 3 )
are pointsgiven in the rectangular cartesian system.
Determine the polar coordinates of these points.
§ 4. A Directed Segment. The Projection of

a Segment on an Axis. The Projections of a Segment
on the Coordinate Axes. The Length and the Polar
Angle of a Segment. The Distance* Between Two Points
A line segment is said to be directed if one of its bounding
points has been designated as the initial point, and the other as the
terminal point of the segment. A directed segment having A as its ini
tial point, and B as its terminal point (Fig. 3) is denoted by the symbol
AB (the same as a segment of an axis; see § 1). The length of a
directed segment AB (in a given scale) is denoted by the symbol
I AB | (or AB; see the footnote on page 17).
The projection of a segment AB on an arbitrary axis u is defined
as the number equal to the value of the segment A,B, of the
axis uy where the point A, is the projection upon the axis u of the
point A, and B, the projection of the point B.
S g t" "• •'K liU hlr tfagypraitr

Jfa...... 4 “S ' ■£)■■$
$ 4. A Directed Segment and Its Projections 21
The projection of a segment AB on an axis u is denoted by the

symbol proj UAB. 11 a rectangular cartesian system of coordinates
has been attached to the plane, the projection of a segment on the
x-axis is denoted by A', and its projection on the //-axis by Y .
If we know the coordinates of the points A1t (x,, //,), and
M z ( x 2 , y 2)> then the projections A' and Y of the directed segment
Fig. 3.
M , M 2 on the coordinate axes can be calculated from the formulas

X = x2— xn
y =yt—y i-
Thus, to find the projections of a directed segment of the coordinate
axes, subtract the coordinates of its initial point from the correspond
ing coordinates of its terminal point.
The angle 0 through which the positive x-axis must be rotated
to make its direction coincide with that of a segment M XM 2 is
termed the polar angle of the segment M XM 2.
The angle 0 is understood here as in trigonometry; accord
ingly, 0 has an infinity of possible values, which differ from one
another by a quant ity of the form ± 2 h ji (where n is a positive
integer). The principal value of the polar angle is defined to be that
one of its values which satisfies the inequalities — j i < 0 ^ + ji.
The formulas
X = d • cos 0, Y c=d- sin 0
express the projections of an arbitrary segment on the coordinate
axes in terms of its length and its polar angle. From these, we also
have the formulas
d= V X* + Y‘
and
22 Ch. I. Fletnentaru Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
winch express the length and the polar angle of a segment in terms
of its projections on the coordinate axes.
If M, (a , , //,) and Al 2 (x2, y 2) are two given points in the plane,
the distance d between them is determined by the formula
d = V ( x2— a ,)2 + (y2— y l)2.
44. Calculate the projection on an axis u of the seg

ment whose length d and angle of inclination q) with
respect to that axis are:
1) rf= 6 , < f= -J; 2) d = 6 , q>=^;

3) d = 7, <p= — ; 4) d = 5, cp= 0;
5) d = 5, = 6) d = 4, c p = — .
45. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segments

whose projections on the coordinate axes are:
1) X = 3, 7 = 2; 2) X = 2, Y = — 5;
3) X = —5, Y = 0 ; 4) X = —2, 7 = 3;
5) ^ = 0 , 7 = 3; 6) X = — 5, 7 = — 1.
46. From the point M ( 2, — 1), draw the segments whose
projections on the coordinate axes are:
1) X = 4 , 7 = 3; 2) X = 2 , 7 = 0 ; 3) X = —3, 7 = 1;
4) X = —4, 7 = —2; 5) X = 0 , 7 = —3; 6) X = 1, 7 = —3.
47. Given the points M ,( l, —2), 2, 1), A4,(5,0),
(— 1, 4), and M s (0, —3). Find the projections on the
coordinate axes of the following segments:
1) Af.M,, 2) M, M„ 3) MXM%, 4) M sMt.
48. X = 5, 7 = — 4 are the projections on the coordinate
axes of the segment M tMt whose initial point is Mt (—2, 3)'»
find the coordinates of its terminal point.
49. X —-4, 7 = — 5 are the projections on the coordinate
axes of the segment AB whose terminal point is at B (1, — 3);
find the coordinates of the initial point of AB.
§ 4. A Directed Segment and Its Project ions 23
50. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segment whose

length d and polar angle 0 are:
1) d = 5, 0 = - ; 2) </ = 3, 0 = | .i;
3) d = 4, 0= — y ; 4) rf = 3, 0 = —- n .
51. From the point M with cartesian coordinates (2, 3),
draw the segment whose length and polar angle are:
1) d = 2, 0=— 2) d = l, 0 = -J;
3) d = 5, 0= —
52. Find the projections on the coordinate axes of the
segment whose length d and polar angle 0 are:
1) d = 12, 0 = -.-ji; 2) d = 6, 0 = — -J;
3) d = 2, 0= —
53. Given Ihe projections of three segments on the coor
dinate axes:
1) X = 3, Y = — 4; 2) X = 12, K = 5;
3) X = — 8, Y = 6.
Calculate the length of each segment.
54. Given the projections of three segments on the co
ordinate axes:
1) X = l, K = j/3 ; 2) X = 3 | / 2 , K = — 3 J/2;
3) X = — 2V 3, Y — 2.
Calculate the length d and the polar angle 0 of each segment.
M x (2, —3), Aft (l, —4), M 3(— 1, —7) and M4(— 4 ,8 ).
Calculate the length and the polar angle of the following
segments:
1) WjMl, 2) MjVT3, 3) A p / ; , 4)
56. The length d of a segment is 5, and its projection
on the A'-axis is 4. Find the projection of this segment on
21 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Anal y t i c Geometry
ihe //-axis if the angle which it makes with the y-axis is:
1) acute; 2) obtuse.
57. The length of a segment MN is 13, its initial point
is M ( 3, —2), and its projection on the x-axis e q u als— 12.
Find the coordinates of the terminal point of this segment
if it makes with the y-axis: 1) an acute angle; 2) an obtuse
angle.
58. The length of a segment MN is 17, its terminal
point is N (—7, 3), and its projection on the //-axis is equal
to 15. Find the coordinates of the initial point of this seg
ment if it makes with the x-axis: 1) an acute angle; 2) an
obtuse angle.
59. The projections of a segment on the coordinate axes
are X = \ y Y = — V 3\ find its projection on the axis which
2
makes an angle 0 = y ji with the axis Ox.
60. Given the two points M, (1, —5) and M 2(4, — 1).
Find the projection of the segment M^M2 on the axis which
makes an angle 0 = — — with the axis Ox.
61. Given the two points P ( —5, 2) and Q (3, 1). Find
the projection of the segment PQ on the axis which makes
an angle 0==arctan — with the axis Ox.
62. Given the two points M, (2, —2) and M 2(7. —3).
Find the projection of the segment M XM 2 on the axis passing
through the points A (5, —4), B ( —7, 1) and directed: 1)
from A to 6; 2) from 6 to A
63. Given the points A (0, 0), 6(3, —4), C (—3, 4),
D( —2, 2) and 6(10, —3). Determine the distance d between
the points: 1) A and 6; 2) 6 and C; 3) A and C; 4) C
and D; 5) A and D; 6) D and E.
64. 71(3, —7) and 6 ( — 1, 4) are two adjacent vertices
of a square. Compute its area.
65. P( 3, 5) and Q (l, —3) are two opposite vertices of
a square. Compute its area.
66. Find the area of a regular triangle, two of whose
vertices are A (—3, 2) and 6 (1, 6).
67. A (3, —7), 6 (5 , —7), C (—2, 5) are three vertices
of a parallelogram ABCD\ its fourth vertex D is opposiie
§ 4. A Directed Segment and Its Projections 25
to B. Find the length of the diagonals of the paral

lelogram.
68. A rhombus has its side equal to 5J 10; two opposite
vertices of the rhombus are at the points P ( 4, 9) and
Q(—2, 1). Find the area of the rhombus.
69. A rhombus has its side equal to 5 \ 2; two opposite
vertices are at the points P(3, —4) and Q (l, 2). Find the
length of the altitude of the rhombus.
70. Prove that the points A ( 3 , —5), B (—2 , —7) and
C(18, 1) lie on a straight line.
71. Prove that the triangle with vertices A x(1, 1), A2 (2, 3)
and As(5, — 1) is a right triangle.
72. Prove that the points A ( 2, 2), B (— 1, 6), C (—5,3)
and D ( —2, — 1) are the vertices of a square.
73. Determine whether the triangle with vertices M x (1, 1),
M2(0, 2) and M s(2, —1) has an obtuse angle among its
interior angles.
74. Prove that the interior angles of the triangle with
vertices M (—1, 3), N( 1, 2) and P (0, 4) are all of them
acute angles.
75. The points A ( 5, 0), B (0, 1) and C (3, 3) are the
vertices of a triangle. Calculate its interior angles.
76. The points A (— K"3, 1), B (0, 2) and C (—2 V3, 2)
are the vertices of a triangle. Calculate the exterior angle
at the vertex A.
77. Find a point M on the x-axis such that its distance
from the point N (2, —3) will be equal to 5.
78. Find a point M on the y-axis such that its distance
from the point N (—8, 13) will be equal to 17.
79. Given the two points M (2, 2) and N (5, —2); find
a point P on the x-axis such that the angle MPN will be
a right angle.
80. A circle tangent to both coordinate axes is drawn
through the point A (4, 2). Determine the centre C and the
radius R of this circle.
81. A circle of radius 5 and tangent to the axis Ox is
drawn through the point Af, (1, —2). Determine the centre
C of this circle.
l?f> Ch /. F. lenientnru Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
82. Determine the coordinates of the point M 2 symmetric

to the point /If, (1, 2) with respect to the straight line
which passes through A (1, 0) and B (— 1, —2).
83. Given two opposite vertices >4(3, 0) and C (—4, 1)
of a square. Find its other two vertices.
84. Given- two adjacent vertices >4 (2. — 1) and B (— 1, 3)
of a square. Find its other two vertices.
85. Given the vertices A4, (—3, 6), M 2 (9, — 10) and
M3(—5, 4) of a triangle. Find the centre C and the radius
R of the circle circumscribed about this triangle.
§ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio

If a point M (x , y) lies on the straight line passing through two
M M
given points M, (jcp */,), M 2 ( x2> ty2), and if h = - is a given
ratio in which the point M divides the line segment M XM 2, then
the coordinates of M are determined by the formulas
.._"b ^**2 D\ ~b ^1/2

1+X ’ y ~ l + k •
If tlie point Af is the midpoint of the segment M xAi2, its coordinates
are given by the formulas
* |+ * 2 f. _ V1 + y 2
X 2 * " 2
86. Given the end points >4(3, —5) and B ( — 1, l ) o f a
uniform rod. Determine the coordinates of its centre of
gravity.
87. A uniform rod has its centre of gravity at M ( 1, 4),
and one of its end points at P ( —2, 2). Determine the coor
dinates of the other end point Q of the rod.
88. Given the vertices >4(1, —3), B (3, —5) and C (—5, 7)
of a triangle. Determine the midpoints of its sides.
89. Given the two points >4(3, — 1) and B (2, 1). Find:
1) the coordinates of the point M symmetric to >4 with ,
respect to B\
2) the coordinates of the point N symmetric to B with *
respect to >4.
90. The points M (2, —1), N (— 1, 4) and P ( —2, 2) are
the midpoints of the sides of a triangle. Find its vertices.
\V 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio 27
91. Given three vertices A (3, —5), 6(5, —3), C(—1,3)

of a parallelogram. Find the fourth vertex D, which is
opposite to 5.
92. A (—3, 5) and 5(1, 7) are two adjacent vertices of
a parallelogram, and M( 1, 1) the point of intersection of
its diagonals. Find the other two vertices.
93. Given three vertices A (2, 3), B ( 4 ,—1) and
C (0, 5) of a parallelogram ABCD. Find its fourth ver
tex D.
94. Given the vertices .4(1, 4), 5(3, —9 ),C (—5, 2) of
a triangle. Determine the length of the median drawn from
the vertex B.
95. The segment bounded by the points .4(1, —3) and
5(4, 3) is divided into three equal parts. Determine the
coordinates of the trisection points.
96. Given the vertices A (2, —5), 5(1, —2), C (4, 7) of a
triangle. Find the point where the bisector of the interior
angle at the vertex 5 meets the side AC.
97. Given the vertices A (3, —5), 6 (—3, 3) and
C(—1, —2) of a triangle. Determine the length of the
bisector of the interior angle at the vertex A.
98. Given the vertices A (—1, —1), 6(3, 5), C(—4, 1)
of a triangle. Find the point where the bisector of the
exterior angle at the vertex A cuts the extension of the
side 6C.
99. Given the vertices A (3, —5), 5(1, —3), C (2, —2)
of a triangle. Determine the length of the bisector of the
exterior angle at the vertex 6.
100. .4(1, — 1), 5(3, 3)and C (4, 5) are three given
points lying on a straight line. Determine the ratio X in
which each of them divides the segment bounded by the
other two points.
101. Determine the coordinates of the end points A and
5 of the segment whose trisection points are P (2, 2) and
Q d , 5).
102. A straight line passes through the points
M i(—12, — 13) and M 2(—2, —5). On this line, find a
point whose abscissa is equal to 3.
103. A straight line passes through the points M (2, —3)
and N ( —6, 5). On this line, find a point whose ordinate
is equal to —5.
2ft f ’h. I Ebmenloru Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
104. A straight line passes through the points A (7, —3)

and B (23, —6). Find the point at which this line cuts
the x-axis.
105. A straight line passes through the points A (5, 2)
and B (—4, —7). Find the point at which this line cuts
the y-axis.
106. Given the vertices A (—3, 12), B (3, —4), C (5, —4)
and D (5, 8) of a quadrilateral. Determine the ratio in
which the diagonal AC divides the diagonal BD.
107. Given the vertices A (—2, 14), B (4. —2), C (6, —2)
and D (6, 10) of a quadrilateral. Determine the point of
intersection of its diagonals AC and BD.
108. Given the vertices A (xlt y t ), B (x2, y 2) and C (x3, y3)
of a uniform triangular plate. Determine the coordinates
of its centre of gravity.
Hi nt . The centre of gravity is situated at the point of intersection
of the medians.
109. The point of intersection M of the medians of a

triangle lies on the x-axis; two of its vertices are at
A ( 2 ,—3) and B { —5, 1), and the third vertex C
lies on the w-axis. Find the coordinates of the points M.
and C.
110. A (Xj, r/j), B ( x 2, y 2) and C (x3, y 3) are the vertices
of a uniform triangular plate. If the midpoints of its sides
are joined, another uniform triangular plate is formed.
Prove that the centres of gravity of the two plates coincide.
Hi nt . Use the result of Problem 108.
111. A uniform plate has the shape of a square with

side equal to 12, in which a square cut is made so that
the cut-off lines meet at the centre of the plate; the coor
dinate axes lie along the edges of the plate (Fig. 4).
Determine the centre of gravity of the plate.
112. A uniform plate has the shape of a rectangle with
sides a and b, in which a rectangular cut is made so that
the cut-off lines meet at the centre; the coordinate axes lie
along the edges of the plate (Fig. 5). Determine the centre
of gravity of the plate.
113. A uniform plate has the shape of a square with
side equal to 2a, from which a triangular piece is cut so
$ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio 29
that the cut-off line joins the midpoints of two adjacent

sides; the coordinate axes lie along the edges of the plate
(Fig. 6). Determine the centre of gravity of the plate.
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
114. Three masses m, n and p are placed at the points

/4(Xj, t/i)> B (x 2 >yi) ar*d C (x3, y3), respectively. Determine
the coordinates of the centre of gravity of this system
of masses.
115. The points A (4, 2), B ( 7, —2) and C(l, 6) are the
vertices of a triangle made of uniform wire. Find the
centre of gravity of this triangle.
30 Ch. /. E lenient ary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
§ 6. The Area of a Triangle

For any three points A (*,, (/,), B (x2, y 2), C (x3, y 3), the area S
of the triangle ABC is given by the formula
± 5= *2 — f/2— ?/l|
*3— *1 U3~ U A ‘
The right-hand member of this formula is equal to + S if the short
est rotation of the segment A B to the segment AC is in the positive
direction; it is equal to — S if the shortest rotation of <45 to <4C
is in the negative direction.
116. Calculate the area of the triangle whose vertices are:
1) <4(2, —3), 5 (3, 2) and C (— 2, 5);
2) Aft (— 3, 2), Af2 (5 , - 2 ) and A43 (l, 3);
3) M(3, — 4), jV(— 2, 3) and P ( 4, 5).
117. The vertices of a triangle are the points <4(3, 6),
5 ( — 1, 3) and C (2, — 1). Find the length of the altitude
drawn from the vertex C.
118. Determine the area of a parallelogram, given that
three of its vertices are <4 (—2, 3), B (4, —5) and C (—3, 1).
119. The points <4(3, 7), B (2, —3) and C (— 1, 4) are
three vertices of a parallelogram. Find the length of the
altitude drawn from the vertex B to the side <4C.
120. Given the consecutive vertices <4(2, 1), B ( 5, 3),
C (— 1, 7) and D (—7, 5) of a uniform quadrilateral plate.
Find the coordinates of its centre of gravity.
121. Given the consecutive vertices <4(2, 3), B (0, 6),
C (— 1, 5), D(0, 1) and 5( 1, 1) of a uniform pentagonal
plate. Find the coordinates of its centre of gravity.
122. The area S of a triangle is 3, two of its vertices
are <4(3, 1) and 5 ( 1 , —3), and the third vertex C lies on
the axis Oy. Determine the coordinates of the vertex C.
are <4(2, 1) and 5 (3 , —2), and the third vertex C lies on
the axis Ox. Determine the coordinates of the vertex C.
are <4(3, 1), 5(1, —3), and the centre of gravity of the
triangle lies on the axis Ox. Determine the coordinates
of the third vertex C.
# 7. Transformation of Coordinates 31
125. The area S of a parallelogram is 12 square units;

two of its vertices are the points A (— 1, 3) and B (—2, 4|.
Find the other two vertices of the parallelogram, if the
point of intersection of its diagonals lies on the .v-axis.
126. The area S of a parallelogram is 17 square units; two
of its vertices are the points A (2, 1) and B ( 5, —3). Find
the other two vertices of the parallelogram, if the point
of intersection of its diagonals lies on the y-axis.
§ 7. Transformation of Coordinates
The transformation of rectangular cartesian coordinates under a
translation of axes is determined by the formulas
x = x' + a, y = y' + b.
Here x, y are the coordinates of an arbitrary point M of the plane
with reference to the old axes; a', y' are the coordinates of M with
reference to the new axes; a, b are the coordinates of the new origin
0 ' with reference to the old axes (a is also spoken of as the amount
of shift in the direction of the .v-axis, and b as the amount of shift
in the direction of the y-axis).
The transformation of rectangular cartesian coordinates under a
rotation of axes (through an angle a understood as in trigonometry)
is determined by the formulas
x = x' cos a —y' sin a ,
y = x' sin a + y ’ cos a.
Here x , y are the coordinates of an arbitrary point M of the plane
with reference to the old axes, and a', y* are the coordinates of M
with reference to the new axes.
The formulas
x = x' cos a — y ' sin a -f a,
y = x sin a + y f cos a -\-b
determine the transformation of coordinates under a translation of
the set of axes (by an amount a in the direction of Ox and by an
amount b in the direction of Oy) followed by a rotation of the axes
through an angle a
In each of the above formulas, the same scale is assumed to be
used before and after the transformation of coordinates. This assump
tion is also made in the problems that follow.
127. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if the

origin is moved (without changing the direction of the
axes) to the point: 1) A (3, 4); 2) B (—2, 1); 3) C(—3,5).
128. The origin is moved to the point O' (3, —4) without
changing the direction of the axes. The coordinates of the
32 Ch. /. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry
points A ( \ , 3), D(—3, 0), and C (— 1, 4) are determined

with reference to the new system. Calculate the coordinates
of A, B, C in the old coordinate system.
129. Given the points A (2, 1), B ( — 1,3) a n d C (—2,5).
Find their coordinates in the new system when the origin
is moved (without changing the direction of the axes):
1) to the point A; 2) to the point B; 3) to the point C.
130. Determine the old coordinates of the origin O' of
the new system if the coordinate transformation formulas
are as follows:
1) x = x ' +3 , y = i f 4-5; 2) x = x' — 2, y = y ' + 1;
3) x = x ' , y = i / ' — 1; 4) x = x ' — 5, y = y ’.
131. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if
the coordinate axes are rotated through one of the follow
ing angles:
1) 60°; 2) —45°; 3) 90°; 4) —90°; 5) 180°.
132. The coordinate axes are rotated through an angle
a = 60°. The coordinates of the points A( 2]^3, —4),
B(y~3, 0) and C (0, — 2 ^ 3 ) are given with reference to
the new system. Calculate the coordinates of A, B, C in
the old coordinate system.
133. Given the points M (3, 1), N (— 1,5) and P ( —3, — 1).
Find their new coordinates when the axes are rotated
through the angle:
1) —45°; 2) 90°; 3) —90°; 4) 180°.
134. Determine the angle a through which the axes have
been rotated if the coordinate transformation formulas
are as follows:
1) x = y x ' ~ ^ r ~ y ' t x> y,;

2) x = — x' + - - y \ y= —
135. Determine the old coordinates of the new origin O'
if the point A (3, —4) lies on the new axis of abscissas,
the point B ( 2, 3) on the new axis of ordinates, and the
$ 7. Transformation of Coordinates 33
corresponding axes of the old and the new coordinate

system have the same direction.
136. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if the
point M 1(2, —3) lies on the new axis of abscissas, the
point A42(l, —7) on the new axis of ordinates, and the
corresponding axes of the old and the new coordinate
system have the same direction.
137. Two systems of coordinate axes, Ox, Oy and Ox',
Oy', have a common origin 0; the transformation from one
system to the other is accomplished by a rotation through
a certain angle. The coordinates of the point A (3, —4)
are given with reference to the first system. Derive the
coordinate transformation formulas if the positive direction
of the axis Ox' is determined by the segment OA.
138. The origin is moved to the point 0 '( —1, 2), and
the coordinate axes are rotated through the angle a =
= arctan —. The coordinates of the points M ^3,2), A42(2,—3)
and M3(13, —13) refer to the new system. Calculate the
coordinates of M lt M 2, Af3 in the old coordinate system.
139. Given the three points .4(5, 5), 5(2, —1) and
C(12, —6). Find their coordinates in the new system when
the origin is moved to the point 5 and the coordinate
3
axes are rotated through the angle a = arctan - j .
140. Determine the old coordinates of the new origin
and the angle a through which the axes have been turned
if the coordinate transformation formulas are:
1) x = — 1/' + 3, y=--x' — 2; 2) x = — — 1, y = — y'-\ 3;
V'2 , . f 2 , . , V~2 , . V~2 , ~
3) x — —y - x H— y 4*5,y 2 ~x 4— y —3.
141. Given the two points ^ ( 9 , —3) and M2(—6,5).

The origin is moved to M lt. and the coordinate axes are
rotated so that the positive direction of the new axis of
abscissas agrees with the direction of the segment M XM 2.
Derive the coordinate transformation formulas.
142. The polar axis of a polar coordinate system and
the x-axis of a rectangular cartesian system are parallel
and similarly directed. Given the rectangular cartesian
2 -2 2 5 0
coordinates of the pole 0 (1 , 2) and the polar coordinates

of the points M x ( 7, y ) , M 2 (3, 0), M 3 (5, —y ) , M4(2, y n )
and Mt ^2, — y determine the rectangular cartesian coor
dinates of these points.
the polar axis lies along the bisector of the first quadrant.
Given the polar coordinates of the points M x (5, y j ,
^ 2 ( 3- — t ) ’ ^ ( i , M 4 (6, — - - « ) and
Ms (2, — determine their rectangular cartesian coor-
dinates.
144. The polar axis of a polar coordinate system and
the x-axis of a rectangular cartesian system are parallel
and similarly directed. Given the rectangular cartesian
coordinates of the pole 0 (3 , 2) and of the points M 1 (5, 2),
Af2 (3, 1), M 3 (3 , 5 ) , M 4(3 + V 2 , 2 — V 2 ) a n d M s (3+ VZ, 3) .
Find the polar coordinates of these points.
the polar axis goes along the bisector of the first quadrant.
Given the rectangular cartesian coordinates of the points
M ,( — 1, — V2), M ,( 1, VS), M 4(— V 3, 1)
and M5(2V^3, —2); determine their polar coordinates.
Chapter 2
T H E EQU ATIO N OF A C U R V E
§ 8. A Function of Two Variables

If a rule has been given according to which a number u is
associated with each point M of the plane (or of some portion of
the plane), then we say that “a function of a point” has been spec
ified for the plane (or for the portion of the plane), and we express
this symbolically by a relation of the form u = f ( M) . The number
u associated with a point M is called the value of the function at
the point M. For example, if is a fixed point in the plane, and
M an arbitrary point, then the distance from A to M is a function
of the point M. In this case, f (M) = AM.
Let there be given a function u = f ( M ) , and let a coordinate
system be chosen. Then an arbitrary point M will be determined
by its coordinates x, y. Accordingly, the value of the given func
tion at M will also be determined by the coordinates x , y, or (as
is also said) u = f ( M ) will be a function of two variables x and y.
A function of two variables x, y is denoted by the symbol f (x, y)\
if f ( M) = f ( x, y) t then the formula u = f ( x , y) is referred to as the
expression for the given function in the chosen coordinate system.
Thus, f ( M) = A M in the above example; if we introduce a rectan
gular cartesian coordinate system with origin at the point A, this
function will be expressed by
u= fx* + y\
146. Given two points P and Q, a units apart, and
the function f {M)—d \— d\, where d, — MP and dt = MQ.
Find the expression for this function when the point P is
chosen as the origin, and the axis Ox is directed along the
segment PQ.
147. Solve the previous problem when: 1) the midpoint
of the segment PQ is taken as the origin, and the direc
tion of the axis Ox agrees with that of the segment PQ;
2) the point P is taken as the origin, and the direction
of the axis Ox agrees with that of the segment QP. (Find
2*
36 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve
the expression for the function f ( M) first directly and

then by using the result of Problem 146 and transforming
the coordinates.)
148. Given the square ABCD with side a and the
function f ( M) = d'i + d\ + d\ -f- d\, where d} = M A , dz= M B ,
dz= MC, and dA= M D . Find the expression for this func
tion when the diagonals of the square are taken as the
coordinate axes (so that the axis Ox has the direction of
the segment AC, and the axis Oy the direction of BD).
149. Solve the previous problem when the point A is
chosen as the origin, and the sides of the square are taken
as the coordinate axes so that the axis Ox has the direc-
tion of the segment AB> and the axis Oy the direction
of AD. (Find the expression for f ( M) first directly and
then by using the result of Problem 148 and transforming
the coordinates.)
150. Given the function f ( xy y ) = x i + y* — 6x+8 y.
Find the expression for this function in the new coordinate
system when the origin is moved (without changing the
direction of the axes) to the point O '(3, — 4).
151. Given the function f ( x y y ) = x 2— y z— 16. Find the
expression for this function in the new coordinate system
when the coordinate axes are rotated through an angle
of — 45°.
152. Given the function f ( xy y ) = x x + y z. Find the
expression for this function in the new coordinate system
when the coordinate axes are rotated through an
angle a.
153. Find a point such that, if the origin is moved to
that point, the transformed expression for the function
f ( x t y ) = x 2— 4y 2— 6x+8*/ + 3w ill be free from first-degree
terms (with respect to the new variables).
154. Find a point such that, if the origin is moved to
"that point, the function/(x, y) = x z — 4xy + 4yz + 2 y -f y — 7
will have an expression free from first-degree terms (with
respect to the new variables).
155. What is the angle through which the coordinate
axes must be rotated so that the transformed expression
for the function f (x, y ) = x z — 2xy + y 2— 6x-\- 3 will lack
the term in x V ? .
§ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curie 37
156. What is the angle through which the coordinate

axes must be rotated so that the function /(.v, y) = 3x2 +
+ 2 V 3 xtj -f y2 will have an expression lacking the term
in x'y’}
§ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve.

Curves Represented by Equations
An equality of the form F (x, y) = 0 is called an equation in
two variables x , y provided that it is valid not for every pair of
numbers x, y. Two numbers x = x0, «/ = «/„ are said to satisfy an equa
tion of the form F ( x t y) = 0 if the left-hand member of the equation
vanishes upon substitution of these numbers for the variables x, y.
The equation of a given curve (in a chosen coordinate system)
is defined as the equation in two variables which is satisfied by the
coordinates of all points lying on the curve and by the coordinates
of no other point.
Throughout the rest of the book, we shall often use the expres
sion “Given the curve F ( xf y) = 0” instead of the longer one: “Given
the curve whose equation is F (x, y) = 0” .
If F( x, y) = 0 and (D (x, y) = 0 are the equations of two given
curves, all their points of intersection are obtained by solving the
system
( F( x, y) = 0
\ 0>(x, y ) = 0
simultaneously. More precisely, each pair of numbers constituting

a simultaneous solution of the system represents one of the points
of intersection.
157. Given the points* /V/^2, —2), M2(2, 2),

M, (2, — 1), M t (3, —3), M s (5, - 5 ) , Af, (3, - 2 ) . Deter
mine which of the given points lie on the curve repre
sented by the equation x + y = 0. Identify and plot the
curve.
158. On the curve represented by the equation
x* + y* = 25, find the points whose abscissas are equal to
the following numbers: a) 0, b) —3, c) 5, d) 7; on the
same curve find the points whose ordinates are equal to
the following numbers: e) 3, f) —5, g) —8. Identify and
plot the curve.
* Rectangular cartesian coordinates are used in all cases when

Ihe coordinate system is not specified.
159. Identify and plot the curves represented by the

following equations:
1) x — y = 0; 2) * + «/ = 0; 3) x — 2 = 0; 4) * + 3 = 0 ;
5) y — 5 = 0; 6) t/ + 2 = 0; 7) x = 0; 8) y = 0;
9) x 2 — xy = Q; 10) xy 4 y2= 0; 11) x 2 — y 2= 0; 12) x y — 0;
13) y2 — 9 = 0; 14) x 2 — 8 * 4 15 = 0; 15) t/2 + 5t/ + 4 = 0 ;
16) x 2y — 7xy + 10i/ = 0; 17) y = 1*1; 18) * = |z /|;
19) {/ + 1* | = 0; 20) * + | y |= 0 ; 21) y = \ x - \ \
22) y = |* + 2|; 23) x 2-\-y2= 16; 24) (* — 2)2 + (y — 1)2=16;
25) (x + 5)2 + (y — l)2= 9; 26) (* — l)2 + t/2= 4 ;
27) *2 + (y + 3)2= 1; 28) (* — 3)2 + y2= 0; 29) *2 + 2t/2= 0 ;
30) 2*2 + 3 t/2 + 5 = 0; 31) (* — 2)2 + (y + 3)2 + 1 = 0 .
160. Given the curves:
1) * + ( / = 0; 2) x — y = 0; 3) x24 t / 2 — 36 = 0;
4) *2 + y2 — 2* + y = 0; 5) *2 + i/2 + 4* — 6 y — 1 = 0 .
Determine w'hich of them pass through the origin.
161. Given the curves:
1) x 24 i/2= 49; 2) (* —3)2 4 (y 4 4 ) 2= 25;
3) ( * 4 6 ) 2 f ({ /-3 )2 = 25; 4) (* + 5)2-| ( y - 4 ) 2= 9;
5) *2 + y2— 1 2 * 4 l6 t/ = 0; 6) *2 + y 2— 2* f 8t/ + 7 = 0;
7) *2 4 i/2 — 6* + 4y 4 12 = 0.
Find their points of intersection: a) with the axis Ox;
b) with the axis Oy.
162. In each of the following, find the points of inter
section of the two given curves:
1) x2 + y2— 8 , x y = 0 ;
2) *2 + t/2— 16* + 4 t / + 18 = 0, * + y — 0;
3) x 2 + y 2 — 2x-\-4y — 3 = 0, *2 + «/2= 25;
4) x*4 y2 — 8 * + 1 0 y + 40 = 0, *2+ J/2= 4.
M t ( l , - - ) , M J 2 , 0), M , ( 2, i ) ,
M t ( V 3, and M ,^ l ,|- n j
$ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve 39
in a polar coordinate system. Determine which of these

points lie on the curve represented by the polar equation
6 = 2 cos 0. Identify and plot the curve.
3
164. On the curve represented by the equation 6= ^ q »
find the points whose polar angles are equal to the follow
ing numbers: a) b) — c) 0, d) . Identify and
plot the curve.
165. On the curve represented by the equation q = ^ - q ,
find the points whose polar radii are equal to the follow
ing numbers: a) 1, b) 2, c) V 2. Identify and plot the
curve.
166. Identify and plot the curves represented, in polar
coordinates, by the following equations:
1 )6 = 5 ; 2 )0 = -2 -; 3 )0 = --£ ;
4) q cos 0 = 2; 5) q sin 0 = 1 ; 6) q = 6 cos0;
7) q= 10 sin 0; 8) s in 0 = -^ ; 9) sing = - j .
167. Plot the following spirals of Archimedes:
1 )6 = 20; 2 )e -5 0 ; 3 )e = |- ; 4 )6 = -“ -
168. Plot the following hyperbolic spirals:
D e = j; 2 ) e = |; 3) e = ^ - ; 4 )6 = -^ *
169. Plot the following logarithmic spirals:
i) e = 2 \ e = ( j ) 8-
170. Determine the lengths of the segments into which
the spiral of Archimedes
6 = 30
cuts the ray extending from the pole and making an
angle 0=-^- with the polar axis. Draw the figure.
171. A point C, whose polar radius is equal to 47, is

taken on the spiral of Archimedes
Determine into how many parts the spiral cuts the polar
radius of C. Draw the figure.
172. On the hyperbolic spiral
6
Q=-e
find the point P whose polar radius is equal to 12. Draw
the figure.
173. On the logarithmic spiral
Q = 3°
find the point Q whose polar radius is 81. Draw the figure.
§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of

a Given Curve
The problems of the preceding section dealt with the determina
tion of curves from given equations. In this section, we shall have
problems of an opposite character; in each of them, a curve is defined
in purely geometric terms, and it fs the equation of the curve that
we are required to find.
Example 1. In a rectangular cartesian system of coordinates,
derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum of the squares
of whose distances from the two given points A x ( — a, 0) and
A2 (a, 0) is a constant equal to 4a2.
Solution. Let M denote an arbitrary point of the curve, and let
x and y be the coordinates of that point. Since the point M can
occupy any position on the curve, it follows that x and y are vari
ables; they are called the current coordinates.
Let us write the geometric property of the curve symbolically:
( MA l)2 + ( MA 2)2= 4a2. (1)
In this relation, the lengths MA X and M A 2 will vary with the
motion of the point M. Expressing them in terms of the current
coordinates of M, we get
MAX= V ( x + a)2-\-yz, MAZ= V ( x — a)2 ^ y 2.
Substituting these expressions in (1), we obtain the equation con
necting the coordinates x , y of the point M :
(x + a)2 + y z + (x — a)2 + y 2= 4a2. ( 2)
§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of a Given Curve 41
This is the equation of the given curve. For, the condition (1) is
fulfilled for every point M lying on the curve, and hence the coor
dinates of M will satisfy equation (2); on the other hand, the con
dition ( 1) is not fulfilled for any point M not lying on the line,
and hence its coordinates will not satisfy equation (2).
The problem is thus solved. But equation (2) can be simplified.
Removing the parentheses and collecting like terms, we obtain the
equation of the given curve in the form
x2 -f if —a2.
It is now easy to see that the curve is a circle with centre at the
oiigin and radius a.
Example 2. In a polar coordinate system, derive the equation of
a circle with centre C (q0, 0o) and radius r (Fig. 7).
Solution. Let M denote an arbitrary point of the circle, and let

q and 0 be its polar coordinates. Since the point AI may occupy
any position on the circle, q and 0 are variables; as in the case of
a cartesian system, they are called the current coordinates.
All points of the circle are at a distance r from the centre;
writing this condition symbolically, we have
CM = r. (1)
Let us express CM in terms of the current coordinates of the point M
(by applying the cosine theorem; see Fig. 7):
C /H -= V Q 2 + t’o — 2 q 0Q c o s (0 — 0 O).
Substituting this expression in (1), we obtain the equation connecting

the coordinates q, 0 of the point M:
"VQ2 + Cq — 2(>oQ cos (0 — 0,) = r . (2)
This is the equation of the given circle For, the condition (1) is
fulfilled for every point M lying on the circle, and hence the coor-
dinates of M will satisfy equation (2); the condition (1) is not ful
filled for any point M not lying on the circle, so that the coordinates
of all such points will not satisfy equation (2).
The problem is thus solved. By clearing radicals, the equation
may be reduced to the somewhat simpler form
e2— 2<?oQ COS (0 — 0O) = r- — qI .
174. Derive the equation of the locus of points equi
distant from the coordinate axes.
175. Derive the equation of the locus of points which
are at a distance a from the axis Oy.
176. Derive the equation of the locus of points which
are at a distance b from the axis Ox.
177. From the point P ( 6, —8), all possible rays are
drawn to cut the x-axis. Find the equation of the locus
of their midpoints.
178. From the point C(10, —3), all possible rays are
drawn to cut the y-axis. Find the equation of the locus
of their midpoints.
179. Derive the equation of the path of a point which
moves so that it is always equidistant from the points:
1) A (3, 2) and B (2, 3); 2) A (5, - 1) and fl(l, - 5 ) ;
3) >4 (5, - 2 ) and B ( - 3, —2); 4) A (3. - 1 ) and £(3, 5).
180. Write the equation of the locus of points, the
difference of the squares of whose distances from the points
A ( — a, 0) and B (a, 0) is equal to c.
181. Derive the equation of the circle with centre at
the origin and radius r.
182. Derive the equation of the circle with centre at
C (a, P) and radius r.
183. Given the equation x2-j-y2= 25 of a circle.
Write the equation of the locus of the midpoints of those
chords of the circle whose length is equal to 8.
184. Find the equation of the locus of points, the sum
of the squares of whose distances from the points A ( —3, 0)
and £ (3, 0) is equal to 50.
185. The points A (a, a), B( — a, a), C( — a, — a) and
D(a, —a) are the vertices of a square. Find the equation
of the locus of points, the sum of the squares of whose
distances from the sides of the given square is a constant
equal to 6a2.
§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of a Given Curve 43
186. All possible chords of Ihe circle (x — 8)- r t / = (>l

are drawn through the origin. Write the equation of the
locus of the midpoints of these chords.
187. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the
sum of whose distances from the two given points
F, ( —3, 0) and F., (3, 0) is a constant equal to 10.
difference of whose distances from the two given points
F, f —5, 0) and F., (5, 0) is a constant equal to 6.
189. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
distance from the given point F(3, 0) is equal to their
distance from the given straight line x f 3 = 0.
190. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum
of whose distances from two given points F,( —c, 0) and
F,(c, 0) is a constant equal to 2a. This locus is called
an ellipse, and the points Fv F2 are called the foci of
the ellipse.
Prove that the equation of an ellipse is of the form
where b2— a2— c2.

difference of whose distances from two given points
Fl ( — c, 0) and F, (c, 0) is a constant equal to 2a. This
locus is called a hyperbola, and the points F,, F.z are
called the foci of the hyperbola.
Prove that the equation of a hyperbola is of the form
a* b* ~ ’
where b2= c 2— a2.
distance from a given point F , 0^ is equal to their
distance from a given straight line x = —-j. This locus is

called a parabola, the point F is referred to as the focus
of the parabola, and the given straight line as the directrix
of the parabola.
ratio of whose distance from the given point F( —4, 0)
•14 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve
to their distance from the given straight line 4x + 25 = 0

is equal to — .
ratio of whose distance from the given point F( — 5, 0)
to their distance from the given straight line 5 jc + 1 6 = 0
is equal to .
shortest distance from the circle (x + 3)2 + y2= 1 is equal
to their shortest distance from the circle (x —3)2 + r/2= 8 1 .
shortest distance from the circle (x + 10)2 -|-y2= 289 is equal
to their shortest distance from the circle (x— 10)2+ r/2= 1.
shortest distance from the circle (x — 5)2 + t/2= 9 is equal
to their shortest distance from the straight line a : + 2 = 0 .
198. A straight line is perpendicular to the polar axis
and intercepts a segment equal to 3 on that axis. Write
the equation of the straight line in polar coordinates.
199. A ray is drawn from the pole at an angle y with
respect to the polar axis. Find the equation of this ray
in polar coordinates.
200. A straight line passes through the pole and makes
an angle of 45° with the polar axis. Find the equation
of this straight line in polar coordinates.
201. In polar coordinates, write the equation of the
locus of points 5 units distant from the polar axis.
202. A circle of radius R — 5 passes through the pole
and has its centre upon the polar axis. Find the equation
of the circle in the polar coordinate system.
203. A circle of radius R = 3 touches the polar axis
at the pole. Find the equation of the circle in the polar
coordinate system.
§ 11. Parametric Equations of a Curve

Let us denote the coordinates of a point M by the letters x f y
and consider the two functions of an independent variable t :
( 1)
$ II. Parametric Equations of a Curve 45
The quantities x and y, in general, change with t\ it follows that

the point Af moves in the plane. Relations ( 1) are called the para
metric equations of the curve which is the path traced by the
point Af; the independent variable t is called a parameter. If the
parameter t can be eliminated from relations ( 1), we obtain the
equation of ihe path of M in the form
F(x, y) = 0.
204. A rod AB slides with its ends A and B along the
coordinate axes. A point Af divides the rod into two
parts AA!—a and BM = b. Derive the parametric equations
Fig. 8.
of the path traced by the point Af, using the angle

t = <£OBA (Fig. 8) as parameter. Next, eliminate the
parameter t and find the equation of the path of Af in
the form F (x, y) = 0.
205. The path of a point Af is an ellipsehaving
-^- + -£j-=l as its equation (see Problem 190). Derivethe
parametric equations of the path of Af, using the angle
of inclination of the segment OAf (with respect to the
axis Ox) as the parameter t.
206. The path of a point Af is a hyperbola having
— 1 as its equation (see Problem 191). Derive the
parametric equations of the path of Af, using the angle
of inclination of the segment OAf (with respect to the
axis Ox) as the parameter t.
207. The path of a point M is a parabola having

y2= 2px as its equation (see Problem 192). Derive the para
metric equations of the path of M, using as the parameter t:
1) the ordinate of the point M\
2) the angle of inclination of the segment OM (with
respect to the axis Ox)\
3) the angle of inclination of the segment FM (with
respect to the axis Ox), where the point F is the focus
of the parabola.
208. Given the polar equations of the following curves:
1) q = 2/? cos0; 2) e = 2 # s in 0 ; 3) 6 = 2 p ^ r | .
Find the parametric equations of these curves in rectan
gular cartesian coordinates, when the positive x-axis
coincides with the polar axis and the polar angle is taken
as parameter.
209. Given the parametric equations of the curves:
1) x = t 2— 2 /-f 1, ^ 2) x — acost, | 3) x = asect, ^
y = t — \\ | y= as\nt\ f y=biant\ j
4\ x = ± ( t j_ _L^ 15) x = 2R cos21, ) 6) x = R s \ n 2 t , )
^ ' | '| y= Rs\n2t\ ) y — 2Rs'm2t\ j
y= ir{i- T ) ' I
7) x — 2p cot* t, |
y-— 2p coi t\ )
eliminate the parameter t and write the equations of these
curves in the form
F(x, y ) = 0.
Chap ter 3
CURVES OF THE FIRST ORDER
§ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line.

The Slope-intercept Equation of a Straight Line.
The Angle Between Two Straight Lines.
The Conditions for the Parallelism
and Perpendicularity of Two Straight Lines
In cartesian coordinates, every straight line is represented by an
equation of the first degree and, conversely, every equation of the
first degree represents a straight line.
An equation of the form
Ax + By + C = 0 (1)
is called the general equation of a straight line.
The angle a, determined as shown in Fig. 9, is called the angle
of inclination of a given straight line (with respect to the axis Ox).
The tangent of the angle of inclination of a straight line is called

the slope of that line and is usually denoted by the letter k :
k = tan a.
The equation y -- kx -f b is called the slope-intercept equation of
fl straight line; k is here the slope, and b is the //-intercept (that
is, the value of the segment cut off by the line on the axis 0y\ see
Fig. 9).
If a straight line is represented by its genera! equation
Ax + By + C = 0,
48 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order
then its slope is determined from the formula
The equation y — y 0~ k ( x — x0) is the equation of the straight

line with slope k and passing through the point M0 (x0t y 0).
If a straight line passes through the points M x(xx, y x) and
Af2 (*2* y 2 )* ^s slope is determined from the formula
h = yt—y\
x2—Xl *
The equation
*—*1 y—y\
*2—*1 </2—y\
is the equation of the straight line passing through the two points
M ,( x „ «/,) and yt ).
Given the slopes fc, and k2 of two straight lines, one of the
angles <p between these lines is determined by the formula
tan <p =
i + M i'
The condition for the parallelism of two straight lines is the
equality of their slopes:
The condition for the perpendicularity of two straight lines is

given by the relation
kxk2 = — 1, or k2 = — .
In other words, the slopes of perpendicular lines are negative recip

rocals
210. Determine which of the points ^1,(3, I), M2(2, 3),

M t (6, 3), Mt (—3, - 3 ) , Ms (3, - 1 ) , 1) lie on
the line 2x—3y —3 = 0.
211. The points P x, Pf, P t, Pt and P-a are situated on the
line 3x — 2y—6 = 0; their respective abscissas are 4, 0, 2,
—2 and —6. Determine the ordinates of these points.
212. The points Q,, Qs> Q,, Qt and Qf are situated
on the line x —3 « /+ 2 = 0 ; their respective ordinates are
1, 0, 2, — 1 and 3. Determine the abscissas of these points.
213. Determine the points of intersection of the straight
line 2x —3y — 1 2 = 0 with the coordinate axes and plot the
line.
§ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line 49
214. Find the point of intersection of the two lines

3.v — 4y— 29= 0, 2*4-50+19 = 0.
215. The equations of the sides* A B , BC, AC of a
triangle ABC are, respectively,
4*4-3y —5 = 0, * —30+10 = 0, * —2 = 0.
Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
216. Given the equations
8* 4- 30 -f-1= 0, 2.v 4-;y — 1 = 0
of two sides of a parallelogram and the equation
3*4-20 +3 = 0
of one of its diagonals. Determine the coordinates of the
vertices of the parallelogram.
217. The sides of a triangle lie on the lines
* + 50 — 7 = 0, 3* —20—4 = 0, 7* + 0 + 19—-0.
Calculate the area S of the triangle.
218. The area S of a triangle is 8 square units; two of
its vertices are the points .4(1, —2) and B (2, 3), and
the third vertex C lies on the line
2* 4- 0 —2 = 0.
Find the coordinates of the vertex C.
219. The area S of the triangle is 1.5 square units; two
of its vertices are the points A (2, —3) and B (3, —2);
the centre of gravity of the triangle lies on the line
3*—0 —8 = 0 .
Determine the coordinates of the third vertex C.
220. Write the equation of the straight line whose slope
k and 0-intercept b are as follows:
1) k = j , b = 3; 2) 6 = 3, b = 0; 3) * = 0, b = — 2;
4) k=*— \ , b = Z \ 5)6 = —2, 6 = —5; 6)£ = — - , />= - | .

In each case, plot the line.
* The expression “the equations of the sides”, as used in this hook,
means “the equations of the straight lines on which the sides lie”.
221. Determine the slope k and the (/-intercept b for

each of the lines:
1) 5 x — y-|-3 = 0; 2) 2x 4-3y—6 = 0 ;
3) 5x 4- 3y + 2 = 0; 4) 3x + 2y =0 \ 5) y — 3 = 0 .
222. Given the line 5 * + 3y —3 = 0. Determine the
slope k of a straight line:
1) parallel to the given line;
2) perpendicular to the given line.
223. Given the line 2x + 3t/ + 4 = 0 . Write the equation
of the straight line passing through the point (2, 1) and:
1) parallel to the given line;
2) perpendicular to the given line.
2x—3(/-|-5 = 0, 3x-j-2y — 7 = 0
of two sides of a rectangle, and one of its vertices
A (2, —3). Write the equations of the other two sides of
the rectangle.
x —2(/=0, x — 2y + 15 = 0
of two sides of a rectangle and the equation
7x + y — 15 = 0
of one of its diagonals. Find the vertices of the rectangle.
226. Find the projection of the point P ( —6, 4) on the
line
4x—5y -f 3 = 0.
227. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P ( —5, 13)
with respect to the line
2x—3y —3 = 0 .
228. In each of the following, find the equation of the
straight line parallel to the two given lines and passing
midway between them:
1) 3x—2y — 1 = 0 , 2) 5x -f- y -(-3 = 0, 3) 2x-\-3y—6 = 0 ,
3x—2y — 13=0; 5x -j- y — 17 = 0; 4x *-{-6y -j- 17= 0;
4) 5x + 7 t / + 15 = 0, 5) 3x— \ 5 y —1 = 0 ,
5jc+ 7 (/+ 3 = 0; x —5//—2 = 0 .
# 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line 51
229. In each of the following, calculate the slope k of

the straight line passing through the two given points:
1) Af, (2, - 5 ) , AI2(3, 2); 2) P ( - 3, 1), Q (7, 8);
3) A (5, —3), B (—1, 6).
230. Write the equations of the straight lines passing
through the vertices A (5, —4), 6 (—1, 3), C (—3, —2) of
a triangle and parallel to the opposite sides.
231. Given the midpoints Af, (2, 1). Afa(5, 3), Af,(3, —4)
of the sides of a triangle. Write the equations of its sides.
232. Given the two points P (2, 3) and Q (— 1, 0) Find
the equation of the straight line through the point Q per
pendicular to the segment PQ.
233. The point P ( 2, 3) is the foot of the perpendicular
dropped from the origin to a straight line. Write the equa
tion of this line.
234. Given the vertices Af, (2, 1), Af2(—1, —1),
Af,(3, 2) of a triangle. Find the equations of its altitudes.
235. The sides of a triangle are given by the equations
4x— y — 7— 0, x + 3</—31 = 0, x-j~5t/—7 = 0. Determine
the point of intersection of its altitudes.
236. Given the vertices 71(1, —1), B ( —2, 1) and
C(3, 5) of a triangle. Write the equation of the perpen
dicular dropped from the vertex A to the median through
the vertex B.
237. Given the vertices A ( 2, —2), B (3, —5) and
C (5, 7) of a triangle. Find the equation of the perpendic
ular dropped from the vertex C to the bisector of the
interior angle at the vertex A.
238. Write the equations of the sides and medians of
the triangle with vertices 71(3, 2), 6(5, —2), C (l, 0).
239. A straight line is drawn through the points
Af, (— 1, 2) and Af,(2, 3). Delermine the points of inter
section of this line with the coordinate axes.
240. Prove that the condition for three points Af, (x,, j/,),
M t (xt, y2) and Af,(x,, yt) to lie on a straight line can be
written in the form
yi 1
y, i = o .
x* y, 1
241. Prove that the equation of the straight line passing

through two given points M x{xx, y x) and (x2, yt) can be
written as
* y 1
*, Vx 1 = 0 .
yt 1
242. Given the consecutive vertices A (—3, 1), 6(3, 9),
C (7, 6), D (—2, —6) of a convex quadrilateral. Deter
mine the point of intersection of its diagonals.
243. A (—3, —1) and 6 (2 , 2) are two adjacent vertices
of a parallelogram 716CD, and Q (3, 0) is the point of
intersection of its diagonals. Write the equations of the
sides of the parallelogram.
5x-t-2 y —7 = 0, 'ox-\-2y—3 6 = 0
of two sides of a rectangle and the equation
3x 4- 7y— 10 = 0
of its diagonal. Write the equations of the remaining sides
and of the other diagonal of the rectangle.
245. Given the vertices A {I, 2), 6 (5, 4) and
—
C (—2, 0) of a triangle. Write the equations of the bisec

tors of the interior and exterior angles at the vertex A.
246. Find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point P (3, 5) and equidistant from the points
A (—7, 3) and 6(11, — 15).
247. Find the projection of the point P ( —8, 12) on the
straight line passing through the points A (2, —3) and
6 ( - 5 , 1).
248. Find the point M, symmetric to the point
A4t (8, —9) with respect to the straight line which passes
through the points /I (3, —4) and 5 ( —1, —2).
249. Find a point P on the x-axis such that the sum
of its distances from the points M( l , 2) and Af(3, 4) will
have the least value.
250. Find a point P on the y-axis such that the differ
ence of its distances from the points M (—3, 2) and
N ( 2, 5) will have the greatest value.
,$ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line 53
251. On the line 2.v— y — 5 = 0 , find a point P such

that the sum of its distances from the points A (—7, 1)
and B{ —5, 5) will have the least value.
252. On the line 3.v —y — 1= 0, find a point P such
that the difference of its distances from the points A (4, 1)
and B( 0, 4) will have the greatest value.
253. Determine the angle (p between the two lines:
1) 5x— y 4 7 = 0, 3.v -f 2y = 0;
2) 3x— 2y 4-7 = 0, 2.v + 3y — 3 = 0;
3) x — 2y — 4 = 0, 2.v—4y -j- 3 = 0;
4) 3,vd-2i/— 1= 0 , 5x — 2ij r 3 = 0.
254. Given the line
2x + 3y !- 4 = 0.
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the
point M0(2, 1) and making an angle of 455 with the given
line.
255. The point A (—4, 5) is a vertex of a square, whose
diagonal lies on the line
7x — y 4- 8 = 0.
Write the equations of the sides and of the other diago
nal of the square.
256. A{— 1, 3) and C(6, 2) are two opposite vertices
of a square. Find the equations of its sides.
257. The point £(1, —1) is the centre of a square, one
of whose sides lies on the line
x — 2y-\-12=0.
Find the equations of the straight lines which contain the
remaining sides of the square.
258. From the point (—2, 3), a ray of light is sent
at an angle a (tan a = 3) to the axis Ox. Upon reaching the
axis Ox, the ray is reflected from it. Find the equations
of the straight lines which contain the incident and reflect
ed rays.
259. A ray of light is sent along the line x — 2r/ + 5 = 0.
Upon reaching the line 3 x - 2 y - \ - 7 = 0 , the ray is reflect
ed from it. Find the equation of the line containing the
reflected ray.
260. Given that

3* |-4y— 1= 0 , x — 7y — 17 = 0, 7x-\-y + 31 = 0
are the equations of the sides of a triangle. Prove that
the triangle is isosceles. Solve the problem by comparing
the angles of the triangle.
261. Prove that the equation of the straight line pass
ing through the point /W, (*,, yt) and parallel to the line
Ax + B y -\ - C = 0
can be written in the form
A (* — *,) \-B(y — j/,)= 0 .
262. Find the equal ion of the straight line passing
through the point At, (2, —3) and parallel to the line:
1) 3*—7y + 3 = 0; 2) * + 9 ij— 11 = 0 ; 3) 16*— 24y—7 = 0 ;
4) 2* + 3 = 0; 5) 3y — 1 = 0 .
Solve the problem without calculating the slopes of the
given lines.
H i n t . Use the results of the preceding problem.
263. Prove that the condition for the perpendicularity
of the lines
A xx + B xy C1= 0 , A 2x -f- B2y C2= 0
may be written as
AtA t + —
264. Determine which of the following pairs of lines
are perpendicular:
1) 3jc—0 + 5 = 0, 2) 3x— 4*/+ 1= 0 , 3) 6x— 15# + 7 = 0 ,
x-\-Zy— 1= 0; 4jc— 3^ + 7 = 0 ; 10* + 4t/—3 = 0;
4) 9*— \2y t-5 = 0, 5) 7x— 2 y + l = 0, 6) 5x— 7 « /+ 3 = 0 .
8* + 6y— 13=0; 4* + 6 y + 17=0; 3x + 2y—5 = 0.
given lines.
Hint. Use the perpendicularity condition derived in Problem 263.
S 12. The General Equal ion oj a Straight Line 55
265. Prove that the formula for determining the angle <p
between the lines
y4,x + C, —0, A.x + B.y ; C2= 0
may be written in the form
A ,B 2- A 2B,
tan (p
A xA2 + B J i 2 ■
266. Determine the angle <p formed by the two lines:

1) Zx— i/ + 5 = 0, 2) x Y 2 — y] 3 —5 = 0,
2x + y - 7 = 0 , (3+ 1 T ) a ! () 6 - 1 3)(/ + 7 = 0;
3) x V 3 + y 1"2 — 2 = 0,
6 — 30 + 3 = 0.
given lines.
Hint. Use the formula for determining the angle between two
lines which was derived in Problem 265.
267. Given two vertices M ,(—10, 2) and M 2 (6, 4) of

a triangle whose altitudes intersect in (he point N ( 5, 2).
Find the coordinates of the third vertex
268. ^4 (3, —1) and B ( 5, 7) are two vertices of a triangle
ABC whose altitudes intersect in the point jV(4, —1).
Write the equations of the sides of the triangle.
269. In a triangle ABC, the equations of the side AB,
of the altitude AN and of the altitude B N are5x—3j/ + 2 —0,
Ax— 3 t / + l = 0 and 7x-\- 2y—22 = 0, respectively. Write
the equations of the other two sides and of the third
altitude of the triangle.
270. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle ABC
with j4(1, 3) as a vertex, if
x —2y+ 1= 0 and y — 1 = 0
are the equations of two of its medians.
271. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle hav
ing B ( —4, —5) as a vertex, if
5x + 3y —4 = 0 and 3A-+ 8 r /+ 13=0
are the equations of two of its altitudes.
272. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having

A (4, — 1) as a vertex, if
x — 1 = 0 and x — y — 1 = 0
are the equations of two bisectors of its angles.
B ( 2, 6) as a vertex, if x — 7t/-f-15 = 0 and 7x-\-y + S = 0
are the respective equations of an altitude and an angle bi
sector drawn from one and the same vertex.
B (2, —1) as a vertex, if 3x — 4i/ + 27 = 0 and x + 2y —5 = 0
are the respective equations of an altitude and an angle
bisector drawn from different vertices.
ing C (4, — 1) as a vertex, if
2x — 3{/-f 12 = 0 and 2 x -|-3//= 0
are the respective equations of an altitude and a median
drawn from one and the same vertex.
B (2, —7) as a vertex, if
3x-F y-p 11 = 0 and x-l~2y + 7 = 0
are the respective equations of an altitude and a median
drawn from different vertices.
ing C(4, 3) as a vertex, if
x + 2y —5 = 0 and 4jc+13 y — 1 0 = 0
are the respective equations of an angle bisector and a
median drawn from one and the same vertex.
^4 (3, — 1) as a vertex, if
x — 4«/~F 10 = 0 and 6.V-F lOy — 59 = 0
are the respective equations of an angle bisector and a
median drawn from different vertices.
279. Write the equation of the line passing through
the origin and forming, together with the lines
x — y + 12 = 0, 2x + y + 9 = 0 ,
a triangle of an area equal to 1.5 square units.
§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines 57
280. From lines passing through the point P (3, 0),

select the line whose segment intercepted by the lines
2.v—// — 2 = 0, x + y |-3 = 0
is bisected at the point P.
281. All possible straight lines are drawn through the
point P (—3. —1). Prove that the lines
x —2y —3 = 0, x —2j/-(-5 = 0
cut from each of them a segment whose midpoint is at P.
282. All possible straight lines are drawn through the
point P (0, 1). Prove that the segments cut from them by
the lines
x —2y — 3 — 0, x — 2y - 17 = 0
are not bisected at the point P.
283. Write the equation of a straight line through the
origin, if its segment intercepted by the lines
2x—r/ + 5 = 0, 2x—y + 1 0 = 0
is of length V \ 0 .
284. Write the equation of a straight line through the
point C (—5, 4), given that its segment intercepted by
the lines
x + 2y (-1 = 0, x + 2 y — 1= 0
is of length 5.
§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines.

Discussion of a System of Equations Representing Two
or Three Straight Lines.
The Intercept Equation of a Straight Line
If, in the general equation
A x + By + C = 0 (1)
of a straight line, one or two of the three coefficients (counting the
constant term) are zero, the equation is said to be incomplete. The
following cases are possible:
1) C = 0 ; the equation has the form Ax + By = Q and represents
a straight line through the origin.
2) 6 = 0 (A # 0 ) ; the equation has the form Ax + C = 0 and rep
resents a straight line perpendicular to the axis Ox. This equation
may be written in the form x ~ a , where a = — is the intercept

cut off by the line on the axis Ox.
3) B = 0, C = 0 (A 0); the equation, which can be written in
the form x = 0 , represents the y-axis.
4) A = 0 (B ^ 0); the equation assumes the form By + C = 0 and
represents a straight line perpendicular to the ax«s Oy. This equation
Q
can be written in the form y = b , where b — -----— is the intercept
D
cut off by the line on the axis Oy.
5) A — 0, C = 0 (B ^ 0); the equation, which can be written in
the form y = 0 , represents the x-axis.
If the coefficients of equation (1) are all different from zero,
then the equation is reducible to the form
( 2)
where a = ---- and b = — — are the intercepts cut off by the line
on the x- and y- axes, respectively.
Equation (2) is called the intercept equation of a straight line.
If two straight lines are represented by the equations
A xx + B xy + Ci = 0 and A 2x + B 2y -f-C2 = 0,
the following cases may arise:
a) — the lines have one point in common;
b) 4 1 = i r - 7^ t t 1— the lines are parallel;

A 2 o2 ^2
c)
A B C
—- = —- — -zr- — the lines coincide, that is, the two equations
ri 2 O 2 C* £
represent the same straight line.
285. Determine the values of a for which the line
(a + 2) x -)- (a2—9)t/ + 3a* — 8a+ 5 = 0
1) is parallel to the x-axis;
2) is parallel to the y-axis;
3) passes through the origin.
In each case write the equation of the line.
286. Determine the values of m and n for which the
line
(m + 2n — 3 )x + (2m—n + 1) y + 6m + 9 = 0
is parallel to the x-axis and has a (/-intercept of —3.
Write the equation of this line.
§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines 59
287. Determine the values of m and n for which the

line
(2m —n + 5) x + (m + 3n— 2) y + 2m f 7n -j-19 = 0
is parallel to the y-axis and has an x-intercept of - 5.
Write the equation of this line.
288. In each of the following, prove that the two given
straight lines intersect, and fin their point of intersection:
1) x + 5y—35 = 0, 3* + 2y— 27 = 0:
2) 14x—9y —24=0, 7x — 2y— 17 = 0;
3) 12*+ 1 5 y -8 = 0, 16* -J 9// —7 = 0;
4) 8*—33y— 19 = 0, 12.v 55ij— 19 = q;
5) 3* + 5 —0, y—2 = 0.
straight lines are parallel:
1) 3x + 5y—4 = 0, 6* + \0y + 7 = 0;
2) 2x— 4y + 3 = 0, x — 2y = 0;
3) 2 x - 1 = 0, * + 3 = 0;
4) y + 3 = 0, 5y — 7 = 0.
straight lines coincide:
1) 3x + 5y —4 = 0, 6x+ lOy —8 = 0;
2) x — y V2 = 0 , *l/2-2y= 0;
3) * V^3— 1= 0 , 3 * -/3 = 0 .
291. Find the values of a and b for which the two
lines
ax—2y— 1= 0, 6*—4y —b = 0
1) have one common point; 2) are parallel; 3) coincide.
292. Find the values of m and n for which the two
lines
mx + 8 y 4 n = 0, 2x-< my—1 = 0 1
1) are parallel; 2) coincide; 3) are perpendicular.
293. Find the value of m for which the two lines

(m— 1)x-\~my —5 = 0, mx + (2m— l)i/ + 7 = 0
intersect at a point lying on the jc-axis.
294. Find the values of m for which the two lines
mx-1- (2m + 3) y + m + 6 = 0,
(2m -f 1)x + (m— \ ) y + m —2 = 0
intersect in a point lying on the y-axis.
295. In each of the following, determine whether the
three straight lines intersect in a single point:
1) 2 x + 3 y — 1= 0, Ax — 5t/-f-5 = 0, Zx— yA 2 = 0;
2) Zx — y A- 3 = 0 , 5x-f-3 y —7 = 0, x — 2y — 4 = 0 ;
3) 2x— i / + l = 0 , x + 2y— 17 = 0, x-r 2y — 3 = 0 .
296. Prove that, if the three lines
A 1x-f-B 1y-\-Cx— 0, A 2x + B 2y + C2— 0,
A 3x -[- B 3y 4- C3= 0
intersect in a single point, then
Al Cj
A 2 B2 C2 = 0.
A 3 B3 C3
297. Prove that, if
A x Bx Cx
A 2 B2 C2 = 0,
a 3 B3 C3
then the three lines

A xx -F B xy Cx= 0, A 2x-\- B2y-\-C2= 0,
A 3x + B3y + C3= 0
intersect in a single point or are parallel.
298. Determine the value of a for which the three lines
2x— 1/+3 = 0, x-\-y + Z = 0 , ax + y — 1 3 = 0 intersect in
a single point.
§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines
299. Given the lines:

1) 2x+Zy — 6 = 0; 2) 4 a - 3 y f- 24 = 0;
3) 2a + 3 i/—9 = 0; 4) 3a —5y—2 = 0;
5) 5a -h 2y— 1 —0.
Write their intercept equations and plot the lines.

300. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the
line 3a—4y — 12 = 0 and the coordinate axes.
301. Write the equation of the straight line passing
through the point (3, —7) and making equal (non-zero)
intercepts on the coordinate axes.
302. Write the equation of a straight line passing
through the point P (2, 3) and making intercepts of equal
absolute value on the coordinate axes.
303. Find the equation of a straight line passing through
the point C(l, 1) and forming with the coordinate axes a
triangle whose area is 2 square units.
the point B (5, —5) and forming with the coordinate axes
a triangle whose area is 50 square units.
the point P (8, 6) and forming with the coordinate axes a
triangle whose area is 12 square units.
306. Find the equation of a straight line which passes
through the point P(12, 6) and forms with the coordinate
axes a triangle whose area is 150 square units.
307. Through the point M (4, 3), a straight line is drawn
so as to form with the coordinate axes a triangle whose
area is 3 square units. Determine the points of intersec
tion of the line with the coordinate axes.
308. Through the point M l (x1, y where a1i/1> 0 , the
line
is drawn so as to form with the coordinate axes a triangle

of area 5. Determine the relation between the quantities
Aj, yt and S for which the intercepts a and b will be of
like sign.
§ 14. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line.

The Problem of Determining the Distance of a Point
from a Straight Line
Let a straight line be given in the plane xOy. Through the ori
gin, draw a line (called the normal) perpendicular to the given line.
Denote by P the point of intersection of the normal and the given
line, and choose the direction from the point 0 to the point P as
the positive direction of the normal.
If a is the polar angle of the normal, and p is the length of the

segment OP (Fig. 10), then the equation of the given straight line
can be wri tten as
x-cos a + * sin a — p — 0;
an equation of this form is called the normal equation of a straight

line.
Let there be given any straight line and an a r bi t ra ry point M*\
let d denote the distance of M* from the given line. The depa r t ure 6
of the point M* from the line is defined as the number + r f when M*
and the origin lie on opposite sides of the given line, and as — d
when M* and the origin lie on the same side of the given line.
(For points lying on the line itself, 6 = 0.)
If we are given the coordinates x*, y* of the point M* and the
normal equation x cos a + */sin a — p = 0 of a straight line, then the
departure 6 of M* from this line can be calculated from the formula
6= x* cos a + y* sin a — p.
Thus, to find the depar ture of a point M* from a given straight
line, the coordinates of the point M* must be substituted for the
current coordinates in the left-hand member of the normal equation
of this straight line. The resulting number will be the required
departure.
§ 14. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line 63
To find the distance d of a point from a straight line, we have

merely to calculate the departure and to take its modulus:
d =IH
Given the general equation A x - \- B y - \- C — Q of a straight line; to
reduce this equation to the normal form, al! its terms must be
multiplied by the normalizing factor j.i which is determined from
the formula
1
(X= T- r •
" VA 1+
The normalizing factor must he taken with the sign opposite to that
of the constant term of the equation to be normalized.
309. Determine which of the following equations of

straight lines are in the normal form:
1) j x — j y ~ 3 = 0; 2) - x — - l i j — 1=-•();
3) ^ + 2 = 0; 4) — — x f - y — 2 = 0;
5) — x + 2 = 0; 6) x—2 = 0; 7) y t 2 = 0;
8) — y —2 = 0.
310. In each of the following, reduce the general equation
of the given straight line to the normal form:
1) 4x —3 t/- 1 0 = 0 ; 2) j X — j y + l 0 = 0\
3) 12.v —5</+13 = 0; 4 ) x + 2 = 0; 5) 2x— t/—j/5 = 0.
311. Given the equations of straight lines:
1) x—2 = 0; 2) x J- 2 = 0 ; 3) y — 3 = 0; 4) i/ + 3 = 0 ;
5 )x V 3 -|-i/—6 = 0; 6) x — y -|-2 = 0 ;
7) x-t y 1^3 + 2 — 0;
8) xcosp —(/sin p —<7= 0, <7> 0; p is an acute angle;
9) xcos p + ; / sin p +</ = 0, ^ > 0; p is an acute angle.
Determine the polar angle a of the normal and the
segment p for each of the given lines; from the obtained
values of the parameters a and p, plot the lines (setting
P = 30° and q — 2 in the last two cases).
312. In each of the following, calculate the value of
the departure 6 and the distance d, of the point from the
line:
1) A (2, - 1 ) , 4x + 3(/ 4 - 10 = 0;
2) B (0, —3), 5x— 12y—23 = 0;
3) P ( - 2 , 3), 3*— 4y — 2 = 0;
4) Q (1, - 2 ) , x — 2y —5 = 0.
point 44(1, —3) and the origin lie on the same side or
on opposite sides of the given line:
1) 2x —p + 5 = 0; 2) x — 3y —5 = 0; 3) 3x + 2y — 1 = 0 ;
4) x — 3 i/+ 2 = 0; 5) 10*+ 24y x 15=0.
314. The point A (2, —5) is a vertex of a square, one
x — 2y — 7 = 0 .
Calculate the area of the square.
315. Given that
3* — 2y —5 = 0 , 2 * + 3 # + 7 = 0
are the equations of two sides of a rectangle, and that
A (—2, 1) is one of its vertices; calculate the area of the
rectangle.
316. Prove that the line 2 x + (/ + 3 = 0 cuts thesegment
bounded by the points A (—5, 1) and B (3, 7).
317. Prove that the line 2x—3y 1-6= 0 does not cut
the segment bounded by the points M l (—2, —3) and
A M I , —2).
318. The points A (—3,5), B ( —1 ,—4), C ( 7 ,—1) and
D (2, 9) are the consecutive vertices of a quadrilateral.
Determine whether the quadrilateral is convex.
319. The points A ( — 1,6), B( 1 ,—3), C (4, 10) and
D ( 9 ,0 ) are the consecutive vertices of a quadrilateral.
Determine whether this quadrilateral is convex.
320. The vertices of a triangle are A (— 10, — 13),
B ( —2, 3) and C (2, 1). Calculate the length of the perpen
dicular dropped from the vertex B to the median through C.
321. The sides AB, BC, CA of a triangle ABC are
given, respectively, by the equations
* + 21 y — 22 = 0, 5x— 12y + 7 = 0 , 4x—3 3 ^ + 1 4 6 = 0 .
Calculate the distance from the centre of gravity of this

triangle to the side BC.
322. In each of the following, calculate the distance d
between the given parallel lines:
1 )3 * —4y— 10 = 0, 2) 5x— 12</-|-26 = 0,
6* —8y -f- 5 = 0; 5 * - \ 2 y - 13=0;
3) 4x — 30+ 15 = 0, 4) 24*— 1Or/ • 39 = 0,
8x— 6y + 25 = 0; 12*- 5 y -2 6 = 0.
323. Two sides of a square lie on the lines
5.v— 12y—65 = 0, 5,v- \2y 26 = 0.
Calculate the area of the square.
324. Prove that the line
5 * - 2 r /- 1=0
is parallel to the lines
5x— 2y + 7 = 0, 5 * - 2 i/~ 9 = 0
and lies midway between them.
325. Given the three parallel lines
10*+15«/-3 = 0, 2* + 3i/ + 5 = 0 , 2* + 3 i/- 9 = 0 .
Show that the first of them lies between the other two,
and find the ratio in which the first line divides the di
stance between the second and the third line.
326. Prove that two lines can be drawn through the
point P (2, 7) so that their distances from the point Q(l, 2)
will each be equal to 5. Write the equations of these lines.
327. Prove that two straight lines can be drawn through
the point P(2,5) so that their distances from the point
Q(5, 1) will each be equal to 3. Write the equations of
these lines.
328. Prove that one line only can be drawn through the
point C(7, —2) so that its distance from the point A (4, —6)
will be equal to 5. Write the equation of this line.
329. Prove that no line can be drawn through the point
B (4, - 5 ) so that its distance from the point C (—2, 3)
will be equal to 12.
3-2250

departure from the line 8*— 15y —2 5 = 0 is equal to —2.
331. Find the equations of the straight lines which are
parallel to the line 3*—Ay— 1 0 = 0 and lie at a distance
d = 3 from that line.
332. The points A (2, 0) and B ( —1, 4) are two adjacent
vertices of a square. Find the equations of its sides.
333. The point A ( 5 ,— 1) is a vertex of a square, one
Ax — 3y—7 = 0.
Write the equations of the lines containing the other sides
of this square.
334. Given that
4x—3*/4-3=0, Ax—3y — 17 = 0
are the equations of two sides of a square and that
A (2, —3) is one of its vertices; find the equations of the
remaining two sides of this square.
335. Given that
5*4-12 y — 1 0= 0, 5*-)- 12^4-2 9 = 0
are the equations of two sides of a square and that the
point Afx (—3, 5) lies on one of its sides; find the equa
tions of the remaining two sides of this square.
336. The departures of a point M from the lines
5*— 12y — 13 = 0 and 3*—Ay— 1 9 = 0
are equal to —3 and —5, respectively. Find the coordi

nates of the point M.
through the point P (—2, 3) and equidistant from the points
>1(5, —1) and fi(3, 7).
338. Find the equation of the locus of points equidistant
from the two parallel lines:
1) 3*—^ 4 - 7 = 0 , 2) * —2 0 4 -3 = 0 , 3) 5*— 2y— 6 = 0 ,

3*—y — 3 = 0 ; * —2j/4-7 = 0; 10*—4 (/4 -3 = 0 .
339. Write the equations of the bisectors of the angles

formed by the two intersecting lines:
1) x —3f/_|_5==o, 2) x —2 j/- 3 = 0, 3 ) 3 * + 4 / / - l = 0 ,
3x —«/—2 = 0; 2*-|-4j/+-7=0; 5x+12i/ —2 = 0 .
340. Write the equations of the straight lines which pass
through the point P ( 2, —1) and form, together with the
lines
2x— i/r-5 = 0 , 3x ;-6y — 1 = 0 ,
isosceles triangles.
point Af (I, —2) and the origin are contained by the same
angle, by the supplementary angles, or by the vertical
angles formed by the two intersecting lines:
1) 2x— y — 5 = 0 , 2) 4x + 3j/— 10 = 0, 3) x —2 y - l = 0,
3* \-y 1-10 = 0; 12x—5t/ —5 = 0; 3x —y — 2 = 0 .
points Af(2, 3) and N (5, —1) are contained by the same
angle, by the supplementary angles, or by the vertical
angles formed by the two intersecting lines:
1) x —3i/ —5 = 0, 2) 2x-i-7y—5 = 0, 3) I 2 x + y - l = 0 ,
2x-f9«/ —2 = 0; * + 3«/ + 7 = 0; 13x + 2i/—5 = 0 .
343. Determine whether the origin lies inside or outside
the triangle whose sides are given by the equations
7x—5t/— 11 = 0 , 8x + 3y 4-31 = 0 , x + 8y— 19=0.
344. Determine whether the point M (—3, 2) lies inside
or outside the triangle whose sides are given by the
equations
x A -y —4 = 0 , 3x—7y -f 8 = 0 , 4x —y —31= 0.
345. Determine which of the angles (the acute or the
obtuse one) formed by the two lines
3x—2y |-5 = 0, 2x |-</—3 = 0
contains the origin.
3*
346. Determine which of the angles (the acute or the

obtuse one) formed by the two lines
3 a — b y — 4 = 0, a + 2i/ + 3 = 0
contains the point M (2, —5).
347. Find the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines 3a— y — 4 = 0 and 2a + 6j/ + 3 = 0 which
contains the origin.
between the lines x — 7i/-)-5=0, 5x-f-5y —3 = 0 which is
the supplement of the angle containing the origin.
between the lines x-\-2y— 11=0, 3* — 6y —5 = 0 which
contains the point A 4 (l,—3).
350. Write the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines 2x — 3y — 5 = 0, 6 a : —4y + 7 = 0 which is
the supplement of the angle containing the point C (2, — 1).
351. Write the equation of the bisector of the acute angle
formed by the two lines 3a + 4y —5 = 0, 5a— 12«/-|-3=0.
352. Write the equation of the bisector of the obtuse
angle formed by the two lines a — 3t/-)-5 = 0, 3a — t/-J-15= 0.
§ 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines

The totality of lines passing through a point S is called the
pencil of lines with vertex S.
If A xx 4- B xy + C, = 0 and A 2x + B 2y -f- C2 — 0 are the equations of
two straight lines intersecting in a pînt S, then the equation
cl( A xx 4 *B xy + Cj) -f- p (A 2x -f- B 2y + C2) = 0, (1)
where a, p are any numbers which are not both simultaneously
equal to zero, rt presents a straight line also passing through the point S.
Moreover, it is always possible to choose the numbers a , p in
equation (1) so as to make the equation represent any (previously
assigned) line through the point S, that is, any line of the pencil
with vertex S. An equation of the form (1) is therefore called the
equation of a pencil of lines (with vertex S).
If a yc 0, then, dividing both members of (1) by a and letting
JL=.X, we obtain
AiX + B xy + C, + X ( A 2x + B 2y + C2) = 0. (2)
This equation can be made to represent every line of the pencil
with vertex S except the line corresponding to a = 0, that is, except
*he line A 2x + B 2y -J-C2 = 0.
§ 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines 69
353. Find the vertex of the pencil of lines represented

by the equation
a (2x -f3y— 1) + (5 (x—2y —4) = 0.
354. Find the equation of the line belonging to the
pencil of lines a (x 4 2y — 5) + p (3x—21/+ 1) = 0 and
-
1) passing through the point A (3, —1);

2) passing through the origin;
3) parallel to the axis 0x\
4) parallel to the axis Of/;
5) parallel to the line Ax + 3y—5 = 0;
6) perpendicular to the line 2x-\-3y -+- 7 = 0.
355. Write the equation of the line passing through the
point of intersection of the lines
3x—2y-}-5 = 0, 4.v-j-3f/— 1 = 0
and making an intercept 6 = — 3 on the tj-axis. Solve the
problem without determining the coordinates of the point
of intersection of the given lines.
356. Write the equation of the line which passes through
the point of intersection of the lines
2x-r f/—2 = 0, jc~5f/—-23 = 0
and bisects the segment bounded by the points (5, —6)
and Mo (—1, —4). Solve the problem without calculating
the coordinates of the point of intersection of the given
lines.
357. Given the equation
u (3x—4y —3) -f p (2x + 3y— 1)= 0
of a pencil of lines. Write the equation of that line of
the pencil which passes through the centre of gravity of
a uniform triangular plate whose vertices are the points
A ( — 1,2), B (4, —4) and C(6, —1).
358. Given the equation
a(3x—2y— 1) + P(4x—5f/ + 8 )= 0
of a pencil of lines. Find that line of the pencil which
bisects the segment cut from the line x-\-2y-\-4 = Q by the
lines 2.v + 3f/ + 5 = 0 , x - f l y — 1= 0.

x-\-2 y — 1 = 0 , 5x-\-4y— 17 = 0, x —4 t/- f - ll= 0
of the sides of a triangle. Without determining the coor
dinates of its vertices, find the equations of the altitudes
of the triangle.
360. Write the equation of the line passing through the
point of intersection of the lines
2x-\~ly— 8 = 0, 3x4-2*/+ 5 = 0
and making an angle of 45° with the line
2x + 3y — 7 = 0.
Solve the problem without calculating the coordinates of
the point of intersection of the given lines.
361. In a triangle ABC, the altitudes AN, BN and the
side AB are represented respectively by the equations
x + 5y—3 = 0, x + y — 1 = 0 and x + 3y— 1 = 0 . Without
determining the coordinates of the vertices and of the
intersection point of the altitudes, write the equations of
the other two sides and the third altitude of the triangle.
362. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle ABC,
if A (2, —1) is one of its vertices and if l x — 1 0 j/+ 1 = 0
and 3*—2*/+ 5 = 0 are the respective equations of an
altitude and an angle bisector drawn from one and the
same vertex. Solve the problem without computing the
coordinates of the vertices B and C.
363. Given that
a(2x + */ + 8 )+ P (x + < / + 3) = 0
is the equation of a pencil of lines. Find those lines of
the pencil whose segments intercepted by the lines
x —y —5 = 0 , x — y —2 = 0
are equal to V5.
364. The equation of a pencil of lines is
a (3x + y — 1) + P (2x— y —9) = 0.
Prove that the line
x + 3y -j- 1 3 = 0
belongs to this pencil.
------------------- 8_15. The Equation of a Pencil of lines 71

a (5x + 3y + 6) + p ( 3 * - 4 y - 37) = 0.
Prove that the line
7x -{- 2</-15 = 0
does not belong to this pencil.
a (3jc + 2y— 9) + p (2.x + 5jf + 5) = 0.
Find the value of C for which the line
Ax—3t/ + C = 0
will belong to this pencil.
a(5x + 3y — 7)-TP (3a: + 10tf + 4) = 0.
Find the values of a for which the line
ax + 5:/+ 9 = 0
will not belong to this pencil.
368. The vertex of the pencil of lines
a(2x—3y + 20) + p {2>x-\-hy—27) = 0
is one of the vertices of a square whose diagonal lies
along the line
ac+ 7y— 16= 0.
Write the equations of the sides and of the other diagonal
of the square.
369. Given the pencil of lines
a(2x + 5y + A) + § (3a: —2t/ + 25)=0.
Find that line of the pencil which makes equal (non-zero)
intercepts on the coordinate axes.
a (2AC+ J/+ 1) + P (a:—3y — 10) = 0.
Find those lines of the pencil whose intercepts on the x-
and y-axes are equal in absolute value.

a (21* + 8#— 18) 4 P (11* 4 3# 4 12)=0.
Find those lines of the pencil which form with the coor
dinate axes a triangle whose area is 9 square units.
a (2* 4 # 4 4) 4 0 (* — 2y — 3 )= 0 .
Prove that, among the lines of the pencil, there exists
only one line whose distance from the point P ( 2 ,—3) is
d = Y 10. Write the equation of this line.
a( 2x—y — 6) 4- P (* —y —4 )= 0 .
Prove that, among the lines of the pencil, there is no line
situated at the distance d = 3 from the point P (3, — 1).
374. Find the equation of the line passing through the
intersection of the lines 3 * 4 y —5 = 0 , * —2 t/+ 1 0 = 0 and
situated at the distance d = 5 from the point C(— 1, —2).
Solve the problem without computing the coordinates of
a(5* + 2 i/ + 4) p (x + 9y—25) = 0.
Write the equations of those lines of the pencil which,
together with the lines
2*—3«/4-5 = 0, 12*4-8# — 7 = 0 ,
form isosceles triangles.
376. Find the equation of the straight line passing through
the intersection of the lines
11*4-3#—7 = 0, 12*4-#— 1 9 = 0
and equidistant from the points A (3, —2) and B( — 1, 6).
Solve the problem without determining the coordinates of
(5*4- 3# —2) 4 p, (3*—# —4 )= 0 ,
«2 (*—y + 1) 4- P2 (2*—# —2 )= 0
$ 16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line 73
of two pencils of lines. Without determining their vertices,

find the equation of the line belonging to both pencils.
378. The sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a quadrilateral
ABCD are represented, respectively, by the equations
5x + i / +-13=0, 2x— 7y— 17 = 0,
2>x-\~2y— 13 = 0, 3x —Ay A- 17 = 0.
Find the equations of the diagonals AC and BD of
this quadrilateral without determining the coordinates of
its vertices.
379. The vertex of the pencil of lines
a (2x + 3i/ 4 5) + p (3x — y -j-2) = 0
-
is a vertex of a triangle, two of whose altitudes are given

by the equations
x —4 y + l = 0, 2x + «/+l = 0.
Write the equations of the sides of this triangle.
§ 16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line

The straight line drawn through the pole perpendicular to a given
straight line is called the normal to the given line. Denote by P
the point where the normal meets the line; take the direction from
the point O to the point P as the positive direction of the normal.
The angle through which the polar axis must be turned to reach
coincidence with the direction of the segment OP is referred to as
the polar angle of the normal.
380. Derive the polar equation of a straight line, given
its distance p from the pole and the polar angle a of the
normal.
Solution. First Method. On the given straight line s (Fig. 11),
take an arbitrary point M with polar coordinates q and 0. Let P
denote the point where the line s meets its normal. From the right
triangle OPM, we find:
e= ;cos (0 —a) ’ ( 1)
We have obtained an equation in two variables, q and 0, which

is satisfied by the coordinates of every point M lying on the line
s and by the coordinates of no other point. Consequently, equation
(1) is the equation of the straight line s. The problem is thus solved.
Second Method. Consider a rectangular cartesian coordinate system
whose positive x-axis coincides with the polar axis of the given
7A Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order
polar system. In this cartesian system, the normal equation of the

line s is
x cos a - f 1/ sin a —p = 0. (2)
Recalling the formulas for transformation from polar to cartesian

coordinates,
x = q cos 0, y —Q sin 0. (3)
and substituting the expressions (3) for x and y in equation (2),

we have
q (cos 0 cos a + sin 0 sin a ) —p
or
^ cos (0— a ) '
381. Derive the polar equation of a straight line, given:

1) the angle of inclination p of the line (with respect
to the polar axis), and the length p of the perpendicular
dropped from the pole to the line. Also, write the equation
of the line for the case
P = £ , p = 3;
2) the intercept a cut off by the line on the polar axis,
and the polar angle a of the normal to the line. Also,
16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line 75
write the equation of the line for the case

a — o2 , a = — 2 ji;
3) the angle of inclination p of the line (with respect

to the polar axis), and the intercept a cut off by the line
on the polar axis. Also, write the equation of the line for
the case
382. Derive the polar equation of the straight line passing

through the point Afx(q,, 0,) and making an angle p with
the polar axis.
383. Derive the polar equation of a straight line through
the point MÔj, 0t), if the polar angle of its normal is a.
384. Find the polar equation of the line through the
points 0!) and M., (o2, 02).
Chapter 4
GEOMET RIC P R O P E R T I E S OF CU RV ES OF
THE SECOND O R D E R
§ 17. The Circle

The equation
(jr-a)* + (0-p)*=fl* (1)
represents a circle of radius R with centre C (a, P).
If the centre of the circle coincides with the origin, that is, if
a = 0 , p = 0, then equation (1) takes the form
** + !/*= **. (2)
circle determined by the stated conditions:
1) the centre of the circle is at the origin, and the
radius R = 3;
2) the centre is at the point C (2, —3), and the radius
R = 7;
3) the circle passes through the origin, and the centre
is at the point C (6, —8);
4) the circle passes through the point A (2, 6), and the
centre is at C(—1, 2);
5) A (3, 2) and B ( —1, 6) are the end points of a dia
meter of the circle;
6) the centre is at the origin, and the line 3*—4(/-f-20=0
is tangent to the circle;
7) the centre is at the point C(l , —1), and the line
5jc— 12f/ + 9 = 0 is tangent to the circle;
8) the circle passes through the points A (3, 1), B( — 1, 3),
and its centre lies on the line Zx—y —2 = 0;
9) the circle passes through the three points >4(1, 1),
B( l , —1) and C (2, 0);
10) the circle passes through the three points Afj(—1, 5),
M2(—2, —2) and M3(5, 5).
,$ 17. The Circle 17
386. The point C (3, —1) is the centre of a circle which

cuts off a chord of length 6 on the line 2.v—5;/+ 18 = 0.
Write the equation of the circle.
387. Write the equations of the circles of radius R = |7 5
and tangent to the line x —2y — 1= 0 at the point M l (3, 1).
388. Find the equation of a circle tangent to the two
parallel lines 2x + y — 5 = 0, 2x + t / f 15 = 0, if A (2, 1)
is their point of contact with one of the lines.
389. Find the equations of the circles passing through
the point /4(1, 0) and tangent to the two parallel lines
2x-\~y + 2 = 0, 2.1' + — 18 = 0.
390. Find the equation of the circle with centre on the
line
2x-\ y = 0
and tangent to the lines
4x —3j/+ 10=0, 4x —3f/ —30= 0.
391. Write the equations of circles tangent to the two
intersecting lines l x —y — 5 = 0, x + y + 1 3 = 0, if M x
(1, 2) is their point of contact with one of the lines.
392. Write the equations of the circles passing through
the origin and tangent to the two intersecting lines
jt+ 2t/ —9 = 0 , 2x — // + 2 = 0.
393. Find the equations of the circles which have their
centres on the line
4x—5y —3 = 0
and are tangent to the lines
2x—3y — 10=0, 3x—2y + 5 = 0 .
394. Write the equations of the circles passing through
the point A ( — l, 5) and tangent to the two intersecting
lines
3x + 4y — 35 = 0, 4* + 3</+ 14=0.
395. Write the equations of the circles tangent to the
three lines
4x— 3y — 10 = 0, 3x— 4y — 5 = 0 and 3x— 4y— 15—0.
78 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order
396. Write the equations of the circles tangent to the

three lines
3x + 4y — 3 5 = 0 , 3x—4y — 35 = 0 and x — 1 = 0 .
397. Determine which of the following equations repre
sent circles, and find the centre C and the radius R of
each circle.
1) ( * - 5 ) 2+ (y + 2)2= 25; 2) (a t + 2)2 + i/2= 64;
3) (* —5)2 + (y + 2)* = 0; 4) x2 + (y— 5)2 = 5;
5) x2 j- ty2— 2 x 'r 4y — 20 = 0; 6) x2-\-y2— 2x + 4t/+14=0;
7) x2 - if -j 4.v — 2y i 5 = 0; 8) x2 y2 + .v= 0;
9) x2 y2-\-8x — 4ty J- 14 = 0; 10) x2 + i f -{- y — 0
398. Identify and plot the lines represented by the
1) y = + |/9 = 7 * ; 6) y = 15 — Y 64 —.v2;
2) y = — ]/ 25—x2\ 7) x = - 2 - V ' 9 ^ f :
3) x --- — V 4 — y2\ 8) x = — 2 + V 9 — y2;
4) x= -f-1 /1 6 ^ ; 9) y = —3—]/ 21 —4x—x2;
5) y = 15-|-K 64 — xl\ 10 ,v- = —5 + 1/40—6y — y2.
399. Determine whether the point 4 (1 , —2) is inside,
on, or outside each of the following circles:
1) x2jr y 2— \\ 2) x2+ y2= b\ 3) x2-\-y2— 9;
4) x2 + y2— 8x — 4y — 5 = 0: 5) *2+ y2— 10a- + 8y = 0.
line of centres of the two given circles:
1) ( x - 3 ) 2 + y2= 9 and (x + 2)2+ ( y - l)2= 1;
2) (x + 2)2+ ( r /— l)2= 1 6 and (x + 2)2 + (y + 5)2= 25;
3 ) x 2-{-y2—4x + 6</ = 0 and x2+ y2— 6x = 0;
4) x2+ y2— x + 2 y = 0 and x2 + y2 + 5x' + 2y— 1 = 0 .
401. Find the equation of that diameter of the circle
x2 + y2 + 4x—6y — 17 = 0
§ 17. The Circle 79
which is perpendicular to the line

5x-\-2y— 13 —0.
402. In each of the following, calculate the shortest
distance from the given point to the given circle:
1) ,4(6, - 8 ) , x1+ 1/2= 9;
2) B (3, 9), x2+ y 2— 26*-|-30i/ + 313 = 0;
3) C (—7, 2), x2-\- y2— l( k — 14*/— 151 = 0.
403. Determine the coordinates of the points of inter
section of the line l x —y-\-12 = 0 and the circle (x—2)2+
-)-((/— l)2= 25.
given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given circle:
1) y = 2x — 3 and x2 + y 2— 3x-i-2y — 3 = 0;
2) // = - * —— and x2 + y 2— &x + 2 y -\-12 = 0;
3) y —x + 10 and x2+ y2— 1 = 0 .
405. Determine the values of the slope k for which the
line y = kx
1) cuts the circle x2+ i f — 10*+16 = 0;
2) touches this circle;
3) passes outside this circle.
406. Find the condition under which the line y —kx-\-b
touches the circle x2-\-y2= R2.
407. Write the equation of that diameter of the circle
—2)*-f (y-f 1)2= 16
which bisects the chord cut off by the circle on the line
x —2y—3 = 0.
408. Find the equation of that chord of the circle
(•*—3)2-f (y—7)2= 169
whose midpoint is at M (8.5, 3.5).
409. Determine the length of that chord of the circle
( x - 2 ) 2+ ( y - 4)2= 10
whose midpoint is at .4(1, 2).
410. Gi ven the pencil of lines

a (x — 8y + 30) + p (a -f 5y — 22) = 0.
Find those lines of the pencil on which the circle
a2 -f y 2 — 2a 2y — 14 = 0
cuts off chords of length 2 \ 3
411. Given the two circles
(x— m x)2-\-(y— nx)2= R\, (X — m2)2 + (y— n2)2= Rl
intersecting at the points M x (xx, t/x) and M 2(x2, y2).
Prove that, by a judicious choice of the numbers a and
ft, an equation of the form
«[(*—m x)2+ ( y — nx)2—+ P [(x — m2)2+{y — n2)2— R 2)=0
can be made to represent every circle through the points
;Mj, M 2, and also to represent the straight line M l M 2:
412. Find the equation of the circle which passes through
the point >4(1, — 1) and through the points of intersection
of the two circles
x24 y2jr 2 x — 2y — 23 = 0, x2-\-y2—6x-j-]2y — 35 = 0.
413. Find the equation of the circle which passes through
the origin and through the points of intersection of the
two circles
(x + 3 )2+ (y+ 1)* = 25, (x— 2)2+ (y + 4)2= 9.
through the points of intersection of the two circles
x2-\-y2 -\-3x — y — 0, 3;c2-f 3y2-\-2x + y = 0.
415. Calculate the distance from the centre of the circle
x2-\-y2= 2 x to the straight line passing through the points
of intersection of the two circles
x2+ y2+ 5x—8 y + 1 = 0 , x2-\-y2—3x-\-7y— 25 = 0.
416. Determine the length of the common chord of the
two circles
x2+ y2— 10jc— 10i/ = 0, x2-\ y2+ 6x + 2y —40 = 0.
$ 17. The Circle 81
417. Write the equation of the circle which has its

centre on the line x + i/ = 0 and passes through the points
of intersection of the two circles
( x - l )2+ (t/-f 5)2= 50, ( x + 1 ) 2 + ( j/ + 1 ) 2 = 1 0 .
418. Write the equation of the line tangent to the circle
x2-}-«/2= 5 at the point A (—1, 2).
419. Write the equation of the line tangent to the circle
(x4-2)2 —3)2= 25 at the point A (—5, 7).
420 On the circle
16x2+ 16y2i 48x—80 — 43 = 0,
find the point My nearest to the line
8-v—4(/ + 73 = 0,
and calculate the distance d between Af, and the line.
421. The point My (xlt yx) lies on the circle x2-+- y2= R1.
Write the equation of the tangent line at My to the circle.
422. The point AM*!, t/j) lies on the circle
(x—a )2 + (y— p)2= f?2.
Find the equation of the tangent line at My to the circle.
423. Determine the acute angle at which the line
3x —i/— l = 0 intersects the circle (x — 2)2+ i/2= 5. (The
angle of intersection of a straight line and a circle is
defined as the angle between the line and the tangent to
the circle at their point of intersection.)
424. Determine the angle of intersection of the two
circles
( x - 3)2+ (y - 1)2= 8. ( x - 2)2+ (y + 2)2= 2.
(The angle of intersection of two circles is defined as the
angle between their tangents at a point of intersection.)
425. Find the condition under which the two circles
( x - a j 2+ (y - M 2= R l (x—a 2)2 + ( « / - p 2)2= R \
will intersect at right angles.
426. Prove that the two circles
x2+ t/2—2mx—2/10 —m2T n2= 0,
x2 -!- y2— 2nx + 2my + m2—n2= 0
intersect at right angles.
427. From the point A , tangent lines are

drawn to the circle A2 + y2= 5. Find their equations.
428. From the point i4 (l, 6). tangent lines are drawn
to the circle x2+ y2 -\-2x — 19== 0. Find their equations.
a(3x-\-A y— 10) + p (3a — y —5) = 0.
Find those lines of the pencil which are tangent to the
circle
x2+ y2jr 2x — 4y = 0.
430. Tangent lines are drawn to the circle x2-\-y2= 10
from the point A (4, 2). Determine the angle between
these tangent lines.
431. Tangent lines are drawn to the circle (x — l)2-f-
4. ^ +5)2 = 4 from the point P (2, —3). Write the equation
of the chord joining the points of contact.
432. From the point C(6, —8), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle x2+ y2= 25. Calculate the distance d between
the point C and the chord joining the points of contact.
433. From the point P (— 9, 3), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle
x2+ y2— 6a -i- Ay— 78 = 0.
Calculate the distance d from the centre of the circle to
the chord joining the points of contact.
434. From the point M (4, —4), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle
a2 -|- y2— 6a + 2y + 5 = 0.
Calculate the length d of the chord joining the points of
C°43^" Calculate the length of the tangent line from the
point A (1. - 2 ) to the circle
x2+ y2 + x —3y —3 = 0.
436. Find the equations of the lines tangent to the
circle
x2 + y2+ 10a— 2y + 6 = 0
and parallel to the line 2a + ^ - 7 = 0.
IS The F.llipse 83
437. Find the equations of the lines tangent to the

circle
x2-f y2—2x + 4y = 0
and perpendicular to the line x — 2y + 9 = Q.
438. Write the polar equation of a circle with radius R,
if the polar coordinates of the centre are C (R, 0O).
439. Write the polar equation of a circle with radius
R, if the polar coordinates of its centre are:
1) C(/?, 0); 2) C (R, ji); 3) C 4) C f .
440. Determine the polar coordinates of the centre and

find the radius of each of the following circles:
1) q = 4cos0; 2) a — 3 sin 0; 3) o- =—2cos0;
4) q=-- —5sin0; 5) o = 6 cos( ——0^;
6) q = 8 sin ( 0 - j ) ; 7) o = 8sin ( - - o ) .
441. In each of the following, a circle is represented

by its polar equation:
1) q = 3 cos0; 2) q = — 4 sin 0; 3) n = cos0 — sin 0.
Write the equation of each circle in a rectangular carte
sian coordinate system whose positive x-axis coincides
with the polar axis and whose origin coincides with the
pole.
442. In each of the following, a circle is represented by
its cartesian equation: 1) x2 + t/2 = x; 2) x24-y 2 = —3x;
3) x24-y2 — 5y; 4) x2 + «/2 = —y\ 5) x2 1/ = x + y. Write
the equation of each circle in a polar coordinate system
whose polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis and
whose pole coincides with the origin.
443. Find the polar equation of the line tangent to the
circle q= R at the point M t (R, 0O).
§ 18. The Ellipse

An ellipse is the locus of points, the sum of whose distances
from two lixed points (called the foci) in the plane is a constant
greater than the distance between the foci. The constant sum of the
distances of an arbitrary point of an ellipse from its foci is gener

ally denoted by 2a. The foci of an ellipse are designated as F lt Ft ,
and the distance between them as 2c. By the definition of the el
lipse, 2a > 2c, or a > c.
Let there be given an ellipse. If the axes of a rectangular car
tesian coordinate system are chosen so that the foci of the given
ellipse are symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, then the equation of the given ellipse (referred to this coor
dinate system) has the form
* (1)
where b — Y a2— c2; obviously, a > b . An equation of the form (1)
is called the canonical equation of an ellipse.
When the coordinate system is chosen as indicated above, then

the coordinate axes are the axes of symmetry of the ellipse, and
the origin is its centre of symmetry (Fig. 12). The axes of sym
metry of an ellipse are referred to simply as its axes, and the centre
of symmetry simply as the centre of the ellipse. The points where
an ellipse cuts its axes are called its vertices. In Fig. 12, the ver
tices of the ellipse are the points A \ A, £ ' , and B. The term “axes
of the ellipse” is often applied also to the segments A ' A = 2 a and
B 'B —2b\ the segment O A = a is then called the semi-major axis,
and the segment OB = bt the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
If the foci of an ellipse are situated on the y -axis (symmetrically
with respect to the origin), then the equation of the ellipse still is
of the form (1), but in this case b > a; hence, if a is still to denote
the semi-major axis, the letters a and b must be interchanged in
equation (1). However, for convenient formulation of subsequent
problems, we shall agree to let a always denote the semi-axis lying
on the x-axis, and b the semi-axis lying on the (/-axis, irrespective
of whether a is greater or smaller than b. If a = b, equation (1) rep
resents a circle, which is regarded as a special case of the ellipse.
# 18. The Ellipse 85
The number
c
e —— ,
a
where a is the semi-major axis, is called the eccentricity of the el
lipse. Clearly, e < 1 (for a circle, e ^ O ) . Let At (x, ;/) be an arbi
trary point of an ellipse; then the segments FlM — r l and F2M ^r2
are called the focal radii of the point M (see Fig. 12). The focal
radii can be calculated from the formulas
r l -- a f ex, rz ----- a — ex.
In the case of an ellipse represented by equation (1), where
a > b, the lines
(Fig. 12) are called the directrices of the ellipse. If b > a t the
directrices are determined by the equations y — —

Each of the directrices possesses the
following property: If r is the distance
from an arbitrary point of an ellipse to
one of its foci, and d is the distance
from the same point to the directrix
Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

associated with that focus, then the ratio — is a constant equal
to the eccentricity of the ellipse:
r
d ~ e'
Let two planes, a and p, make an acute angle (p, and let a
circle of radius a lie in the plane a; then the projection of this circle
on the plane p is an ellipse with semi-major axis a; the semi-minor
axis b of the ellipse (Fig. 13) is given by the formula
b — a cos cp.
Let a circular cylinder have a circle of radius b as its directing

curve; then the section of this cylinder by a plane (making an acute
angle cp with the axis of the cylinder) will be an ellipse with its
semi-minor axis equal to b\ the semi-major axis of the ellipse (Fig. 14)
is determined by the formula
_ b
~ sin (p '
444. Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are

symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, and which satisfies the following conditions:
1) the semi-axes are equal to 5 and 2;
2) the major axis equals 10, and the distance between
the foci 2c = 8;
3) the minor axis equals 24, and the distance between
the foci 2c = 10;
4) the distance between the foci 2c = 6, and the eccen
tricity e = y ;
5) the major axis equals 20, and the eccentricity
3
t = s ; .. »
6) the minor axis is 10, and the eccentricity e = j 3 >
7) the distance between the directrices is 5, and the
distance between the foci 2c = 4;
8) the major axis equals 8 , and the distance between
the directrices is 16;
9) the minor axis equals 6, and the distance between
the directrices is 13; j
10) the distance between the directrices is 32, and z = •
445. Write the equation of the ellipse whose foci are
symmetrically situated on the y -axis with respect to the
1) the semi-axes are equal to 7 and 2;
2) the major axis equals 10, and the distance between
the foci 2c = 8;
3) the distance between the foci 2c= 2 4 , and the eccen-
. . .. 12
tricity e = |g ;
3
4) the minor axis is 16, and the eccentricity e = -gi
\V 18. The Ellipse 87
5) the distance between the foci 2c = 6, and the distance

2
between the directrices is 16y ;
6) the distance between the directrices is 1()|-, and itie
eccentricity e = -^-.
446. Determine the semi-axes of each of the following
ellipses:
1) T q t | = 1> 2) — y* — \\ 3) xs -J-25(/J—25;
4) x* + 5y2= 15; 5) 4x2+ 9y* = 25; 6) 9x2 25y* = 1;
7) xl -j- 4y2= 1; 8)16x2~</2= 16; 9) 25x2 -i-9//2= 1;
10) 9x2
447. Given the ellipse 9x2 -f 25(/l = 225. Find: 1) the
semi-axes; 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the equations
of the directrices.
448. Calculate the area of the quadrilateral, two of
whose vertices lie at the foci of the ellipse
x2+ 5*/2= 20,
and whose other two vertices coincide with the ends of
the minor axis of the ellipse.
449. Given the ellipse 9x2+ 5i/2= 4 5 . Find: 1) the semi-
axes; 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the equations of
the directrices.
450. Calculate the area of the quadrilateral, two of
whose vertices lie at the foci of the ellipse
9x24 5i/2= 1,
and whose other two vertices coincide with the ends of
the minor axis of the ellipse.
451. Calculate the distance from the focus F (c, 0) of
the ellipse
to the directrix associated with this focus (i.e., to the

directrix lying on the same side of the centre as the fo
cus F).
452. Using a pair of compasses alone, construct the

foci of the ellipse 75 + % = 1 (assuming that the coordinate
axes have been drawn and a unit segment chosen).
453. On the ellipse
find the points whose abscissa is equal to —3.

454. Determine which of the points /4,(—2, 3),
A t (2, - 2 ) , A,(2, - 4 ) , v44 (— 1, 3), A s ( - 4 , - 3 ) ,
A t (3, - 1), A 1(3, - 2), >1,(2, 1), >1,(0, 15) and
/4,o(0, — 16) lie inside, on, or outside the ellipse
8x* -\-5y2= 77.
1) 2)y = - ^ V 9 ^ 7 - ,
3> * = - f 4) * = + 1 / 4 9 = 7 .
456. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y , and one focal

radius of a point M on this ellipse is equal to 10. Calcu
late the distance from the point M to the directrix asso
ciated with the focus in question.
457. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y , and the
distance from a point M on the ellipse to one of the di
rectrices is equal to 20. Calculate the distance from the
point M to the focus associated with this directrix.
458. Given the point M, ^2, —y ^ on the ellipse
write the equations of the straight lines along which the

focal radii of the point M, lie.
459. Verify that the point M, (—4, 2.4) lies on the
ellipse
and determine the focal radii of the point M x.

$ 18. The Ellipse 89
460. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y , its centre

is at the origin, and one of its foci is F(—2, 0). Calcu
late the distance from a point A4, of the ellipse to the
directrix associated with the given focus, if the abscissa
of M t js 2. j
461. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y , its centre
is at the origin, and one of its directrices is given by the
equation x = 1 6 . Calculate the distance from a point M,
of the ellipse to the focus associated with the given direc
trix, if the abscissa of M. is —4.
* 2 2
462. Determine those points of the ellipse jyj + fg = 1

whose distance from the right-hand focus is equal to 14.
463. Determine those points of the ellipse y g ~ ry = 1
whose distance from the left-hand focus is equal to 2.5.
464. Through a focus of the ellipse ^ = 1, a per
pendicular is drawn to its major axis. Determine the dis
tances from the foci to the points in which the perpen
dicular cuts the ellipse.
465. Write the equation of the ellipse with its foci sym
metrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the origin,
given:
1) the point A4,(—2 ^ 5 , 2) of the ellipse and its semi
minor axis 6 = 3;
2) the point M ,(2, —2) of the ellipse and its semi-major
axis a — 4;
3) the points M ,(4, — V 3) and M2(2V2, 3) of the
ellipse; __
4) the point M,(V 15, —1) of the ellipse and the dis
tance between its foci 2c = 8;
5) the point M, ^2, — of the ellipse and its eccen-
2
tricity 8= 3-;
6) the point M ,(8, 12) of the ellipse and the distance
rj = 20 of M, from the left-hand focus;
7) the point M, (— ]/5, 2) of the ellipse and the dis
tance be ween its directrices equal to 10.
466. Determine the eccentricity e of an ellipse, if:

1) the minor axis subtends an angle of 60° at each
focus;
2) the line segment between the foci subtends a right
angle at each of the vertices on the minor axis;
3) the distance between the directrices is three times
the distance between the foci;
4) the segment of the perpendicular from the centre of
the ellipse to a directrix is bisected at the corresponding
vertex.
467. Through the focus F of an ellipse, a perpendicular
is drawn to its major axis (Fig. 15). Determine that value
of the eccentricity of the ellipse for which the line seg
ments AB and OC will be parallel.
f<g. 15.
468. Find the equation of an ellipse with semi-axes a,

b and centre C(x„, y„), if the axes of symmetry of the
ellipse are parallel to the coordinate axes.
469. An ellipse touches the x-axis at the point A (3, 0),
and the y-axis at the point 5 (0 , —4). Write the equation
of the ellipse, given that its axes of symmetry are parallel
to the coordinate axes.
470. The point C (—3, 2) is the centre of an ellipse
which touches both coordinate axes. Write the equation
§ 18. The Ellipse 91
of the ellipse, given that its axes of symmetry are paral

lel to the coordinate axes.
471. Show that each of the following equations repre
sents an ellipse, and find the coordinates of its centre C,
the semi-axes, the eccentricity, and the equations of the
directrices:
1) 5xl H-9(/*— 30x-f 18y f 9 = 0 ;
2) 16x’ + 25i/* + 32x— 100y- 284 = 0;
3) 4xl + 3f/’ — 8x+12f/ —32 = 0.
472. Identify and plot the curves represented by the fol
lowing equations:
1) y = — 7 + 1 1/16 + 6x— x 2\ 2) y = 1—- 6x—x!;
3) r = - 2 / - 5 - 6 y-y*-, 4) x = — 5 + ^ V ' 8 + 2tj—y*.
473. Write the equation of the ellipse satisfying the fol

lowing conditions:
1) the major axis equals 26, and the foci are F ,(—10, 0)
and Ft (14, 0);
2) the minor axis equals 2, and the foci are F, (—1, —1),
F A i. i);
3) the foci are F, | - 2 , y ) , Ft ^2, — , and the ec-
Y2
centricity 6 = - ^ - ;
4) the foci are F ,(l, 3), Ft (3, 1), and the distance be
tween the directrices is 12J/2.
474. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccen-
tricity e = y , one focus F (2, 1), and the equation x —5 = 0
of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
475. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccen
tricity e = y , one focus F (—4, 1), and the equation
i/ + 3 = 0 of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
476. The point .4 (—3, —5) lies on an ellipse which
has a focus F {— 1 ,- 4 ) and whose corresponding directrix
is given by the equation

x —2 = 0 .
Write the equation of the ellipse.
477. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccent
ricity e = -£ , one focus F{3, 0), and the equation x + y —
— 1 = 0 of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
478. The point Af, (2, — 1) lies on an ellipse which has
a focus F( l , 0) and whose corresponding directrix is given
by the equation
2x—y — 10= 0.
Write the equation of the ellipse.
479. The point Af,(3, — 1) is an end point of the minor
axis of an ellipse whose foci lie on the line # 4 - 6 = 0 .
Write the equation of the ellipse, if its eccentricity
480. Find the points of intersection of the line x-i-2y —

— 7 = 0 and the ellipse x 2 4r/2= 25.
481. Find the points of intersection of the line
3x-F 10# — 25 = 0 and the ellipse ^ 4 - ^ - = 1.
482. Find the points of intersection of the line 3x—4y —
— 4 0 = 0 and the ellipse —+ —= 1.
given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given ellipse:
1) 2x—y —3 = 0, 2) 2x 4-#— 10= 0,
-16 +' ^9 = 1 - - +
</* ■■=1;
9 ^
3) 3x + 2# —2 0 = 0 ,
— 4-—= 1'•
4<V 10
484. Determine the values of m for which the line
y=~— x + m:
X2 UZ
1) cuts the ellipse 20+ f T ^ l ; ^ touches the ellipse;3
3 ) passes outside the ellipse.
§ 18. The Ellipse 93
485. Find the condition under which the line y = kx + m

touches the ellipse
486. Write the equation of the tangent line to the el
lipse
at the point M t (xlt y x).

487. Prove that the tangent lines to the ellipse
at the end points of a diameter are parallel. (A diameter

of an ellipse is defined as a chord passing through the
centre.)
488. Write the equations of the tangent lines to the
ellipse
which are parallel to the line

3x + 2y -p 7 = 0.
ellipse
*f + 4i/* = 20
which are perpendicular to the line
2x—2y— 13=0.
490. Draw the tangent lines to the ellipse
X2 //2
— 4- — = 1
30 ‘ 24 1
which are parallel to the line

4x— 2y + 23=0,
and calculate the distance d between them.
491. On the ellipse
find the point M, nearest to the line

2x— 3t/ + 25 = 0,
and calculate the distance d from M , to this line.
492. From the tangent lines are
drawn to the ellipse
Write their equations.

493. From the point C(10, —8), tangent lines are drawn
to the ellipse
Write the equation of the chord joining the points of

contact.
494. From the point P ( — 16, 9), tangent lines are drawn
to the ellipse
Calculate the distance d from P to that chord of the el

lipse which joins the points of contact.
495. An ellipse passes through the point A ( 4, — 1) and
touches the line x + 4y — 1 0 = 0 . Find the equation of this
ellipse, given that its axes coincide with the coordinate
axes.
496. Find the equation of the ellipse whose axes are
coincident with the coordinate axes and which touches the
two lines 3x — 2y — 2 0 = 0 , x + 6y — 2 0 = 0 .
497. Prove that the product of the distances from the
centre of an ellipse to the intersection point of any of its
tangents w ith the focal axis, and to the foot of the per
pendicular dropped from the point of contact to the focal
axis, is a constant equal to the square of the length of
the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
foci to any tangent to an ellipse is equal to the square
of the length of the semi-minor axis.
$ 18. The Ellipse 95
499. The line x — y — 5 = 0 touches an ellipse whose foci

are at the points F, (—3, 0) and Ft (3, 0). Write the equa
tion of the ellipse.
500. Find the equation of an ellipse, if its foci are
origin, 3x-p \0y—25 = 0 is the equation of a tangent to
the ellipse, and if its semi-minor axis b = 2.
501. Prove that the tangent line to an ellipse at a point
M makes equal angles with the focal radii FtM, FtM and
passes externally to the angle F,MFt.
502. From the left-hand focus of the ellipse
X
1 * 'll - \
45 1 20 ’
a ray of light is sent at an obtuse angle a (ta n a = — 2)

to the axis Ox. Upon reaching the ellipse, the ray is
reflected from it. Write the equation of the straight line
along which the reflected ray travels.
503. Determine the points of intersection of the two
ellipses
jc* -j~ fy* - 45 = 0, x2-f 9y* — 6x - 27 = 0.
504. Verify that the two ellipses
n2x2+ m‘y2— m2n2— 0, m2x2-f n2y2— m2n2= 0 (m n)
intersect in four points which lie on a circle with centre
at the origin, and determine the radius R of this circle.
505. Two planes, a and p, make an angle (f>=30°.
Determine the semi-axes of the ellipse obtained by pro
jecting a circle of radius # = 10, lying in the plane a,
on the plane p.
506. An ellipse whose semi-minor axis equals 6 is the
projection of a circle of radius # = 1 2 . Find the angle (p
between the planes in which the ellipse and the circle lie.
507. The directing curve of a circular cylinder is a circle
of radius R = 8. Determine the semi-axes of the ellipse
which is the section of this cylinder by a plane making
an angle <j>=30° with the axis of the cylinder.
508. The directing curve of a circular cylinder is a circle
of radius R = V3. Determine the angle which a cutting
plane must make with the axis of the cylinder in order
that the section should be an ellipse with semi-major axis

a = 2.
509. A uniform compression (elongation) of the plane
towards the x-axis is defined as the transformation of
points in the plane (Fig. 16) which carries an arbitrary
point M(x, y) into a point M' (x', y ’) such that
x '= x , y' = qy,
where q^> 0 is a constant called the coefficient of com
pression.
y
m' m
Fig. 17.
Similarly, a uniform compression of the plane towards

the y -axis is determined (Fig. 17) by the equations
x' = qx, y ' = y .
Find the curve into which the circle
x* + y , = 25
is transformed by a uniform compression of the plane to

wards the x-axis, if the coefficient of compression q —-jr .
510. Find the equation of the curve into which the el-
lipse i 6 + V = * 's transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Oy, if the coefficient of
compression is equal to
$ 19. The Hyperbola 97
511. Find the equation of the curve into which the ellipse
y2 y t
—-f ^ -= 1 is transformed by two consecutive uniform com

pressions of the plane (towards the x-axis and then to
wards the y-axis), if the respective coefficients of compres-
4 .6
sion are y and y .
512. Determine the coefficient q of the uniform compres
sion of the plane towards the axis Ox, under which the
ellipse is transformed into the e l l i p s e 1•
sion of the plane towards the axis Oy, under which the
ellipse —+ |g = 1 is transformed into the ellipse 1^ + ^ = 1.
514. Determine the coefficients ql and q2 of the two
consecutive uniform compressions of the plane towards the
axes Ox and Oy, under which the ellipse ^5 + '^ — 1 is
transformed into the circle x2 -f-y2— 16.
§ 19. The Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the locus of points, the difference of whose distances
from two fixed points (called the foci) in the plane is numerically
a constant; this constant is usually denoted by 2a. The foci of a
hyperbola are designated as Flt F2, and the distance between them
as 2c. By the definition of the hyperbola, 2a<2c, or a<c.
Let there be given a hyperbola. If the axes of a rectangular car
tesian coordinate system are chosen so that the foci of the given
hyperbola are symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to
the origin, then the equation of the hyperbola (referred to this coor
dinate system) has the form
where b = \ ^ c 2 — a2. An equation of the form (1) is called the canon

ical equation of a hyperbola. When the coordinate system is chosen
as indicated above, then the coordinate axes are the axes of sym
metry of the hyperbola, and the origin is its centre of symmetry
(Fig. 18). The axes of symmetry of a hyperbola are referred to simply
as its axes, and the centre of symmetry as the centre of the hyper
bola. A hyperbola intersects one of its axes; the points of intersec
tion are called the vertices of the hyperbola. In Fig. 18, the vertices
of the hyperbola are the points A' and A .
4-2250
The rectangle with sides 2a and 2b, which is symmetrical with

respect to the axes of a hyperbola and tangent to it at the vertices,
is called the fundamental rectangle of the hyperbola.
The term “axes of the hyperbola” is also applied to the line seg
ments of lengths 2a and 2b, which join the midpoints of the opposite
sides of the fundamental rectangle. The diagonals (extended indefi

nitely) of the fundamental rectangle are the asymptotes of the hy p er
bola; the equations of the asymptotes are
The equation
( 2)
represents a hyperbola symmetrical w ith respect to the coordinate

axes and having its foci on the y-axis; like equation (1), equation
(2) is called the canonical equation of a hyperbola; in this case, the
constant difference of the distances from an a r b itra ry point of a hy
perbola to its foci is equal to 2b. v
Two hyperbolas represented, in the same coordinate system, by
the equations
a* *«-*’
are said to be conjugate.

A hyperbola with equal semi-axes ( a = b ) is called an equilateral
hyperbola; its canonical equation is of the form
x*— y 1 — a} or — x* + y* = a*.
§ 19. The Hyperbola 99
The number
c
E= — »
a
where a is the distance from the centre of a hyperbola to its vertex,

is called the eccentricity of the hyperbola. Obviously, e > 1 for every
hyperbola. Let M (x, y) be an arbitrary point of a hyperbola; then
the segments FVM and F2M (see Fig. 18) are called the focal radii
of the point M. The focal radii of points on the right-hand branch
of a hyperbola are calculated from the formulas
rx = ex f a, r 2 — ex — a;
the focal radii of points on the left-hand branch are calculated from
the formulas
rx = — ex — a, r2 ==— px j a.
In the case of a hyperbola represented by equation (1), the straight
lines
— a x— a
~~ E E
are called the directrices of the hyperbola (see Fig. 18). In the case
of a hyperbola represented by equation (2), the directrices are deter
mined by the equations
b b
Each of the directrices possesses the following property: If r is the

distance from an arbitrary point of a hyperbola to one of its foci,
and d is the distance from the same point to the directrix associated
with that focus, then the ratio is a constant equal to the eccen
tricity of the hyperbola:
515. Write the equation of the hyperbola whose foci

are symmetrically situated on the *-axis with respect to the
1) the axes 2a = 10 and 26= 8;
2) the distance between the foci 2c = 10, and the axis
26 = 8;
3) the distance between the foci 2c= 6, and the eccen
tricity e = - |;
5
4) the axis 2a = 1 6 and the eccentricity e = j ;4
4
5) the equations of the asymptotes are

, 4
y= ± jx,
and the distance between the foci 2c = 20;
6) the distance between the directrices is equal to 22 ,
and the distance between the foci 2c = 26;
32
7) the distance between the directrices is g-, and the
axis 2fr = 6;
g
8) (he distance between the directrices is , and the
. . . . 3
eccentricity
^ 3
9) the equations of the asymptotes are « /= ± j * . and
4
the distance between the directrices is 12 -g-.
516. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are
symmetrically situated on the y -axis with respect to the
1) the semi-axes a — 6, b = 1 8 (the letter a denotes here
the semi-axis of the hyperbola lying on the x-axis);
2) the distance between the foci 2c — 10, and the eccen
tricity e = - | ;
3) the equations of the asymptotes are
, >2
y = ± 5*.
and the distance between the vertices equals 48;
4) the distance between the directrices is 7 y , and the
eccentricity e = -g-;
5) the equations ol the asymptotes are y = - ± ^ x > a°d
2
the distance between the directrices is 6 y .
517. Determine the semi-axes a and b of each of the
following hyperbolas:
= 2) f ’ - j , ‘ = l; 3) -v4— 4//2= 16;
4 )x 2—y2= \ \ 5) 4x2—9f/2= 25; 6) 25x2— 16«/2= 1;

7) 9jk2—64//2= 1.
518. Given the hyperbola 16x2—9y2— 144. Find: I) its
semi-axes a and b\ 2) its foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the
equations of the asymptotes; 5) the equations of the direct
rices.
519. Given the hyperbola 16x2—9y 2— — 144. Find: 1) the
semi-axes a and b\ 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the
equations of the asymptotes; 5) the equations of the direc
trices.
520. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the
asymptotes of the hyperbola
and by the line

9x 1-2// —24=0.
l ) 0 = - r j ^ x '^ 9 , 2) y = — 3 V '^ + T,
3) x = — ! v y + 9, 4) y — + y K xl + 25.
522. Given the point /W1(10, — y 5) on the hyperbola
Find the equations of the straight lines along which the

focal radii of lie.
523. Verify that the point Afj ^ —5, lies on the hy*
perbola
and determine the focal radii of Afx.

524. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is 2, the distance
(focal radius) of its point M from one focus is equal to 16.
Calculate the distance of the point M from the directrix
associated with this focus.
525. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is 3, the distance

from a point M of the hyperbola to a directrix equals 4.
Find the distance from the point M to the focus associated
with this directrix.
526. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is 2, its centre
lies at the origin, and one of the foci isF(12, 0). Calculate
the distance from a point of the hyperbola to the di
rectrix associated with the given focus, if the abscissa of
M l is 13.
527. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is - j , its centre
lies at the origin, and one of the directrices is represented
by the equation x = — 8. Calculate the distance from a
point on the hyperbola to the focus associated with
the given directrix, if the abscissa of Afx is equal to 10.
ip
528. Determine those points of the hyperbola ^ —|g = l
whose distance from the right-hand focus is 4.5.
x* uZ
529. Determine those points of the hyperbola-^—yg = 1
whose distance from the left-hand focus is 7.
530. Through the left-hand focus of the hyperbola
ip
yp — 1, a perpendicular is drawn to the axis containing
the vertices. Determine the distances from the foci to the
points in which this perpendicular cuts the hyperbola.
531. Using a pair o^compasses alone, construct the foci
of the hyperbola ^ = 1 (assuming that the coordinate
axes have been drawn and a unit segment chosen).
532. Write the equation of a hyperbola whose foci are
origin, given:
1) the points A4X(6, — 1) and M 2( —8 ,2 1 ^ 2 ) of the
hyperbola;
2) the point M 1( — 5, 3) of the hyperbola and the eccen
tricity z —
3) the point — l ) of the hyperbola and the
equations y = ± -3 x of the asymptotes;
$ 19. The Hyperbola 103
4) the point —3, —^ of the hyperbola and the equa-

4
tions x = ± j of the directrices;
3
5) the equations y = ± j x of the asymptotes and the
16
equations x = ± of the directrices.
533. Determine the eccentricity of an equilateral hyperbola.
534. Determine the eccentricity of a hyperbola, if the line
segment between its vertices subtends an angle of 60° at
each focus of the conjugate hyperbola.
535. The foci of a hyperbola coincide with the foci of
.,2 v
the ellipse —= 1 . Find the equation of the hyperbola

if its eccentricity e = 2.
536. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci lie
at the vertices of the ellipse ^ + ^ = 1 , and whose direc
trices pass through the foci of this ellipse.
537. Prove that the distance from a focus of the hyperbola
to its asymptote is equal to b.

538. Prove that the product of the distances of any point
on the hyperbola
*2 y2_ i
a4 - b( ~ l
from its two asymptotes is a constant equal to - .

539. Prove that the area of a parallelogram formed by
the asymptotes of the hyperbola
and by the straight lines drawn through any point of the

hyperbola parallel to the asymptotes is a constant equal
540. Write the equation of a hyperbola, if its semi-axes

are a and b, the centre is C(x0,tj0), and if the foci lie
104 Ch. 4. Properties of, Curves of the Second Order
on a line:
1 ) parallel to the axis Ox\
2 ) parallel to the axis Oy.
541. Verify that each of the following equations rep
resents a hyperbola, and find: the coordinates of its centre C,
the semi-axes, the eccentricity, the equations of the asym
ptotes, and the equations of the directrices:
1) 16x2— 9i/ 2 — 64x —54(/ — 161 = 0 ;
2) 9*2-1 6 « /2 + 90* + 3 2 r /- 367= 0;
3) 16x2- 9 ( / 2- 6 4 * - 1 8 * / + 199=0.
542. Identify and plot the curves represented by the fol
lowing equations:
1) y = — 1 + V x 2 — 4 x — 5, 2 ) y = 7 — y V x 2 — 6x + 13,
3) x = 9 —2 V V + 4t/+ 8 , 4) x = 5 — - | v V + 4t/— 12.
543. Write the equation of the hyperbola satisfying the
following conditions:
1) the distance between its vertices is 24, and the foci
are Fx( — 10 , 2 ), F2(16, 2 );
2) the foci are F 2 (3, 4), f 2( —3, —4), and the distance
between the directrices equals 3.6;
3) the angle between the asymptotes is 903, and the foci
are Fx (4, - 4 ) , F2 ( - 2 , 2).
544. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen
tricity e = , one focus F (5,0), and the equation 5 x — 16 = 0
of the directrix associated with this focus.
545. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen-
13
tricity e = j2 >one locus F(0, 13), and the equation 13y —
— 144 = 0 of the directrix associated with this focus.
546. The point A ( — 3, —5) lies on a hyperbola which
has F( — 2 , - 3 ) as its focus and whose directrix corre
sponding to this focus is represented by the equation
* + 1= 0.
Find the equation of the hyperbola.
547. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen

tricity e = l ' 5, one focus F(2, —3), and the equation
3a— y -\- 3 = 0
of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
548. The point M jfl, —2) lies on a hyperbola which
has F { — 2,2) as its focus and whose directrix correspond
ing to this focus is represented by the equation
2x — y — 1 = 0 .
Write the equation of the hyperbola.
549. Given the equation x2— y2 = a2 of an equilateral
hyperbola. Find its equation in the new system when its
asymptotes are taken as the coordinate axes.
550. In each of the following, show that the equation
represents a hyperbola, find its centre, semi-axes, the equa
tions of the asymptotes, and draw the figure:
1) xy = 18; 2) 2xy —9 = 0; 3) 2xi/ + 25 = 0.
551. Find the points of intersection of the line 2x — y —
—10 = 0 and the hyperbola —— y = l .
552. Find the points of intersection of the line 4x —3r/ —
— 16 = 0 and the hyperbola ^ —-^ = 1.
553. Find the points of intersection of the line 2x — y +
+ 1 = 0 and the hyperbola '^ — -- = 0.
given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given hyper
bola:
1) x - y - 3 = 0, “ -£= 1 ;
2) * —2 r /+ l= 0 , - - |= 1 ;
3) 7x — 5y — 0, 1 -^ = 1 .
555. Determine the values of m for which the line
5 ,
y = -yX + m:
^ X2 y2
1) cuts the hyperbola g g = l; 2 ) touches this hyper
bola; 3 ) passes outside the hyperbola.
556. Find the condition under which the line y = k x \ m

ip
touches the hyperbola -^- — ^ - = 1 .
557. Find the equation of the tangent line to the hyper-
x2 u2
bola ^5— - j - = l at its point M 1(xl , y t).
558. Prove that the tangent lines to a hyperbola at the
end points of a diameter of the hyperbola are parallel.
X2 U2
hyperbola y y —y- = 1 which are perpendicular to the line
Ax + 3y — 7 = 0.
x2 U2
hyperbola -jy-— y |- = l which are parallel to the line
lOx — 3y -1-9 = 0.
561. Draw the lines tangent to the hyperbola
l_ _ i
16 8
and parallel to the line

2x-\-Ay— 5 = 0 ;
compute the distance d between them.
562. On the hyperbola
_£l____ _ 1
24 18 ’
find the point nearest to the line
3* + 2y + 1 = 0 ,
and compute the distance d from M t to this line.
563. Find the equations of the tangent lines drawn from
the point A ( — 1, —7) to the hyperbola x2—#*=16.
564. From the point 0 (1 , — 10), tangent lines are drawn
to the hyperbola | j = l . Write the equation of the
chord joining the points of contact.
565. From the point P ( l, __5), tangent lines are drawn
to the hyperbola y — 1 -= 1 . Calculate the distanced from P
^____________ i$ 19 T he Hyperbola 10?
to that chord of the hyperbola which joins the points of

contact.
566. A hyperbola passes through the point A (| 6, 3)
and touches the line 9x-f 2r/ — 15 = 0. Write the equation
of this hyperbola, given that its axes coincide with the
coordinate axes.
567. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose axes are
coincident with the coordinate axes and which touches the
two lines 5x —6y— 16 = 0, 13x—10r/ —48 = 0.
568. Show that the points of intersection of the ellipse
— -|-|-= 1 and the hyperbola- — = 1 are the vertices
of a rectangle, and find the equations of the sides of this
rectangle.
° 2 2
569. Given the hyperbola —— - r = l and any tangent

line to it; P is the point of intersection of this tangent
line with the axis Ox, and Q is the projection of the point
of contact on the axis Ox. Prove that
OP-OQ — a2.
570. Prove that the foci of a hyperbola lie on opposite
sides of any tangent line to the hyperbola.
foci to any tangent line to the hyperbola
i
a* b‘
is a constant equal to b2.

572. The line
2x — y —4 = 0
touches a hyperbola whose foci are at the points ( —3, 0)
and F2(3. 0). Write the equation of the hyperbola.
573. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given that its foci
are symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, that 15x-r \6y — 36 = 0 is the equation of a tangent
line to this hyperbola, and that the distance between its
vertices 2a = 8.
574. Prove that the tangent line to a hyperbola at a
point M makes equal angles with the focal radii FtM, F2M
and passes within the angle F ^ F . ^
575. From the right-hand focus of the hyperbola

£ !_ £ !_ i
5 4 1’
a ray of light is sent at an angle a

tan a = 2 ^ to the axis Ox. Upon reaching the hyperbola, the
ray is reflected from it. Find the equation of the straight
line along which the reflected ray travels.
576. Prove that an ellipse and a hyperbola which have
the same foci intersect at right angles.
577. Find the equation of the curve Into which the hy-
x%
perbola jg—^ -= 1 is transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Ox, if the coefficient of com-
. 4
pression is -g-.
Hint. See Problem 509.
578. Find the equation of the curve into which the hy
perbola ^ — —= 1 is transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Oy, if the coefficient of«com-
4
pression is -g .
579. Find the equation of the curve into which the hy
perbola x2—y2 —9 is transformed by two consecutive uni
form compressions of the plane (towards the jc-axis and
then towards the y-axis), if the respective coefficients of
2 .5
compression are o and o .
sion of the plane towards the axis Ox, under which the
X2 yZ
hyperbola ^ —| g = l ls transformed into the hyperbola
25 16 -
sion of the plane towards the axis Oy, under which the
XZ yZ
hyperbola ^ = 1 is transformed into the hyperbola
§ 20. The Parabola 109
582. Determine the coefficients ql and q.2 of the two con

secutive uniform compressions of the plane towards the axes
x'2 i r
Ox and Oy, under which the hyperbola ^ —~ = 1 istrans-
Jt2 u2
formed into the hyperbola ^ —-^= 1.
§ 2 0 . The Parabola
A parabola is the locus of points whose distance from a fixed point
(called the focus) in the plane is equal to their distance from a fixed
straight line (called the directrix). The focus of a parabola is denoted
by F, and the distance from the focus to the directrix by p. The
number p is called the parameter of a parabola.
Let there be given a parabola; let the x-axis of the chosen rect
angular cartesian system of coordinates pass through the focus of
the given parabola perpendicular to the directrix and be directed

from the directrix to the focus, and let the origin be placed midway
between the focus and the directrix (Fig. 19). In this coordinate sys
tem, the given parabola will be represented by the equation
y 2 = 2px. (1)
Equation (1) is called the canonical equation of the parabola. In the
same coordinate system, the directrix of the given parabola has as
its equation
The focal radius of an arbitrary point M (x, y) of the parabola (that

is, the length of the segment FM) may be calculated from the for
mula
A parabola has one axis of symmetry, which is called the axis

of the parabola and which cuts the parabola in a single point; this
point of intersection of the parabola and its axis is called the vertex
of the parabola. When the coordinate system is chosen as indicated
above, the axis of the parabola coincides with thex-axis, the vertex
is at the origin, and the entire parabola lies in the right half-plane.
If the coordinate system is chosen so that the x-axis coincides
with the axis of the parabola, the origin coincides with the vertex,
but the parabola lies in the left half-plane (Fig. 20), then the equa
tion of the parabola is of the form
t/* = — 2px. (2)
In the case when the vertex is at the origin and the axis of the
parabola is coincident with the y- axis, the parabola will be repre
sented by the equation
x* = 2py (3)
if the parabola lies in the upper half-plane (Fig. 21), and by the
equation
x* = — 2py (4)
if it lies in the lower half-plane (Fig. 22).
Each of equations (2), (3), (4), as well as equation (1), is referred
to as the canonical equation of a parabola.
$ 20. The Parabola 111
583. Find the equation of a parabola with vertex at the

origin, if:
1) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the right
half-plane with respect to the axis Ox, and its parameter
P = 3;
2) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the left
half-plane with respect to the axis Ox, and its parameter
p = 0 .5 ;
3) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the upper
half-plane with respect to the axis Oy, and its parameter
4) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the lower

half-plane with respect to the axis Oy, and its parameter
P = 3.
584. Determine the value of the parameter and the
position (with respect to the coordinate axes) of the fol
lowing parabolas:
1) i / = 6x; 2) x2= 5y; 3) y l = — 4.r, 4) x2= — y.
585. Find the equation of a parabola with vertex at the
origin, if:
1) the parabola is symmetrically situated with respect
to the axis Ox and passes through the point A (9, 6);
2) the parabola is symmetrically situated with re
spect to the axis Ox and passes through the point
3);
3) the parabola is symmetrically situated with respect
to the axis Oy and passes through the point C (1, 1);
4) the parabola is symmetrical with respect to the axis
Oy and passes through the point D (4 ,- 8 ) .
586. A steel cable hangs from its two end supports;
these supports are at the same level, and the distance be
tween them is 20 m. At a (horizontal) distance of 2 m
from each support, the sag of the cable equals 14.4 cm.
Determine the dip of the cable (i. e., the value of its sag
midway between the supports) if the cable approximately
forms an arc of a parabola.
587. Write the equation of the parabola which has the
focus F(0, —3) and passes through the origin, and whose
axis coincides with the y-axis.

1) ij=-- + 2 I x, 2) y = -j- V — x, 3) y = — 31/”— 2x,

4) y = — 2 | A', 5) x = -f V 5y, 6) x = — 5 V — y,
7) x — | 3//, 8) x = + 4 V — y-
589. Find the focus F and the equation of the directrix
of the parabola y2= 24x.
590. Calculate the focal radius of a point M of the
parabola y2= 20x, if the abscissa of M is equal to 7.
591. Calculate the focal radius of a point M of the pa
rabola y2=12x, if the ordinate of M is equal to 6.
592. On the parabola y2=16x, find the points whose
focal radius is equal to 13.
593. Write the equation of a parabola, if its focus
is F ( —7, 0) and the equation of the directrix is x —
— 7 = 0.
594. Write the equation of a parabola, if its vertex is
at the point (a, P), its parameter equals p, its axis is
parallel to the x-axis, and if the parabola opens:
1) in the positive direction of the x-axis;
2) in the negative direction of the x-axis.
595. Write the equation of a parabola, if its vertex is
at the point (a, fi), its parameter equals p, its axis is
parallel to the y-axis, and if the parabola opens:
1) in the positive direction of the y-axis (that is, up
wards);
2) in the negative direction of the y-axis (that is, down
wards).
sents a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A,
the value of the parameter p, and the equation of the di
rectrix:
1) y2= 4x—8, 2) y2= 4 — 6x,
3) x2= 6y + 2, 4) x2= 2 —y.
sents a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A
§ 20. The Parabola 113
and the value of the parameter p:

1) y —^ x 2 \-x-\-2, 2) y = 4x2- 8x 7,
3) y — — g x2■r —7.
598. Show that each of the following equations represents

a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A and
the value of the parameter p:
1) x = 2f - 12y !- 14, 2) x - — - f i y,
3) x = — y2-r 2y — 1.
1) y = 3 —4 f x — 1, 2) x = — 4 -f 3+ 5,
3 )x = 2 - / 6 = f y , 4) y = — 5 + V — 3x—21.
600. Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (7, 2)
and directrix x —5 = 0.
601. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is
F(4, 3) and whose directrix is y + 1=0.
602. Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (2,
—1) and directrix x — y — 1=0.
603. Given the vertex A (6, —3) of a parabola and the
equation
3v —5y 1-1=0
of its directrix. Find the focus F of the parabola.
604. Given the vertex A (—2, — 1) of a parabola and
the equation
x -)- 2y —1 = 0
of its directrix. Write the equation of the parabola.
605. Determine the points of intersection of the line
x + y —3 = 0 and the parabolax2= 4y.
3*4-4*/— 12 = 0 and the parabola yl — — 9x.
3*—2* /f6 = 0 and the parabola y2 = 6*.

given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given parabola:
1) x — y -f- 2 = 0, y2 = 8x\
2) 8x + 3 y — 15 = 0, x2 — — 3y,
3) 5.v — y — 15 = 0, y 2 = —5.t.
609. Determine the values of the slope k for which the
line y = kx-\- 2:
1) cuts the parabola y2 = 4x;
2) touches the parabola;
3) passes outside the parabola.
610. Find the condition for the line y = kx-\-b to touch
the parabola y 2 = 2px.
611. Prove that one, and only one, tangent line of a
given slope k ^ 0 can be drawn to the parabola y2 = 2px.
612. Write the equation of the tangent line to the pa
rabola y2 — 2px at the point M l (xl, y l).
613. Write the equation of the line tangent to the pa
rabola y2 = 8x and parallel to the line
2x + 2y—3 = 0.
614. Write the equation of the line tangent to the pa
rabola a:2 = 1 6 y and perpendicular to the line
2x + Ay -p7 = 0.
615. Draw the line tangent to the parabola t/2 = 12* and
parallel to the line
3 a: —2y -1-30 = 0;
calculate the distance d between this tangent and the given

line.
616. On the parabola y2 = 8Ax, find the point M t
nearest to the line
4a:+ 3y — 14 = 0,
and calculate the distance d from to this line.
617. Write the equations of the tangent lines drawn to
the parabola y2 = 36x from the point >4(2,9).
618. A tangent line is drawn to the parabola y2 = 2px.
Prove that the vertex of the parabola lies midway between
the point in which the tangent cuts the axis Ox and the
projection of the point of contact on the axis Ox.
$ 20. The Parabola 115
619. From the point A (5, 9), tangent lines are drawn to
the parabola
j/2 = 5x.
Find the equation of the chord joining the points of con

tact.
620. From the point P ( —3, 12), tangent lines are drawn
to the parabola
y2 = Wx.
Calculate the distance d from the point P to that chord

of the parabola which joins the points of contact.
621. Determine the points of intersection of the ellipse
ioo~^^5= l an<^ Parab °'a y2= 24*.
622. Find the points of intersection of the hyperbola
——= — 1 and the parabola y2= 3x.
623. Find the points of intersection of the two parabolas
y = x2— 2x+ 1. x = y2— 6y + 7.

624. Prove that the tangent line to a parabola at a
point M makes equal angles with the focal radius of M and
the ray drawn from M parallel to the axis of the parab
ola in the direction in which the parabola opens.
625. From the focus of the parabola
t/2= I2x,
a ray of light is sent at an acute angle a^tan a = to

the axis Ox. Upon reaching the parabola, the ray is re
flected from it. Find the equation of the straight line along
which the reflected ray travels.
626. Prove that two parabolas which have a common
axis and a common focus situated between their vertices
intersect at right angles.
627. Prove that, if two parabolas with mutually perpen
dicular axes intersect in four points, these points of in
tersection lie on a circle.
Ilf) Ch. -/. Properties of Curves of the Second Order
§ 21. The Polar Equation of the Ellipse,

Hyperbola and Parabola
The polar equation of an ellipse, one branch of a hyperbola, and
a parabola has the form (common to all the three curves):
P
Q= 1 — e tos 0 ’ ( 1)
where q , 0 are the polar coordinates of an a rb itra ry point of the

curve, p is the focal parameter (half the focal chord perpendicular
to the axis of the curve), and e is the eccentricity (in the case of
a parabola, e = l ) . The polar coordinate system is here chosen so
that the pole coincides with the focus, and the polar axis is directed
alontf the axis of the curve, away from the directrix associated with
this focus.
v2 u2
628. Given the e llip s e ^ -|--g = 1. Find its polar equation
if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the positive
direction of the x-axis and the pole is
1) at the left-hand focus of the ellipse;
2) at the right-hand focus of the ellipse.
629. Given the hyperbola —— ^ -= 1 . Find the polar
equation of its right-hand branch, if the direction of the
polar axis agrees with the positive direction of the x-axis
and the pole is
1) at the right-hand focus of the hyperbola;
2) at the left-hand focus of the hyperbola.
630. Given the hyperbola ——— = 1 . Find the polar
equation of its left-hand branch, if the direction of the
polar axis agrees with the positive direction of the x-axis
and the pole is
1) at the left-hand focus of the hyperbola;
2) at the right-hand focus of the hyperbola.
631. Given the parabola y2 = 6x. Find its polar equation ••
if the direction of the. polar axis agrees with the positive
direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the focus of the
parabola.
632. Identify the curves represented by the following
polar equations:
10
1) p = 3) p =
117
§ 21. The Polar Equation Of the
0 = = — L?— _ ,5 ) o = — P - 3 - 3 l os 0 '
V t* 2 - c o s 0 ’ ’ p 3 —4 cos0
633. Show that the equation f>= y^T5losO rePreser|ts
an ellipse, and find its semi-axes.
634. Show that the equation p = j^TgTosB rePresen*s
right-hand branch of a hyperbola, and find its semi-axes.
635. Show that the equation p sTr^coTo rePresenti> an
ellipse, and write the polar equations of its directrices.
636. Show that the equation p = sToTo rePresen*s
right-hand branch of a hyperbola, and write the polar
equations of the directrices and asymptotes of this hyper
bola.
637. On the ellipse p = — — — - , find the points whose
3 — V 2 cos0
polar radius is 6.
638. On the hyperbola p = 3_ 4I°0^ q , find the points
whose polar radius is 3.
639. On the parabola p = ~ j j g . find the points:
1) with the smallest polar radius;
2) with a polar radius equal to the parameter of the
parabola.
x1 li1
640. Given the ellipse p + y ,= l. Find its polar equa
tion if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the pos
itive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the centre
of the ellipse.
U^
641. Given the hyperbola ^ —^ = 1 . Find its polar
equation if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the
positive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the centre
of the hyperbola.
642. Given the parabola y- = 2px. Find its polar equa
tion if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the pos
itive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the vertex
of the parabola.
118 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order4
§ 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second Order

The midpoints of parallel chords of a second-order curve lie on
a straight line (the proof will be found in a course in analytic geom
etry). This straight line is called a diameter of the second-order
curve. The diameter bisecting a chord (and hence bisecting all chords
parallel to this chord) is said to be conjugate to the chord (and to
all chords parallel to this chord). All diameters of an ellipse or a
hyperbola pass through the centre. If an ellipse is represented by
the equation
0)
then its diameter conjugate to chords of slope k is determined by the
equation
b1
If a hyperbola is represented by the equation
( 2)
a*
equation
b1
All diameters of a parabola are parallel to its axis. If a parabola

is represented by the equation
<^=2px,
equation
If one diameter of an ellipse or a hyperbola bisects the chords

parallel to a second diameter, then this second diameter bisects the
chords parallel to the first. Two such diameters are called conjugate
diameters.
If k and k' are the slopes of two conjugate diameters of the ellipse
(1), then
If k and k' are the slopes of two conjugate diameters of the hy
perbola (2), then
(4)
§ 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second Order 119
Relations (3) and (4) are referred to as the conditions for conjugate
diameters of an ellipse and a hyperbola, respectively.
That diameter of a second-order curve which is perpendicular to
its conjugate chords is called a principal diameter of the curve.
643. Find the equation of that diameter of the ellipse

U2
-f -==1 which bisects its chord lying on the line
2x — y — 3 = 0.
644. Find the equation of that chord of the ellipse

X2 u2
= l which passes through the point ,4(1, —2) and
is bisected at this point.
645. Write the equations oftwo conjugate diameters of
the ellipse jc2 —4«/2= l , ifone of them makes an angle
of 45° with the axis Ox.
646. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the ellipse 4.v2 -4- 9t/2 = 1, if one of them is parallel to the
line
x-V 2t/ —5 = 0.
647. Write the equations oftwo conjugate diameters of
the ellipse x 2 + 3y2 = 1, if oneof them is perpendicular to
the line
3x -{- 2y —7 = 0.
648. An ellipse has been drawn; construct its centre by

ruler and compass.
649. Prove that the axes of an ellipse form the only
pair of its principal diameters.
650. By using the properties of conjugate diameters,
prove that every diameter of a circle is its principal di
ameter.
651. (a) An isosceles triangle is inscribed in an ellipse
so that its vertex coincides with one of the vertices of the
ellipse. Prove that the base of the triangle is parallel to
one of the axes of the ellipse.
(b) Prove that the sides of a rectangle inscribed in an
ellipse are parallel to the axes of the ellipse.
(c) An ellipse is drawn; construct its principal diameters
by ruler and compass.
120 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of' the Second Order
652. Prove that the chords of an ellipse which join its

arbitrary point to the ends of any diameter of the ellipse
are parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
653. (a) Prove that the sum of the squares of two con
jugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is a constant (equal to
the sum of the squares of its semi-axes).
(b) Prove that the area of a parallelogram constructed
on two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is a constant
(equal to the area of the rectangle constructed on the se
mi-axes of the ellipse).
654. Write the equation of that diameter of the hyper-
X2 112
bola -g- — j = l which bisects its chord lying on the line
2x —y -{-3 — 0.
X2 U2
655. Given the hyperbola - j — y = l - Find the equation
of its chord passing through the point 4 ( 3 , —1) and bi
sected at that point.
656. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the hyperbola x2—4y2 = 4, if one of these diameters
passes through the point A (8, 1).
657. Find the equations of two conjugate diameters of
X2 tl2
the hyperbola -j — g-— 1 which form an angle of 45°.
658. A hyperbola is drawn; construct its centre by ruler
and compass.
659. Prove that the axes of a hyperbola form the only
pair of its principal diameters.
660. A hyperbola is drawn; construct its principal di
ameters by ruler and compass.
661. Find the equation of that diameter of the parabola
y 2 — I2x which bisects its chord lying on the line
3x + y —5 = 0.
662. Given the parabola y2 — 20x. Find the equation of
its chord passing through the point A (2, 5) and bisected
at that point
663. Prove that the axis of a parabola is its only prin
cipal diameter.
664. A parabola is drawn; construct its principal diam
eter by ruler and compass.
Chapter 5
SIMPLIFICATION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION

OF A CURVE OF THE SECOND ORDER.
THE EQUATIONS OF SOME CURVES ENCOUNTERED
IN MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
§ 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second Order

A curve which is represented by an equation of the second degree
in a cartesian coordinate system is called a curve of the second order.
The general equation of the second degree (in two variables) is
customarily written in the form
A x* + 2 Bxy + C i / + 2 D x + 2Ey + F = 0. (1)
The centre of a curve is defined as that point in the plane with

respect to which the points of the curve form symmetric pairs.
Curves of the second order which have a single centre are called
central curves.
A point S (*0, y 0) is the centre of a curve represented by
equation (1) if, and only if, the coordinates of S satisfy the equations
A x 0 -f B y0 + D = 0 , I
B x0 + Cy0 + E = 0. f { >
Denote by 6 the determinant of the system:
The quantity 6 is formed from the coefficients of the highest terms

of equation (1) and is said to be the discriminant of the highest
terms of this equation.
If 6 ^ 0 , the system (2) is consistent and determinate, i.e., it
has a unique solution. In this case, the coordinates of the centre can
be determined from the formulas
B D1 D A
C E| E B
A B\ ’ y<>" A B
B C| B C
The inequality 6 ^ 0 is the condition for a central curve of the

second order.
122 Ch. 5. SimpIification of the General Equation
If S (,v0, y 0) is the centre of a second-order curve, then, after

tramforming the coordinates by the formulas
* = * + *o. </= </+</(,

(which corresponds to moving the origin to the centre of the curve),
the equation of the curve will assume the form
Ax* + 2B'x~y + Cy* + F = 0,
where A, B, C are the same as in the given equation (1), and
F is determined from the formula
F = Dx9 + Ey0+ F.
In the case 6 ^ 0 , we also have the following formula:
_A_
F
=6 ’
where
A B D
A= B C E
D E F
The determinant A is referred to as the discriminant of the left-hand
member of the geneial equation of the second degree

given curve is a central curve (that is, has a single centre),
has no centre, or has infinitely many centres:
1) 3*2— 4xy— 2y2 -f Zx— \2y —7 = 0;
2) 4x2-f 5xy f Zy2—x + 9y — 12= 0;
3) 4x2- 4 x y + y2— 6x-f 8y + 13=0;
4) 4x2— 4xy + y2— \2x + 6y — l\=0-,
5) x2— 2xy + 4y2+ 5x— 7y -j-12=0;
6) x2— 2xy + y2— 6x + 6y— 3 = 0 ;
7) 4x2—20xy + 25y2— I4x + 2y— 15=0;
8) 4x2— 6xy— 9y2 + Zx — 7 t/+ 1 2 = 0 .
666. Show that each of the following curves is a central
curve, and find the coordinates of its centre:
1) Zx2+ 5xy + y2—8 * — 11y —7 = 0 ;
2) 5x2 + 4xy + 2y2 + 20* -f 20y — 18= 0;
3) 9*2—4x y —7y2— 12=0;
4) 2*2—6xy + 5y2 + 22*—36y + 11 = 0.
§ 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second Order 123
667. Show that each of the following curves has an

infinite number of centres, and find the equation of the
locus of its centres:
1) x2—6xy-\~9y2~ 12x-i-36f/ -f 20 = 0;
2) 4x2-{-4xy y2—8.v — 4y—21 = 0;
3) 25x2— 1Oxy + y2 -f 40.v—8i/-}-7 = 0.
668. In each of the following, show that the given
equation represents a central curve, and transform the
equation by moving the origin to the centre of the curve:
1) 3.v2—6xy-\-2y2—4x -f- 2y 1= 0;
2) 6x2+ 4xy + y2 + 4x— 2y + 2 = 0;
3) 4x2jr§xy + y2— 10*— 10 = 0;
4) 4x2+ 2xy + %y2-I- 6x— 10y + 9 = 0.
669. Find the values of m and n for which the equation
mx2+ 12xy + 9y2+ 4x-\-ny — 13 = 0
represents:
1) a central curve;
2) a curve having no centre;
3) a curve having an infinite number of centres.
670. Given the curve
4*2—4xy f i/2+ 6a: + 1 = 0 .
Determine the values of the slope k for which the line
y=kx
1) intersects the given curve in a single point;
2) touches the curve;
3) intersects the curve in two points;
4) has no points in common with the curve.
671. Write the equation of the second-order curve
which has its centre at the origin, passes through the
point M (6, —2) and touches the line
x —2 = 0
at the point N ( 2, 0).
672. The point P( 1, —2) is the centre of a second-
order curve which passes through the point Q (0, — 3) and
touches the axis Ox at the origin. Find the equation of
the curve.
124 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation
§ 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve

of the Second Order to Its Simplest Form
Let there be given the equation
A x 2 + 2B xy + Cy2 + 2Dx + 2E y - f F = 0, (1)
which represents a central curve of the second order (b = A C —B 2 ^ 0).
After moving the origin to the centre S (x0, y 0) of the curve and
transforming equation (1) by the formulas
x = x + x 0, y = y + y 0,
we obtain
Ax* + 2B~xy + C y 2 + F = 0. (2)
To determine F %we can use the formula
F = D x 0+ E y 0+ F
or
A further simplification of equation (2) is achieved by the

coordinate transformation
x = ; t ' c o s a — if sin a, ^
i/ = x' sin a -f- y' cos a, |
which corresponds to a rotation of the axes through an angle a. If
the angle a is chosen so that
£ t a n 2a — (C — A) tana — £ —0, (4)
then the equation of the curve in the new coordinates will take
the form
> iv * + c y 2 + > ? = 0, (5)
where A' # 0, Cr 0.
Note. Equation (4) permits us to find tan a, whereas formulas (3)
contain sin a and cos a. But sin a and cos a can be determined from
ta n a by using the trigonometric formulas
sin a = —
tan a 1
cos a = —
± Y 1 + tan* a ’ ± Y 1 + tan* a ‘
The coefficients of equations (1) and (5) are connected by the
important relations
A ’C’ = AC — £*,
A' + C' = A + C,
which enable us to determine the coefficients A ' and C' without
transforming the coordinates.
§ 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve 125
An equation of the second decree is said to be of the elliptic

type if 6 > 0, of the hyperbolic type if b < 0, and of the parabolic
type if 6-^0.
The equation of a central curve can only be of the elliptic or
the hyperbolic type.
Every equation of the elliptic type represents either an ordinary
ellipse, or a degenerate ellipse (that is, a single point), or else an
imaginary ellipse (that is, no geometric object at all).
Every equation of the hyperbolic type represents either an
ordinary hyperbola or a degenerate hyperbola (that is, a pair of
intersecting straight lines).
673. In each of the following, determine the type of

the given equation*; reduce the equation to its simplest
form by a translation of the coordinate axes; determine
the geometric object represented by the equation and draw
this object, showing both the old and the new coordinate
axes.
1) 4a-*-1 9yi —4O.v 1 36ij \ 100 = 0;
2) 9.v- — 16if - 54.v - 64// - 127 = 0;
3) 9.v*-i At/ ,- 18.v—8i/ ; 49 = 0;
4) 4.v2— if j 8.v — 2y • 3 = 0;
5) 2a-* -i 3i/2 -i 8.v —6y I 11=0.
674. In each of the following, reduce the given equation
to its simplest form; determine the type of the equation;
determine the geometric object represented by the equation
and draw this objeci, showing both the old and the new
coordinate axes.
1) 32a-* 52xy - 7y2 + 180=0;
2) 5x2—6x</ +5</2—32 = 0;
3) \7x2- \ 2 x y f 8//2= 0;
4) 5.V2 -f- 24ay — by'1=• 0;
5) 5a-2— 6x(/ + 5r/2+ 8 = 0.
675. Determine the type of each of the following
equations by calculating the discriminant of its highest
* That is, determine whether the equation is ol the elliptic,
hyperbolic, or parabolic type.
terms:
1) 2x2 + 10ao/ + \2y2— 7 x + 1 8 y — 1 5 = 0 ;
2) 3a:2 — 8xy -\-7y2 T 8 x — I5y -)-20 = 0;
3) 25jc2— 20xy + 4y2— \2x-\-20y— 17= 0;
4) 5a:2 + 14xi/+ 1It/2 4 -1 2jc—7t/4-19 = 0;
5) x 2— 4xy + 4y2 + 7x— 12= 0;
6) 3a:2 — 2x y —3y2 + l2y — 15 = 0.

to the canonical form; determine the type of the equation
and the geometric object represented by the equation;
draw this geometric object, showing the original, auxiliary
and new coordinate axes.
1) 3ac2 4- 10ao/ + 3 «/2 — 2x— 14y — 13 = 0;
2) 25a:2— 14xy -\-25y2 4-64a: —64y — 224= 0;
3) 4xy -j~3y2 -|-16x -|- 12y —36 ^=0;
4) 7x2 + 6xy — y2 4 - 28a: 4- 12t/4-28 = 0;
5) 19a:2 -\-8xy + 1It/2 4-38a: + 6y + 29 = 0;
6) 5x2 —2xy -\-5y2— 4a: 4- 20y -|-20 = 0.
677. The same as Problem 676 for the following:

1) 14a:2 -\-24xy -\-2\y2— 4a: 4- 18t/— 139=0;
2) l l x 2—20xy— 4y2— 20x— 8y + 1 = 0;
3) 7a:2 + 6Qxy -\-32y2— 14a:—60j/4-7= 0;
4) 50x2— 8xy + 35y2 + l00x— 8y + 67=0;
5) 41a:2 -\-24xy f 34t/2 -|-34a:— 1\2y 4- 129=0;
6) 29a:2— 2Axy 4- 36r/2 + 82a:—98y—9 1 = 0 ;
7) 4a:2 + 24xy ■!- 11y2 4- 64a: + 42y + 5 1 = 0 ;
8) 41a:2 -\-2Axy-\-9y2 4-24a: 4- \8y — 36 = 0.
678. Without transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents an ellipse, and
4 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve 127
find the values of its semi-axes:

1) 41x3 +24.vy +9i /2 -|-24.v--f 18y-36 = 0 ;
2) 8*2 4-4*r/-|-5t/2 4- 16.v + 4y —28 = 0;
3) 13*2-f 18*(/ + 37y2—26*— 18y 4-3 = 0;
4) 13x:2 + 10xt/+13t/2 + 46x + 62i/+ 13 = 0.
each of the following equations represents a single point
(a degenerate ellipse) and find its coordinates:
1) 5*2—6xy -f 2y2— 2x 4 2 = 0;
2) x2 + 2xy 4- 2y2 + 6y -|- 9 = 0;
3) 5*2 + 4xy 4- y2—6* —2y f 2 = 0 ;
4) x2— 6xy+ \0y2 -f 10* —32y 4-26 = 0.

each of the following equations represents a hyperbola and
find the values of its semi-axes:
1) 4a:2 + 24xy 4 -11y2 -4 64* 4- 42y 4- 51 = 0;

2) 12*2 4- 26xy 4- 12y2—52* —48j/ 4- 73 = 0;
3) 3a:2 4-4x7/— 12*4- 16 = 0;
4) *2- 6 * t /- 7 t /2 + 10*-30«/4-23 = 0.

each of the following equations represents a pair of inter
secting straight lines (a degenerate hyperbola) and find
their equations:
1) 3*2 4- Axy 4- y2—2* — 1 = 0;
2) *2—6*«/-f 8y2— 4y—4 = 0;
3) *2 —4*t/4- 3j/2 = 0;
4) *2 4- 4*i/+ 3(/2—6* — 12«/4- 9 = 0.
682. Without transforming the coordinates, determine

the geometric objects represented by the following
equations:
1) 8x2- \ 2 x y ± \ 7 y 2 + \ 6 x — 12*/+ 3 = 0;
2) l7x2- l 8 x y — 7y2 4-34x— l8y-\-7 = 0\
3) 2x2 + 3xy — 2y2 + 5 x + 10t/ = 0;
4) 6x2- 6 x y + 9y2 — 4x+18y-\- 14 = 0;
5) 5x2— 2xy + 5y2— 4x + 20i/ + 20 = 0.
683. Prove that, for every elliptic equation, neither
of the coefficients A and B can vanish, and that these
coefficients agree in sign.
684. Prove that an elliptic ( 6 > 0 ) equation of the
second degree represents an ellipse if, and only if, A and
A differ in sign.
second degree represents an imaginary ellipse if, and only
if, A and A agree in sign.
second degree represents a degenerate ellipse (a point) if,
and only if, A = 0.
687. Prove that a hyperbolic ( 6 < 0 ) equation of the
second degree represents a hyperbola if, and only if,
A =7^=0.
688. Prove that a hyperbolic ( 6 < 0 ) equation of the
second degree represents a degenerate hyperbola (a pair of
intersecting lines) if, and only if, A = 0.
§ 25. Reducing a Parabolic Equation

to Its Simplest Form
Let the equation
Ax* + 2Bxy + Cy* + 2Dx + 2 E y - \ - F = 0 (1)
be of the parabolic type, that is, let it satisfy the condition
6 = AC — B1 = 0.
In this case, the curve represented by equation (1) either has no
centre, or else has an infinite number of centres. It is advisable to
begin the sim plification of a parabolic equation by rotating the
coordinate axes; this means that equation (I) should first be trans-
formed by using the formulas
x = x ' c o s a — i/'sln a , 1
y = x ’ sin a -f-t/ cos a. / (2)
2n. Simplification of Parabolic Equation 129
The angle a is found from the equation

B tan2a - ( C — /I) tan a — B = 0 \ (3)
then, in the new coordinates, equation (1) reduces to the form
A ' x ' 2 -f- 2 D V + 2E' y‘ + F = 0, (4)
where A' ^ 0, or to the form
C y 2 + 2£>V + 2 E y -f F=»0, (5)
where C' ^ 0.
Equations (4) and (5) are further simplified by a translation of
the (rotated) axes.

equation is of the parabolic type; reduce the equation to
its simplest form; determine the geometric object repre
sented by the equation; draw this geometric object, showing
the original, auxiliary and new coordinate axes.
1) 9.v2- 2 4 xy + 16y2- 20x + 1 1 0 //-5 0 = 0;
2) 9x2 -j-\ 2 x y A y 2— 24.v— 16(/ + 3 = 0;
3) 16x2 - 24xy f 9y2- 1 60x -j-120y + 425 = 0.
690. The same as Problem 689 for the following:
1) 9x2 + 24xy y 16(/2- 18 x 2 2 6 y - f 209 = 0;
2) x2—2xy-\- yz — 12x-|- \2y— 14 = 0;
3) 4x2 -j- I2xy + 9y2— 4x —6 y -\-1 = 0 .
691. Prove that, for every parabolic equation, the
coefficients A and C cannot differ in sign and are not
both zero.
692. Prove that every parabolic equation can be written
in the form
(ax + jft/)2 + 2Dx + 2Ey -f F = 0.
Prove also that elliptic and parabolic equations cannot be
put in this form.
equation is of the parabolic type and write it in the form
indicated in Problem 692:
1) x2 -t-4x«/ + 4i/2 -(-4x + i/—15 = 0;
2) 9x2—6x</-j-y2— x -{-2y— 14 = 0;
5-2250
3) 25*2 —20xy 4- Ay2 -f- 3* — y + 11 = 0;

4) 16a :2 + 16xj/ -)-4{/2 —5* + 7y = 0;
5) 9*2—42jq/ + 49t/2 _). 3* —2 y — 24 = 0.
694. Prove that, if an equation of the second degree
is a parabolic equation written in the form
(ex* -f py)2 + 2Dx f 2Ey I- F = 0,
then the discriminant of its left-hand member is determined
by the formula
A = — (Dp —£ot)2.
695. Prove that the parabolic equation
(ax -f Py)2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0
can be reduced, by means of the transformation
* = * 'c o s 0 —y' sin 0, a
y = x' sin0 + y 'co s0 , tan0 = — y .
to the form
c y 2 + 2D V + 2 £ V + F' = 0,
where
C' = «* + P*.
A being the discriminant of the left-hand member of the
given equation.
696. Prove that a parabolic equation represents a parab
ola if, and only if, A ^ O . Prove that, in this case, the
parameter of the parabola is determined by the formula
P= i/I E U
r V (A+C)*-
each of the following equations represents a parabola, and
find the parameter of the parabola:
1) 9*2 + 24xy + 16t/2— 120* + 90y = 0;
2) 9*2—24*«/+16i/2—54x— 178t/+181 = 0 ;
3) x 2— 2x y+ y2 -f-6* — 14</4-29 = 0;
4) 9*2— 6xy + y2— 50jt + 50y —275 = 0.
$ 26 The Equations of Some Curves 131
698. Prove that an equation of the second degree is

the equation of a degenerate curve if, and only if, A = 0.
each of the following equations represents a pair of parallel
straight lines, and find their equations:
1) 4.V'2 + 4xy + y2— 12x — 6y + 5 = 0;
2) 4x2— 12x//4-9 i/2 4-20x — 30//— 11 = 0 ;
3) 25x2- 1 0 a:// + //2 4 \ 0 x - 2 y - 15 = 0.
each of the following equations represents a straight line
(a pair of coinciding lines), and find the equation of
the line:
1) a 2 —6xy 4- 9y2 4 - 4x — 12// + 4 = 0;
2) 9x2 + 30xy + 25y2 4- 42x 4- 70// 4- 49 = 0;
3) 16x2- 16x//4-4//2—72x -,-36//4-81 - 0 .
§ 26. The Equations of Some Curves Encountered

in Mathematics and Its Applications
701. Find the equation of the locus of points, the
product of whose distances from the two given points
Fig. 23. Fig. 24.
Fi(—c, 0) and F2(c, 0) is a constant equal to a2. This

locus is called the oval of Cassini (Fig. 23).
702. Find the equation of the locus of points, the
product of whose distances from the two given points
Fi(—a, 0) and F2{a, 0) is a constant equal to a2. This
5*
locus is called the lemniscate (Fig. 24). (Find the equation

of the lemniscate first directly, and then by considering
it as a special form of the oval of Cassini.) Find also the
polar equation of the lemniscate when the polar axis
coincides with the positive x-axis and the pole is at the
origin.
703. Find the equation of the locus of the feet of
perpendiculars dropped from the origin to straight lines,
each of which forms with the coordinate axes a triangle
of area 5.
Hint. Write first tilt equation in polar coordinates, placing the
pole at the origin and making the polar axis coincide with the
positive x-axis.
704. Prove that the locus of Problem 703 is a lemniscate

(see Problem 702).
Hint. Rotate the coordinate axes through an angle of 45°.
705. A ray a, whose initial position coincides with

the polar axis, revolves about the pole O with constant
angular speed oj. In the given
polar coordinate system, find
the equation of the pqth traced
by a point M which starts from
0 and moves along the ray a
with uniform speed v. (The re
quired locus is the spiral of
Archimedes, Fig. 25.)
706. Given the line x — 2r
and the circle of radius r which
passes through the origin O and
touches this line. A ray drawn
from O cuts the given circle at
B and the given line at C (Fig.
26); a segment OM = BC is laid
off on this ray. As the ray
revolves, the length of the
segment OM varies and the
point M describes a curve called
Fig. 25.
the cissoid. Write the equation
of the cissoid.
§ 26. The Equations of Some Curves 133
707. Given the line x = a ( a > 0) and the circle of

diameter a passing through the origin 0 and touching
this line. A ray drawn from 0 cuts the circle at A and
the line at B (Fig. 27). From the points A and B,
straight lines are drawn parallel to the axes Oy and Ox,
respectively. As the ray revolves, the point of intersection
M of these straight lines describes a curve called the
versiera. Find its equation.
F i g . 26. Fig. 27.
708. A ray AB (Fig. 28) is drawn from the point

A (— a, 0), where a > 0 ; from the point B, segments BM
and BN of a length b (b = const.) are laid off in either
direction along the ray. As the ray revolves, the points M
and N describe a curve called the conchoid. Write its
equation in polar coordinates, with the pole placed at A
and the polar axis going in the positive direction of the
axis Ox, and then transform the result to the given
rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
709. A ray AB (Fig. 29) is drawn from the point
A ( —a, 0), where a > 0; from the point B, segments BM
and BN, each equal to OB, are laid off in either direction
along the ray. As the ray revolves, the points M and N
describe a curve called the stroplioid. Write its equation
in polar coordinates, with the pole placed at A and the

polar axis going in the positive direction of the axis Ox,
and then transform the result to the given rectangular
cartesian system of coordinates.
710. A ray is drawn from the origin to cut the given
circle x2 f y2= 2ax ( a > 0 ) at a point B (Fig. 30); from
the point B, equal segments B M and BN of a constant
Fig. 28. Fig. 29.
length b are laid off in either direction along the ray.

As the ray revolves, the points M and N describe a curve
called the limafon of Pascal. Write its equation in polar
coordinates, placing the pole at the origin and letting the
polar axis coincide with the positive x-axis, and then
transform the result to the given rectangular cartesian
system of coordinates.
711. A line segment of length 2a moves so that its end
points always lie on the coordinate axes. Write the polar
equation of the path traced (Fig. 31) by the foot M of
the perpendicular dropped from the origin to the segment
(placing the pole at the origin and letting the polar axis
coincide with the positive x-axis), and transform the result
to the given rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
The point M describes a curve called the four-leaved rose.
712. A line segment of length a moves so that its end
points always lie on the coordinate axes (Fig. 32). Through
i{> 26. The Equations of Some Curves 135
the end points of the segment, straight lines are drawn

parallel to the coordinate axes; these lines intersect at a
point P. Find the equation of the path traced by the
foot M of the perpendicular dropped from P to the seg
ment. This path is called the astroid.
Hint. Write first the parametric equations of the astroid,

choosing the parameter t as indicated in Fig. 32 (and then eliminate
the parameter t).
713. A ray OB meets the circle x2 + y2 = ax at a
point B\ from this point a perpendicular BC is dropped
to the axis Ox. Next, a perpendicular CM is drawn from
the point C to the ray OB. Derive the polar equation
of the path traced by the point M (placing the pole at
the origin 0 and letting the polar axis coincide with the
positive x-axis), and then transform the result to the given
rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
714. A thread wound around the circle x2-\-y2= a 2 is
unwound so as to be always tangent to the circle at the
variable point B of contact (Fig. 33). Find the parametric
equations of the curve described by the free end of the
thread, if the initial position of this end is at the point
A (a, 0), where a > 0 . This curve is called the involute
of the circle.
715. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on
the axis Ox\ the path traced by a point M on the circum-
ference of the circle is called the cycloid (Fig. 34). Derive

the parametric equations of the cycloid, using as parameter
the angle t through which the rolling circle turns about
Its centre, and letting the point M coincide with the origin
at the initial moment (f= 0 ). Eliminate the parameter t
from the resulting equations.
716. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on

the outside of the circle x * + y i =a*; the path traced by
a point M on the circumference of the rolling circle is called
the cardioid (Fig. 35). Derive the parametric equations of
the cardioid, using as parameter the angle t of inclination
§ 26. The Equation of Some Curves 137
(with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius of the fixed

circle which is drawn to the point of contact with the
rolling circle. At the initial moment (/ = 0), let the point
M be on the x-axis, to the right of 0. Transform the result
to polar coordinates, placing the pole at A and letting
the polar axis go in the positive direction of the x-axis.
Prove that the cardioid is a special form of the limagon
of Pascal (see Problem 710).
717. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on the

outside of the circle x2 y~ = b2\ the path traced by a
point M on the circumference of the rolling circle is
called the epicycloid (Fig. 36). Derive the parametric equa
tions of the epicycloid, using as parameter the angle t of incli
nation (with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius of the fixed
circle which is drawn to the point of contact of the two
circles; at the initial moment (f= 0 ), let the point M be
on the axis Ox, to the right of 0. Prove that the cardioid
(see Problem 716) is a special form of the epicycloid.
718. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on the
inside of the circle x2-\-y9'= b \ the path traced by a point
M on the circumference of the rolling circle is called the
hypocycloid (Fig. 37). Derive the parametric equations of
the hypocycloid, using as parameter the angle t of incli

nation (with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius
of the fixed circle which is drawn to the point of contact
of the two circles; at the initial moment (/= 0 ), let the

point M be on the axis Ox, to the right of 0. Prove that
the astroid (see Problem 712) is a special form of the
hypocycloid.
Pa r t Two
SOLI D
ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY
Chapter 6
SOME ELEMENTARY P R O B L E M S OF S O L I D
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
§ 27. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates

in Space
A rectangular cartesian coordinate system in space is determined
by the choice of a linear unit (for measurement of lengths) and of
three concurrent and mutually perpendicular axes, numbered in any
order.
The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin of coor

dinates, and the axes themselves are called the coordinate axes. The
first coordinate axis is termed the x-axis or axis of abscissas, the
second, the y-axis or axis of ordinates, and the third, the z-axis or
axis of applicates.
The origin is denoted by the letter 0, and the coordinate axes
by Ox, Oy%and Oz, respectively.
Let M be an arbitrary point in space, and let Mxt My and M z
be its projections on the coordinate axes (Fig. 38).
The coordinates of the point M in the given system are defined
as the numbers
x = OMx , y = O M , z = O M z
142 Ch. 6. Elementary Problems of Solid Analytic Geometry
(Fig. 38), where 0 M X is the value of the segment 0 M X of thex-axis,

0 M y is the value of the segment 0 M y of the y-axis, and 0 M Z is the
value of the segment 0 M Z of the z-axis. The number x is called the
abscissa, y the ordinate, and z the applicate of the point M. The
notation M (x y y, z) means that the point M has coordinates x, y f z.
The plane Oyz divides all space into two half-spaces; the half
space containing the positive half of the axis Ox is termed the near
half space, and the other half-space is termed the far half-space.
Similarly, the plane Oxz divides space into two half-spaces, of which
the one containing the positive half of the axis Oy is termed the
right half-space, and the other, the left half-space. Finally, the
plane Oxy also divides all space into two half-spaces, of which the
one containing the positive half of the axis Oz is termed the upper
half-space, and the other, the lower half-space.
The three planes Oxy, Oxz and Oyz jointly divide space into
eight parts, called octants and numbered as shown in Fig. 39.
719. Construct (in axonometric projection) the following
points from their cartesian coordinates: A (3, 4, 6), B (—5,
3,1), C ( l , - 3 , —5), D (0, — 3, 5), E ( — 3, — 5, 0) and
F ( ~ 1, - 5 , - 3 ) .
720. Given the points A (4, 3, 5), B ( — 3 ,2 , 1), C (2,
— 3,0) and D (0, 0 , — 3). Find the coordinates of their
projections: 1) on the plane Oxy, 2) on the plane Oxz\
3) on the plane Oyz\ 4) on the x-axis; 5) on the */-axis;
6) on the z-axis.
721. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric to
the points A ( 2 ,3 ,1 ), B ( 5 ,—3,2), C (—3, 2, —1) and
D (a, b, c) with respect to: 1) the plane Oxy, 2) the plane
Oxz\ 3) the plane Oyz-, 4) the x-axis; 5) the t/-axis; 6) the
z-axis; 7) the origin.
722. Given the following four vertices of a cube: A (—a,
—a, —a), B (a, —a, —a), C (—a, a, —a) and D (a, a, a).
Determine its remaining vertices.
723. Which octants can contain the points whose coor
dinates satisfy one of the following conditions: 1) x —y = 0;
2) x - f t/= 0 ; 3) * —z = 0; 4) jc + z = 0 ; 5) y — z = 0; 6) y +
+ z = 0?
724. Name the octants that can contain the points for
which: 1) xy > 0; 2) xz < 0; 3) yz > 0; 4) xyz > 0; 5) x y z < 0.
725. Find the centre of the sphere of radius R = 3
which touches all the three coordinate planes and is situat
ed: 1) in the second octant; 2) in the fifth octant; 3) in the
sixth octant; 4) in the seventh octant; 5) in the eighth octant.
§ 28 The Distance Between Two Points 143
§ 28. The Distance Between Two Points.

The Division of a Line Segment in a Given Ratio
The distance d between two points A4,(x,, </,, z,) and A42 (a.j, yt ,
Zj) is given by the formula
d = V (x2— *,)2 + (i/2—p,)2 + (z2—z,)2.
The coordinates x, y, z of the point M which divides the seg
ment M ,M 2 bounded by the points M, (*,, */,, z j and M 2 (x2, y2, z2)
in a ratio K are determined from the formulas
/, + X{/2 , _ z , + ^z2
l+ X ’ J~ 1+X ’ 1+X '
In particular, by setting X = l, we obtain the coordinates of the
midpoint of a given segment:
x x+ x 2 _ yt + y 2
2 ’ u 2 ’ 2 ’
726. Given the points 4(1, —2, —3), B (2, —3,0),
C(3, 1, —9), D ( — 1, 1, — 12). Calculate the distance be
tween: 1) A and C; 2) B and D; 3) C and D.
727. Calculate the distances from the origin 0 to the
points: 4 (4 , - 2 , - 4 ) , fi ( - 4 ,1 2 ,6 ) , C (12, - 4 , 3 ) ,
D (12, 16,-15).
728. Prove that the triangle with vertices 4(3, —1,2),
B( 0, —4, 2) and C( —3, 2, 1) is isosceles.
729. Prove that the triangle with vertices 4 t (3, —1,6),
4 2( — 1, 7, —2) and 4 3(1, —3, 2) is a right triangle.
730. Determine whether any one of the interior
angles of the triangle Mt (4, —1,4), /W2(0, 7, —4), A43(3,
1 , - 2 ) is obtuse.
731. Prove that the interior angles of the triangle M (3,
—2,5), N (—2, 1, —3), P (5, 1, — 1) are acute angles.
732. On the x-axis, find the points whose distance from
the point 4 ( —3, 4, 8) is equal to 12.
733. On the (/-axis, find the point equidistant from the
points 4 (1 , —3, 7) and B (5, 7, —5).
734. Find the centre C and the radius R of a sphere
which passes through the point P ( 4, — 1, — 1) and touches
all the three coordinate planes.
735. Given the vertices M x (3, 2, —5), Af2 (1, —4, 3),
M j( —3, 0, 1) of a triangle. Find the midpoints of its sides.
144 Ch. 6. Elementary Problems of Solid Analytic Geometry
736. Given the vertices A ( 2, — 1, 4), 5 (3, 2, —6),C( —5,

0, 2) of a triangle. Calculate the length of the median drawn
from the vertex A.
737. The centre of gravity of a uniform rod is at C (l,
— 1,5). and one end of the rod is the point >4( —2, — 1,
7). Determine the coordinates of the other end of the rod.
738. Given two vertices A (2, —3, —5), B ( — 1,3, 2) of
a parallelogram ABCD and the point E ( 4, — 1, 7) of inter
section of its diagonals. Determine the other two vertices
of the parallelogram.
739. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A (3,
- 4 , 7), B ( - 5 , 3, - 2 ) and C (l, 2, - 3 ) . Find the fourth
vertex D, which is opposite to B.
740. Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are >4(3,
— 1,2), 5 ( 1 , 2 , —4) and C( — 1 ,1 ,2 ). Find the fourth
vertex D.
741. Find the coordinates of the points C, D, E, F
which divide into five equal parts the line segment bound
ed by the points A ( — 1, 8, 3) and B (9, —7, —2).
742. Determine the coordinates of the ends of the seg
ment which is divided into three equal parts at the points
C (2, 0, 2) and D (5, - 2 , 0).
743. Given the vertices >4(1, 2, — 1), 5 (2 , — 1, 3),
C( — 4, 7. 5) of a triangle. Calculate the length of the
bisector of the interior angle at the vertex 5.
744. Given the vertices >4(1,— 1 , - 3 ) , 5 (2 , 1 , - 2 ) ,
C( —5, 2, —6) of a triangle. Calculate the length of the
bisector of the exterior angle at the vertex >4.
745. Equal masses are concentrated at the vertices >4 (*,,
y u z,), B ( x 2, y 2, z2), C (x3, y3, z3), D(x4, y4, z4) of a tetra
hedron. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravity for
the system of these masses.
746. Masses m1 m2, m3 and m4 are placed at the ver
tices >4X(jfj, y 4, Zj), A 2(x 2, y2, z2), A 3{x3. y3, z3), A 4(x4,
y4, z4) of a tetrahedron. Find the coordinates of the centre
of gravity for the system 6f these masses.
747. A straight line passes through the two points
M x ( — 1,6, 6) and M 2 (3, —6, —2). Find the points at
which the line pierces the coordinate planes.
Chapter 7
VECTOR ALGEBRA
§ 29. The Concept of a Vector.

The Projections of a Vector
Directed line segments are also called geometric vectors, or simply
vectors. Inasmuch as a vector is a directed line segment, it will, as
before, be designated in the text by two capital letters with a bar
over them, the first letter denoting the initial point, and the second
letter, the terminal point of the vector. Another way of indicating
a vector will be by a single small letter in half-dark type; in dia
grams this letter will be placed at the head of the arrow represent
ing the vector (see Fig. 40 showing a vector a with initial point A
and terminal point B). Also, the initial point of a vector will often
be called its point of application.
Vectors are called equal if they have equal lengths, lie on the
same straight line or on parallel straight lines, and are similarly
directed.
The number equal to the length of a vector (in a given scale) is
called the modulus of the vector. The modulus of a vector a is
designated as | a | or a. If | a | = l, then a is called a unit vector.
The unit vector having the same direction as a given vector a
is said to be co-directional with the vector a and is usually deno
ted by the symbol a 0. __
The projection of a vector AB on an axis u is defined as the
number equal to the value of the segment A XB } of the axis u , where
the point A x is the projection of the point A on the axis u, and B t
is the projection of B on the axis u.
146 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra
The projection of a vector A B on an axis u is designated as

[)to]uAB. If the vector is denoted by a , then its projection on the
axis u is designated as projMa.
The projection of a vector a on an axis u is expressed, in terms
of its modulus and its angle of inclination <p with respect to the
axis u , by the formula
projwa = | a | -cos cp. (1)
The projections of an arbitrary vector a on the axes of a given

coordinate system will henceforth be denoted by the letters
X, Y , Z. The equality
a = {X, Y f Zj
will mean that the numbers X, Y , Z are the projections of the vec
tor on the coordinate axes.
The projections of a vector on the coordinate axes are also cal

led its (cartesian) coordinates. If two given points M, (*,, y t , z x) and
Af2 (x2, y 2, z2) are, respectively, the initial and the terminal point of
a vector a, then the coordinates X, Y, Z of a are determined from
the formulas
X = x 2— x t , Y — y 2— y x, Z = z1— zl.
The formula
| a \ = V x * + Y* + Z* (2)
enables us to determine the modulus of a vector from its coordinates.

If a, p, y are the angles which a vector a makes with the coor
dinate axes (Fig. 41), then cos a, cos p, cos y are called the direc
tion cosines of the vector a.
$ 29 T h e C o n c e p t of a V ec to r 147
In consequence of formula (1),

X = |a|cosa. K = |a|cos($, Z —| a I cos y-
Hence, from formula (2), it follows that
cos* a + cos* p + cos*y = 1.
This last relation permits us to determine any one of the angles a,
P, y when the other two angles are known.
748. Calculate the modulus of the vector fl= {6, 3, —2}.

749. Two coordinates of a vector a are X — 4, Y = —12.
Determine its third coordinate Z if | a | = 13.
750. Given the points , 4 ( 3 , — 1,2) and B ( — 1,2, 1).
Find the coordinates of the vectors A B and B A
751. Find the point N which is the terminal point of
the vector a = {3, — 1,4} whose initial point is at M (l,
2, - 3 ) .
752. Find the initial point of the vector a = {2, —3,
— 1} whose terminal point is at ( 1 , - 1 , 2).
753. Given the modulus lfl| = 2 of a vector and the
angles a = 4 5 ° , p = 6 0 ° , y = 1 2 0 ° . Calculate the projections
of the vector a on the coordinate axes.
754. Calculate the direction cosines of the vector
fl= (12, - 1 5 , -1 6 } .
755. Calculate the direction cosines of the vector
_ f_3 4_ | 2 l
U ~ } 13 ’ 13 ’ 13/ ’
756. Is it possible for a vector to make the following

angles with the coordinate axes: 1) a = 45°, p = 60°,
Y= 120°; 2) a = 45°, p = 135°, y = 60°; 3) a = 903, 0 = 150°,
Y= 60° ?
757. Is it possible for a vector to make the following
angles with two coordinate axes: 1) a = 30°, (J = 45°;
2) p = 60°, y = 60°; 3) a =150°, y = 30°?
7 5 8 . A vector makes angles a = 1 2 0 ° and y = 4 5 ° with
the axes Ox and Oz. What angle does it make with the
axis Ot/?
759. A vector a makes angles a= 6 0 °, p = 120° with
the coordinate axes Ox and Oy. Calculate its coordinates
if | a | = 2.
760. Determine the coordinates of a point M if the radius

vector of M makes equal angles with the coordinate axes
and its modulus is 3.
§ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors

The sum a 4 b of two vectors a and b is defined as the vector
extending from the initial point of the vector a to the terminal
point of the vector b, provided that the vector b has been drawn
from the terminal point of the vector a (the triangle rule). The
construction of the sum a -!- b is shown in Fig. 42.
b
Fig. 42. Fig. 43.
Another rule often used is the parallelogram rule (which is equiv

alent to the triangle rule): if vectors a and b are drawn from
a common initial point and a parallelogram is constructed on them,
then the sum a - \ - b is the vector coincident with that diagonal of
the parallelogram which extends from the common initial point
of a and b (Fig. 43). It follows at once that a + b = 6 -j-a.
Fig. 44.
The addition of several vectors is carried out by successively

applying the triangle rule (see Fig. 44 showing the construction of
the sum of four vectors a, b , c t d).
The difference a — b of two vectors a and b is defined as the
vector which, added to the vector b t gives the vector a. If two vec-
§ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors 149
tors a and b are drawn from a common initial point, then their
difference a — b is the vector extending from the terminal point
of b (the subtrahend) to the terminal point of a (the minuend). Two
vector's of equal length which lie on the same straight line and have
opposite directions are called the negatives of each other: if one of
them is denoted by a, then the other is denoted by — a. It is easily
seen that a — a - p ( — b). Hence, the construction of a vector
difference is equivalent to the addition of the negative of the sub
trahend to the minuend.
The product a a (or aa) of a vector a by a number a is a vector
defined as follows: its modulus is equal to the product of the modu
lus of a by the modulus of a ; it is parallel to the vector a or lies
on the same line as a ; it has the same direction as a if a is a
positive number, or the opposite direct ion if a is a negative number.
Addition of vectors and multiplication of vectors by numbers are
called linear operation on vectors.
The two fundamental theorems on the projections of vectors are:
1. The projection of the sum of vectors on ail axis is equal to
the sum of their projections on this axis:
proj„ (a, H-a2-h ... ~\ a rl) projHa, -f proj„a2 -|- ... + proj„a;l.
2. When a vector is multiplied by a number, the projection of
the vector is multiplied by the same number:
proj„ (aa) = ap ro j„ a.
In particular, if
«-{*.• Z>1' b {**• K=’
then
a + * = { * , + * , , Y, + Y* Zx+ Z 2}
and
a - b = { X x- X 2, Y x— Y 2, Z x- Z 2\.
If a = { X t Y. Z}, then
a a = JaA\ a Y , aZ\
for any number a.

Vectors lying on the same straight line or on parallel lines
are said to be collinear. The condition for the collinearity of two
vectors, f ,
a = {X„ K„ Z,j, & = {*,.
is that their coordinates should be proportional:
y* h
* r Yt V
The triad of vectors /, J t k is referred to as the coordinate
basis if these vectors satisfy the following conditions:
(1) the vector i lies on the axis 0 x t the vector j lies on the
axis 0y> and the vector k lies on the axis 0z\
(2) each of the vectors i , y, k points in the positive direction
of the axis on which it lies;
150 C h . 7. V e c t o r A l g e b r a
(3) /, y, k are unit vectors, that is, | / | = 1, \ j \ — \ t |fc| = l.

Any vector a can always be resolved into components with
respect to the basis /, y, k , that is, can always be represented in
the form
a = X i + Y j + Zk\
the coefficients of this resolution are the coordinates of the vec*
tor a (that is, X , Y , Z are the projections of the vector a on the
coordinate axes).
761. If a and b are two given vectors, construct each

of the following vectors: 1) a + b\ 2) a — b\ 3) b — a\
4) — a — b.
762. Given that |a |= 1 3 , |f r |= 1 9 and \a + b | = 24;
calculate | a — b |.
763. Given that | a | = l l , |6 | = 23 and | a — fr| = 30;
find \a-\-b\.
764. Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other;
| a J= 5 and |6 |= 1 2 . Evaluate \a -\ -b | and \a — b\.
765. Vectors a and b niake an angle <p = 60°; | a | = 5
and |6 | = 8. Evaluate \a-\-b\ and \a — b\.
766. Vectors a and b make an angle (p=120°; | a | = 3
and |fr| = 5 . Evaluate \a~\-b\ and \a — b\.
767. What conditions must be satisfied by vectors a
and b in order that the following relations should hold:
1) \ci-\-b\ = \ci — b |; 2) | u b | > | u — b\\ 3) \ci-\-b\<C
< \ a - b |?
768. What condition must besatisfied by vectors a
and b in order that the vector a + b should bisect the
angle between the vectors a and 6?
769. Given two vectors a and b\ construct each of the
following vectors: 1) 3a; 2) — ^ b \ 3) 2a + j b ;
4) j a - 3 b .
770. In a triangle ABC, the vector AB = m and the
vector AC = n. Construct each of the following vectors:
m+ n 0. m—n Q, n — m . .. m + n ,, . 1 . .
1) —J— ; 2) —2~ ; 3) —2~ ; 4 ) -- J - . Using -g |/t| as
a unit segment, construct also the vectors: 5) | n \m + 1m |tv,
6) \ n \ m — \ m \ n .
771. A point 0 is the centre of gravity of a triangle ABC,
Prove that OA + OB + OC = 0.
§ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors 151
772. Given the following vectors, coincident with the

sides of a regular pentagon ABCDE: AB = m, BC = n,
C D = p , DE = q and E A = r . Construct the vectors:
1) m — n + p — q + r; 2) m + 2p-j- j r ; 3) 2m + - n — 3p —
—q + 2r.
773. Given the following vectors, coincident with the
edges of a parallelepiped ABCDA'B’C'D' (Fig. 45):
D' C'
AB = m, AD = n and A A ' = p . Construct each of the

following vectors: 1) m + n + p , 2) m 4- n -b j p , 3) —m +
+ - « + /»; 4) m + n —p\ 5) —m — « + - p .
774. Three forces M, N and P are applied at the same
point and have mutually perpendicular directions. Find
the value of their resultant R, if |A f |^ 2 kg, |(V |=10kg
and | P\ = 11 kg weight.
775. Given the two vectors a = {3, —2,6} and b =
= {—2, 1,0}. Determine the projections (on the coordi
nate axes) of the following vectors: 1) a + b\ 2) a — b\
3) 2a; 4) - ~ b \ 5) 2a + 3ft; 6) ± a - b .
776. Verify that a = {2, - 1 , 3} and f t = { - 6 , 3, —9} are
collinear vectors. Determine which of them has the greater
length and find how many times it is longer than the
152 Ch. 7. V e c t o r A l g e b r a
other, determine whether the vectors are similarly or oppo

sitely directed.
777. Determine the values of a, p for which the vectors
A = — 2i -!- 3j-\- $k and b — ai + 6 j -f 2k are collinear.
778. Verify that the four points A (3, — 1,2), £ (1 ,2 , — 1),
C ( — 1, 1, — 3), D (3, —5, 3) are the vertices of a trape
zoid.
779. Given the points A ( — 1,5, — 10), £ (5, —7, 8),
C(2, 2, —7) and D (5, —4, 2). Verify that the vectors AB
and CD are collinear; determine which of them has the
greater length and find how many times it is longer than
the other; determine whether they are similarly or oppo
sitely directed.
780. Find the unit vector co-directional with the vec
tor a = {6, —2, —3}.
781. Find the unit vector co-directional with the vector
o = { 3 , 4, -1 2 } .
782. Determine the moduli of the sum and the difference
of the vectors a = {3, —5, 8} and b — { — \, 1, —4}.
783. The resolution of a vector c with respect to the
basis /, j, k is c — 16/— 1574- \2k. Determine the resolu
tion, with respect to the same basis, of a vector d which
is parallel and opposite in direction to the vector c, if
\ d \ = 75.
784. The two vectors a = {2, — 3, 6} and b = { — 1,2, —2}
are drawn from the same point. Determine the coordinates
of a vector c directed along the bisector of the angle
between the vectors a and b, if \c | — 3 ]^42.
785. The vectors AB = {2, 6, —4} and AC = {4, 2, —2}
form two sides of a triangle i4£C. Determine the coordi
nates of the vectors drawn from the vertices of the tri
angle and coincident with its medians AM, BN, CP.
786*. Prove that, if p and q are any non-collinear vec
tors, then every vector lying in the plane of p and q can
be expressed in the form
a = a p + $q.
* Problems 786 and 792 are essential for a proper understanding

of the other problems. We therefore give a detailed solution of
Problem 786.
$ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors 153
Prove that the numbers a and p are uniquely determined

by the vectors a, p and q. (The representation of a vec
tor a in the form a = ap + fiq is called the resolution of
a into components with respect to the basis p, q\ the
numbers a and p are called the coefficients of this reso
lution.)
Proof. Let us draw the vectors a, p and q from a common ini
tial point. Denote this initial point by 0 (Fig. 46), and the termi
nal point of the vector a by A. Draw a straight line through A
parallel to the vector q. Let A n denote the point of intersection of
Fig. 46.
this straight line with the line of action of the vector p. Similarly,
by drawing a straight line through A parallel to the vector p , we
shall obtain A q as the point of intersection of this straight line with
the line of action of the vector q.
According to the parallelogram rule,
a = OA = OAp + OTq. (1)

Since the vectors 0 A p and p lie on the same straight line, it fol
lows that the vector OAp can be obtained by multiplying the vec
tor p by some number a: ___
OAp = ap. (2)
Similarly, ___
OAq = $q. (3)
From relations (1), (2) and (3), we obtain: a = ap + $q. Thus, we
have proved that the required resolution is possible. It remains to
prove that the coefficients a and p of this resolution are determined
uniquely.
Suppose that the vector a has two resolutions:
a =ap + ptf, a = a'p + p q,
154 C h . 7. V e c t o r A l g e b r a
and, say, a' a . A meniber-for-member subtraction of the first rela

tion from the second gives
( a ' - a ) / > + ( p ' - p ) 9 = 0,
or
But this equality means the collinearity of the vectors p and q

which are non-collinear by hypothesis. Hence, the inequality a ' ^ a
is impossible. In sim ilar fashion, we can prove that the inequality
P ' # P is impossible. Thus, a ' = a , P ' = P, which means that a vector
cannot have two different resolutions.
787. If p — { 2, —3}, q = { 1, 2} are two given vectors in

the plane, find the resolution of the vector a = {9, 4} with
respect to the basis p , q .
788. If a = {3, — 2}, 6 = {—2, 1} and c = { 7 , —4} are
three given vectors in the plane, determine the resolution
of each of them with respect to the basis formed by the
other two vectors.
789. Given the three vectors a = { 3 , — 1}, b = { 1, —2},
C — { — 1, 7}. Determine the resolution of the vector p = a +
- \ r b - \ - c with respect to the basis a , b .
790. Determine the resolution of the vectors drawn from
the vertices of a triangle ABC and coincident with its
medians, when the vectors AB = b and AC = c (coincident
with the sides of the triangle) are taken as the basis of
the resolution.
791. If A (I, —2), B (2, 1), C (3, 2), D (— 2, 3) are four
given points in the plane, determine the resolution of the
vectors AD, ~BD, CD and AD + BD + CD, with respect to
the basis formed by the vectors AB and i4C.
792. Prove that, if p , q and r are any non-coplanar *
vectors, then every vector a in space can be expressed in
the form
a = ap-rfiq-\-yr.
Prove that the numbers a, p, y are uniquely determined

by the vectors a , p , q and r. (The representation of a
* Three vectors are said to be non-coplanar if, drawn from a

common initial point, they do not lie in the same plane.
# 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 155
vector a in the form a = ap + $q -r-yr is called the reso

lution of a into components with respect to the basis
p, q, r. The numbers a, p and y are called the coeffi
cients of this resolution.)
793. Given the three vectors p = { 3. — 2, 1),
q = { —1 ,1 ,—2}, r = { 2, 1, —3}. Find the resolution of
the vector c = {11, —6, 5} with respect to the basis p , q, r.
794. Given the four vectors a = {2, 1.0}, b = {1, — 1,2),
c = {2, 2, — 1} and d = {3, 7, —7}. Find the resolution of
each of these vectors with respect to the basis formed by
the other three vectors.
§ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the number equal
to the product of the moduli of these vectors by the cosine of their
included angle.
The scalar product of vectors a, b is denoted by the symbol a b
(the order in which the factors are written is immaterial, that is,
ab = ba).
Designating the angle between vectors a, b as cp, we may express
their scalar product by the formula
ab = \ a ] - \ b | -cos cp. (1)
The scalar product of vectors a, b may also be expressed by the
formula
ab = \ a \ - proja b or ab = | b | • proj&a.
From formula (1) it follows that ab > 0 if <p is an acute angle;

ab < 0 if cp is an obtuse angle; ab = 0 if, and only if, the vectors a
and b are mutually perpendicular. (In particular, ab = 0 if a = 0
or 6 = 0.)
The scalar product aa is called the scalar square of the vector a
and is denoted by the symbol a 2. From (1) it follows that the scalar
square of a vector is equal to the square of its modulus:
a* = \ a Is.
Given the coordinates of vectors a and b:
a = { X l, Y , . Z l \, b = { X 2, Y t , Z2},
their scalar product can be calculated from the formula
a b = X lX 2 + Y lY2 + Zl Z2.
Hence, a necessary and sufficient condition for the perpendicularity
of the vectors is
X ,X 1 + KlKt + Z,Z,=-0,
The angle <p between vectors

« H X «- Y t , Z ,} and & = {X1> Y „ Z t )
is given by the formula cos(p = aal} ♦

| . |^| or, in terms of coordinates,
cos cp —
x ,x 2+ y\Y2-f z tz.
V x \ + Y\ + Z ' y X \ + Y \ + Z \
The projection of an arbitrary vector S = { X , Y, Zj on an axis u
is determined by the formula
proj uS = S e ,
where e is the unit vector whose direction is that of the axis u. If
the angles a, p, y which the axis u makes with the coordinate axes
are given, then e — jcos a, cos p, cos y}, and the projection of the
vector S may be calculated from the formula
projwS = X cos a + K cos p + Z cos y.
2
795. Vectors a and b make an angle cp = -j n; if | a | = 3,
lftl —4, calculate: 1) ab, 2) a 2; 3) b1, 4) (a + b f \
5) (3a — 26) (a i 26); 6) ( a - 6 ) 2; 7) (3a + 26)2.
796. Vectors a and 6 are mutually perpendicular, and
each of them makes an angle equal to with a third
vector c\ if | a | = 3 , 16 1= 5, / c | = 8, calculate: 1) (3a — 26) x
x (6 -f 3c); 2) (a + 6 + c)2; 3) ( a + 2 6 - 3 c ) 2.
797. Prove the validity of the identity
(a + 6)2 + (a — 6)2 = 2(a2 + 62),
and find its geometric meaning.
798. Prove that
— ab < a6 < ab.
When does the equals sign hold?
799. If vectors a , 6, c are each of them different from
zero, determine their relative position such that the con
dition
( a b ) c = a (be)
is satisfied.
800. Given the unit vectors a , b and c satisfying the
condition a + 6 + c = 0. Evaluate a6 + 6 c + ca.
§ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 157
801. Given three vectors a, b> c which satisfy the con-

dition a + b + c = 0. If | a | = 3, |6 |= 1 and \c\ = 4,
evaluate ab + bc + ca.
802. Each of the angles between vectors a, b, c is
equal to 60°. If |a | = 4, \bj=-2 and (c| = 6, find the
modulus of the vector p = a + b + c.
803. Given that | a | —-3, |6 | =5. Determine the value
of a for which the vectors a \-ab, a —a& will be mutually
perpendicular.
804. What condition must be satisfied by vectors a
and b in order that the vector a 4 b should be perpendic
ular to the vector a —6?
805. Prove that the vector p = b (ac) — c (ab) is perpen
dicular to the vector a.
806. Prove that the vector p = b — a is perpendicu
lar to the vector a.
807. Given the vectors AB--=b and AC^c, coincident
with two sides of a triangle ABC. Find the resolution
(with respect to the basis b, c) of the vector drawn from
the vertex B of the triangle and coinciding with the alti
tude BD.
808. Vectors a and b make an angle <p= -^-; if
|a | = l/3, |6 ( = 1 , calculate the angle a between the vec
tors p = a + b and q a — b.
809. Find the obtuse angle which is formed by the
medians drawn from the vertices of the acute angles of a
right-angled isosceles triangle.
810. Determine the locus of the terminal points of a
variable vector x drawn from a given origin A, if the
vector x satisfies the condition
xa = <x,
where a is a given vector and a is a given number.
811. Find the locus of tl e terminal points of a variable
vector x drawn from a g'ven origin A, if the vector x
satisfies the conditions
jra=oc. xb —fi,
where a, b are given non-collinear vectors and a, are
given numbers.
158 Ch. 7 Vector Algebra
812. Given the vectors a = {4, —2, —4}, b = {6, — 3, 2}.

Evaluate:
1) ab, 2) K a 5; 3) Vb*\ 4) (2a - 3 6 ) (a + 26);
5) { a ± b ? \ 6) (a - b )2.
813. Calculate the work done by the force/ = {3, — 5, 2}
whose point of application is displaced from the initial
to the terminal point of the vector S(2, —5, —7).*
814. Given the points A ( — 1, 3, — 7), B (2, — 1, 5) and
C (0, 1, —5). Evaluate:
1) (2AB — C B ) ( 2 B C + B A ) \ 2)
4) find the coordinates of the vectors (AB AC) BC and
AB(ACBC).
815. Calculate the work done by the force/ = {3. —2, —5}
whose point of application is given a rectilinear displace
ment from A (2. —3, 5) to B ( 3, — 2, — 1).
816. Given the three forces M = {3, —4, 2}, Af= {2, 3, —5}
and P — {—3, —2,4} applied at the same point. Calcu
late the work done by the resultant of these forces when
its point of application experiences a rectilinear displace
ment from M j(5, 3, —7) to M 2(4, — 1, —4).
817. Given the vertices ,4(1, —2,2), £ (1 ,4 , 0),
C( — 4, 1, 1), D( — 5, —5, 3) of a quadrilateral. Prove that
its diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular to each other.
818. Determine the value of a for which the vectors
a = al — 3 j + 2 k and b — i-i -2j — ak are mutually perpen
dicular.
819. Calculate the cosine of the angle formed by the
vectors a = {2, —4, 4} and b = { —3, 2, 6}.
820. Given the vertices A ( — 1, —2, 4), B( — 4, — 2,0),
C(3, —2, 1) of a triangle. Determine the interior angle at
the vertex B.
821. Given the vertices A (3, 2 ,—3), 5 ( 5 ,1 , — 1),
C (l, —2, 1) of a triangle. Determine the exterior angle
at the vertex A.
* If a vector / represents a force whose point of application is
given a displacement from the initial to the terminal point of a
vector s, then the work w done by this force is determined by the
relation
w—fs.
$ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 159
822. By calculating the interior angles of the triangle

A (1, 2, 1), B (3, — 1, 7), C (7, 4, —2), verify that the tri
angle is isosceles.
823. A vector x is collinear with the vector
fl={6, —8, —7.5} and makes an acute angle with the
axis Oz. Find the coordinates of x if | j c | = 50.
824. Find the vector x collinear with the vector
a = {2, 1, — 1} and satisfying the condition
x a = 3.
825. A vector x is perpendicular to the vectors 0 = 3/ -f
+ 2j-'r 2k and 6 = 1 8 / — 22j— 5k and makes an obtuse
angle with the axis Oy. Find the coordinates of x if
1*1= 14.
826. Find the vector x perpendicular to the vectors
a = {2, 3, — 1} and 6 = {1, —2, 3} and satisfying the con
dition
x(2i—j + k ) = — 6.
827. Given the two vectors a = { 3, — 1.5} and
6 = {1,2, —3}. Find the vector x perpendicular to the
axis Oz and satisfying the conditions
jra = 9, x b = —4.
828. Given the three vectors
a = 2i—j + 3 k , b = i — 3y4 26 and c = 3i -\-2j— 4k.
Find the vector x satisfying the conditions
x a = —5, x b — — \\, jcc= 2 0 .
829. Find the projection of the vector 5 = {4, —3,2}
on the axis making equal acute angles with the coordi
nate axes.
830. Find the projection of the vector S = { K 2 , —3, —5}
on the axis which makes angles a= 45°, y = 60° with the
coordinate axes Ox, Oz and an acute angle p with the
axis Oy.
831. Given the two points A (3, —4, —2), B{2, 5, —2).
Find the projection of the vector AB on the axis which
makes angles a= 60°, p = 120° with the coordinate axes Ox,
Oy and an obtuse angle y with the axis Oz.
160 Cli. 7. Vector Algebra
832. Calculate the projection of the vector a = {5, 2, 5}

on the axis of the vector b = [ 2, —1, 2}.
a = 3i — 6j— k, b = i + 4 j — 5k and c = 3 l — 4j+\2k.
Calculate projf (a + 6).
a — {1, —3, 4}, b = { 3 . —4. 2} and c = { —1,1,4}.
Calculate proj6+c a.
a - - —2I —j-'- k, b = i ~5j and c = 4 i \-4j— 2k.
Calculate projf (3a — 2b).
836. The force determined by the vector R = (1, —8, —7}
is resolved along three mutually perpendicular directions,
one of which is the direction of the vector a = 2i -\-2j+k.
Find the component of the force R in the direction of the
vector a.
837. Given the two points M (—5, 7, —6) and N (7, —9, 9).
Calculate the projection of the vector a = {l, —3, 1} on the
axis of the vector MN.
838. Given the points A (—2, 3, —4), B (3, 2, 5),
C (l, — 1, 2), D (3, 2, —4). Calculate projî4B .
§ 32. The Vector Product of Vectors

The vector product of a vector a by a vector b is defined as the
vector denoted by the symbol [ab] and determined by the following
three conditions:
( 1 ) the modulus of the vector [ab] is equal to | a | - | b | sin 9 ,
where <p is the angle between the vectors a and b\
( 2 ) the vector [ab] is perpendicular to each of the vectors a and b;
( 3 ) the direction of the vector [ab] is determined by the “right-
hand” rule: if the vectors a, b and [ab] are drawn from the same
initial point, then the vector [ab] must be directed analogous to the
middle finger of the right hand whose thumb extends in the direc
tion of the first factor (i.e., the vector a), w hile its forefinger
extends in the direction of the second factor (i.e., the vector b).
The vector product depends on the order of its factors; namely,
[ab] = — [ba].
§ 32 The Vector Product of Vectors 161
The modulus of the vector product [ab] is equal to the area 5 of

the parallelogram constructed on the vectors a and b:
\ \ a b \ \ = S.
The vector product itself can be expressed by the formula
[ab] = Se,
where e is the unit vector co-dirtctional with the vector product.
Vectors a and b have their vector product [ab] zero if, and only
if, they are collinear. In particular, [aa) = 0.
Given the coordinates of vectors a and b (in a right-handed coor
dinate system):
a = {X„ Y t, Z,\, b = - { X 2, Y t , Z 2j,
the vector product of the vector a by the vector b is determined

from the formula
Y,Z, A'.Z. X ,Y ,
Y 2Z 2 * X2Z2 ’ x 2y 2
or i j k
lab] = X, Yx Zx .
X2 Y2 Z2
839. Vectors a and b make an angle <p=^-. If |a | = 6,

\b | = 5, evaluate | [ab] |.
840. Given that | a | = 10, \b\ = 2 and a b = 12. Evalu
ate |[a 6 ]|.
841. Given that |a | = 3, |6 | = 26 and |[a6]| = 72.
Find ab.
842. Vectors a and b are mutually perpendicular. If
|a | = 3, |6 | = 4, evaluate:
1) | [(a + b) (a— b)] |; 2) | f(3 a -6 ) (a-2b)] |.
2
843. Vectors a and b make an angle (p= -jjt. If | a | = l ,
\b\ = 2, evaluate:
1) [a6]12; 2) [(2a + b)(a + 2b)]2\ 3) [(a + 3& )(3a-6)]2.
844. What condition must be satisfied by vectors a, b
in order that the vectors a + b and a — b should be col-
linear?
845. Prove the identity
[ab]2 + (ab)2= a 2b2.
6 -2 2 5 0
846. Prove that

[a b ]2 < a 2b 2.
847. Given four arbitrary vectors p , q , r, tt. Prove that
the vectors
a = [ p n ], b = [ q n ], c = [ r n ]
are coplanar (i.e., will lie in the same plane when they
are drawn from a common initial point).
848. Vectors a , b and c satisfy the condition
a + b + c = 0.
Prove that
[ab] = [bc] = [ca].
849. Vectors a , b, c and d are connected by the rela
tions
[ab] = [cd], [ac] = [bd].
Prove that the vectors a — d and b — c are col linear.
850. Given the vectors
a = {3, — 1, —2} and * = { 1 , 2, — 1}.
Find the coordinates of the vector products:
1) [ ab \ , 2) [(2a + b ) b ] , 3) ( ( 2 a — b ) ( 2 a + b)}.
851. Given the points A (2, — 1, 2), f l( l, 2, — 1) and
C (3, 2, 1). Find the coordinates of the vector products:
1) [ A B B C ) \ 2) \ ( B C — 2 C A ) C B ) .
852. The force / = { 3 , 2, —4} is applied at the point
A (2, —1, 1). Determine the moment of this force about
the origin *.
853. The force P = { 2, —4, 5} is applied at the point
M0 (4, —2, 3). Determine the moment of this force about
the point A (3, 2, — 1).
* If / is the vector representing a force applied at a point M,

and a is the vector extending from a point 0 to the point At, then
the vector [ a / ] represents the moment of the force / about the
point 0 .
§ 32. The Vector Product of Vectors 163
854. The force Q = {3, 4, —2} is applied at the point

C (2, —1, —2). Determine the value and the direction
cosines of the moment of this force about the origin.
855. The force P — {2, 2, 9} is applied at the point
A (4, 2, —3). Determine the value and the direction co
sines of the moment of this force about the point C (2, 4, 0).
856. Given the three forces M = {2, —1, —3}, N —
= { 3 ,2 ,—1} and P — {—4, 1,3), which are applied at the
point C (—1, 4, —2). Find the value and the direction cosines
of the moment of the resultant of these forces about the
point A (2, 3, —1).
857. Given the points A (1, 2, 0), 6 (3, 0, —3), C (5, 2, 6).
Compute the area of the triangle ABC.
858. Given the vertices A (l, —1, 2), 6(5, —6, 2),
C (l, 3, —1) of a triangle. Find the length of the altitude
from the vertex 6 to the side AC.
859. Calculate the sine of the angle formed by the vec
tors a = {2, —2, 1} and b — {2, 3, 6}.
860. A vector x is perpendicular to the vectors a = {4,
—2, —3} and 6 = {0, 1, 3}, and makes an obtuse angle
with the axis Oy. Find the coordinates of x if | j t | = 2 6 .
861. A vector m is perpendicular to the axis Oz and to
the vector a = {8, —15, 3}, and makes an acute angle with
the axis Ox. Find the coordinates of m if | m | = 51.
862. Find the vector x perpendicular to the vectors
# = {2, —3, 1}, &= {1, —2, 3} and satisfying the condi
tion
x = ( i + 2j—7k) = 10.
( /j 4" /rti 4~ ^ i ) (^ 2 4~ ^ 2 4~ ^ 2 ) — ( / 11'i 4” 4- zi\ti2 )^ =
==(m1n2— '«2«i)2 4-(/2«i — /i«2)2 -\ { h n i z — k r U i ) 1.
Hint. Use the identity of Problem 845.
864. Given the vectors
a = {2, —:3> U» b = { —3, 1, 2} and c = (l, 2, 3}.

Evaluate [[ab] c\ and [a [bc\\.
6*
§ 33. The Triple Scalar Product

Three vectors designated as the first, second and third vector are
called a triad of vectors. The vectors of a triad are written in their
order; for example, when we write a, ft, c, this means that a is
regarded as the first, b as the second, and c as the third vector of
the triad.
A triad of non-coplanar vectors a, ft, c is called right-handed if
its vectors, when drawn from a common initial point and taken in
their order, are directed analogous to the thumb, forefinger and
middle finger of the right hand; if the vectors a, ft, c are directed
analogous to the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left
hand, the triad is called left-handed.
The triple scalar product of three vectors a, ft, c is defined as
the number obtained by the scalar multiplication of tjie vector prod
uct \ a b 1 and the vector c\ that is, l a b ) c .
In virtue of the identity [aft] <?= a [ftc], the triple scalar prod
uct [aft] c is denoted by a simpler symbol: a b c . Thus,
abc= [aft] c, a b c = a [ be].
The triple scalar product a b c is equal to the volume of the paral
lelepiped constructed on the vectors a, ft, c\ the sign of this volume
is positive or negative according as the triad a, ft, c is right-han
ded or left-handed. If (and only if) the vectors a, ft, c are coplanar,
the triple scalar product a b c is zero; in other words, the relation
abc = 0
constitutes a necessary and sufficient condition for the coplanarity
of the vectors a, ft, c.
Given the coordinates of vectors a, ft, c:
a = { X i , Y i , Z i }, b = { X 2, Y 2, Z , } , c = { X t . Y t . Z t ),
the triple scalar product abc is determined from the formula
Yx 2,
abc = Y, 2,
Y, Z,
It should be noted that the system of coordinate axes (as well as
the vector triad i, j , k) is assumed here to be right-handed.
triad a , b, c is right-handed or left-handed:
1) a = k , b — i, c — j \ 2) a = l , b = k , c = j ,
3) a = j , b = i , c = k \ 4) a = i + j , b = j , c = k \
5) a = i + j , b = i — j , c = j , 6) a = i - \ - j , b = i — j , c = k .
§ S3. T h e Triple Scalar Product 165
866. Vectors a , b , c are mutually perpendicular and form

a right-handed triad. Evaluate a b c if | a| —4, \ b \ ~ 2 ,
|c | = 3.
867. A vector c is perpendicular to vectors a and 6;
the angle between a and b is equal to 303. Evaluate a b c
if |a |= 6 , 16 1=3, |c |= 3 .
868. Prove that
| f l f t c ! <| f l | | 6 | | c | .
(a + b) (b c) (c + a) = 2a b c .
a b ( c t->.a f-|i b ) = a b c ,
where X and (x are any numbers.

871. Prove that vectors a , b, c, which satisfy the con
dition
[ab] \- {b c ] + [ca]—0,
are copianar.
872. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for
the coplanarity of vectors a, b , c is given by the relation
eta d- f>b t yc-=0,
where at least one of the numbers a, (}, y is different from
zero.
a = { 1. - 1 , 3}. b = { - 2. 2. 1}, c = { 3, - 2 , 5}.
Evaluate a b c .
vectors a, b, c are copianar:
1) a = {2, 3, -1 } , b = { 1, - 1 , 3}, c = { 1, 9, -11};
2) a = { 3 , - 2 , 1}, b = { 2, 1, 2}, c = { 3, - 1 , - 2 ) ;
3) a = { 2, - 1 , 2}, b = { 1, 2, -3 } , c = {3, - 4 , 7}.
875. Prove that the four points
A( 1, 2, - 1 ) , fi(0, 1, 5), C (—1, 2, 1), D (2, 1, 3)
lie in the same plane.
) 66 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra
876. Calculate the volume of the tetrahedron whose ver

tices are at the points A (2, — 1, 1), B (5, 5, 4), C (3, 2, —1)
and D (4, 1, 3).
877. Given the vertices A (2, 3, 1), B (4, 1, —2),
C (6, 3, 7), D ( —5, —4, 8) of a tetrahedron. Find the
length of the altitude drawn from the vertex D.
878. A tetrahedron of volume v = 5 has three of its ver
tices at the points A (2, 1, — 1), B(3, 0, 1), C (2, —1, 3);
the fourth vertex D lies on the axis Oy. Find the coordi
nates of D.
§ 34. The Triple Vector Product
Suppose that the vector multiplication of two vectors a and ft is

followed by the vector multiplication of the resulting vector [aft]
and a third vec-tor c. This gives the so-called triple vector prod
uct [[aftjc] (clearly, |[aft]c] is a vector). The vector multiplica
tion of the vectors a and [ftcJ gives the triple vector product [a [ftc]].
In general,
[[aft] c ] # [a [ftc]].
Let us prove the identity
[[aft] c] = b ( a c ) — a (be).
Proof. For convenience in calculations, let us place the axes of

the (rectangular cartesian) coordinate system as follows: let the
axis Ox be directed along the vector a, and let the axis Oy lie in
the plane of the vectors a and 6 (drawn from a common initial
point). We then have:
a = { X t, 0, 0}, b = { X 2, Y t , 0}, c = {X „ Zs}.

We next find
[aft] = {0, 0, XtY2},
[[aft] £•] = { - A ./.V ,, X.y^X,, 0}. (I)
On the other hand,
ac=r-XtX„ b(ac) = {XlX2Xl , X,Y2X„ 0},
be = X2Xt + Y2Y2. a (be) = {X,X2X, + X.Y^,. 0, 0}.
Hence,
b ( a c ) - a ( b c ) = { - X lY2Yi. X.Y.X,, 0}. (2)
.$ 34. The Triple Vector Product 167
Comparing Hie right-hand members of (1) and (2), we have:

||a<>] c] — b (ac) — a (be),
as was to be shown.

[a [bc]} = b ( a c ) - c ( a b ) .
880. Solve Problem 864 by using the identities given at
the beginning of this section and the identity of Prob
lem 879.
881. Given the vertices A (2, —1, —3), B (l, 2. —4),
C (3, —1, —2) of a triangle. Calculate the coordinates of
a vector h collinear with the altitude drawn from the ver
tex A to the opposite side, if the vector h makes an ob
tuse angle with the axis Oy and if the modulus of h is
equal to 2 ^34.
882. If vectors a, b, c are each of them different from
zero, determine their relative position for which the con
dition
[a \bc\\ — [[ob\ c\
is satisfied.
883. Prove the identities:
1) l a l b c \ ) + [ b \ c a \ ) + [ c [ a b } \ = 0 - ,
2) [ a b \ [ c d \ = ( a c ) { b d ) — ( a d ) ( b c ) \
3) \ab\ \cd\ ! a c \ \db] + \a d \ [ftc]=0;
4) \\ab\ \ c d \ \ = c ( a b d ) — d { a b c ) \
5) \ab\ [be] \ca\ = ( a b c ) 2-,
6) [a [a [a [ab\\)\ = a ' b , if the vectors a and b are
mutually perpendicular;
7) \ a \ b [ c d ) ) \ = \ a c ) ( b d ) — [ a d \ ( b c y ,
8) \ a [ b \ c d \ ] ] = { a c d ) b — ( a b ) \ c d y ,
9) \ a b \ 2 \ a c \ 2 — ( \a b \ [ a c\ ) 2= a 2 ( a b c ) 2-,
1^ L 'SV,'lc«]|
**C)
j2 ) e ) ^ _ |a b d a b *
acd ace
8 8 4 Three non-copianar vectors a, b and c a re drawn

• a common initial point. Prove that the p la n e pass-
p - % d 1 ? X Ur8V]« iltlliB| p i* Ol t o vectors is per-
Chapt e r 8
T H E E QUATI ON OF A S URF ACE

A N D T HE E QUAT I ONS OF A CURVE
§ 35. The Equation of a Surface

The equation of a given surface (in a chosen coordinate system)
is defined as the equation in three variables,
F(x, y, z) = 0,
which is satisfied by the coordinates of all points lying on the sur
face and by the coordinates of no other point.
885. Given the points Mi (2, —3, 6), M2(0, 7, 0),
M3(3, 2, - 4 ) , M4(2 / 2, 4. - 5 ) , AMI, - 4 . - 5 ) , M6(2,
6, — Vb). Determine which of them lie on the surface
represented by the equation x2 + i f + z2= 49. Identify the
surface.
886. On the surface x2+ y 2-\~z2= 9, find the points:
1) with abscissa I and ordinate 2; 2) with abscissa 2 and
ordinate 5; 3) with abscissa 2 and applicate 2; 4) with
ordinate 2 and applicate 4.
887. Identify the geometric objects represented by the
following equations in rectangular cartesian coordinates in
space:
I) x = 0; 2) y = 0; 3) 2= 0; 4) * —2 = 0;
5) 0 + 2 = 0; 6) 2 + 5 = 0 ; 7) *2 + y 2 + 22= 25;
8) (x—2)2 + (y + 3)2+ (2—5)2= 49;
9) x2 + 2y2 + 322= 0; 10) *2 + 2y2 + 322+ 5 = 0;
II) x —y = 0; 12) * + 2 = 0; 13) y —z = 0; 14) x y = 0;
15) *2= 0; 16) y z = 0; 17) *7/2=0; 18) x2— 4*=0;
19) xy — y2= 0; 20) yz -\-z2— 0.
888. Given the two points F\ (—c, 0, 0) and F2(c, 0, 0).
Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum of
170 Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve
whose distances from the two given points is a constant

equal to 2a, provided that a > 0 , c > 0 ; a > c .
Solution. Let M denote an a r b it r a ty point in space, and let x , y , z
be its coordinates. Since the point M may occupy any position, it
follows that x, y and z are variables; they are called the current
coordinates.
The point M lies on the given surface if, and only if,
M F x + M F 2 = 2a. (1)
This is the definition of the surface, expressed in symbolic language.

Let us express M F 1 and M F 2 in terms of the cu rrent coordinates
of the point M :
MF^ = Y (x + c)2 + y 2-\~z2* M F 2 = y ( x —c)2 y2 + z 2.

Inserting these expressions in (1), we obtain the equation
V (* + c)2 + y 2 + + V (* — c)2 + (/2+ z2= 2a, (2)
which connects the cu rrent coordinates x, y, z, and which is the

equation of the given surface.
For, the condition (1) is fulfilled for every point M lying on the
given surface, and hence the coordinates of such a point satisfy
equation (2); on the other hand, the condition (1) is not fulfilled
for any point not lying on the surface, and hence the coordinates of
such a point do not satisfy equation (2). The problem is thus solved;
the purpose of the remaining operations is to reduce the equation
of the surface to a simpler form.
Transpose the second radical in (2) to the right-hand side:
V (x + c)2 + y 2 + z2= 2a — V ( x — c)2+ y 2 + z2;
squaring both sides of this equation and removing the parentheses,

we obtain
x 2 + 2cx -\-c2 + y 2 + z2=

= 4 a2— 4 a Y (x — c)2+ y 2 + z2- f jc2 — 2cx + c2 y 2+ 2? t
or
a Y (x — c)2-\-y2-\-z2= a2—cx.
Clearing of radicals once again, we find
a2x2— 2 a2cx + a2c2+ a2y2+ a2z2= a4— 2 a2cx + c?x2t
or
(a2— c2) -v2-J- a2y 2+ a2z2= a2 (a2—c2). (3)
§ 35. T h e E quatio n of a Surface 171
Since a > c, it follows that a2— c2 > 0; let us denote the positive
number a2— c2 by b2. Equation (3) will then assume the form
b2x2 -\-a2y 2 -|- a2z2 —
- tr/r,
or
This surface is called an ellipsoid of revolution. Equation (4) is

referred to as the canonical equation of this ellipsoid.
889. Derive the equation of a sphere with centre at the

origin and radius r.
890. Derive the equation of a sphere with centre at
C (a, y) and radius r.
891. From the point P(2, 6 , —5), all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oxz. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoints.
892. From the point A (3, —5, 7). all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oxy. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoinls.
893. From the point C (—3, —5, 9), all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oyz. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoints.
difference of the squares of whose distances from the points
Ft (2, 3, —5) and P2 (2, —7, —5) is a constant equal to 13.
sum of the squares of whose distances from two points
Fi (— a, 0, 0) and F2{a, 0,0) is a constant equal to 4a2.
896. The points A (— a, — a, — a), B (a, —a, —a),
C(— a, a, — a) and D (a, a, a) are the vertices of a cube.
Write the equation of the locus of points, the sum of the
squares of whose distances from the faces of this cube is
a constant equal to 8a2.
897. Find the equation of the locus of points equidis
tant from the two points M i(l, 2, —3) and yVf2(3, 2, 1).
898. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum
of whose distances from the two given points Ft (0, 0, —4)
and P2(0, 0, 4) is a constant equal to 10.
difference of whose distances from the two given points
Ft (0, —5, 0) and P2(0, 5, 0) is a constant equal to 6.
172 Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve
§ 36. The Equations of a Curve.

The Problem of the Intersection of Three Surfaces
A space curve is represented by two sim ultaneous equations,
I F(x, y, z) = 0,
\ d> (x , y, z) = 0,
as the intersection of the two surfaces F ( x , y , z ) —Q and
(x, y, z) = 0.
If F (x, y, z) = 0,
<5 (x, y, z) = 0, V (x, y, z) = 0 are the equations
of three surfaces, their points of intersection are found by solving
sim ultaneously the system
| F (x, y, z) = 0,
<J <f (x, y, z) = 0,
I *F (x, y, z) = 0.
Each solution of this system for x, y, z gives the coordinates of

one of the intersection points of the given surfaces.
900. Given the points M, (3, 4, —4), M t (—3, 2, 4),

Af,(—1 ,—4, 4) and M4(2, 3, —3). Determine which of
them lie on the curve
< ( * - l ) l + j/l + z’ = 36,
\ y + z=0.
given curve passes through the origin:
j x* + y t + z* — 2z=0,
\ y = o;
I (x—3)J + ( ^ + l)*+ (z — 2)l = 25,
2 ) \ x + y = 0;
l ( x - l ) * + (y f 2 r + (z + 2)I = 9,
3) | x — z = 0.
902. On the curve
I x* + t/* + z * = 49,
\ x ‘ + y* + zt — 4z — 25 = 0.
find the points: 1) with abscissa 3; 2) with ordinate 2;
3) with applicate 8.
§ 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface 173
903. Identify the curves represented by the following

equations:
j ** + ys + z2= 25, f.*’ + </ + zJ = 20,

10)U = 0; ’ h - 2 --0.
904. Find the equations of the curve of intersection of
the plane Oxz and the sphere with centre at the origin and
radius 3.
the sphere with centre at the origin and radius 5 and the
plane parallel to the plane Oxz and situated in the left
half-space at a distance of two units from Oxz.
the plane Oyz and the sphere with centre at C (5,—2, 1)
and radius 13.
907. Write the equations of the curve of intersection of
two spheres, one of which is of radius 6 and with centre
at the origin, and the other of radius 5 and with centre
at C ( l ,—2, 2).
908. Find the points of intersection of the three surfaces
x* + yt + zt = 49, y —3 = 0, 2 + 6 =0 .
909. Find the points of intersection of the three sur
faces
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9< x * + y * + {2 _ 2 ) 2 = 5 , y - 2 = 0 .
§ 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface

with Elements Parallel to a Coordinate Axis
An equation in two variables of the form
F (x, y ) = 0
represents, in a space coordinate system, a cylindrical surface with
elements parallel to the axis Oz. In a plane coordinate system (with
Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve
axes Ox, Oy) the equation F ( x , y ) = 0 represents a curve, namely,

the directing curve of the cylinder under consideration. In a space
coordinate system, however, the same curve must be represented by
two equations:
F i x , y) = 0,
{ 2 = 0.
In like manner, the equation F ( x , z ) = 0 represents (in space) a cy
lindrical surface w ith elements parallel to the axis Oy\ the equation
f ( y t z) = 0 represents a cylindrical surface with elements parallel to
the axis Ox.
910. Identify the geometric objects represented, in a

space coordinate system, by the following equations:
1) * * - 1 ^ - 2 5 ; * > £ + £ - ■ ; 3 » 4) *‘ -« K
5) x 2— xi/ —0; 6) x 2— z2^ 0 \ 7) y 2+ z2= 0;
8) x ! + ^ y 2 H- 4 = 0; 9) x 2+ z2= 2z: 10) y2 + z2= — z.
911. Find the equation of the cylinder which projects
the circle
\x* + (y +-2)* + ( z - l) * = 25,
t x 2+ y 2+ z2= 16
the plane: 1) Oxy\ 2) Oxz\ 3) Oyz.
° 9 1 2 Find the equations of the projection ©f the circle
I ( x + l ) 2+ (y + 2)2-i- ( z - 2 ) 2= 36,
\ *2+ ({/ + 2)2+ (z — l)2= 25
on the p>ane: ^ 0x y< 2) 0xz’ 3) ° y z■

Chapt er 9
THE EQUATION OF A PLANE.

THE EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE.
THE EQUATIONS OF QUADRIC SURFACES
§ 38. The General Equation of a Plane.

The Equation of the Plane Passing Through a Given Point
and Having a Given Normal Vector
In cartesian coordinates, every plane is represented by an equation
of the first degree and every equation of the first degree represents
a plane.
Every (non-zero) vector perpendicular to a given plane is called
its normal vector. The equation
A ( x— x0) + B (y — y0) + C (z — ?0) = 0 (1)
represents the plane passing through the point M Q(xQt iy0, z0) and
having n = {A, B, C} as its normal vector.
By removing the parentheses and denoting the number — Ax0 —
_ — Cz0 by the letter D, we can put equation (1) in the form
Ax + B y + C z + D = 0.
An equation of this form is called the general equation of a plane.
913. Write the equation of the plane passing through

the point M ,(2, 1, —1) and having n = { 1, —2, 3} as its
normal vector.
the origin and having n = {5, 0, — 3} as its normal vector.
915. The point P( 2, —1, —1) is the foot of a perpen
dicular dropped from the origin to a plane. Find the
equation of this plane.
916. Given the two points M,(3, —1,2) and M2(4,
- 2 , - 1 ) . Find the equation of the plane through the
point M, and perpendicular to the vector MxMt.
917. Write the equation of the plane through the point
M,(3, 4, —5) and parallel to the two vectors a, = (3, 1,
— 1} and o, = {1, —2, 1}.
176 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line
918. Prove that the equation of the plane passing through

the point 440 (x0, y0, z0) and parallel to the two vectors
a, = {/,, m v n,} and a , = {/,, mt, n,}
■*. y — y* z ~ z<
m, = 0.
m.
919. Find the equation of the plane passing through the

points 4 4 ,(2 ,— 1, 3) and 44, (3, 1, 2) and parallel to the
vector a = {3,— 1 ,—4}.
920. Prove that the equation of the plane passing
through the points 44, ( a , , y t, z,) and and
parallel to the vector
a = {/, m, n}
y - y t z ~ zx
x z ~ x i y*-y> Zz - Zx = 0.
l m n
921. Find the equation of the plane passing through
the three points M t ( 3 ,— 1,2), 4 4 ,(4 ,— 1 ,— 1) and
44, (2, 0, 2).
through the three points
44, (*,, y x, z,), 44, (*„ t/„ z,) and M t ( x „ y „ z t)
x - x t y —y , z - z ,
xt — x i y* — yx z t ~ z x = o .
X»— Xx y , - y x z t - z x
923. In each of the following, find the coordinates of

a vector normal to the given plane and write the general
expression for the coordinates of its arbitrary normal
§ 38. The General Equation of a Plane 177
vector:
1) 2x —y — 2z + 5 = 0; 2) x + 5i/ — z = 0;
3) 3x—2y — 7 = 0; 4) 5 y -3 z = 0; 5) x + 2 = 0;
6) y —3 = 0.
924. Determine which of the following pairs of equations
represent parallel planes:
1) 2x—3y -f 5z— 7 = 0, 2 x - 3 y +52 + 3 = 0;
2) 4x + 2y— 4z + 5 = 0, 2x + y + 2 z - 1= 0;
3) * - 3z + 2 = 0, 2x— 6z — 7 = 0.
925. Determine which of the following pairs of equa
tions represent perpendicular planes:
1) 3* _ y _ 2 z _ 5 = 0, x-\-Qy—3z + 2 = 0;
2) 2x + 3y— z — 3 = 0, x—y—z + 5 = 0;
3) 2x—5i/ + z = 0, x + 2z —3 = 0.
926. Determine the values of I and m for which the
following pairs of equations represent parallel planes:
1) 2x + ly +3z —5 = 0, mx — 6y — 6z + 2 = 0;
2) 3x— y + lz— 9 = 0, 2x + my + 2z—3 = 0;
3) mx + 3y— 2z — 1 = 0 . 2x—5y — /z = 0.
927. In each of the following, determine the value of Z
for which the given pair of equations represents perpen
dicular planes:
1) 3x— 5y+ Iz —3 = 0, x-f 3i/ + 2 z + 5 = 0;
2) 5x 4- y — 3z —2 = 0, 2x + /«7—3z + 1 =0;
3) 7x—2y — z = 0, l x + y — 3z — 1 = 0 .
928. In each of the following, determine the dihedral
angles formed by the two intersecting planes:
1) * —yV% + z — 1 = 0 , x - f yV% — z + 3 = 0;
2) 3y — z =0, 2y \-z =0;
3) 6x + 3y—2z =0, x + 2y f 6z— 12 = 0;
4) x + 2y + 2z—3 = 0, 16x+ \2y— 15z— 1 = 0 .

the origin and parallel to the plane 5x — 3y+ 2z — 3 = 0.
the point Af, (3 ,—2 ,—7) and parallel to the plane 2x —
— 3z -t- 5 = 0.
the origin and perpendicular to the two planes
2x — y + 3z— 1 = 0 , x + 2y + z = 0.
932. Find the equation of the plane which passes through
the point M l (2,— 1, 1) and is perpendicular to the two
planes
2x — z 4 - l = 0 , y = 0.
933. Prove that the equation of the plane which passes
through the point M 0 (a'0, y0, z0) and is perpendicular to
the planes
AyX 4* B 1y + C,z 4- D, = 0, Azx 4- B2y -\-C2z-\- D2 = 0
* — *o y — y o z ~ zo
Ay By Cy = 0.
A2 B2 C2
the two points 4 4 ,(1 ,— 1,—2) and M 2(3, 1, 1) and is
perpendicular to the plane x — 2 y + 3 z —5 = 0.
through two points M, (*,,«/,, z,), M2 (x2, y2, z2) and is
perpendicular to the plane
Ax 4- By 4- Cz 4- D = 0
$ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes 179
937. Prove that the three planes 7.v-| 4tj \ Iz ; 1 =0,

2x — ij— 2 + 2 = 0, .v -+• 2y + 3z— 1 = 0 pass through the same
straight line.
938. Prove that the three planes 2x — y \ -3z —5 = 0,
3* f y + 2z— 1 = 0, 4.v -f 3tj + z + 2 = 0 intersect in three
distinct and parallel lines.
939. Determine the values of a and b for which the
planes
2x— y-\-3z — 1 = 0 , x + 2y — z-\-b = 0, x + ay — 6z + 10 = 0:
1) have a common point;
2) pass through the same straight line;
3) intersect in three distinct and parallel lines.
§ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes.

The Intercept Equation of a Plane
Every first-degree equation
Ax + B y + C z + D = 0
(in cartesian coordinates) represents a plane. If this equation lacks
the constant term (D = 0), then the plane passes through the origin.
If the equation lacks a term containing one of the current coordi
nates (that is, if any one of the coefficients A , B yC is zero), then the
plane is parallel to a coordinate axis, namely, to the axis of the
lacking coordinate; if the constant term is also lacking, the plane
passes through this axis. If the equation lacks two terms containing
the current coordinates (that is, if any two of the coefficients A , B t
C are zero), then the plane is parallel to a coordinate plane, namely,
to the coordinate plane that passes through the axes of the lacking
coordinates; if the constant term is also lacking, the plane coin
cides with this coordinate plane.
If the equation of a plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,
has all its coefficients A, B t C, D different from zero, it can be re
duced to the form
( 1)
where
are the respective intercepts cut olT by the plane on the x-f r/-t
and z- axes. Equation (1) is called the intercept equation of a plane.
940. Find the equation of the plane:

1) through the point M j(2, —3,3) and parallel to the
plane Oxy,
2) through the point M2 (1, —2,4) and parallel to the
plane Oxz\
3) through the point M3(—5 , 2 , — 1) and parallel to
the plane Oyz.
941. Find the equation of the plane which passes:
1) through the axis Ox and the point Mx(4, —1,2);
2) through the axis Oy and the point M2( l,4 , —3);
3) through the axis Oz and the point M3 (3 ,—4,7).
942. Find the equation of the plane:
1) through the points M, (7, 2 ,—3) and M2(5 ,6 , —4),
and parallel to the axis Ox;
2) through the points P1(2, —1, 1) and P2 (3, 1,2), and
parallel to the axis Oy,
3) through the points Q, (3, —2, 5) and Q2 (2, 3, 1), and
parallel to the axis Oz.
943. Find the points of intersection of the plane 2x —
— 3y —4z— 24 = 0 with the coordinate axes.
944. Given the equation x-\-2y—3z—6 = 0 of a plane.
Write its intercept equation.
945. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 3*—4y —
— 24z-M 2 = 0 on the coordinate axes.
946. Calculate the area of the triangle cut by the plane
5x — 6y 4- 3z 4 120 = 0
from the quadrant Oxy.
947. Calculate the volume of the pyramid formed by
the plane 2x —3y-|-6z— 12 = 0 and the coordinate
planes.
948. A plane passes through the point (6, — 10, 1)
and has the intercepts a = — 3 and c = 2 on the x- and
z-axes, respectively. Write the intercept equation of the
plane.
949. A plane passes through the points M xO .2, — 1),
M2(—3 ,2 , 1) and has the intercept 6 = 3 on the y-axis.
Write the intercept equation of the plane.
950. Write the equation of the plane which passes
through the point M 1(2 ,—3 ,—4) and makes equal (non
zero) intercepts on the coordinate axes.
§ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane 181
951. Write the equation of a plane which passes through

thepointsM i (—1 ,4 ,—1),M 2( —1 3 ,2 ,—10) and whose
(non-zero) intercepts on the x- and z-axes are equal in
absolute value.
952. Write the equations of the planes which pass
through the point A4t (4, 3, 2) and whose (non-zero) inter
cepts on the x-, y- and z-axes are all equal in absolute
value.
953. Find the equation of the plane which has the in
tercept c = — 5 on the z-axis and is perpendicular to the
vector n = {—2, 1,3}.
954. Find the equation of the plane which is parallel
to the vector / = {2, 1,—1} and has the intercepts a = 3,
b —— 2 on the x- and y-axes, respectively.
955. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendic
ular to the plane 2x — 2y -f-4z —5 = 0 and has the inter-
cepts a — — 2, b = ^-on the x- and y-axes, respectively.
§ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane.

The Distance of a Point from a Plane
The normal equation of a plane is its equation written in the form
at cos a + (/cos p - f z c o s y — p = 0, (1)
where cos a, cos p, cosy are the direction cosines of the normal to
the plane, and p is the distance of the plane from the origin. When
calculating the direction cosines of the normal, we assume it to be
directed from the origin to the plane. (If the plane passes through
the origin, the positive direction of the normal may be chosen at
will.)
Let M * be any point in space, and let d denote the distance
of M* from a given plane. The departure 6 of the point M* from
the given plane is defined as the number + d if the point M* and
the origin are on opposite sides of the plane, and as the number — d
if M* and the origin are on the same side of the plane. (If M* lies
in the plane itself, the departure is equal to zero.)
For a point M* having coordinates x*,y*, z* and a plane repre
sented by the normal equation
x cos a + 1/ cos p + zcos y — p = 0,
the departure of the point M* from the plane is given by the formula
6 = x* cos a + y * cos P + z* cos y — p.
Clearly, d = (6 |.
The general equation of a plane,

Ax T By T Liz T D ~ 0,
is reduced to the normal form (1) by m ultiplication by a normaliz
ing factor found from the formula
= i ~'~r - • ~~»
^ / i 2+ e 2+c*
the normalizing factor must be taken w ith its sign opposite to that
of the constant term of the equation to be normalized.
956. Determine which of the following equations of

planes are in the normal form:
l — 25- y — -5-z
1) -7Tx 2 — 5c = a
0; 2 ) 3 x |- 3 y 3 z 3 0,
,, 6 3 . 2 ,c n
3) -j x — y !/ + y 2+ 5 — 0; 4) - ® * + l 0 - f * - 5 = 0;
5) x — —z—3 = 0; 6) - ^ 0 + j| 2 + 1 = 0;
5 12 i n .
^ 13y ~ I 3 Z—
8) - x — - y + 3 = 0;
9) x — 1 = 0; 10) 0 + 2 = 0;
11) - 0 - 2 = 0; 12) z —5 = 0..
of a pi ane to the normal form:
1) 2x — 2y -h z — 18 = 0; 2) y X ------y 0 + y Z + 3 = O;
3) 4 * - 6 t / - 1 2 z - l l = 0 ; 4) —4x —40 + 2z + 1 = 0;
5) 5t/— 12z + 26 = 0; 6) 3jc— 40— 1 = 0 ;
7) 0 + 2 = 0; 8) — x + 5 = 0;
9) —z-\- 3 = 0; 10) 2z— 1 = 0 .
958. For each of the following planes, calculate the
angles a, |5, -y which its normal makes with the coordinate
axes, and the distance p from the origin:
1) * + 0 ^ 2 -1- 2 - 1 0 = 0; 2) x - y - z / 2 + 1 6 = 0;
3) jc + z — 6 = 0; 4) 0 - z + 2 = O; 5) * J /3 + 0 + 1 0 = 0;
$ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane 183
6) z —2 = 0; 7) 2x4-1=0; 8) 2 0 + 1 = 0 ;
9) x - 2y 4 2z —6 = 0; 10) 2,v+ 3i/ - 6z ; 4 = 0.
-
959. In each of the following, calculate the departures

and the distance d of the given point from the given plane;
1) A M -2 , - 4 , 3). 2x - y 2z + 3 =■• 0;
2) A42 (2, - 1 , - 1 ) , 1 6 * - \2y-v 15z —4 = 0;
3) /Vf3 (1, 2, - 3 ) , 5x —3y z -i- 4 = 0;
4) M4 (3, - 6, 7), 4v —3z— 1 = 0;
5) A45 (9, 2, - 2 ) , 12y —5z + 5 = 0.
960. Calculate the distance d. of the point P (— 1, 1,
— 2) from the plane passing through the three points
A M I , — 1, 1). A M—2, 1.3) and A43(4, —5, —2).
point Q (2, —1, 1) and the origin lie on the same side or
on opposite sides of the given plane:
1) 5 * - 3 0 i-z— 18 = 0; 2) 2* + 7 0 + 3 z + 1 = 0;
3) x + 5y + 1 2 z - l = 0 ; 4) 2x— y + z + 11 - 0 ;
5) 2x-|-3y—6*-I-2 = 0; 6) 3 x - 2 0 + 2 z - 7 = O.
962. Prove that the plane 3x —40 —2z + 5 = 0 cuts the
line segment bounded by the points Al,(3, —2, 1) and
A M - 2 , 5, 2).
963. Prove that the plane 5x —20 + z —1 = 0 does not
cut the line segment bounded by the points AMI, 4, —3)
and M2 (2, 5, 0).
964. In each of the following, calculate the distance
between the parallel planes:
1) x — 2y—2z— 12= 0, 2) 2x — 3y4-6z— 14 = 0,
x—2 y - 2 z — 6 = 0; 4* —6y 4- 12z-f- 21 = 0;
3) 2x —y4-2z 4-9 = 0, 4) 16*-f 120— 15z 4-50 = 0,
4*—20 4-4z —21 =0; 16*+ 120— 15z + 25 = 0;
5) 30x —320 4- 24z —75 = 0, 6) 6*—180 —9z—28 = 0,
15*— 160 4- 1 2 z - 25 = 0; 4*— 120 —6z—7 = 0.
965. Two faces of a cube lie in the planes

2x —2y + z — 1 = 0 , 2x—2y + 2 + 5 = 0.
Find the volume of the cube.
966. On the axis Oy, find a point situated at a distance
d = A from the plane x-\-2y — 2z — 2 = 0.
967. On the axis Oz, find a point equidistant from the
point M (1 ,—2, 0 ) and the plane 3x—2y-\-6z—9 = 0.
968. On the axis Ox, find a point equidistant from the
two planes
I2x— 16y + 152+ 1 = 0 , 2x + 2y—z — 1 = 0 .
departure from the plane Ax — Ay — 22 + 3 = 0is equal to 2.
departure from the plane 6x + 3t/ + 22— 10= 0 is equal
to —3.
971. Write the equations of the planes parallel to the
plane 2x —2y —2 —3 = 0 and situated at a distance d = 5
from it.
locus of points equidistant from the two parallel planes:
1) Ax — y — 2z—3 = 0, 2) 3x + 2y —2 + 3 = 0,
Ax — y —22 — 5 = 0; 3x + 2y —z — 1 = 0 ;
3) 5x—3y + 2 + 3 = 0,
1Ox—6y + 22 + 7 = 0.
973. In each of the following, write the equations of
the planes which bisect the dihedral angles formed by the
two intersecting planes:
1) x —3y + 2z — 5 = 0, 2) 5x —5y — 2z—3 = 0,
3x— 2y —2 + 3 = 0; x + 7y — 2z + 1 = 0 ;
3) 2x— y-[ 52 + 3 = 0,
2x— 10t/ + 42 —2 = 0.
point M (2 ,— 1, 3) and the origin lie inside one dihedral
angle, or in two complementary angles, or in two vertical
# 41. The Equations of a Straight Line 185
dihedral angles (formed by the two intersecting planes):

1) 2x— y -\-3z — 5 = 0, 2) 2a-)-3i/ —5?— 1 5 -0 ,
3* -t 2y — z -{- 3 = 0; 5x — y — 3z — 7 = 0;
3) x + 5y—z + 1 =0,
2.x A 17j/+ 2 + 2 = 0.
points M (2, —1, 1) and N (1, 2, —3) lie inside one
dihedral angle, or in two complementary angles, or in two
vertical dihedral angles (formed by the two intersecting
planes):
1) 3 x - i/ + 2 z - 3 = 0, 2) 2 x - y + 5 z - 1 =--0,
x — 2y — z 4 4 = 0; 3x —2y + 6z— 1 =0.
976. Determine whether the origin lies inside the acute
or the obtuse angle formed by the two planes x — 2y -\-3z- 5 =
= 0 2x —i/ —2 + 3 = 0.
977. Determine whether the point M (3, 2, —1) lies
inside the acute orthe obtuse angle formed by the two planes
5x —t/ + 2 + 3 = 0, Ax — 3y + 2z + 5 = 0.
978. Write the equation of the plane bisecting that
dihedral angle between the two planes 2x— 14t/ + 6z— 1 =0,
3x + 5y — 5z + 3 = 0 which contains the origin.
979. Write the equation of the plane bisecting that
dihedral angle between the two planes 2x — y + 2z — 3 = 0,
3x + 2y — 6z— 1 = 0 which contains the point vW(1,2, —3).
980. Write the equation of the plane which bisects the
acute dihedral angle formed by the two planes 2a —3y —
—42 —3 = 0, Ax — 3y — 2z — 3 = 0.
981. Write the equation of the plane which bisects the
obtuse dihedral angle formed by the two planes Zx — Ay —
z -f- 5 = 0, Ax —3y -|- z ~1~5 = 0.
§ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line

A straight line is determined (as the intersection of two planes) by
two simultaneously considered equations of the first degree,
I + +C,2-(-£), =0,
\ AtX + B ty + Ci2-1-D j=0,
0)
provided that the coefficients A lt £ , , C, of the first equation are

not proportional to the coefficients A 2, fi2, C2 of the second (otherwise
these equations will represent parallel or coincident planes).
Let a straight line a be represented by equations (1), and let
a and p be any numbers, not both zero; then the equation
a ( A xx + B }y + C tz + D x) + p ( A 2x + B2i/ + C2z + D 2) = 0 (2)
represents a plane through the straight line a.
3y an appropriate choice of the numbers a, p, an equation of
the form (2) can be made to represent every plane passing through
the line a .
The totality of planes passing through the same straight line is
called a pencil of planes. An equation of thfe form (2) is called the
equation of a pencil of planes.
If a ^ O , then equation (2) can be reduced, by letting
to the form
A xx + B^y -f- Cxz + D, + X ( A 2x + B 2yA~C2z + D2) = 0 . (3)
This form of the equation of a pencil of planes is used more
widely than equation (2); note, however, that equation (3) can be
made to represent every plane of the pencil except the plane correspond
ing to a = 0, that is, except the plane A 2x + B 2y + C2z + D 2 = 0.
982. Write the equations of the straight lines in which
the plane 5x — 7y + 2z — 3 = 0 intersects the coordinate
planes.
983. Write the equations of the straight line in which the
plane 3x — y — 72 + 9 = 0 intersects the plane passing through
the axis Ox and the point E ( 3, 2, —5).
984. Find the points in which the line
(2x + y —z —3 = 0,
\ x -f- y + z — 1 = 0
pierces the coordinate planes.
j 2x— 3y + 5z — 6 = 0,
\ x + 5y — 7z-f 10 = 0
meets the axis Oy.
986. Determine the value of D for which the line
(2x + 3y— z + D = 0,
\3 ^ — 2y + 2z — 6 = 0
meets: 1) the axis Ox; 2) the axis Oy; 3) the axis Oz.
$ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line 187
987. Find the conditions which must be satisfied by the

coefficients of the equations
j A i*-|- B ly-\-C1z -j D l = 0,
\ A 2x -\-B2y + C2z \ D.,—0
of a straight line in order that the line should be parallel:
1) to the axis Ox\ 2) to the axis Oy, 3) to the axis Oz.
988. Find the conditions which must be satisfied by the
coefficients of the equations
I A yx-\- Bxy + Cxz D x = 0,
1 A 2x + B2y + C2z -j- D2 = 0
of a straight line in order that the line should: 1) meet the
x-axis; 2) meet the y-axis; 3) meet the z-axis; 4) coincide
with the .v-axis; 5) coincide with the y-axis; 6) coincide
with the z-axis.
989. In the pencil of planes
2.v —3y |- z —3 -j- X (x + 3y + 2z + 1) = 0,
find the plane which: 1) passes through the point A4, (1,
—2. 3); 2) is parallel to the axis O.v; 3) is parallel to the
axis Oy; 4) is parallel to the axis Oz.
990. Write the equation of the plane which passes through
the line of intersection of the planes 3x —y-|-2z + 9 = 0,
x- f Z — 3 = 0 and: 1) passes through the point M x (4, —2,
—3); 2) is parallel to the axis Ox\ 3) is parallel to the
axis Oy; 4) is parallel to the axis Oz.
the line of intersection of the planes 2x — y + 3z—5 = 0,
x-Y 2y —z + 2 = 0 and is parallel to the vector I — {2, —1,
-2 } .
the line of intersection of the planes 5x — 2y —z—3 = 0,
x + 3y —2zJ-5 = 0 and is parallel to the vector /= { 7 ,
9, 17}.
the line of intersection of the planes 3x —2y +- z —3 = 0, x —
— 2z = 0 and is perpendicular to the plane x — 2y-\-z-f-
+ 5 = 0.

the line
l5 x — y —2z —3 = 0,
\3x — 2y—52-*- 2 = 0
and is perpendicular to the plane x + I9y — 7z — 11 = 0.
the line of intersection of the planes 2x + y —z + l = 0 ,
x + y 4 2z 4 1 = 0 and is parallel to the segment bounded
by the points Af, (2, 5, —3) and M 2 (3. —2, 2).
996. Find the equation of the plane belonging to the
pencil of planes
a (3x — Ay + z + 6) + p (2x—3y -4 z -4 2) = 0
and equidistant from the points M l {3, —4, —6), Afa (l,
2 , 2 ).
997. Determine whether the plane
4jc—8{/-f- 17z —8 = 0
belongs to the pencil of planes
a (5* — y + 42— 1) + P (2x -\-2y — 3z 4- 2) = 0.
998. Determine whether the plane
5x — 9y — 2z+ 12 = 0
a(2x — 3y-\-z — 5) + P (x — 2y — z —7) = 0.
999. Determine the values of I and m for which the
plane
5x + ly + 4z + m=:Q
a (3 x — 7^-f z —3) -f p (x— 9 y — 2z+ 5) = 0.
1000. Write the equation of the plane which belongs to
the pencil of planes
a (x — 3t/+ 7 z 36) + P (2x-[ y — z — 15) = 0
and is situated at a distance p = 3 from the origin.
§ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line 189
1001. Write the equation of the plane which belongs

to the pencil of planes
ct (1Ox—8y — 15z 4* 56) 4~ P (4x 4~ {/ 4~ 32 — 1) = 0
and is situated at a distance d = l from the point C (3,
- 2 , -3 ).
1002. Find the equation of the plane which belongs to
the pencil of planes
a (4* + 13y- 2z—60) 4- p (4* + 2>y4- 32 —30) = 0
and cuts a triangle of area 6 from the quadrant Oxy.
1003. Find the equations of the planes which project the
line
i 2x— y 4” 2z —3 = 0,
i * 4- 2< /-z — 1 = 0
on the coordinate planes.

1004. Write the equations of the projections of the line
j x + 2y—32—5 = 0,
\2x — y 4- 24-2 = 0
on the coordinate planes.

1005. Write the equation of the plane which projects
the line
J3x4- 2y—2— 1 = 0,
\2x— 3y + 2z—2 = 0
on the plane x + 2y + 3z — 5 = 0.
1006. Write the equations of the projections of the line
|5x —4y — 2z — 5 = 0,
\ x + 2z — 2 = 0
on the plane
2x — y j - z — [ —U.
§ 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line. The

Canonical Equations of a Straight Line. The Parametric
Equations of a Straight Line
Every non-zero vector lying on a given straight line or parallel
to it is called the direction vector of that straight line.
In what follows, the direction vector of an a rb itra ry straight
line will be denoted by the letter a, and its coordinates by /, m, n :
a = {/, m, /I,}.
Given one point M 0 (*o* [/o* zo) °f a straight line and its direction
vector a — {/, m , n}, the line can be represented by (two) equations
of the form
x — x 0^ y — y 0 = z — z0 ^
/ m n
Equations of a straight line w ritten in this form are called its

canonical equations.
The canonical equations of the straight line passing through two
given points M x (xlt y lt z x) and M 2 (x2, y 2t z2) have the form
* — x x_ u - ~ y i (2)
x 2 X\ y 2— yx Zz ~~~zi
Denoting by t each of the equal ratios in the canonical equations
(1), we obtain
x — x 0__y— y i _ z — z0_ 4
i — — — »•
I m n
Hence
x = x 0 + lt,
( y = y* + m t %
z = z Q+ nt.
(3)
These are the param etric equations of the straight line passing
through the point M0 (x0, y Qt z0) in the direction of the vector a = {/, m,
n\ . In equations (3), t is regarded as an a r b itra rily varying parameter,
and x , (/, z as functions of t\ the quantities x, y, z vary with / so
th a t the point M (x, y , z) moves along the given straight line.
If the parameter t is taken as the variable time, and equations
(3) are considered to be the equations of motion of the variable point M ,
then these equations will determine the uniform rectilinear motion
of the point M. When / = 0, the point M coincides with the point
M 0. The speed v of the point M is a constant given by the formula
v = J^/2 + m2 + n2.
§ 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line 191
1007. Write the canonical equations of the straight line

passing through the point Af, (2, 0, —3) and parallel:
1) to the vector a = {2, —3, 5};
2) to the straight line ^ ^ = ^— = — 1;
3) to the axis O.v; 4) to the axis Oy\ 5) to the axis Oz.
passing through the two given points:
1) (1, - 2 , 1). (3, 1, - 1 ) ; 2) (3, - I , 0), (1, 0, - 3 ) ;
3) (0, - 2 . 3), (3. - 2 , 1); 4) (1,2, - 4 ) , ( - 1 , 2 - 4 ) .
1009. Write the parametric equations of the straight line
passing through the point A l^ l, —1, —3) and parallel:
1) to the vector a = {2, —3, 4};
,. X— l I/ + 2 2— I .
2) to the l i ne— ,
3) to the 1ine jr = 3/ — 1, y = —2/ + 3 , z = 5/ + 2.
1010. Write the parametric equations of the straight line
passing through the two given points:
1) (3, —1, 2), (2, 1, 1); 2) (1, 1, —2), (3, —1, 0);
3) (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, - 2 ) .
1011. A straight line is drawn through the points
A4j (—6, 6, —5) and M2(12, —6, 1). Find the points in
which this line pierces the coordinate planes.
1012. Given the vertices A ( 3, 6, —7), 5 (—5, 2, 3),
C (4,—7 ,—2) of a triangle. Write the parametric equations
of the median drawn from the vertex C.
1013. Given the vertices A ( 3, —1, —1), B( 1, 2, —7),
C(—5, 14, —3) of a triangle. Find the canonical equations
of the bisector of the interior angle at the vertex B.
1014. Given the vertices A (2, —1, —3), 5(5, 2, —7),
C(—7, 11, 6) of a triangle. Find the canonical equations of
the bisector of the exterior angle at the vertex A.
1015. Given the vertices A ( 1, —2, —4), 5 (3 , 1, —3),
C(5, 1, —7) of a triangle. Find the parametric equations
of the altitude drawn from the vertex 5.
1016. Given the line
j 2x —5y “I- z —3 = 0,
\ x - \ - 2 y - z + 2 = 0.
Calculate the projections on the coordinate axes of a direc

tion vector a of this line. Find the general expression for
the projections on the coordinate axes of any direction
vector of this line.
1017. Given the line
2x — y + 3z + 1 = 0,
3x + y —z — 2 = 0.
Find the resolution (with respect to the basis I, j, k) of
a direction vector a of this line. Write the general
expression for the resolution (with respect to the basis i,
j , k) of any direction vector of this line.
through the point A + (2, 3, —5) and parallel to the line
I 3x — y + 22 — 7 = 0,
\ x + 3 y — 2z + 3 = 0.
1019. Write the canonical equations of the following
lines:
1) / x — 2 y + 3 z — 4 = 0, 2) f 5x+ y + z=0,
\ 3x + 2 y — 5 z — 4 = 0; \ 2x + 3 y — 2z + 5 = 0;
3) f x — 2y + 3z + 1 = 0,
\ 2 x + y — 4z — 8 = 0.
1020. Write the parametric equations of the following
lines:
1) J2x + 3 y — 2 — 4 = 0, 2) f x + 2 y — z — 6 = 0,
\ 3x — 5y + 2z + l = 0 , \ 2 x — y + z + 1= ° -
1021. In each of the following, prove that the given
lines are parallel:
x+ 2 y— 1 z , / X+ y z== ’
0 "I ----- ^ 2 - 7 and { x — y — 5 z — 8 = 0;
i x + 3 y + z + 2=0,
2) x = 2/ -j- 5, y = — 1 + 2 , z = t — 7 and | x — y — 3z—2= 0;
3) j x + y —3 z + 1 = 0 , I x + 2y- 52T-— 1 = 0.
and .9 = 0.
1 x - y + 2+ 3= 0 \ x — 2y
2y + 3z~
§ 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line m
1022. In each of the following, prove that the given,

lines are mutually perpendicular:
j 3*+ y 5z + 1 = 0 ,
* 1 -2 3 \ 2* + 3 f/-8 z + 3 = 0;
2 )x = 2t + \, y = 3t — 2, z = —6/-(-1 and
| 2x + y — 4z + 2 = 0,
\ 4 jc- _ 5 z + 4 = 0;
I x + y — 3z — 1 = 0 . I 2x+ y ■{ 2z-I-5 = 0,
3) \ 2x—y — 9z—2 = 0 and \ 2 x - 2 y - z + 2 = 0.
1023. Find the acute angle between the lines
x — 3 _y-\- 2 __ z x 4- 2 _</ — 3 __ z + 5
~T~ ~ ~T~~ 1 ~ V 2 ’
1024. Find the obtuse angle between the lines
x = 3t — 2, y = 0, z = —/ + 3;
x = 2t — 1, t/ = 0, z — t — 3.
1025. Determine the cosine of the angle between the
lines
j x — y — 4z—5 = 0, I x — 6 y - 6 z + 2 = 0,
\ 2x + y — 2z—4 = 0; \ 2x + 2y + 9z— 1 = 0 .
1026. Prove that the lines represented by the parametric
equations x = 21 —3, y = 3t —2, z —- —4/ + 6 and a: = / + 5>
y = — 4 / — 1, z — t — 4 intersect.
1027. Given the lines
x+ 2 _ y z— 1 x —3 y — 1 _ z — 7 .
~2~ —3 4 ’ / 4 2
find the value of / for which they intersect.

1028. Prove that the condition for the two lines
x — at _ y — bl = z — c, ^ x — az _ y — b2 _ z — c2
/, m, n, /2 m2 n2
to lie in the same plane can be written in the form
Qj b\ Cj Cj
li mi n, = 0.
^2 ^2 «2
7-2250
1029. Write the equations of the straight line which

passes through the point M 1(— 1, 2, —3), is perpendicular
to the vector a — {6, —2, —3} and cuts the line
x — 1 _ y + l _ z —3
3 2 —5 •
1030. Write the equations of the straight line which
passes through the point Af1( — 4, —5, 3) and cuts the
two lines
x+ l i/ + 3 z —2 x —2 __ y + 1 z— 1
~1T ~ ~^2 ~ ’ 2 '
1031. Write the parametric equations of the .common
perpendicular to the two straight lines
x = 3t — 7, (/— — 2/ + 4, z = 4
-and
x = / + 1, y = 2 t — 9, z = — / — 12.
1032. Given the equations of motion of the point
M(x, y, z):
x = 3 — At, y = b-\-Zt, z = — 2 + 1 2 /.
Determine the speed v of M.
1033. Given the equations of motion of the point
M (x, y, z):
x = 5 — 2t, y = —3 + 2/, z = 5 — /.
Determine the distance d covered by M in the interval
•of time from /x = 0 to t 2 = 7.
1034. Write the equations of motion of the point M (x, y, z)
which starts from M0(3, — 1, —5) and moves rectilinearly
and uniformly in the direction of the vector s = {— 2, 6, 3},
with a speed o = 21.
1035. Write the equations of motion of the point M (x, y, z)
which is in uniform rectilinear motion and has covered
the distance from A4X( —7, 12, 5) to M j(9, —4, —3) in
the interval of time from / x = 0 to t2 = 4.
1036. The point M (x, y, z) starts from M o(20, — 18, — 32)
and moves rectilinearly and uniformly in the direction
opposite to that of the vector s = {3 , —4, — 12), with a
§ 4 3 . M is c e lla n e o u s P ro b le m s 195
speed o = 26. Write the equations of motion of M and find

the position of M at the instant / = 3.
1037. The points M (x, y , z) and N (x, y, z) are in uni
form rectilinear motion: M starts from M0( —5, 4, —5) and
moves with a speed dai= 1 4 in the direction of Ihe vector
s = {3, —6, 2}, and N starts from N0( — 5, 16, —6) and
moves with a speed vN= 13 in the direction opposite to
that of the vector r = { — 4, 12, —3}. Write the equations
of motion for each of these two points; show that their
paths intersect, and find:
1) the point of intersection P of their paths;
2) the time in which the point M travels from Al0 to P;
3) the time in which the point N travels from N0 to P;
4) the lengths of the segments M 0P and N0P-
§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems Involving the Equation

of a Plane and the Equations of a Straight Line
x = 3 t — 2, y = — 4f + l, 2 = 4 / — 5
is parallel to the plane 4x — 3y — 62 — 5 = 0.
5.x — 3y + 22— 5 = 0,
2x— y — 2— 1 = 0
lies in the plane 4x — 3y-i~7z — 7 = 0.
1040. In each of the following, find the point of inter
section of the given line and the given plane:
1) = 2x+ t y + z~ 1==°;
3) i z | = S 1 = :£ T ^ ’ * + 2 < /- 2 z + 6 = 0.
passing through the point M 0(2, —4, — 1) and the midpoint
of that segment of the line
3x + 4j/+ 52—26 = 0,
{ 3x — 3y — 2z— 5 = 0
intercepted by the planes

5*4- Zy— 4z-f 11 = 0 , 5*4-3 y —42 —41 = 0.
1042. Find the equations Of the straight line passing
through the point M0(2, —3, —5) and perpendicular to the
plane 6*— 3y —52 4-2 = 0.
the point Af0(l, — 1, — 1) and perpendicular to the straight
line
x+ 3 _ y—1 z+ 2
T “ ~^3~ 4 *
the point M0(l. —2, 1) and perpendicular to the straight
line
I x — 2y + z — 3 = 0,
\ *4- y — z 4-2 = 0.
1045. Find the value of m for which the line
*4-1 y—2 z4-3
3 m —2
is parallel to the plane
x 3y 4~ 62 4" 7 = 0.
1046. What is the value of C for which the line
/ 3* 2y 4- 2 4" 3 = 0,
\ 4x— 3 y + 4 z + 1 = 0
is parallel to the plane
2x— y 4- Cz — 2 = 0?
, 047. What are the values of A and D for which the
line* = 3 4-41, y== i _ 4t z = _ 3 + /
the plane
•ieS ,n Ax + 2y — 4z + D = 0?
,048. « 'hat are the val“« of A and B for which the
pl3ê ^ + ^ 4 - 3 2 —5 = 0
§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems 197
is perpendicular to the line

x =--3 + 2/, t/ = 5 — 3/, z = - 2 - 2 / ?
1049. What are the values of / and C for which the line
x— 2 _ y + \ z —5
I
is perpendicular to the plane
3x—2y-\-Cz+ 1 = 0?
1050. Find the projection of the point P (2, — 1, 3) on
the line
x = 3t, y = 5t — 7, z = 2t '-2.
1051. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P(4, 1, 6)
with respect to the line
I x — y — 4 z + 12 = 0,
\ 2 x + y — 2z + 3 = 0.
1052. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P (2, —5,7)
with respect to the straight line passing through the points
M l (5, 4, 6) and M g ( —2, — 17, —8).
1053. Find the projection of the point P{5, 2, — 1) on
the plane
2x— y + 3z + 23 = 0.
1054. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P (1,3, —4)
with respect to the plane
3* -f y —2z = 0.
1055. In the plane Oxy, find a point P such that the
sum of its distances from the points A ( — 1, 2, 5) and
5(11, — 16, 10) will have the least value.
1056. In the plane Oxz, find a point P such that the
difference of its distances from the points (3, 2, —5) and
M2(8, —4, — 13) will have the greatest value.
1057. In the plane
2x — 3y + 3z— 17 = 0,
find a point P such that the sum of its distances from the
points A (3, —4, 7) and B ( —5, — 14, 17) will have the
least value.
7 —2 2 5 0 *
]98 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line
1058. In the plane

2x + 3 y - 4 z — 15 = 0,
find a point P such that the difference of its distances
from the points M ^ , 2, — 7) and M 2 (7, — 25, 10) will
have the greatest value.
1059. The point M (x,y, z) starts from M0(15, —24, — 16)
and moves recti 1inearly and uniformly, with a speed v = 12,
in the direction of the vector s = {— 2, 2, 1}. Show that
the path of M intersects the plane 3x-\-4y-\-7z— 17 = 0,
and find:
1) their point of intersection P;
2) the time in which the point M travels from Mo to P;
3) the length of the segment MoP-
1060. The point M (x, y , z) starts from M 0(28, —30, —27)
and moves rectilinearly and uniformly, with a speed y = 12.5,
along the perpendicular dropped from the point M 0 to the
plane 15x— 16y — 12z + 26 = 0. Write the equations of mo
tion of M and find:
1) the point P in which the path of M pierces this plane;
2) the time in which the point M travels from M0 to P;
3) the length of the segment M 0P-
1061. The point M {x, y, z) starts from Af0( ll , —21, 20)
and moves rectilinearly and uniformly, with a speed v = 12,
in the direction of the vector s = { — 1, 2, —2}. Find the
time in which M traces that segment of its path which is
intercepted by the parallel planes
2x -(- 3y -{- 5z—4 1 = 0 , 2x -f- 3y T- 5z -j- 3 1 = 0 .
1062. Find the distance d of the point P ( l , — 1,—2)
from the line
x + 3 _y + 2 __ z — 8
1063. Find the distance d from the point P ( 2, 3, — 1)

to the following lines:
t\ x — y z + 25 .
^ ~3~ T —2 ’
2) x = t + 1; y — t +2, z = i t + 13;
i 2x — 2 y + z + 3 = 0,
3) I 3x— 2y + 2z+ 17 = 0.
1064. Show that the lines
j 2x + 2y — z — l0 = 0, x + 7 _ y _ 5 _ 2 —9
\ a:— i j - z — 22 = 0, 3 - l ~ 4
are parallel, and calculate the distance cl between them.

1065. Write the equation of the plane which passes
through the point M l { \ , 2, —3) and is parallel to the
lines
x— 1 //+ 1 2— 1 x + 5 _ (/ —2 _ z + 3
~ 2~ ~ ^ 3 ~3~ ’ T ~ — —2 —I '

through the point M 0{x0, y», Zo) and is parallel to the lines
x — al y — bl 2 — Cx X — a2 a — b2 2 c2
m, ni /, m.2 n2

y — yo
0
1
0
1
/l = 0.
u m. n2
through the points M 2{xx, y v Zj), M 2(x2, y2, z2) and is
parallel to the line
X— a _ y — b 2— C
I rn ~ n
x— y — yi Z— Zl
x2- -*i y% y i Z, — Zl = 0.
l m n
1068. Find the equation of the pla
the line
x = 2t-\-\, / / = —3/-|-2, z = 2 /—3
and through the point M 2(2, —2, 1).
the line
x = x0+ ll, y = yo\-mt, z = z0+ n^
7**
and through the point M x (xXt y x, zx) can be put in the

form
x — xx y — yx
* 1 — *o y x— y 0
I m n
1070. Prove that the lines
2 ~= ~ —4— and x = 3t -j~ 7, y = 2t-f-2, z = - 2 t - \ - l
lie in the same plane, and find the equation of this plane.
1071. Prove that, if the two lines
x — ax y — bl z — cx x — a2 y — b2 z — c2
lx mx nx ’ l2 m2 n2
intersect the equation of the plane in which they lie can
be written in the form
x — ax
M
1
mx nx = 0 .
^2 m2 n2
the two parallel lines
x —2 y -(- 1 z—3 x — 1 y —2 z-j-3
3 = 2 = —2 ’ ~3~ = 2 = —2 '
the two parallel lines
x = ax + lt, y = bx -\-mt, z = cx + nt
and
x = a2+ l t , y = b 2 + mt, z = c2 + nt,
x —ax y — t>i
a2 ax b2 bx = 0.
I m
1074. Find the projection of the point C (3, —4, —2)
on the plane passing through the parallel lines
x —5 £/ — 6 z+ 3 x—2 £/ — 3 z - f-3
§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems 201
1075. Find the point Q symmetric to the point

P (3, —4, —6) with respect to the plane which passes through
Mi ( — 6, 1, - 5 ) , M 2(7, - 2 , - 1 ) and M3(10. - 7 , 1).
1076. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P ( — 3,2,5)
With respect to the plane passing through the lines
( x — 2y + 3z— 5 = 0, j 3.v-|- y - r 3z-\-7 = 0,
\ x — 2y — 4z + 3 = 0; ( 5.v —3y-\-2z + 5 = 0.
the line
jc = 3 /+ 1 , y = 2t+ 3 , z = — t — 2
j 2x— y + z — 3 = 0,
\ x Jr2y — z — 5 = 0.
through the line
*— _ y— y\ _
/i
x = x0 + lt, y = y0-\-mt, z = z0-)-nt,
x — x l y — yi
I m = 0.

the line
x — 1 _ y -f 2 _ 2— 2
~~2~ ^3^ ~~2
and perpendicular to the plane 3x + 2y — z — 5 = 0.
through the line
x = xo ■+It, y = y 0 + mt, z — zQ-\-nt
and perpendicular to the plane
Ax -H By + Cz f D = 0
1
X— x0 z—
o
I m rt
A B C
1081. Find the canonical equations of the straight line
which passes through the point Mo (3, — 2, —4), is parallel
to the plane
3x — 2 y — 3z — 7 = 0,
and cuts the line
x — 2 _t/ + 4 ___ z — 1
3 — ~ T •
1082. Find the parametric equations of the line parallel

to the planes
3 * + \2y — 32—5 = 0, 3*— Ay + 9z+-l = 0
and cutting the lines
x+ 5 y —3 z+ l x — 3 _y + 1 z—2
T — ~^4 ~ T ~ ’ ~^2 — 1 4 •

distance between the two given lines:
iv x + 7 _ y + 4 _ z + Z . x —2 \ _ y + b _ z —2 ,
U 3 ~ 4 — —2 ’ 6 —4 —1 ’
2) x = 2 t - 4 , y = — t + 4 , z = — 2 t — 1;
x = 4t —5, y = — 3 t + 5, z = — 5t +5;
3) i + 5 = y + 5 = z ^\ . a. = 6/4. 9> y _ _ 2 f t ------- 1 + 2.
§ 44. The Sphere

In rectangular cartesian coordinates, a sphere with centre C (a, p, Y)
and radius r is represented by the equation (x —a)2+ (y—P)* +
— Y)2 = r 2. A sphere of radius r and with centre at the origin
has the equation x 2 + y 2 + z2 = r2.

sphere determined by the stated conditions:
1) the sphere, of radius r --- 9, has its centre at C (0, 0, 0);

2) the sphere, of radius r = 2, has itscentre at C (5, —3, 7);
3) the sphere passes through the origin and lias its centre
at C (4, - 4 , - 2 ) ;
4) the sphere passes through the point A (2, — 1, —3)
and has its centre at C (3, —2, 1);
5) the points A (2, —3, 5) and B (4, 1, —3) are the
extremities of a diameter of the sphere;
6) the centre of the sphere is at the origin, and the
plane 16x— 15y— 12z-j-75 = 0 is tangent to the sphere;
7) the centre of the sphere is at C (3, —5, —2), and
the plane 2x — y — 3 z+ 11= 0 is tangent to the sphere;
8) the sphere passes through the three p o i n t s (3, 1 ,-3 ) ,
AM —2, 4, 1), M ,( — 5, 0, 0), and its centre lies in the
plane 2x + y —z + 3 = 0;
9) the sphere passes through the four points Afjfl, —2, — 1),
M 2( - 5, 10, - 1 ) , M 3 (4, 1, 11), and Af4( - 8, - 2 , 2).
1085. Write the equation of a sphere of radius r = 3
which touches the plane x +2i/4-2z-)-3 = 0 at the point
A M I, 1. - 3 ) .
1086. Calculate the radius R of the sphere which touches
the planes
Zx + 2 y - 6 z - 15 = 0, 3x + 2y — 6z + 55 = 0.
1087. A sphere has its centre on the line
I 2x + 4y — z — 7 = 0,
\ 4jc + 5i/ + z — 14 = 0
and touches the planes
x + 2y — 2z —2 = 0, x + 2y — 2z + 4 = 0.
Find the equation of the sphere.
1088. Find the equation of a sphere tangent to the two
parallel planes
6 x - 3 r / - 2 z - 3 5 = 0, 6x —3y —2z + 63 = 0,
if AM 5, — 1, — 1) is its point of contact with one of these
planes.
1089. Write the equation of the sphere with centre

C (2, 3, — 1) which cuts off a chord of length 16 on the
line
I 5x —4t/ + 3z + 20 = 0,
\ Zx—4y + z — 8 = 0.
1090. In each of the following, determine the coordi
nates of the centre C and the radius r of the given sphere:
1) (x — 3)2 + (y -f-2)2 4-(z —5)2 = 16;
2) ( * + l ) 2 + ( y - 3 ) 2 + z2 = 9;
3) A'2 + y24 z2 —4x —2t/ + 2z— 19 = 0;
4) x 2 + y2 + z2—6z = 0;
5) x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 20y = 0.
1091. Write the parametric equations of that diameter
of the sphere
x 2 -\-y2 + z2 + 2x — 6y + z — 1 1 = 0
which is perpendicular to the plane
5x — y + 2z— 17 = 0.
1092. Write the canonical equations of that diameter of
the sphere
x 2 + y2 + z2—* + 3(/-fz — 13 = 0
which is parallel to the line
x = 2 t — 1, y = — 3/ -f 5, z = 4f + 7.
point A (2, — 1, 3) is inside, on, or outside the given
sphere:
1) (* —3)2 + (|/+ 1 )2 + (z --1 )2 = 4;
2) ( x + 14)2-(-(t/— ll) 2 + (z + 12)2 = 625;
3) ( * - 6 ) 2+ ( t / - l ) 2+ ( z - 2 ) 2 = 25;
4) x2 + y2+ z2— 4x + 6y — 8z-J-22 = 0;
5) x2 + y2 + z2— x + 3y — 2z—3 = 0.

distance from the point A to the given sphere:
1) A (— 2, 6, —3), x2 + y2 + z2 = 4;
2) A ( 9, - 4 , - 3 ) , x2+ y2 + z2+ 1 4 ;c -1 6 (/-2 4 z +
+ 241 = 0 ;
3) A( 1, - 1 , 3), x 2 + y2 + z2—6x + 4y — lOz —62 = 0.

given plane cuts, touches or passes outside the given
sphere:
1) z = 3, x2 + y2 + z2— 6x + 2y — 1Oz i- 22 = 0;
2) y = \ , x2 + y2 + z2 + 4.t —2 y — 6 z + 1 4 = 0 ;
3 ) x = 5, x2 + y2 + z'- —2x -| Ay— 2z — 4 = 0 .
given line intersects, touches or passes outside the given
sphere:
1) x — 2 /+ 2, y z — t — 2,
x2 + y2 + z2 + a: —4// —3z + —= 0;
x — 5 _ jt _ z + 25
' 3 2 ~ —2 ’
x2 + y2 + z2—4.v —6y + 2z —67 = 0;

| 2 x - y-\-2z— 12 = 0,
\ 2x — Ay— z-e 6 = 0,
x2+ y2 + z2 —2.v + 2y 4z —43 = 0.
1097. On the sphere
( x - l)2 + (y-j-2)2 -f (z—3)2 = 25,
find the point A4j nearest to the plane
3 . V - 4 Z + 19 = 0,
and calculate the distance d of the point from this
plane.
1098. Find the centre C and the radius R of the circle

f (x — 3)2 -|- (t/ + 2)2 + (z — 1)2 ---100,
\ 2x — 2y — z -)-9 = 0.
1099. The points A (3, —2, 5) and 5 ( — 1, 6, —3) are
the extremities of a diameter of a circle. Write the equa
tions of this circle, given that it passes through the point
C (l, - 4 , 1).
1100. The point C (l, — 1, —2) is the centre of the
circle which cuts off a chord of length 8 on the line
j 2x — y + 2z — 12 = 0,
\ 4x — 7y — z + 6 = 0 .
Write the equations of the circle.
1101. Find the equations of the circle through the three
points (3, — 1, —2), M2 (1, 1 , - 2 ) and M 3 ( — 1, 3, 0).
1102. Given the two spheres
(x— m j 2 + (y— n j 2 + (z — pt )2 = R l
(x — m2)2^ ( y — n2)2 + (z — p2)2 = R l
which intersect in a circle lying in a plane t . Prove that
an equation of the form
cl[(x —mj)2 + (y —nt )2 + (2 — px)2— +
+ P {(•'•’—mi)2 + (y —n.,)2 + (2 —p2)2—/?*] = 0
can be made, by an appropriate choice of the numbers a
and p, to represent the plane x as well as every sphere
passing through the circle of intersection of the given
spheres.
the curve of intersection of the two spheres
2x2+ 2y2 -(- 2z2 + 3x — 2y + z — 5 = 0,
x 24- y2 z2— x + 3y —2z + 1 = 0.
1104. Write the equation of the sphere passing through
the origin and through the circle
( x2+ y 2 + z2= 25,
12x — 3y + 5z —5 = 0.
1105. Find the equation of the sphere passing through

the circle
I x2 + y2-i- z2—2x + 3y — 62 —5 = 0,
I 5%+ 2y — z —3 = 0
and through the point A ( 2, — 1, 1).
1106. Find the equation of the sphere passing through
the two circles
Ix2 + z2= 25, fx2+ z2= 16,
1 y = 2, 1 t/ = 3.
1107. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the
sphere x2 + yl z1= 49 at the point Mt (6, —3, —2).
1108. Prove that the plane
2* —6«/ + 3z —49 = 0
is tangent to the sphere
x2+ y2 4- z2= 49.
Calculate the coordinates of their point of contact.

1109. Find the values of a for which the plane
x y 2 =~ &
is tangent to the sphere
x2+ y2+ z2= 12.
1110. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the
sphere (x — 3)2+ (t/— l)2 -I- (z + 2)2= 24 at the point
A M - 1 . 3, 0).
1111. The point Mifxi, y t z() lies on the sphere x2 +
-|- t/2+ z2= r2. Write the equation of the tangent plane at
M t to the sphere.
1112. Find the condition that the plane
A x '4- By -|- Cz *F D = 0
should be tangent to the sphere
x2 + y 2+ z2= R2.
1113. The point M ,(*t, y lt zt) lies on the sphere
(x — a )2+ (y — p )2+ (z — y )2= r2.
Write the equation of the tangent plane at to the

sphere.
1114. Through the points of intersection of the line
x = 3 i — 5, y = 5 t — 11, z = —4/ + 9
and the sphere
(x + 2)2 + (y - 1 )* + (z + 5)2= 4 9 ,
tangent planes are passed to the sphere. Write the
equations of these planes.
1115. Write the equations of the tangent planes to the
sphere
x2+ y2 -\-z2= 9
which are parallel to the plane
x-\-2y — 2z-\- 15 = 0.
sphere
( x - S ) 2 + (y + 2)2+ ( z - 1)2= 2 5
which are parallel to the plane 4x + 3z— 17 = 0 .
sphere
x2-\-y2 + z2— 10x + 2y + 26z— 113=0
which are parallel to the lines
x+ 5 _ y —1 _ 2 + 13 x + 7 _ y - |- 1 _ z —8
2 —3 2 ’ 3 —2 0
1118. Prove that two planes tangent to the sphere

x2+ y2+ z2+ 2x — 6y + 4z— 1 5 = 0
can be passed through the line
18x— l l y + 8z—3 0 = 0 ,
\ x — y — 2z= 0;
write the equations of these planes.
1119. Prove that no tangent plane to the sphere
x2 + y2+ za—4x + 2y —4z + 4 = 0
$ 45. Equations in Vector Notation 209
1120. Prove that only one tangent plane to the sphere

,v-2 4 y- + z- —2x + 6y + 2z + 8 = 0
.v= 4/4-4, y = 3 / + l, z = t + 1;
write the equation of this plane.
§ 45. The Equations of the Plane, Straight

Line and Sphere in Vector Notation
As used below, the symbol M (r) means that r is the radius
vector of the point A1.
1121. Find the equation of the plane a which passes

through the point M0 (r0) and has n as its normal vector.
Solution *. Let At (r) be an arbitrary point. It lies in the plane
a if, and only if, the vector M 0M is perpendicular to n. The per
pendicularity condition for vectors is that their scalar product should
be zero. Hence, M 0M J_ tt if, and only if,
M j T - n = 0. (1)
Let us express the vector Af0Af in terms of the radii vectors of its
terminal and initial points:
A10M = r —r0.
Hence, from (1), we find
(r— r0) n = 0. (2)
This is the equation of the plane a in vector notation; it issatis
fied by the radius vector r of a point A1 if,and only if, A1lies in the
plane a; [r is called the current radius vector of equation (2).]
1122. Prove that the equation rn + D = 0 represents

a plane perpendicular to the vector n. Write the equation
of this plane in terms of coordinates, if n = { A , B, C}.
* Problems 1121 and 1129, whose solutions are given here, are
essential for a correct understanding of the remaining problems of
this section.
1123. Given a unit vector n° and a number p > 0.

Prove that the equation
rn° — p = 0
represents a plane perpendicular to the vector tt° and that
p is the distance from the origin to the plane. Write the
equation of this plane in terms of coordinates, if the vec
tor n° makes angles a, p, y with the coordinate axes.
1124. Calculate the distance d from the point Af,(r,) to
the plane rn° — p = 0. Also, express the distance d in
terms of coordinates, if
fi = {xi, r/i, z,}, /i°— {cosa, cos|}, cosy}.
1125. Given the two points Af,(r,) and M2(r2). Write
the equation of the plane through the point Af, and
perpendicular to the vector M iM 2. Also, write the equa
tion of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
r i = { x u y u z,},
Tz = {x2, y2, z2).
1126. Write the equation of the plane through the point
M o(r0) and parallel to the vectors a , and a 2. Also, write
the equation of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
t"o={xo< yo, Zo),
ai = [lu mt, ft,},
fl2= { /2, m2, ft2}.
1127. Write the equation of the plane through three
points M ,(r,), M 2(r2), Af3(r2). Also, write the equation
of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
r t = {xu yu zi), r2= {x2, y2, z2}, r3= { x 3, y 3, z3).
1128. Write the equation of the plane through the
point Af0 (r0) and perpendicular to the planes
T t i t D i ^ = 0 , /'ft2-(-ZJ2= 0.
Also, write the equation of this plane in terms of coordi
nates, given that
r3= {x0, yo, Zo}, » , = {A,, B t, C,}, ft2= { j4 2, B2, C2}.
§ 45. Equations in Vector Notation 211
1129. Prove that the equation

[(r —r 0)fl] = 0
represents the straight line through the point M0(r0) and
parallel to the vector a, i. e., that (his equation is satis
fied by the radius vector r of a point M (r) if, and only if,
M lies on the indicated straight line.
Proof. Consider an arbitrary point A1 (r). Let r satisfy the
given equation; by the rule for subtraction of vectors, r — r 0 =
= M 0M ; since [(r — r n) a ]= ^ 0 , it follows that [VI().l/ a]-= 0; hence,
the vector M QM is collinear with the vector a. This means that the
point M actually lies on the straight line which passes through M 0
in the direction of the vector a. Conversely, let Af lie on this line.
Then M 0M is collinear with a. It follows that [AJ0.Vf a ] - 0 ; but
M 0M = r — r 0; hence \(r — r 0) a ] —0. Thus, the given equation is sa
tisfied by the radius vector r of a point A1 if, and only il, M lies
on the indicated straight line (r is called the current radius vector
of the equation).

[ra] = m
represents a straight line parallel to the vector a.
1131. Prove that the parametric equation
r = r 0 1at,
where t is a variable parameter, represents a straight line
passing through the point M0(ro) (i. e., as t varies, the
point M (r) moves along this line). Write the canonical
equations of the line in terms of coordinates, if
^0 = {-ô, f/0 , Zo}> a = { / , m, n).
1132. A straight line passes through two points /W,(ri)
and M>(r2). Write its equations in the form indicated in
Problems 1129, 1130, 1131.
point M i(rj) and perpendicular to the line r = r 0 ^-at.
Also, write the equation of this plane in terms of coordi
nates, given that
n = {xiy yu Z\}, a = {l, m, n\.

point M 0(r0) and parallel to the lines (r a Ij = m 1, [ra2j = m 2 ■
point Mo(r0) and perpendicular to the planes
r n , + D t = 0, r n2+ D2= 0 .
1136. A straight line passes through the point Mo(r<>)
and is perpendicular to the plane rn + D = 0 . Write its
equation in parametric form. Also, write its canonical
equations in terms of coordinates, if
r<>={xo, y0, z0}, n = { A , B, C}.
1137. A straight line passes through the point M 0(ro)
and is parallel to the planes rrti + D t — 0, rn2+ D2= 0.
Write its equation in parametric form. Also, write itsca-
nonical equations in terms of coordinates, if
r0 = {*o, f/o, ô}. « i = { Ai , B\ , Ci}, tt2 = { A 2, B 2, C 2 }.
1138. Find the condition for the line r = ro + at to lie
in the plane r/i-f D = 0. Also, write this condition in
terms of coordinates, if
r0= { x 0, yo, zo}, a = {l, m, n}, n = { A , B, C}.
the line r = r o + Oi/ and parallel to the line
[ra2] = m.
1140. Find the condition for the two lines
r = r, + ai< and r — r2-\-a2t
to lie in the same plane.
1141. Find the radius vector of the point of intersec
tion of the line r = r0-\-at and the plane rn + D — 0.
Calculate the coordinates x, y, z of the point of intersec
tion, given that
r0= { x 0, y 0, zo), a = { / , m, n}, n = { A , B, C}.
1142. Find the radius vector of the projection of M i(ri)
on the plane rn + D = 0. Calculate the coordinates x, y, z
of this projection, if
r i= { x 1, yu Zi), n = { A , B, C}.
§ 45. Equations in Vector Notation 213
1143. Find the radius vector of the projection of the

point Mi (ri) on the line r = r0+ at. Calculate the coor
dinates x, y, z of this projection, if
r t = {xi, y u zi}, r 0={*o, yo, Zo}, a = {/, m, n}.
1144. Calculate the distance d of the point M i(r,) from
the line r — ra+ a t . Also, express the distance d in terms
of coordinates, if
r t = { x v y v 2,}> r0= { x t, «/„, z0}, « = {/, m, n}.
1145. Calculate the shortest distance d between the two
skew lines
r = r l + a lt and r = r 2+ a j .
Also, express this distance d in terms of coordinates, if
r, = {xv y v z,}, r 2= { x it yt, z2},
fl, = {/., m., «,}. a 2= {/2, m2, n2}.
( r - r 0)2 = tf2
represents a sphere with centre C (r0) and with radius
equal to R (i. e., that this equation is satisfied by the
radius vector r of a point M if, and only if, M lies on
the indicated sphere).
1147. Find the radii vectors of the points of intersec
tion of the line
r = at
and the sphere
r 2= R 2.
Calculate the coordinates of these points of intersection,
given that
a = {/, m, ti}.
1148. Find the radii vectors of the points of intersec
tion of the line
r = r, + at
and the sphere
( r - r u)* - R * .
Calculate the coordinates of these points of intersection,

given that
y»> 2o}< a = { l< m > «}•
1149. The point M ,(r,) lies on the sphere
( r - r 0)* = R*.
Find the equation of the tangent plane at Af, to the
sphere.
1150. Write the equation of the sphere which has its
centre at C (r,) and is tangent to the plane rn-\-D = 0.
Also, write the equation of this sphere in terms of coor
dinates, given that
r , = {xl> t/„ «,}, n = { A , B, C}.
1151. Write the equations of the planes which touch
the sphere
r* = R 2
and are parallel to the plane
r« + D = 0.
Also, write the equations of these tangent planes in terms
of coordinates, if
n = { A , B, C}.
1152. Through the points of intersection of the line
r = r 0 + a*
and the sphere
( r - r 0)2 = fl2,
tangent planes are drawn to the sphere. Write the equa
tions of these planes. Also, write their equations in terms
of coordinates, given that
r o= {x o’ y*> 2»}. « = { /. m < »}•
§ 46. Quadric Surfaces

The ellipsoid is defined as the surface represented, in a rectan
gular cartesian coordinate system, by the equation
§ 46. Quadric Surfaces 215
Equation (1) is called the canonical equation of an ellipsoid.

The quantities a, b, c are the semi-axes of an ellipsoid (see Fig. 47).
If the semi-axes are all of a different length, the ellipsoid is refer
red to as triaxial; if any two of them are equal, the ellipsoid is
a surface of revolution. For example, when a^=b, Oz will be the
axis of revolution. When a = b < c , the ellipsoid is called a prolate
ellipsoid of revolution; when a = b > c , it is called an oblate ellips*

oid of revolution. In the case a = b = c, the ellipsoid is a sphere.
The hyperboloids are defined as the surfaces represented, in
a rectangular cartesian coordinate system, by the equations
*2 ( 2)
a2'r 6s
x2 y2 z2
(3)
a2+ b*!~ c2
The hyperboloid represented by equation (2) is referred to as
a hyperboloid of one sheet (Fig. 48), and that represented by equa
tion (3), as a hyperboloid of two sheets (Fig. 49); equations (2) and
(3) are said to be the canonical equations of the respective hyper
boloids. The quantities a, 6, c are called the semi-axes of a hyper
boloid. Fig. 48 shows the semi-axes a and b of the hyperboloid of
one sheet represented by equation (2). In the case of the hyperbo
loid of two sheets represented by equation (3), one of the semi-axes
(namely, c) is shown in Fig. 49. When a = 6, the hyperboloids rep
resented by equations (2) and (3) are surfaces of revolution.
The paraboloids are the surfaces represented, in some rectan
gular cartesian coordinate system, by the equations
x*
(4)
P
X2
(5 )
p
Fig. 50. Fig. 51.
# 46. Quadric Surfaces 217
where p and q are positive numbers (called the parameters of a pa

raboloid). The paraboloid represented by equation (4) is referred to
as an elliptic paraboloid (Fig. 50), and that represented by equation
(5), as a hyperbolic paraboloid (Fig. 51). Equations (4) and (5) are
said to be the canonical equations of the respective paraboloids.
In the case p = q , the paraboloid represented by equation (4) is a sur
face of revolution (about Oz).
Let us now consider the transformation of space referred to as
uniform compression (or uniform elongation).
fig- 52.
Take any plane and denote it by the letter a; also, choose some
positive number q. Let A1 be an arbitrary point (in space) not lying
in the plane a, and A10 the foot of the perpendicular dropped from
the point M onto the plane a. Next, move the point A1 along the
line M M 0 to a new position M' such that the condition
M 0M' = q • M 0M
will be satisfied and the point M will remain on the same side of
the plane a as before the motion (Fig. 52). Let all points in space
not lying in the plane a be subjected to this procedure; let the points
situated in the plane a remain in their original positions. Thus, all
points in space (except those lying in the plane a) will undergo a
shift such that the distance of each point from the plane a will
change to q times its former value. This motion of points in space
is referred to as a uniform compression of space towards the plane a;
the number q is called the coefficient of compression.
Let there be given a surface F\ under a uniform compression of
space, the points of which F is made up will move to new positions
so as to make up a surface F ' . We shall agree to say that the sur
face F* has been obtained from F by a uniform compression of space.
Many quadric surfaces (in fact, all except the hyperbolic paraboloid)
can be obtained from surfaces of revolution by uniform compressions.
Example. Prove that an arbitrary triaxial ellipsoid,
_x l+ y l+ lz =l
a2 ' b2 ' c2 ’
can be obtained from the sphere
x 2 T*y 2 + z2= a 2
by two consecutive uniform compressions of space towards the coor

dinate planes: towards the plane Oxy with coefficient of compression
Q
qx = — , and towards the plane Oxz with coefficient of compression
b
q*= T -
Proof. Let us perform a uniform compression of space towards the
plane Oxy ^w ith coefficient of compression . and let this
compression carry a point M (jc, y , z) into M ' ( x ' t y ' , z'). Let us
express the coordinates x \ y \ z' of the point M ' interm s of the
coordinates x t y, z of M. Since the line M M ' is perpendicular to
the plane Oxy, it follows that x' = x , y' = y. On the other hand,
since the distance from the point M ' to the plane Oxy is equal to
the distance from the point M to Oxy miltiplied by the number
c c
<7i= — , follows that z' = — z. We thus obtain the required expres
sions:
*' = *. y ' = y , z' = -^-z, (6)
or
*= y = y', z = — z'. (7)
Suppose that M (x , y, z) is an a rbitra ry point of the sphere

*2 + y 2 + z2 = a2.
Replacing x, y, z by their expressions (7), we get
*'*+»'*+-^2'* = a*.
whence x'2 y'2 z ' 2 __
a* + ‘
Consequently, the point M ' ( x \ y ' f z’) lies on an ellipsoid of revolu
tion. If we now perform, in an analogous manner, a compression
of space towards the plane Oxz according to the formulas
*'=*", y' = j y , 2' = 2*.

we shall obtain a triaxial ellipsoid, namely, the one whose equation
has been given.
Note also that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the hyperbolic
paraboloid are ruled surfaces, th a t is, surfaces made up of straight
lines; these straight lines are called the rectilinear generators of the
respective surfaces.
The hyperboloid of one sheet
x2 y2 z2 ,
has two systems of rectilinear generators, represented by the equations
where a and p are some numbers, not both zero. The hyperbolic
paraboloid
P 9
also has two systems of rectilinear generators, represented by the
equations
K h - h ) -
A conical surface, or cone, is the surface generated by a moving
straight line (the generator) which passes through a fixed point S and
always intersects a given curve L. The point S is called the vertex
of the cone; the curve L is called its directing curve.
A cylindrical surface, or cylinder, is the surface generated by a
moving straight line (the generator) which has a fixed direction and
always intersects a given curve L (the directing curve).
1153. Show that the plane x —2 = 0 intersects the

ellipsoid
in an ellipse; find the semi-axes and vertices of this ellipse.

1154. Show that the plane z -\-1 = 0 intersects the hyper
boloid of one sheet
x1 y1 , z2 .
32 18 ' ~2 ~ 1
in a hyperbola; find the semi-axes and vertices of the

hyperbola.
1155. Show that the plane t/ + 6 = 0 intersects the
hyperbolic paraboloid
in a parabola; find the parameter and vertex of this

parabola.
1156. Find the equations of the projections (on the coor
dinate planes) of the section of the elliptic paraboloid
y2 + z2 = x
by the plane
x + 2y —2 = 0.
1157. Identify the curve which is the section of the
ellipsoid
y2 i/2 y2
-124 -' — 4 -- =1
4 ^ o
by the plane
2x—3y + 4z— 11= 0,
and find the centre of the curve.
1158. Identify the curve which is the section of the
by the plane
3 x — 3y
j-4z + 2 = 0,
and find the centre of the curve.
1159. In each of the following, identify the curve rep
resented by the given equation and find its centre:
1)
( 3x — y-r-6z— 1 4 = 0 ;
■ll Hi = 22,
4 3
2)
x — 2y -f2 = 0;
3)
9 x — 6 j/ + 2 z — 2 8 0.
1160. Find the values of m for which the plane
x + mz— 1 = 0 intersects the hyperboloid of two sheets
x 2 + y2— z2 = — 1
1) in an ellipse, 2) in a hyperbola.
$ 46. Quadric Surfaces 221
1161. Find the values of tn for which the plane

x-\-my—2 = 0 intersects the elliptic paraboloid
1) in an ellipse; 2) in a parabola.
1162. Prove that the elliptic paraboloid
has a point in common with the plane

2x — 2y —z — 10 = 0,
and find the coordinates of that point.
1163. Prove that the hyperboloid of two sheets

5x -j- 2z + 5 = 0,
»
1164. Prove that the ellipsoid
_X2j- LH2_i_ 7_2 = l
81 ' 3 6 ^ 9

4x—3y -p 12z—54 = 0,
1165. Determine the value of m for which the plane
x —2y —2z + m = 0
is tangent to the ellipsoid
x2 , y8 . z2 _ i
144 36^9
1166. Write the equation of the plane which is perpen

dicular to the vector n = { 2, — 1, —2} and touches the
elliptic paraboloid
1167. Find the equations of the tangent planes to the

ellipsoid
4.v2 + 16y 2 8z2 — 1
x —2y + 2z + 17 = 0;
calculate the distance between these tangent planes.
1168. Find the equation of the surface into which the
sphere
x 2 + y2 + z2 = 25
is transformed by a uniform compression of space towards
the plane Oyz, if the coefficient of compression is equal to j - .
1169. Find the equation of the surface into which the
ellipsoid
y2 t/2 ^2
—-- L — -- L — = 1
64 ^ 25 ^ 16
is transformed by three consecutive uniform compressions

of space towards the coordinate planes Oxy, Oxz, and Oyz,
3 4 3
if the respective coefficients of compression are , -g- and -j .
1170. Determine the coefficients and q2 of two con
secutive uniform compressions of space towards the coor
dinate planes Oxy, Oxz, which transform the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 25
into the ellipsoid
y2 fj2 or2
25 ^ 16 ' 4
1171. Find the equation of the surface generated by

revolving the ellipse
1. x= 0
about the axis Oy.
Solution *. Let M (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in space, and
let C denote the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the point M
Problem 1171 is solved here as a typical one.

to the axis Oy (Fig. 53). By revolving this perpendicular about the

axis 0 y t the point Af can be moved to the plane Oyz\ in this posi
tion, we shall denote it by N (0, Y , Z). Since CM = CN and
C M = j / ' F + z 5. CN = | Z | , it follows that
| Z| = (1)
It is also evident that
Y = y. (2)
The point M lies on the required surface of revolution if, and only
if, N lies on the given ellipse, that is, if
Y1 .A 2= 1 . (3)
b2 + c2
Hence, by (1) and (2), we obtain the equation for the coordinates
of the point M:
y 2 x2 -\- z2
T2+ ~ c2~ (4)
From the foregoing, it is clear that this equation is satisfied if,

and only if, the point M lies on the required surface of revolution.
Consequently, equation (4) is the desired equation of this surface.

revolving the ellipse
X 2 U 2
- 4 - —= 1’
a2 ' b2
z= 0
about the axis Ox.

revolving the hyperbola
about the axis Oz.

1174. Prove that the triaxial ellipsoid represented by
the equation
can be obtained by revolving the ellipse
- + y- = 1
a2 ' b 2 ’
Z= 0
about the axis Ox and by a subsequent uniform compres

sion of space towards the plane Oxy.
1175. Prove that the hyperboloid of one sheet repre
can be obtained by revolving the hyperbola
y = o
about the axis Oz and by a subsequent uniform compres
sion of space towards the plane Oxz.
1176. Prove that the hyperboloid of two sheets repre
x2 . y 2 z2 .
& + T2~ c* — — 1
can be obtained by revolving the hyperbola
0=0
$ 46. Quadric Surfaces 225

1177. Prove that the elliptic paraboloid represented by
the equation
can be obtained by revolving the parabola

| x 2 = 2pz,
I >J=-°
1178. Find the equation of the surface generated by a
parabola which moves so that the plane of the parabola
is always perpendicular to the axis Oy, the axis of the
parabola does not change its direction, and the vertex of
the parabola slides along another parabola, represented by
the equations
( y 2=--.— 2qz,
1 *=0.
The moving parabola is represented, in one of its posi
tions, by the equations
j x 2 = 2pz,
\ y = o.
z = xy
represents a hyperbolic paraboloid.
1180. In each of the following, find the points of inter
section of the surface and the straight line:
* —3 _ y — 4 _ 2+ 2
^ fl + lb + V - 1 and 3 ~ —6 ~ 4
x _ .'/ _ * + 2 .
^ f e + l T - l b 1 aild 4 — —3 4 ’
_y —2‘ _2 + 3 t
3) £ + £ = z and i+ 1 -T ~ ’
A'2 y —2 _ 2 + 1
4) 9 7 = z and 3 — 2 2 •
1181. Prove that the plane

2 x — \2y —z + 16 = 0
intersects the hyperbolic paraboloid
x2— Ay2 = 2z
in its rectilinear generators. Write the equations of these
rectilinear generators.
1182. Prove*that the plane
Ax — by— lOz—20 = 0
intersects the hyperboloid of one sheet
in its rectilinear generators. Write the equations of these

rectilinear generators.
1183. Show that the point A f(l, 3, — 1) lies on the
Ax2 — z2 = y
and write the equations of its rectilinear generators pas-
ing through M.
1184. Write the equations of those rectilinear generators
of the hyperboloid of one sheet
x2 , y2 z2 _i
4* 9" T6~~ 1

6x + 4t/ + 3z— 17 = 0.
1185. Show that the point A ( —2, 0, 1) lies on the
and determine the acute angle formed by its rectilinear

generators passing through A.
1186. Write the equation of the cone whose vertex is
at the origin and whose directing curve is given by the
$ 46. Q u a d r i c S urfaces 227
equations:
V2 72
( -x - “+1 -r- = 1,
n
i) \ 02 +■*b'= » . 2) { ' c‘
( 2 = C\ ( y= h
z2 = xy
represents a cone with vertex at the origin.
1188. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at
the origin and whose directing curve is given by the
equations
f x2- 2 z + 1 = 0,
\ y - z - v i= o .
1189. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is al
the point (0, 0, c) and whose directing curve is given by
the equations
2 = 0.
1190. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at

the point (3. — 1, —2) and whose directing curve is given
by the equations
f x2 + y2— z2 = 1,
\ x — y 2 = 0.
1191. The axis Oz is the axis of a circular cone with
vertex at the origin; the point M 1(3, —4, 7) lies on this
cone. Write the equation of the cone.
1192. The axis Oy is the axis of a circular cone with
vertex at the origin; the elements of this cone make an
angle of 60° with the axis Oy. Write the equation of the cone.
1193. The straight line
x —2 _y + 1 _ 2 + 1
is the axis of a circular cone whose vertex lies in the

plane Oyz\ the. point A f ^ l / l , — y ) lies on this cone.
Write the equation of the cone.
1194. Write the equation of a circular cone which has

the coordinate axes as its elements.
at the point S (5, 0, 0) and whose elements are tangent
to the sphere
x 2 + y2 + 22 = 9.
at the origin and whose elements are tangent to the sphere
( x + 2 ) 2 + ( y - \ ) 2+ ( z - 3 ) * = 9
at 5 (3, 0, — 1) and whose elements are tangent to the
ellipsoid
1198. Find the equation of the cylinder whose elements

are parallel to the vector / = { 2, —3, 4 } and whose direct
ing curve is represented by the equations
I x 2 + y 2 = 9,
\ 2 = 1.
1199. Find the equation of the cylinder whose directing
curve is represented by the equations
I x 2 —y 2 = 2,
\x+ y+ z= 0
and whose elements are perpendicular to the plane of the
directing curve.
1200. A cylinder with elements perpendicular to the
x + y —22 —5 = 0
plane is circumscribed about the sphere
x 2 + y2 4- z2 = 1.
Find the equation of this cylinder.
1201. A cylinder with elements parallel to the line
x = 2t — 3, y = — t-\- 7, 2 = —2 / + 5
is circumscribed about the sphere

x2 + y 2 + z2— 2x + fy-\- 2z—3 = 0.
Find the equation of this cylinder.
1202. Find the equation of the circular cylinder which
passes through the point S(2, — 1, 1) and has as its axis
the line
* = 3/ + l, y = - 2 t - 2 , z = t +2.
1203. Find the equation of the cylinder circumscribed
about the two spheres
(x — 2)2+ ( y — l)2 + z 2 = 25, x2 + y2 -f-z2 = 25.
A P P E N D IX
THE ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY OF DETERMINANTS
§ I. Determinants of the Second Order and Systems of

Two Equations of the First Degree in Two Unknowns
Consider a square array of four numbers a,, a ,, ft,, ft,:
0)
The number a,ft2— a2ft, is referred to as the d eterm inant of the sec-
ond order associated with the array (1). This d eterm ina nt is deno-
a. b.
I
a2 b2
; accordingly,
\ ai bx
\a2 b2
—a\b2 a2b\' (2)
The numbers a , , a 2, bx, b2 are called the elements of the determ i

nant. The elements a x, b2 are said to lie on the principal diagonal
of the determ inant, and the elements a 2, bx, on the secondary diago
nal. Thus, a determ inant of the second order is equal to the product
of the elements on the principal diagonal minus the product of the
elements on the secondary diagonal.
For example,
I—3 2 I
= —3*4 — (—1) -2 = —10.
—14
Consider the system of two equations
a xx + bxy = hlt
W + b2y = h2
in two unknowns x, y. (The coefficients a,, bxt a 2, b2 and the con
stant terms hxt h2 are assumed to be known.) Let us introduce the
notation
I a\ b\ I ht ft,
A= A,= (4)
Ia2bt ' a, ft. V I** ht
The determ inant A formed from the coefficients of the unknowns of
the system (3) is called the determ inant of the system. The determi-
§ /. Dete rmi nants of the Second Order 231
nant Ax is obtained by replacing the elements of the first column

of A by the constant terms of the system (3); the determinant Ay
is obtained from A by replacing the elements of the second column
by the constant terms of the system (3).
If A ^ 0, the system (3) has a unique solution, which is deter
mined by the formulas
x (5)
If A = 0, but at least one of the determinants A*, A^, is different

from zero, the system (3) has no solution at all (and the equations
of the syslem are said to be inconsistent).
Finally, if A = 0 and also AX= A =0, the system (3) has infi
nitely many solutions (in this case/ one equation of the system is
a consequence of the other).
Let h x = //2= 0 in equations (3); then the system (3) will be of
the form
I a xx + bxy = 0,
( 6)
) a2x + b2y = 0.
A system of equations which has the form (6) is called a homo
geneous system; such a system always possesses the zero solution
x = 0 , y = 0. If A ^ 0, this solution is unique; but if A = 0, the
system (6) has, in addition, an infinite number of solutions other
than the zero solution.
1204. Evaluate the determinants:
1) — 1 4 . 2) 3 —4 3) 3 6
—5 2 * 1 2 ’ 5 10
4) 3 16 5> a o i 6) i i
* 1
5 10 a" a
7) a+ 1 b —c .
»
8) cosa— sin a
fl* “f“(2 a b — ac sina cosa
1205. Solve the equations:

i)2 x—4 2) 1 4
= 0; = 0;
1 4 3x x -(- 22
3) x x -i- 1 4) 13* —1 3_.
= 0; 2’
—4 x -\-1 * 2x — 3
8»
232 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants
5) x+l —5 _n- 6) x* —4 - 1 _n-

—u,
1 x—1 x—2 x + 2
7) 4 sin x 1 _n- 8) cos 8* —sin 5jc
1 cos x sin 8x cos 5x
1206. Solve the inequalities:
1) 3jc— 3 2 2) 1 x+5
>0; <0;
* 1 2 x
3) 2x— 2 1 4) x 3x
>5; <14.
lx 2 4 2x
1207. In each of the following, find all solutions of the

given system of equations:
| 3 * -= 1 3 , 2)1[ 3y — 4 x — l, 3) ( 2x — 3y =6 ,
l)i
II 2x + 7f/ = 81; I[ 3x + 4 y = 18; \ 4* —6i/ = 5;
| x —y V 3=1, 3) | ax + by = c.
4 )i
Sf
O
1
i1 x V 3 - 3 y = V3\
II
6>j| x V 5 - 5 y = V6 ,
1I x — y Y 5 = 5.
1208. Determine the values of a and b for which the
system
f 3x — ay = 1,
\ 6x + 4 y = b
1) has a unique solution;
2) has no solutions;
3) has infinitely many solutions.
1209. Determine the value of a for which the homo
geneous system
( I3x + 2y = 0,
I 5x + ay=Q
has a non-zero solution.
$ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations 233
§ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations

of the First Degree in Three Unknowns
Consider a system of two homogeneous equations,
a tx + bly + ciz - 0 ,
{ a,x + b2ii -f c2z = 0 , ( 1)
in three unknowns //, z. Let us introduce the notation

bx c,
, A2-- °i c\ , A3-- °\
b2 c2 a 2 c2 a2 b2
If at least one of the determinants A,, A2, A3 is different from zero,
all solutions of the system (1) will be determined by the formulas
* —Axt, y —— A2/, z = A3/,
where t is an arbitrary number; each separate solution will be ob
tained by assigning some definite value to t.
For practical calculations, it will be helpful to observe, that
the determinants Alt A2, A3 are obtained by striking out, in turn,
each column of the array
If the three determinants Alt A2, A3 are all equal to zero, then the
coefficients of the equations of the system (1) are all in proportion.
In this case, one equation of the system is a consequence of the
other, and the system reduces in fact to a single equation. Such
a system naturally has an infinite number of solutions; to obtain
one of these, it is necessary to assign arbitrary values to two
unknowns and find the third unknown from the equation.
1210. In each of the following, find all solutions of the

given system of equations:
1) j 3x — 2i/ + 5z = 0, 2) f 3x —2y-\- z = 0 ,
\ x + 2y — 3z = 0\ \ 6x — 4y + 3z=0;
7) I x + 2 y — z = 0, 8) j 3x — 5y+ z = 0,
{\ 3x — 5y -f- 2z = 0; \ x + 2y— 2 = 0;
8 -2250
9) I z -0 , 10) | ax -f y +- z = 0,
2 = 0; \ x — y +- az = 0;
2 = 0, 12) 1 x — 3y + az=0.
3z = 0; \ bx-± 6 y — z = 0.
§ 3. Determinants of the Third Order

Consider a square array of nine numbers, a lt a2, a 3, blt b2t bi9
ci» c2t c9: / \
f a, bx cx \
c, . (1)
b, c j
The determinant of the third order associated with the array (1)
is the number denoted by the symbol
a x bx cx
a2 b2 c2
ai b$ cs
and determined by the relation
3i bi cx
2 b2 = a xb2cz + bxc2az + cxa2bs— cxb2a2— bxa2ct — a xc2b2. (2)
bi Cs
The numbers a,, a2> as, bx, b2. b8, clf c2, c, are called the elements
of the determinant. The diagonal containing the elements a x, b29 ct
is called the principal diagonal of the determinant; the elements a „
b2, cx form the secondary diagonal. For practical computations, it
will be helpful to note that the first three terms in the right-hand
K . - : c\ l a<>..
.y *
a; / \
*2 \.
/
\a/ % V
member of (2) are the products of the elements taken three at a time
as shown by the various dashed and dotted lines in the left-hand
diagram below. The remaining three terms of the right-hand member
of (2) are obtained by m ultiplying the elements three at a time as
shown by the various lines in the right-hand diagram, and then
changing the sign of each resulting product.
§ 4. Properties of Determinants 235
In Problems 1211-1216, evaluate the given determi

nants of the third order.
1211. 3 —2 1 1212. 1 2 0
—2 1 3 0 1 3
2 0 - -2 5 0 --1
1213. 2 0 5 1214. 2 —1 3
1 3 16 -2 3 2
0 - -1 10 0 2 5
1215. 2 1 0 1216. 0 a a
1 0 3 . a 0 a
0 5 —1 a a 0
§ 4. Properties of Determinants
Property 1. The value of a determinant is unchanged if all its
columns are changed into rows so that each row is replaced by the
like-numbered column; that is,
ai b, Cl a. a.
*2 = b2
a* b, C, c2
Property 2. The interchange of two columns or two rows of
a determinant is equivalent to multiplying the determinant by —1.
For example,
b, Cl ci b,
a 2 b, ^2 = — a2 c2 b,
b, ^3 a* Ci b.
Property 3. If a determinant has two identical columns or two
identical rows, the value of the determinant is zero.
Property 4. Multiplying all elements of a column or row by any
one number k is equivalent to multiplying the determinant by this
number k . For example,
kax b, Cx b. C\
ka2 bt c2 = k a2 b2 C2
kat b. Ci C*i b. Ci
Property 5. If all elements of a column or row are zero, the
determinant is zero. This property constitutes a special case (in
which k = 0 ) of the preceding property.
8**
Property 6. If the corresponding elements of two columns or two

rows of a determ inant are proportional, the determinant is zero.
Property 7. If each element in the nth column (or the nth row)
of a determ inant is the sum of two terms, the determ inant may be
expressed as the sum of two determ inants, of which one has in its
n th column (or row) the first of the above-mentioned terms, while
the other determinant has the second terms; the elements of the
remaining columns (or rows) are the same for all the three determi
nants. For example,
a.i +1a [i bi ci a. b c a"i bt c,
i i i
a 29 +' a 29 b2 c2 = a 29 b2 c2 + a* bt ct
b c a., b c
3 3 3 s s a 3
a * bs c.
Property 8. If to the elements of a column (or row) of a deter
minant are added the corresponding elements of another column (or
row), multiplied by any one number, the value of the determinant
remains unchanged. For instance,
a x + k b x bx c, b> Cl
a2 + kb2 b2 c2 = C2
+ kb3 b9 cs b.
Further properties of determinants are connected with the concept
of cofactors and minors. The determinant obtained from a given
determinant by striking out the row and the column, in the inter
section of which a particular element lies, is called the minor of
that element.
The cofactor of any element of a determinant is equal to the
minor of that element taken with its sign unchanged if the sum of
the position numbers of the row and column in which the element
lies is even, or taken with opposite sign if this sum is odd.
We shall denote the cofactor of an element by the capital letter
and subscript corresponding to the letter and subscript of the
element.
Property 9. The determinant
at bx Cj
A= a2 b2 c2
flj b2 c3
is equal to the sum of the products of the elements in any column

(or row) by their cofactors. In other words, we have the following
relations:
A = alAl + a t Ai + a2A9, A = a 1A l + bIB l + clCi,
A = blB l + b2B 2 -f- b9B9, A = a2A 2 + b2B 2 + c2C2,
A = ciCl + c2C2 + c9C9t A = a9A 9 + b9B9 + c9C3.
§ 4. Properties of Determinants 237
In each of Problems 1217-1222, prove the validity of

the given relation without expanding the determinants.
1217. 3 2 1 3 2 7
CO
CM
CM
—2 3 2
1
1
4 5 3 4 5 11
Hint. Use the property 8.
1218. 1 —2 3 1 0 0
—2 1 —5 = —2 —3 1
3 2 7 3 8 —2
Hint. Use the property 8.
1219. bi Ci
b‘2 ^2
ox+ aa2 bx 4 a&2 cx
Hint. Use the properties 7, 3, 6
1220. Pî 4- Yr i bi Cl
Pb2 + b2 c2
P&3 fV c3 b*
CO
Hint. Use the properties 7 and 6.
1221. sin2a cos2a cos 2a

sin2 (J cos2 p cos 2p = 0.
si y
sin2 cos2 y cos 2y
1222. 0 —a — b
a 0 —c : 0 .
b e 0
In Problems 1223-1227, evaluate the determinants by
using the property 9 alone.
1223. 1 1 —1 1224. 1 17 —7
1 —1 1 . — 1 13 1
—1 1 1 1 7 1
1225. 2 0 5 1226. 1 2 4
1 3 16 . —2 1 —3
0 —1 10 3 —4 2
1227. 1 1
r
1228. By applying the property 8, transform the deter
minants given in Problems 1223-1227 so as to obtain
two zero elements in some column (or row) of each deter
minant, and then evaluate the determinants by using the
property 9.
In each of Problems 1229-1232, evaluate the given de
terminant.
1229. 0 a b 1230. 0 sin a cot a
a 0 a . sin a 0 sin a
b a 0 cot a sin a 0
1231 X y z 1232. a b c
X2 y 2 z1 • c a b .
X3 y3 z3 b c a
1233. Prove the validity of the relations:
1) 1 sin a sin2 a
1 sin p sin2 p =
1 sin y sin2 y
= (sin a — sin P) (sin P — sin y) (sin y — sin a);
2) 1 1 1
_ sin (a—P)sln (P —y) sin (y—«)
tan a tan P tan y
cos*a cos* p cos* y
tan2 a ta n 2 P tan 2 y
1234. Solve the equations:
CO
2)
1
1) 1 3 x
*
4 5 — 1 = 0; 2 —1 3 = 0.
2 —1 5 * + 10 1 1
§ 5. A System of Three First-degree Equations 239
1235. Solve the inequalities:

3 —2 1 2) 2 x+ 2 — 1
1 a: — 2 < 1 ; 1 1 -2
-1 2 - 1 5 -3 v
§ 5. Solution and Analysis of a System of Three

First-degree Equations in Three Unknowns
Consider the system of three equations
( a lx + bxy + clz = hl ,
^ a2x + b2y + c2z = h2, (1)
I a3x -f- b3y -f- c3z = //3
in the unknowns x, y, z. (The coefficients a,, b,, . . . , c3 and the

constant terms /i,, h2% h3 are assumed to be known.) Let us use the
notation
fll *1 It i b i c, a, /i, c,
a 2 b2 c2 h2 b2 c2 . A„ = a2 h2 c2
ai b3 cz h 3 bs c3 lh Cj
6, hi
a2 b2 h2
b. h.
The determinant A formed from the coefficients of the unknowns
of the system (I) is called the determinant of the system.
It will be helpful to note that the determinants Ax, Ay, and Ar
are obtained from A by replacing its first, second, and third column,
respectively, by the column of the constant terms of the given
system.
If A ^ O , the system (1) has a unique solution, which is deter
mined by the formulas
Suppose now that the determinant of the system is zero: A = 0.

If A = 0, but at least one of the determinants Ax, Ay , A^ is differ
ent from zero, the system (1) has no solution. If ^ = 0 and also
Ax = 0, Aj, = 0, A~ = 0, the system (1) may, as before, have no solu
tion at arl; but if, under these conditions, the system (1) has at least
one solution, then the system has an infinite number of different
solutions.
A homogeneous system of three first-degree equations in three

unknowns is a system of the form
{ a ,x + bly + c lz = 0.
^ a2x + 6ji/ + CjZ= 0, (2)
V a3x + b3y + c , z = 0 ,
that is, a system of equations whose constant terms are all equal to
zero. Obviously, such a system always possesses the solution x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0, which is called the zero solution. If A ^ 0, this solu
tion is unique. But if A = 0, the homogeneous system (2) has an
infinite number of non-zero solutions.
In each of Problems 1236-1243, show that the given

system of equations has a unique solution, and find this
solution.
1236. x + y — z — 36, 1237. x + 2y-\- z = 4,
x -hz — y = 13, 3x — 5y + 3 z = 1,
, y + z — x = 7. 2x + 7 y — z — 8.
1238. 2x — Ay + 9z = 28, 1239. j[ 2 x + y = 5,
7x -|- 3y —6z = — 1, jJ x -j- 3z = 16,
. 7jc-f-9y —9z = 5. 11 5y — z = 10.
1240. f x-\- t/ + z = 36, 1241. | 7x-\- 2y-\-3z = 15,
j 2 x - 3 z = — l7, | 5 x — 3y + 2z = 15,
{ 6 x - 5 z = 7. ( 10x — lly-l-5z = 36.
1242. x-\-y 1-z = fl, 1243. I[ x — y + z = a.
- x - y - h z= b , x + y —z = b .
1[ y + z — x = c.
r>
N
1
-4-
II
1244. Find all solutions of the system

f x + 2y — 4 z = l ,
\ 2 x + y — 5z = — 1,
I x — y - z = — 2.
2 x — y-V z = —2,
- x + 2y-\-3z = —1,
x — 3y — 2z = 3.
§ 5. A System 0 / Three First -decree Equat ions 241
1246. Find all solutions ol the system
i 3x — ^/-•-2^ = 5>
| 2 x — y — z=~- 2,
{ Ax — 2y — 2z — —3.
1247. Determine the value; of a and b for which the

system
f 3.v —2 ty~ z = b,
< 5x — 8y -j-9z = 3,
\ 2x+ y + az = — 1
1) has a unique solution;

2) has no solutions;
3) has infinitely many solutions.
1248. Prove that, if the system
( a1x + b1y = c 1,
a.,x -j- b2y = c2,
a 3 x + b'jtj — C3
is consistent, then
Ol bi Cl
a2 b2 c2
CO
b3 C3
( 2 x y — 2 = 0,
| x + 2y + 2 = 0,
( 2x— y + 3z = 0.

x — y — z = 0,
- x-\-4y + 2z = Q,
, 3x + 7y + 3z = 0.
1251. Determine the value of a for which the homo

geneous system
[ 3x — 2y-\- z = 0,
| ax — 14y + 152 = 0,
\ x -f 2y — 32 = 0
has a non-zero solution.
§ 6. Determinants of the Fourth Order

The properties of determinants enumerated in § 4 hold for deter
minants of any order. In the present section, these properties should
be used in evaluating determinants of the fourth order.
In each of Problems 1252-1260, evaluate the given

determinant of the fourth order.
1252. —3 0 0 0 1253. 2 — 1 3i 4
2 2 0 0 0 -1 5 —3
1 3 -1 0 0 0 5 —3
— 1 5 3 5 0 0 0 2
CO
CO
1254. 2 - -1 1 0 1255. 2 4
1
0 1 2 - -1 2 1 —1 2
3 - 1 2 3 6 2 1 0
3 1 6 1 2 3 0 —5
1256. 8 7 2 0 1257. 0 bed

—8 2 "17 10 b 0 d c
• 4 4 4 5 c d 0 b
0 4 —3 2 d c b0
1258. a bed 1259. abed

b ade d a bc
c d a b cd a b
d c b a bc d a
<? 6. D e t e r m i n a n t s of t he F o u r t h Order 213
1260. -b -d
— c —e
0 0
0 0
1261. Prove that, if the system
A jX -)- B^y -f C -{- IDj —0,
^ A 2x -f B2y + C2z -f D2 = 0,
j A 3x -f Bsy H- C3z -1- D, = 0,
^ A xx + B xy |- CAz \ D4 ■-=0
is consistent, then
Bi c. Dt
At b 2 c 2 D,
Bs C3 d 3
^4 B 4 C4 d 4
A N SW ER S A N D H IN T S
Part One
1. See Fig. 54. 2. H int. The equation | x | = 2 is equivalent
to the two equations x = —2 and x = 2\ accordingly, we have the
two points A x (—2) and A 2 (2) (Fig. 55). The equation \ x — 1 | = 3 is
equivalent to the two equations x — 1 = —3 and x — 1 = 3 , whence
we find x = —2 and * = 4 and the points By and B 2 corresponding
/
H C E 0 D F A B
2
Fig. 54.
to them (Fig. 55). The remaining examples have analogous solutions.

3. The points are situated: I) to the right of the point At i (2);
2) to the left of the point At, (3), including the point Al,; 3^ to the
right of the point At, (12); 4) to the left of the point Af4 j* in*
eluding the point At4; 5) to the right of the point Afs 6) in
side the segment bounded by the points A f,(l) and A4a (3); 7) inside
ihe segment bounded by the points M7 (—2) and M 2 (3), including
Answers and Hints 245
the points A17 and A12; 8) inside the segment bounded by the
points A (\) and B (2); 9) outside the segment bounded by the
points P ( — 1) and Q (2); 10) outside the segment bounded by the
points i4(l) and B (2); 11) inside the segment bounded by the
points P ( —1) and Q (2); 12) inside the segment bounded by the
points A1 (3) and A' (5), including the points At and A7; 13) outside
the segment bounded by the points At (3) and N (5); 14) outside the
segment bounded by the points P, (—4) and Qx (3); 15) inside the
segment bounded by the points P, (—4) and Q ,(3), including the
points P, and Q,. 4. 1) AB ~ 8, M B ) --=8; 2) AB — —3, \ A B \ - 3;
3) | A5 | -=4; 4) AB = 2\ \ AB | 2; 5) AB - - 2 , | / 1 B M 2 ;
/
A,
• —o --------I
0 A.
O -------------- ~ ■
B,
n ^
B,
Fig. 55.
6) AB = 2, \ A B \ = 2 5. 1)—2; 2) 5; 3) 1; 4) —8; 5) —2 and 2

6) — 1 and 5; 7) —6 and 4; 8) —7 and —3. 6. The points are situat
ed: 1) inside the segment bounded by the points A (— 1) and B ( l)
2) outside the segment bounded by the points A ( —2) and onH B( 2)
o)
3) inside tne
the segment bounded
Dounaea by me points
Dy the poinis A ^—t.)
(—2) emuand uB( 2)
including the points A and B\ 4) outside the segment bounded by
the points A (—3)
tne and aB toj,
—oj ana (3), including
mciuaing the
me points
pom is nA anu
and uB\, ui
5) inside
uuiuc
the segment bounded by the points A (— 1) and B (5); 6) inside the
segment bounded by the points A (4) and B (6), including the points
A and B\ 7) outside the segment bounded by the points A (—1) and
B (3), including the points A and B\ 8) outside the segment bounded
by the points A (2) and B (4), including the points A and B\
9) inside the segment bounded by the points A (—4) and B (2);
10) outside the segment bounded by the points A (—3) and B ( — 1);
11) inside the segment bounded by the points A (—6) and B (—4),
including the points A and B\ 12) outside the segment bounded by
the points A (—3) and B (1), including the points A and B. 7. 1) 1;
5 J \ 1 10 . __AB„ . CB 1
2) 2; 4) — ; 5) A.,:
~ 3 : 3> “ 3 8’ BC~~ ' 'B A '
, _AC . £>/t
BA O #. CA L
k> ~ c b = " 4; A , - c r 4 • =— TP, ---r * A6—AB
AC
AD Q
x, + . 12. 1) 4; 2) 2;
9. X = = r- 10. x= 11. x =
X, — X T+T'
3) - 2 ; 4 ) - 2 ; 5) - j 13. I) J ; 2) ~ T : 3) J : 4) 7: 5) 3:
6 ) 0 . 14. i ) M (— 11); 2) (13) 15. (5) and (12) 16. A (7) and
B ( —41). 17. See Fig. 53. 13. A x (2. 0). B*(3. 0). C *(—5, 0),
Dx (—3, 0). £ x ( - 5 . 0 ) . 19. Ay (0, 2), B (0, 1), C, (0, - 2 ) . Dy (0. 1).
246 Answers and Hints
E v (0, - 2 ) . 20. 1) (2, —3); 2) ( - 3 , - 2 ) ; 3) ( - 1 , 1); 4) ( - 3 , 5)

5) ( - 4 , - 6 ) ; 6) (a, - b). 21. 1) (1, 2); 2) ( - 3 , - 1 ) ; 3) (2, - 2 )
4) (2, 5); 5) (—3, - 5 ) ; 6) ( - a , b). 22. 1) ( - 3 , - 3 ) ; 2) (-^2,4)
3) (2, - 1 ) ; 4) (—5, 3); 5) (5, 4); 6) ( - a , — b). 23. 1) (3, 2)
2) ( - 2 , 5); 3) (4, - 3 ) . 24. I) ( - 5 , - 3 ) ; 2) ( - 3 , 4); 3) (2, - 7 )
25. 1) The first and third quadrants; 2) the second and fourth quad
rants; 3) the first and third quadrants; 4) the second and fourth
quadrants; 5) the first, second, and fourth quadrants; 6) the second,
third, and fourth quadrants; 7) the first, third, and fourth quadrants;
8) the first, second, and third quadrants. 26. See Fig. 57.
«• ( 3' - r ) ’ ( 2- T )• ( 3- t ) ' "■ - 2>• <=■ '> “ • ( '• - 4 ” ) ■

( s . - i ) . ( 2. | » ) . ( 4 , - i » ) . <3. — 2). » .c ( 3 .|« )
and o ( 5. —j i n ) 30. (l. - | ) . 31. -t ( s . --jj) •
f l ( 2. - « ) , C O . 0). D [5, E (3, 2 — ji), F (2, J i - 1 ) .
32. *1,(3, 0), M »(2. — A*«( b . - § ) •
A*. (3, n). M ,(l, - n ) . 33. ( e . . 34. d=
= l/ T f + e ^ 2 ^ ^ T ( 0 ^ ^ 35. d = 7. 36. 9 ( 1 7 — 4 ] f 3)
square units. 37. 2 ( 1 3 + 6 ^ 2 ) square units. 38. 2 8 } ^ T square units
39. 5 = ~ q, q2 sin (0, — 02). 40. 5 square units. 41. 3 (4 |/^3 — 1)
square units. 42. /W,(0. 6). AIj (5, 0), ^2), A!, (5.
-5 ^3 ). /VI, ( - 4 . 4 V~3), AI, (6 V 37 —6). 43. Al, (5 . —
*M 3. n). AI.(2, M4 (2. ,Vf,(2. - - ) •

44. 1) 3; 2) —3; 3) 0; 4) 5; 5) —5; 6) 2. 47. 1) X = 1, Y = 3;
2) X = —4. Y = - 2 \ 3 ) X = 1, V' -- —7; 4 ) _ X = 5 , Y - 3.
48. (3, - 1 ) . 49. ( - 3 . 2). 52. 1) X = —6. V ^ G ^ ; 2) X = 3 » ^ 3 ,
Y= —3; 3) X — |^2, Y = - \ r 2. 53. 1) 5; 2) 13; 3) 10.
54. l)d=--2, 0 = — ; 2) d - 6. 0 — — ; 3)d=^4, 0 = |- -i.
ib 4 b
55. 1) 2. 0 ———jt; 2) d -5 , 0 —^;irctan y — n ;

12
3) d = 13. 9 —n — arctan 4) d .= ^ 2 3 4 , 0 —— arctan 5.
56. 1) 3; 2) —3. 57. 1) ( - 9 . 3); 2) ( 9, -7 ). 58. 1) ( - 1 5 ,
3 ^ 3 -4
— 12); 2) (1. - 1 2 ) . 59. - 2 . 60. 61. 4. 62. 1) —5;
2) 5. 63. 1) 5; 2) 10; 3) 5; 4) \ r 5; 5) 2 V 2; 6) 13. 64. 137
square units. 65. 34 square units. 66. 8 )^ 3 square units. 67. 13,
15. 68. 150 square units. 69. 4)^2. 73. <$. A12A4,/VI, >s obtuse.
75. BAC = 4 5 °, ABC — 45°, < /4 C B = 9 0 °. 76. 60°. Hint.
Compute the lengths of the sides of the triangle, and then use the
cosine theorem. 77. /Vf, (6, 0) and Af2(—2, 0). 78. M, (0, 28) and
M2 (0, - 2 ) . 79. P x ( 1, 0) and P 2(6, 0). 80. C, (2, 2), R x = 2;
C2(10, 10), R 2= 10. 81. C , ( —3, —5), C2 (5, —5). 82. /VI2 (3, 0).
83. B (0, 4) and D (— 1, —3). 84. The conditions of the problem
are satisfied by two squares symmetrically situated with respect to
the side AB. The points C, (—5, 0), Dx (—2, —4) are the required
vertices of one square; — C2(3, 6), D2(6, 2) are the vertices of the
other. 85. C (3, —2), R = 10. 86. (1, —2). 87. Q (4, 6). 88. The
midpoints of the sides A B t BC, AC are (2, —4), (— 1, 1), (—2, 2),
respectively. 89. 1) M (1, 3); 2) N (4, —3). 90. (1, —3), (3, 1)
and (—5, 7). 91. D ( —3, 1). 92. (5, —3), (1, —5). 93. Dx (2, 1),
D2(—2, 9), D3 (6, —3). Hint. The fourth vertex of the parallelo
gram may lie opposite to any one of the given vertices. Hence,
three parallelograms actually satisfy the conditions of the
problem. 94. 13 95. (2, —1) and (3, 1). 96
■(!■ -* )•
97. 98. (— 11, —3). 99. 4. 100.
4 ^ -
AC BA_ 2
K — -Qg ——3; toi. A (3, — 1) and B (0, 8).
l ,~AC~ 3
102. (3, - 1 ) . 103. (4, - 5 ) . 104. (—9, 0). 105. (0, - 3 ) . 106. 1:3,
starting from the point B. 108. * = Xl + X2“f" Xi
,07- ( 4 ' 4 3
y = »jL+y*+y*' >09. At (— 1, 0). C(0, 2). M l. (5, 5).

-f- nx, H~ pxt
" 2- (fs* '® !* )- I13' " 4- ' “ ^ V + . + p ■
y = 'H M l±!iyi±P M l . H 5. (4, 2). Hint. The weight of uniform wire
is prcportional lo its length. 116. 1) 14 square units; 2) 12 square unns;
3) 26 square units. 117. 5. 118. 20 square units. 119.7.4. 120.x = — Y\ *
y = 4 -j. 121. x = l , </ = 3 ~ . 122. (0. -8) or (0, -2).
123. (5, 0) or f - i , oV 124. (5. 2) or (2. 2). 125. C, (—7>

-3 ), D, ( - 6 . - 4 ) or Ct ( \ J , - 3 ) . 0 ,( 1 8 , - 4 ) . 126. C, ( - 2 , 12).
£*i (—3, 16) or C . ( - 2 , I ) . D ,(-5 . !* ). 127. 1)
y = y ' + 4; 2), x =
- x ' — 2, {/={/' + 1; 3) * = * ' — 3, y 7 "^ , 21
128. A (4, — 1),
>1(4, 1) L
B(0, —4), C (2, 0). 129. 1) A <0, 0). jl'
C
£ ((—4,
- 4 , 4 4);
); 2) AW.
2) >1(3,-2- 2)’.) , B B~(0,
(0, 0),6). C (C
—(-l.‘*2)7
1, 2); 3)1) A 4, " .ZaY,
.’
B ( l. — 2), C(0, 0). 130. 1) ( 3 ,5 ) ; 2) (—2 , 1 ) ; 3) (°* '
4) (-5 ,0 ). i3 i. X ) x = x ’ - y ; ^ l . u= * V ita l: 2) *
2 • » = ---- 2
: 3 ) 4 >*^ ' ’ r
C( 3.
5) x= — y = — y ’. 132. > 1 ( 3 / 3 , 1), B
y t
— /3 ). 133. i ) M ( / 2 , 2 / 2 ) , /V ( - 3 / 2 I 2 / 2 ) , P ( TT, £ . 5 .
—2 / 2 ) ; 2) A t ( l , —3), N (5, 1), P (—1. 3); 3) At (— 1. 3)’ ,) 60°:
- 4 '• + / ■ • * — 4 * , + 4 » '- m - ".(>• 5»’

^3,(16. —5). 139. > 1(6,3), B (0, 0), C(5, —10). I40' J L —45°-
—2), a = 90°; 2) O' ( - 1 , 3 ) , a=180°; 3) O' (5, - 3 ) , a " 9)i
141. x = _ 1 5 v' 8 » '+ 9 o= — x ' — — u' —
— n x —r?y y 17 i7 »
17J
/ X . ,)-
^ * (4 . 2), M ,( l, - 3 ) , At, (0, 24- / 3), At, 0 + V X »>■
,43- At, (0, 5), At, (3, 0), At, (—1, 0), M4(0, - 6), *
« .,2 .0 , - i ) . «.(«•-«(
A1* v 2 ’ ( 4- ~ T 2 n )' *46- H x> V ) - 2 a x —a*. 147-

f c 2ajc; 2) ' =— "
/ ( x . !/)■ 2a* a*. ‘
148. c ‘**/(*«
^ y):
-f- 4{/2 H- 2a2. 149. / (x, y) = 4x2 -f- 4{/2 — 4 a x — 4ay + 4a2.
150. f ( x , y) = x 2 + y* — 25. 151. f ( x , i/) = 2jci/ — 16.
152. Rotation of the coordinate axes does not affect the expression
for this function. 153. (3, 1). 154. There exists no such point.
155. ± 4 5 ° or ± 135°. 156. 30 , 120 , - 6 0 , — 150 . 157. The points
M lt M4 and M s lie on the curve; the points /ll2, /Vl3 and .Vl6 do not
lie on the curve. The equation represents the bisector of the second
and fourth quadrants (Fig. 58). 158. a) (0, — 5), (0, 5); b) ( — 3, — 4),
(— 3, 4); c) (5, 0); d) there is no such point on the curve; e) ( — 4, 3),
(4, 3); f) (0, — 5); g) there is no such point on the curve. The
equation represents a circle with centre 0 ( 0 , 0) and radius 5 (Fig. 59).
Fig. 58. Fig. 59.
159. 1) The bisector of the first and third quadrants; 2) the bisector
of the second and fourth quadrants; 3) the straight line parallel to
the axis Oy and having an x-interccpt of 2 (Fig. 60); 4) the straight
line parallel to the axis Oy and having an ^-intercept of —3
(Fig. 60); 5) the straight line parallel to the axis Ox and having a
{/-intercept of 5 (Fig. 60); 6) the straight line parallel to the axis Ox
and having a {/-intercept of — 2 (Fig. 60); 7) the straight line coin
cident with the {/-axis; 8) the straight line coincident with the x-axis;
9) the curve consists of two straight lines, one of which is the bisec
tor of the first and third quadrants, and the other coincides with
the {/-axis; 10) the curve consists of two straight lines, one of which
is the bisector of the second and fourth quadrants, and the other
coincides with the x-axis; 11) the curve consists of the two straight
lines bisecting the quadrants (Fig. 61); 12) the curve consists of two
straight lines, one of which coincides with the x-axis, and the other
coincides with the y-axis; 13) the curve consists of two straight lines
parallel to the x-axis and whose respective {/-intercepts are 3 and
— 3 (Fig 62); 14) the curve consists of two straight lines parallel
to the y -axis and whose respective ^-intercepts are 3 and 5 (Fig. 63);
15) the curve consists of two straight lines parallel to the x-axis
and whose respective ^-intercepts are — 1 and — 4 (Fig. 64); 16) the
curve consists of three straight lines, one of which coincides with

the *-axis, and the other two are parallel to the y -axis and have
jr-intercc pts of 2 and 5, respectively; 17) the curve consists of the
y
y *
H ii
11 1i
h
x
0
Fig. 62. Fig. 63
two rays bisecting the first and second quadrants (Fig. 65); 18) the
curve consists of the two rays bisecting the first and the fourth
quadrants (Fig. 66a); 19) the curve consists of the two rays bisecting
the third and fourth quadrants (Fig. 66b)\ 20) the curve consists of
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67. Fig. 68.

the two rays bisectinu the second and third quadrants (Fig. 66c);
21) the curve consists of the two rays situated in the upper half-
plane and drawn from the point ( 1, 0) parallel to the bisectors of
the quadrants (Fig. 65); 22) the curve consists of the two rays situat
ed in the upper half-plane and drawn from the point ( — 2, 0) parallel
*o the bisectors of the quadrants (Fig. 65); 23) the circle with centre
at the origin and radius 4 (Fig. 67); 24) the circle with centre at
0, (2, 1) and radius 4 (Fig. 67); 25) the circle with centre at ( — 5, 1)
and radius 3; 26) the circle with centre at (1, 0) and radius 2;
27) the circle with centre at (0, — 3) and radius 1; 28) the curve
consists of the single point (3, 0) (a degenerate curve); 29) the curve
consists of the single point (0, 0) (a degenerate curve); 30) the equation
is satisfied by the coordinates of no point (an imaginary curve);
31) the equation is satisfied by the coordinates of no point (an imag
inary curve). 160. The curves 1), 2) and 4) pass through the origin.
161. 1) a) (7, 0), ( - 7 , 0); b) (0, 7), (0, - 7 ) ; 2) a) (0, 0), (6, 0);
h) ((), 0), (0, — 8); 3) a) ( — 10, 0), ( — 2, 0); b) the curve does not
intersect the axis Oy\ 4) the curve does not intersect the coordinate
axes; 5) a) (0, 0), (12, 0); b) (0, 0), (0, — 16); 6) a) the curve does
not intersect the axis Ox\ b) (0, — 1), (0 , — 7); 7) the curve does
not intersect the coordinate axes. 162. 1) (2, 2), ( — 2, — 2);
2) (1. — 1), (9, - 9 ) ; 3) (3. — 4), (1 y , — 4 - i ^ ; 4) the curves do
not intersect. 163. The points M 2 and Af4 lie on the given curve;
the points /V13 and M s do not lie on the curve. The equation repre-
sents a circle (Fig. 68). 164. a) ^ 6, y ) ; b) ( 6, - y ) ; c) (3, 0);
d) ^2 V 3, the straight line perpendicular to the polar axis

6
and whose intercept on the polar axis is equal to 3 (Fig. 69).
» (■ . f ) ; b) ( 2. i ) d ( 2. 4 . ) ; C) ( r ? . i ) and
^ 1^ 2, ; the straight line situated in the upper half-plane and

drawn parallel to the polar axis one unit above it (Fig. 69).
166. i) The circle with centre at the pole and radius 5; 2) the ray
ji
drawn from the pole and making an angle -g- with the polar axis
(Fig. 70); 3) the ray drawn from the pole and making an angle
— — with the polar axis (Fig. 70); 4) the straight line perpendicular
to the polar axis and making an intercept a = 2 on it; 5) the straight
line situated in the upper half-plane and drawn parallel to the polar
axis one unit above it; 6) the circle with centre C, (3, 0) and radius 3
(Fig. 71); 7) the circle with centre C2 ^ 5, and radius 5 (Fig. 71);
8) the curve consists of two rays drawn from the pole and making
jt 5
angles — and -g- ji , respectively, with the polar axis (Fig. 71);
Fig. 74.
9) the curve consists of concentric circles with centre at the pole,

the radii r of these circles being determined by the formula r =
= ( — 1)" — + nn* where n is any positive integer or zero 167. Figs.
72 and 73. 168. Figs. 74 and 75. 169. Fig. 76. 170. The segment
adjacent to the pole has a length of ; each of the remaining seg
ments has a length of 6ji (Fig. 77). 171. Into five parts (Fig. 78).
172. P ^ 12, — j (Fig. 79). 173. Q (81, 4) (Fig. 80). 174. The straight
lines a : ± y = 0. 175. The straight lines x ± a = 0. 176. The straight
lines y ± b — 0. 177. r/-f-4 = 0. 178. x — 5 = 0. 179. 1) The straight line
x — y — 0; 2) the straight line x + y =- 0; 3) the straight line x — 1 = 0.
4) the straight line (/ — 2 = 0. 180. The straight lines 4ax ± c — 0.
181. x2 -f- y2 ~ r2. 182. (x — a )2-f (*/ — p )2= r 2. 183. x2 + y 2 = 9.
184. x2 + y 2:= 16. 185. *2 + i/2= a 2. 186. ( x — 4)2 + y 2= 16. 187;
^ - h - g = l . 188. ^ " - - j ^ = l . 189. y2= \2x. 192. The parabola y 2=2px.
193. The ellipse ^ g - | - ^ - = l . 194. The hyperbola — = 1. 195. The
ellipse ^ - f - ^ g = l . 196. The right-hand branch of the hyperbola
— — — = 1 . 197. The parabola y 2— 20x. 198. qcos0 = 3. 199. 0 = -j- •

200. tan 0 = 1 . 201. q sin 0 + 5 = 0 , o sin 0 — 5 = 0. 202. o = l O c o s 0 .
203. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by the two circles
whos
a cos /, 1 i
204.
b sin /. ) a 2 b2 ~
a b cos t ab sin I
205. * = y=
V a 2 sin2 / b2 cos2 1 Y a 2 sin2 1 -f b2 cos2 t
a b cos t ab sin t
206. x = y-=
V b 2 cos2 1 — a2 sin2 1 ’ Y b 2 cos2 t — a2 sin2 /
207. y = t ; 2) x = 2p cot2 (, i / = 2p c o t< ;
j/ = p cot ^ .
x = 2p cot2 0,
208 It * = 2/?cos* 0- I 2 ) x = R sin 20 3)
208> 1J y = R Sin 20; f y = 2R sin2 0■»} y = 2p cot 0 .
209. I) x — y 2 = 0; 2) x2 + //2- a 2= 0; 3) - , - ^ - 1 = 0 ; 4)
— 1 = 0; 5) x2 + y 2— 2/?x = 0; 6) x2 + y 2- 2Ry = 0; 7) 2px — y 2 = 0.
210. The points M u M t and lie on the given line; the points
M . and M, do not lie on the line. 211. 3, — 3, 0, — 6, and — 12.
212. 1. - 2 , 4 , - 5 , and 7. 213. (6, 0), (0. - 4 ) . 214. (3, - 5 ) .
215. A ( 2 , - 1 ) , B ( - 1, 3), C (2, 4). 216. (1, - 3 ) , ( - 2 , 5), (5, - 9 ) ,
/>=-■
n
e
Fin 75.
Fig. 77.
Fig. 80,
and (8, —17). 217. 5 —17 square units. 218. C, (—1, 1) or

C2^ y , - y j . 2 1 9 . 0,(1, — 1) or C2( —2, - 10). 220. 1) 2a-- 3 y j-
-f 9 = 0; 2) 3a—// = 0; 3) i/ -| 2 —0; 4) 3a -j -1y — 12 - 0; 5) 2x [• y ■)-5 0;
6) a + 3i/ — 2= 0. 221. 1) fe= 5, b = 3; 2) k = — . 6 = 2; 3) * = - y ,
6 = — - ; 4) *= - - |, * = 0; 5) * = 0, 6 = 3. 222. 1) ; 2) -- .
223. 1) 2x- \- 3y— 7 = 0; 2) 3a — 2 ( / - 4 = 0. 224. 3* + 2// - 0 . 2* — 3y —
— 13 = 0. 225. (2, 1), (4, 2), ( — 1. 7), (I, 8). 226. ( — 2, - 1 ) .
227. Q ( 11. — 11). 228. I) 3a — 2y — 7 = 0; 2) 5a + i / - 7 = 0; 3) 8* +
+ 12i/ + 5 — 0; 4) 5x + 7 / / + 9 = 0; 5) 6x —-30/y — 7 = 0 . 229. 1) & — 7;
2)6 = ^ ; 3) 6 = — j . 230. 5a-- 2y — 33 = 0, at + 4 y - 11 = 0, 7x +
+ 6i/ + 33 = 0. 231. 7a —2 y — 12 = 0, 5.v -J- y —28- =0, 2a —3 y — 18 = 0.
232. a -1- 1/4- 1=0. 233. 2a+ 3//—13 = 0. 234. 4x + 3 y — 11=0,
a + i/ + 2 = 0, 3a + 2i/ — 13 .... 0. 235. (3, 4). 236. 4a + i/ —3 = 0.
237. x—5 = 0. 238. Equation of the side AB: 2x -f y —8 = 0; BC: x -f
+ 2y —1=0; CA: x —y —1=0. Equation of the median from the
vertex A : x —3 = 0; from the vertex B: x - \ - y — 3= 0; from the vertex
C: i/ = 0. 239. ( — 7, 0), ^0, + 2 y ) . 242. (1,3). 243. 3a - 5 i/ + 4 = 0;
x ~\~7y— 16 = 0; 3x — 5y — 22 = 0; x -f 7y + 10 = 0. 244. Equations of
the sides of the rectangle: 2x — 5// + 3 = 0, 2x - 5 y — 26 = 0; equation
of its diagonal: 7x — 3t/ — 33 = 0. 245. The bisector of the interior
angle: 5x + — 3 = 0; the bisector of the exterior angle: x — 5//— 11 = 0 .
246. x - f y — 8 — 0, 1\x — y — 28 = 0. Hint. The conditions of the problem
are satisfied by two lines, one of which passes through the point P
and bisects the segment joining the points A and B , and the other
passes through the point P and is parallel to the segment AB,
247. ( — 12, 5). 248. M ^ IO , — 5). 249. P ^ , 0 j . Hint. The prob
lem can be solved by the following procedure: ( 1) show that the points
M and N lie on the same side of the x-axis; (2) find a point sym
metric to one of the given points with respect to the x-axis, say,
the point N x symmetric to the point N\ (3) form the equation of the
equation of the straight line passing through the points M and N x;
(4) by solving the obtained equation simultaneously with the equation
of the x-axis, find the coordinates of the required point. 250. P (0, 11).
251. P (2, - 1 ) . 252. P (2, 5). 253. 1) <p = i L ; 2) <p= - ^ ; 3 ) ( p = 0 -
16
the lines are parallel; 4) <p = arctan y-j-. 254. x — 5// + 3 = 0 or
5x-|- y — 11 = 0 . 255. Equations of the sides of the square: 4x -f 3// + 1= 0,
3x — 4y + 32 = 0, 4x -f 3*/— 24 = 0, 3x — 4*/ + 7 = 0; equation of its
other diagonal: x-\~7y — 31 = 0. 256. 3x — 4 y -\-15 = 0, 4x-f-3y — 30 = 0,
3 x - 4 / / — 10 = 0, 4x -f- 3*/— 5 = 0 257. 2x + // — 16 = 0, 2x + ( /+ 1 4 = 0,
x — 2 y — 18 = 0. 258. 3 x - < / + 9 = 0, 3x + r/ + 9 = 0. 259. 29x ~ 2 y +
4 33 - 0 . 262. 1) 3* — 7 y — 27 = 0; 2) * + 9y + 25 = 0; 3) 2 * - 3i/ — 13 = 0;
4) a — 2 0; 5) i f 3 — 0. 264. The lines 1), 3) and 4) are perpendic
ular. 266. 1) <p --- 45°; 2) (p = 60°; 3) <p = 90°. 267. M s (6, — 6).c
268. 4a — y — 1 3 - 0 , a — 5 = 0, a + 8// + 5 = 0. 269. BC: 3a + 4 y — 22 = 0;
CA. 2a — 7// — 5 = 0; C/V: 3a +5</ — 23 = 0. 270. A + 2y— 7 = 0;
a — 4y — 1 = 0 ; a — t/-(-2 = 0. Hint. The problem can be solved by the
following procedure: ( 1) show that the vertex A lies on neither of
the given lines; (2) find the point of intersection of the medians and
denote it, say, by M. Since the vertex A and the point M are known,
we can now find the equation of the third median; (3) on the line
through A and M, lay off the segment M D = A M (Fig. 81). Next,
determine the coordinates of the point D, given the midpoint M of
the segment AD and one of its end points, A ; (4) show that the
quadrilateral B D CM is a parallelogram (since its diagonals bisect
Fig. 81.
each other), and w rite the equations of the lines DB and DC; (5)
calculate the coordinates of the points B and C; (6) now that we
know the coordinates of all vertices of the triangle, we can write the
equations of its sides. 271. 3a — 5y — 13 = 0, 8a — 3y + 17 = 0, 5 a + 2y —
— 1 = 0. 272. 2a — (/ + 3 = 0, 2a + // — 7 = 0 , a — 2y — 6 = 0. Hint. U A
is a point on one of the sides of an angle, then the point symmetric
to A with respect to the bisector of that angle will lie on the other
side of the angle. 273. 4a — 3y -f- 10 = 0, 7a + y — 20 = 0, 3 a -f- \ y — 5 = 0.
274. 4A + 7r/— 1 = 0, y — 3 = 0, 4a + 3</— 5 = 0. 275. 3x + 7y — 5 = 0,
3x + 2y— 1 0 = 0 , 9a + 11(/ + 5 = 0. 276. a — 3i/— 23 = 0, 7a + 9*/ + 19 = 0,
4 a -f 3 y + 13 = 0. 277. x + y — 7 = 0, a + 7*/+ 5 = 0, x — 8t/ + 20 = 0.
278. 2a + 9j/ — 65 = 0, 6a — 7(/ — 25 = 0, 18a + 13f/— 41 = 0.
279. a + 2*/ = 0, 23a + 25j/ = 0. 280. 8 a - y — 24 = 0. 283. 3a + (/ = 0,
x — 3y = 0 284. 3x + 4 y — 1 = 0, 7a + 24*/ — 61 = 0 . 285. 1) a = — 2,
5y — 33 = 0; 2) ax= — 3, a — 56 = 0; a2= 3,5a + 8 = 0; 3) a , = l,
3 x— 8</ = 0; a2= | - , 33* — 56i/= 0. 286. m = 7, « = — 2, j/ + 3 = 0.
287. m = — 4, n = 2, * - 5 = 0. 288. 1) (5.6); 2) (3, 2); 3 ) ( j . ;

4) ( 2, — f f ) : 5) ■ 2) • 291. 1) a # 3 ; 2) a = 3 and b # 2;
3) a = 3 and b = 2. 292. 1) m = — 4, n ^ 2 or m = 4, n ^ — 2;
2) m — — 4, n = 2 or m = 4t n = — 2; 3) m = 0, n may have any value.
293. 294. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two
values of m : m x = 0, rnz = 6. 295. 1) intersect; 2) do not intersect;
3) do not intersect 298. a = - 7 . 299. 1 ) 4 + - = I; 2) ~ 4 + | - = I ;

o l — b o
3) »t2+ t = 1; 4)ii + ^ = l; 5) ' i +it = I (FiR-82)- 30° - 6

square units. 301. x + y -j- 4 = 0. 302. a : + y — 5 = 0, x — y - \ - 1 = 0 ,
3x — 2y = 0. 303. Solution. Let us write the intercept equation of the
required line:
Our task is to determine the values of the parameters a and b. The

point C ( l , 1) lies on the required line, and hence its coordinates
must satisfy equation ( 1). Substituting the coordinates of C for the
current coordinates in ( 1) and clearing of fractions, we have
a + b = ab. (2)
Note now that the area S of the triangle formed by our line and
the coordinate axes is determined by the formula ± S = Y ' where
-f 5 refers to the case when the intercepts a and b have like signs,
and — 5 to the case when the intercepts a and b differ in sign. Hence,
by the conditions of the problem, we have
a b = ±4. (3 )
a + 6 = 4, a + b = — 4, \
Solving the system of equations (2) and (3):
ab = 4; } ab = — 4, /
we obtain a , = 2, bx = 2 ; a2 — — 2 + 2 V^2, b2 = — 2 — 2 V 2 ; a3= —
—2 — 2 ^ 2 , b9= — 2 + 2 1^2. Thus, the conditions of the problem
are satisfied by three straight lines. S ubstituting the obtained values
X U X
of the parameters a and b in ( 1) gives - ? r + — = l, ------------- ==-. +
2T 2 —2 + 2 ^ 2
+ := 1, +- l= 1. Upon simplify
— 2— 2 ^ 2 ’ —2 — 2 | ^ 2 --2 + 2^2
ing these equations, we obtain: x + y — 2 = 0 , (l + V^2 ) x + (l — ^ 2 ) x
X y — 2 = 0, (1 — Y~2 ) x + (l + Vr 2 ) / / — 2 = 0. 304. The conditions of
the problem are satisfied by the following three lines: ( y r 2 + l ) x +
+ ( 1^ 2 — l) y — 10 — 0 , ( 1^ 2 — l ) x + (Vr 2 + l ) ( / + 10 = 0, x—y —
— 10 = 0. 305. 3 x — 2 y — 12 = 0, 3x — Sy + 24 = 0. 306. x + 3*/ — 30 = 0,
3x + 4p — 60 = 0, 3x — y — 30 = 0, x — \2y + 60 = 0. 307. The conditions
of the problem are satisfied by the two lines intersecting the coor
dinate axes in the points (2, 0), (0, — 3) and ( — 4, 0), ^0, , re
spectively. 308. S ^ 2 x xy x. 309. Equations 1), 4), 6) and 8) are in the
normal form. 310. 1) x— y — 2 = 0; 2) — x + -?- y — 1 0 = 0;
O O D D
3) 4) - * - 2 = 0; 51 - ^ x - ± - y - 1=0.
311. 1) a - 0, p = 2; 2) a = n, p = 2; 3) a = — , p = 3; 4) a = —
— , p = 3; 5) a = -£- , P = 3; 6) a = —— , p = J^2; 7) a = — n,
p = 1; 8) a = — p, p = p; 9) a = p — jt, p = q . 312. 1) 6 = — 3, d = 3;
2) 6 = 1 , d = 1; 3) 6 = — 4, d = 4; 4) 6 = 0, d = 0 — the point Q lies
on the line. 313. 1) Cn the same side; 2) on opposite sides; 3) on
the same side; 4) on the same side; 5) on opposite sides. 314. 5
square units. 315. 6 square units. 318. The quadrilateral is convex.
319. The quadrilateral is not convex. 320. 4. 321. 3. 322. 1) d — 2.5;
2) d = 3; 3) d = 0.5; 4) d = 3.5. 323. 49 square units. 325. In the ratio
2:3, sta rting from the second line. 326. Solution. The problem of
drawing straight lines through the point P such that their distance
from the point Q will be equal to 5, is equivalent to the problem
of drawing through P tangent lines to the circle of radius 5 and
with centre at Q. Computing the distance QP gives: QP =
= y r ( 2 — 1)*2 + (7 — 2)2= V^26. We see that the distance QP is greater
than the radius of the circle; hence, two tangent lines can be drawn
from P to the circle. We now proceed to derive their equations.
The equation of every straight line through the point P has the
form
y- 7 = * (x -2 ) (1)
or kx — // + 7 — 2£ = 0, where k is the slope (undetermined as yet).
In order to reduce this equation to the normal form, we find the
normalizing factor u = ± . Multiplying (1) by |i, we get the
Vk* + i
desired normal equation
k x ~ y + 7 — 2fe
+
Substituting the coordinates of Q in the left-hand member of (2),
I ft_2 4 - 7 __2A; I
we have ------- — --------- - = 5. Solving this equation gives two values
1
5
of k \ k l = — — , /?2 —- 0. Substituting these values of the slope
5
in (1), we obtain the required equations y — 7 = — — (^ — 2), or
5x4-12*/-—94 = 0, and y — 7 = 0. The problem is solved. 327. 7x +
4- 24//— 134 = 0, x — 2 = 0. 328. 3x 4- 4 y — 13 = 0. 330. 8 x - 1 5 / / +
4 - 9 = 0. 331. 3x — Ay— 25 = 0, 3 x - 4 / / + 5 = 0. 332. The
conditions of the problem are satisfied by two squares symmetrically
situated with respect to the side AB. The equations of the sides of
one of the squares are 4x4-3// — 8 = 0, 4x 4- 3// 4- 17 ---=0, 3x — 4// — 6 = 0,
3x — 4//-f 19 = 0. The equations of the sides of the other square are
4 x 4 -3 //— 8 = 0, 4x4-3// — 33 = 0, 3x — 4// — 6 = 0, 3x — 4//4-19 = 0.
333. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two squares;
the remaining sides of one of the squares lie on the lines
Sx-\-4y — 11 — o, 4x — 3// — 23 = 0, 3x + 4//— 27 = 0; the remaining sides
of the other square lie on the lines 3x4-4y — 11 = 0, 4x — 3//— 23 = 0,
3x4-4// 4- 5 = 0. 334. 3x + 4y 4- 6 = 0, 3x + 4//— 14 = 0 or 3x + 4// + 6 = 0,
3x -j-4// 4- 2 6 = 0. 335. 12x — 5// + 61 = 0, 12x — 5y + 22 = 0 or 12x — 5// +
+ 61 = 0, 12x — 5 / / + 100= 6. 336. M (2,3). 337. 4x + // + 5 = 0,
y — 3 = 0. 338. 1) 3 x - / / + 2 = 0; 2) x — 2// + 5 = 0; 3) 20x —8 / / - 9 = 0.
339. 1) 4x — Ay + 3 = 0, 2x + 2// — 7 = 0; 2) 4x + l = 0 , 8// + 13 = 0;
3) I4x — 8// — 3 = 0, 6 4 x + 1 1 2//-23 = 0. 340. x — 3// — 5 = 0, 3x + // —
— 5 = 0. H i nt . The required lines pass through the point P and are
perpendicular to the bisectors of the angles formed by the two given
lines. 341. 1) By the same angle; 2) by the supplementary angles;
3) by the same angle. 342. 1) By the vertical angles; 2) by the sup
plementary angles; 3) by the same angle. 343. Inside the triangle.
344. Outside the triangle. 345. The acute angle. 346. The obtuse
angle. 347. 8x + 4//— 5 = 0. 348. x + 3// — 2 = 0. 349. 3x— 19 = 0.
350. lOx— 10// — 3 = 0. 351. 7x + E6// — 40 = 0. 352. x + y + 5 = 0.
353. S ( 2, - 1 ) . 354. 1) 3x + 2// —7 = 0; 2) 2x — // = 0; 3) // — 2 = 0;
4) x — 1 = 0; 5) 4x + 3//— 10 = 0; 6) 3x — 2// + l = 0 . 355. 74x + 13// +
+ 39 = 0. 356. x — y — 7 = 0. 357. 7x + 19// — 2 = 0. 358. x — y + \=,0.
359. 4x — 5// + 22 = 0, 4x + //— 18 = 0, 2x — //+ 1 = 0. 360. x — 5 //+
+ 13 = 0, 5x + i / + 13 = 0. 361. 5 x — y — 5 = 0 (BC), x — i/ + 3 = 0
(-4C), 3x — y — 1 = 0 (CN). 362. a:— b y — 7 = 0, 5x + v + 1 7 = 0 ,
I Ox+ 7 / / - 13 = 0 363. 2x + y + 8 = 0, x + 2^ + l = 0 . 3 6 6 .' C = — 29.
367. a ^ — 2. 368. The equations of the sides of the square are
4 x + 3 y — 14 = 0, 3x— 4i/ + 27 = 0, 3x— 4// + 2 = 0, 4 x + 3 y + l l = 0 ;
the equation of its other diagonal is l x — y + 13 = 0. 369. x - \ - y + 5 = 0.
370. x + i/ + 2 = 0, x — y — 4 = 0 , 3x + </ = 0. 371. 2x + y — 6 = 0,
9x + 2 i / + 18 = 0. 372. 3x — i / + l = 0 . 374. 3x — 4</ + 20 = 0, 4x + 3y —
— 1 5 = 0 . 375. .v + 5(/— 13 = 0, 5 x — y + 1 3 = 0 . 376. The conditions
of the problem are satisfied by the two lines 7x-\-y — 9 = 0,
2x + i/ + l = 0 . 377. 5x — 2(/ — 7 = 0. 378. AC: 3* + 8j/— 7 = 0, BD:
8x — 3y + 7 = 0. 379. 4.v+{/ + 5 = 0, x — 2 y — 1 = 0 , 2x + 5 y — 1 1 = 0 .
381. 1) q sin (P — Q) = p, QSin^-^— 0^ = 3 ; 2 ) g e o s (0 —a) = a c o sa ,
Q c o s ^ 0 + - ^ - j ij = — I; 3) q sin (P — 0) = a sin p, q sin — 0^=3.

382. 0 sin (p — 0) = q, sin (P — 0,). 383. ec o s (0 — a) = p, cos (0 ,— a).
q sin (0 — 0,) ^ Q 2 + 0* — 2 q q , co s ( 0 — 0 ,)
384. . 385. l ) x ! +f/*=9;
e 2 sin (02— 0.)
V q\ + e j — 2 q 2q , c o s ( 0 2 — 0 , )
2) (x — 2)2 + (y + 3)2= 49; 3) ( * - 6)2 + (i/ + 8)2= 100; 4) ( * + l )2 +

+ (y — 2)* = 25; 5) ( * — l )2 + (y —4)2 = 8 ; 6) ** + y* = l 6; 7) ( * - l ) ‘ +
+ ( i f + l ) * = 4; 8) (x — 2)2 + ($/ — 4)2= 10; 9) ( x - l ) 2 + y 2= 1;
10) ( x - 2 f + ( y — 1)2 = 25. 386. (x — 3)2 + (y + 1)2 = 38. 387. ( x — 4)* +
+ ( < /+ l) 2 = 5 and (x — 2)* + ( y — 3)2 = 5. 388. (x + 2)2 + (< /+ 1 )2 = 20.
389. (x— 5)2 + (</ + 2)2 = 20 and ( x — | - Y + = 20. 390. ( x -
— I)2 +(</ + 2)2= 16. 391. (x + 6)2 + ( ; / - 3 )2 = 50 and ( x — 29)2 +
+ (y + 2)2 = 800. 392. (x — 2)2 + (//— 1)2 = 5 and (x— +
3 ] \ 2 289 ft I
(y + j ) = - g - ' 393, ( * - 2 )2 + ( f / - i ) 2 = f g . ( * + 8 ) 2 + (</ + 7)2 =
= ft- 394’ ^ - 2 )2 + ( f / - l )2 = 25 and ( * + ^ ) * + =
= ( lS ) \ 39 3 - = ‘ - ( ‘ - t ) ’+
+ (y— ^ — 1. 396. ( x — 5)2 + y2= 16, ( x + 1 5 ) 2 + i/2 = 256,
( -? ) + (» - ¥ ) -(f)"- H r 5H ^ H ? ) •
397. Equations 1), 2), 4), 5), 8) and 10) represent circles; 1) C (5,
—2), /? = 5; 2) C (—2, 0), R = 8\ 3) the equation represents the single
point (5, —2); 4) C (0, 5), /? = 1^5: 5) C ( l, —2), 7? = 5; 6) the equa-
tion represents no geometric object in the plane; 7) the equation rep
resents the single point (— 9) the
f» )
Fig. 87. Fig. 88.
equation represents no geometric object in the plane; 10) C ^0, —
R — — . 398. 1) Semicircle of radius R = 3 and with centre at the

origin, situated in the upper half-plane (Fig. 83); 2) semicircle of
radius R = 5 and w ith centre at the origin, situated in the lower half
plane (Fig. 84); 3) semicircle of radius R = 2 and w ith centre at the
origin, situated in the left half-plane (Fig 85); 4) semicircle of ra
dius R = 4 and with centre at the origin, situated in the right half
plane (Fig. 86); 5) semicircle of radius R = 8 and with centre C (0,
15), situated above the line y — 15 = 0 (Fig. 87); 6) semicircle of ra
dius R = 8 and with centre C (0, 15), situated below the line y — 15 = 0
(Fig. 88); 7) semicircle of radius R = 3 and with centre C (—-2, 0),
Fig. 89. Fig. 90.
situated to the left of the line * + 2 = 0 (Fig. 89); 8) semicircle of

radius R = 3 and with centre C (—2, 0), situated to the right of the
line * + 2 = 0 (Fig. 90); 9) semicircle of radius R = 5 and with centre
C ( —2, —3), situated below the line */ + 3 = 0 (Fig. 91); 10) semicircle
of radius R = 7 and with centre C (—5, —3), situated to the right of
the line * + 5 = 0 (Fig. 92). 399. 1) Outside the circle; 2) on the circle;
3) inside the circle; 4) on the circle; 5) inside the circle. 400. 1)* +
_l_5 ^ — 3 = 0; 2) * + 2 = 0; 3) 3 x — y — 9 = 0\ 4) ^ + 1 = 0 . 401. 2x —
— 5^ + 19 = 0. 402. 1) 7; 2) 17; 3) 2. 403. Mt (— 1,5) and (—2, —2).
404. 1) Cuts the circle; 2) touches the circle; 3) fails to meet the
circle. 405. 1) | k \ < ; 2 ) * = ± - |; 3) | k \ > . 406. =
. = R*. 407. 2 x + y — 3= 0.408. 11* — l y — 69 = 0. 400. 2V 5 .
410. l x — 3</+8 = 0 , 3x + 2(/— 14 =0. 412. x^ + y^ + ^x — 9 y — 17 = 0.

413. 13**+ 13</2 + 3*-|-71</ = 0. 414. 7x — 4y = 0. 415. 2. 416. 10.
417. (x + 3)2+ (y —3)2= 10. 418. * — 2(/ + 5 = 0. 419. 3x— 4y + 43 = 0.

420. |- ) ; d = 2 421 . x lX+ y iy = R*. A22.(x1- a ) X
X ( * - a ) + K - ( l ) ( j f - | i ) = « 2. 423. 45° 424. W.

425< (ai - “t)* + (P i-P * ), = ^ + ^ - 427. jt— 2y — 5 = 0 and 2 x - y -
5 = 0 . 428. 2 x - \ - y — 8 = 0 and x — 4 2 9 . 2 x + y " " ® =s®'
* — 2r/ = 0. _430. 90°. 431. x + 2y + S = Q. 432. d = 7.5. 433. d = 6.

434. d = V 10.4 3 5 . 3 . 436. 2x + y — 1 = 0 and 2x + y-(-19 = 0.
437. 2j c £/ — 5 = 0 and 2* + */ + 5 = 0. 438. q = 2Rcos (0— 0O)
(Fig. 93). 439. 1) q = 2 /? cos 0 (Fig. 94); 2) q = — 2 flc o s 6
(Fig. 95); 3) Q=»2/?sin0 (Fig. 96); 4) q = — 2flsin 0
(Fig. 97). 440. ])(2 , 0) and R = 2; 2 ) ( y , - y ) and « = 4 ;3 )(1 ,n )
and /? — 1; 4) ^ y , -----a n d f l = * y ; 5) ^3, j and fl = 3;
6) ^4, | - j i ) and R = 4; 7) ^4. — y ) and /? = 4. 441. 1) x2 + {,2 -

— 3x = 0; 2) x2 + j/2 + 4</ = 0; 3) x2 + # 2— x + y = 0. 442. 1) e = cos0;
0 \ Q Q . Q\ ~ C H a \ ~ Q . C \ D IQ
/2 (j2 j^2
443. Q= R sec (0 — 0O). 444. 1) * + ! 4 - y = |; 3) Jgjj
1 25 r H : 2 ) 2T
, 4) - + y- - \ ; 5) *2 , y 2 ,. *2 , y2
6)
+ 144 ’ j 25 + 16 — 1 100 64 *169^25“
y2 i/2 x2 , y*
7) - + 1 / 2= 1 = 1; 9) xl + yl = i or
:8 ) 16 + 12 13+ 9 U7/ . 1 9 ~
y2 o2
SI'*.
x2 u2 *2 , V2
21 *
II
i; 3)
o
2) 1T + 2 5 - 25M 69“
X2 (/2 _ .. v ** . y* 446. 1) 4 and
4) 6 4 + 100 ’ 5> 16 + 25 == 1; 6)
7^16
2) 2 and 1; 3) 5 and 1; 4) Y T s and Y 3; 5 ,4 and y 6)
and - y ; 7) I and i - ; 8) 1 and 4; 9) 1 and i •; 10)

T and
447. I) 5 and 3; 2) Fx ( - 4 . 0), Fa (4, 0); 3) e= y ; 4) x = ± y

Fig. 100. Fig. 101.
448. 16 square units. 449. 1) V 5 and 3; 2) Fx(0, —2). ^ ( 0 , 2);

2 9 4 1/^5 b2
3) e. *q-; 4) y — ± -pr-. 4 5 0 . — square units. 451. — . 452. See
6 Z 40 C
Fig. 98. 453. ^—3 , — ^ , ^—3 , — . 454. The points Ax and Ae

lie on the ellipse; Ait A a and As lie inside the ellipse; Az% A B, Av
A9 and Al0 lie outside the ellipse. 455. 1) That
i/a
half of the ellipse jg + y = l which is situat
ed in the upper half-plane (Fig. 99); 2) that
jt2 (/2
half of the e l l i p s e + | g = 1 which is situated
in the lower half-plane (Fig. 100); 3) that half
x2 f/2
of the ellipse — + ^ - = 1 which is situated in
the left half-plane (Fig. 101); 4) that half of
the ellipse x 2
r/2 = 1 which is situated in the
right half-plane (Fig. 102). 456. 15. 457. 8 .
458. 5x + \ 2 y + 10 = 0, *— 2 = 0. 459. rx = 2 .6 ,
r2 = 7.4. 460. 20. 461. 10. (-5 ^ 3 /3 )
and ( — 5, - 3 j / “3). 463. 2 . and
X2
^ 464. 3 and 465.
■> 3-6 +
x2 //2
+ yj = n 2)
16 ^ 16 31 s o + f s " ,s
3
"s,l“»
^1®
4) X2 4 . I/ 2 — i x* u2
l:
+
II
^20^4 ' 256 ^ 192

X2 I/ 2 VS. vs.
/ . 466. 1) •
’' r s + l - 1 2 ’ 2 ‘ 3) 3 ’
Fig . 702. 467. e = V 2 468, (* -* o )a
4> 2 ' T"
+ (j/- f o)2= K 469. (x ~ 3 )- + ( y ^ 64 ) 8 = l . 470. ^ 3 )2 + (y~ — = 1■
471 1) C (3, — 1), semi-axes 3 and V 5, e = -5 -, equations of the

o
directrices: l x — 15 = 0 , 2* + 3 = 0 ; 2) C (— 1 . 2 ), semi-axes 5 and 4
3 ’
e=-jjr , equations of the directrices: 3x — 22 = 0, 3 x + 2 8 = 0; 3) C ( 1,
— 2), semi-axes 2 1^3 and 4, e = - i , equations ol the directrices:

i/ - 6 = 0, 0 + 1 0 = 0 . 472. 1) That half of the ellipse — +
4~ — ^ — 1 which is situated above the line y-\-7 — 0 (Fig. 103);
2) that half of the ellipse -* = 1 which is situated

below the line y — 1 = 0 (Fig. 104); 3) that half of the ellipse
x 2 (u 3)2
ygH----- ^— = 1 which is situated in the left half-plane (Fig. 1 5);
4) that half of the ellipse — ^ — -f — 9 ~ 1 which is situated to the
right of the line x + 5 = 0 (Fig. 106). 473. 1) ^ + yC = 1;

2) 2x2— 2xy + 2y2— 3 = 0; 3) 68x2 + 48*i/ + 82//2— 625 = 0; 4) 1U 2 +
+ 2 x y + l l t /2 — 48x — 48y — 24 = 0. 474. 5x2 + 9 y 2 + 4 x — 18y — 55 = 0.
475. 4x2 + 3i/2 + 32x— 14i/ + 59 = 0 . 476. 4x2 + 5i/2 + 14.c+ 40i/+ 81 = 0.
477. 7 at2 — 2xi/ + 7(/2 — 46x + 2i/ + 71 = 0 . 478. 17x2 + 8;u/ + 23i/2 + 30*—
—40y— 175 = 0. 479. x2 + 2y2— 6x + 24i/ + 31 = 0 . 480.
(3, 2). 481. ^3, the line touches the ellipse. 482. The line fails
to meet the ellipse. 483. I) The line cuts the ellipse; 2) the line fails
to meet the ellipse; 3) the line touches the ellipse. 484. The line:
1) cuts the ellipse for | m | < 5 ; 2) touches the ellipse for m = + 5;
3) passes outside the ellipse for | m | > 5. 485. k 2a2 + b 2 = m 2.
4 8 6 .^ + ^ = l . 488. 3x + 2y — 1 0 = 0 and 3* + 2 i / + 10 = 0.
489. x + i/ — 5 = 0 and x + i/ + 5 = 0. 490. 2x— y — 12 = 0, 2x— y +
24 V "5 _
+ 12 = 0; d = — — . 491. A M — 3, 2); d = ^ 1 3 . 492. x + y —
— 5 = 0 and x + 4 y — 10 = 0. 493. 4x — b y — 10 = 0. 494. d = 1 8 .
x2 y2 . x 2 4y 2
495. 496 x- + y- - \ 499. f +
20+ 5 “ °r 80+ l T ~ ‘ 4Sb‘ 4 0 + 10“ 1-
y2
+ ^ - = 1. H i n t . Use the property of the ellipse formulated in Prob
lem 498. 500. 55 + Tj‘ = l- Hint. Use the property of the ellipse for
mulated in Problem 498. 502. 2 * -f 1\ y — 10 = 0. Hint. Use the prop
erty of the ellipse^formulated in Problem 501. 503. (3, 2) and (3, — 2).
504. R -= — n */ ' 2- 505. 10.5 506. <p = 60°. 507. 16.8 508. 63°.
V m2+ n2
509. Into the ellipse ^ + ^ = 1. 510. x 2+ y 2 = 9. 511. ^ - + ^ = |.
9-2250
y
*»
0
+
H
<5>
£J>
II
1
H
i
-— 0 x
v ’ -o V
t i g . 103. Fi,g. /<w
Fig. 108.
512. q = -i . 513. <7= - . 514. q, = - . Qi = - . 515. 1) - -
_ ^ _ i. 21 — — — — r 31 4) ^ - ^ - 1 - 5) - -
16“ ’ l) 9 16 1’ 4 5 — ' 64 36“ ' ' 36
II2 _ fi. a:2 I/2 . n, x j_
64"“ 1 6) 144 25 ’ 7) 16 9 ’ 8) 4 5 ’ 9) 64
3 6 - 1. 516. 1) 36 3 24- 1, 2) ]6 g - 1, 3) 1Ari C7A
100 576
X2 </2 517. 1) a = 3, 5 = 2;
= - , ; 4 ) " 2 4 - |5 = - 1; 5 )T - f 6 = - ‘-
5 5
2) a = 4 , b = 1; 3) a = 4, 6 = 2; 4) a = 1, b = \ \ 5) a = — , b = y ;
6)a = ~ , 5 = - ; 7)a = - , 5= .518. 1) a = 3, 5 = 4; 2) F ^ - 5 . 0).
Fs (5. 0); 3 ) f = - | ; 4) y = ± — a:; 5) * = ± . 519. 1) a = 3. 5 = 4 ;
2) M O . - 5 ) , M O . 5); 3 )e = -; 4) y = ± x- 5) y = ± j .
4 * v y “ 3
A“ <2
520. 12 square units. 521. 1) That portion of the hyperbola — — •—= !
which is situated in the upper haif-plane (Fig. 107); 2) that branch
of the hyperbola a2 — y = — 1 which is situated in the lower half-
A2 If 2
plane (Fig. 108); 3) that branch of the h y p e r b o l a — = 1 which is
situated in the left half-plane (Fig. 109); 4) that branch of the hy-
Derbola — — y- r = — 1 which is situated in the upper half-plane
v 25 4
(Fig. 110). 522. A-f 4 V 5y + 1 0 = 0 and a — 10 = 0. 523. r x = 2— f
rt = l0 -L. 524. 8 . 525. 12. 526. 10. 527. 27. 528. ^ 10, and ^10,
. 529. (—6 , 4 V ' S ) and ( - 6 , - 4 V 3). 530. 2 ^ and 2 6 ^ .

x2 ij2
531. See Fig. H I . 532. 1) - - £ = 1; 2) x * - y * = 16; 3) - ~ t =1
32~~~8
x2 __ y 2
or *‘ - ^ = 1 ; 4) £ - £ - l ; 5) 533. 8 = ^ 7
°'U 305/la f8“ "8
534. 8 = ^ 3 . 535. ^ - * - = 1. 536. g - g - 1 - 540. 1)
(y — y«? 2) 0/ — j/o)2------- 1 541. 1) C (2, —3), a = 3,

— /,* *' „2 /,2
9*
5
6 = 4, e = — , equations of the directrices: 5x— 1 = 0 , 5x—19 = 0,
equations of the asymptotes: 4x — 3y — 17 = 0, 4jc + 3 ^ + 1 = 0;
2) C (—5, 1), a = 8, 6 = 6, e = 1 .2 5 , equations of the directrices!
x = — 11.4 and x = 1 .4 , equations of the asymptotes: 3*4-
-f4*/ + l l = 0, 3* — 4 y + 1 9 = 0; 3) C (2 ,— 1), a = 3,6 = 4 ,
e = 1 .2 5 , equations of the directrices: y = — 4.2, y = 2.2, equa
tions of the asymptotes: 4jc + 3y — 5 = 0, 4*— 3y — 1 1 = 0 .
542. That portion of the hyperbola. ---- — ^ = 1 which is
situated above the line y + 1 = 0 (Fig. 112); 2) that branch of the
' X_ 3)2 /jy _

hyperbola —— -—- — -^—x—- = — 1 which is situated below the line
4 9
y — 7 = 0 (Fig. 113); 3) that branch of the hyperbola ^ ----
— (y + 2) _ i js {0 je f^ 0f flle jine JC_ 9 _ o (Fig. 114);

4
fx _5)2 (ji l 2)2
4) that portion of the hyperbola --- — = —1 which is
to the left of the line * - 5 = 0 (Fig. 115). 543. 1) (* ~ 43)>-
_ (y~ 2)2= 1; 2) 24xy + 7y2— 144 = 0; 3) 2xy + 2x — 2i/ + 7 = 0.
544. - - ^ = 1 . 5 4 5 . ^ - ^ = - l . 546. x * - 4 y * - 6 x - 2 4 y - 4 7 = 0 .
547. 7X2_ 6xu — y2 + 26* — 18(/— 17 = 0. 548. 91*2— 100*(/ + \6y2 —
J
— 136a: + 86i/ —47 = 0. 549. xy = -- if the old axes are rotated
through an angle of —45°; x y = — ^ if they are rotated through an

angle of +45°. 550. 1) C (0, 0), a = b = 6 , equations of the asymp
totes: x = 0 and y = 0; 2) C (0, 0), a = b = 3, equations of the
asymptotes: x = 0 and y = 0; 3) C (0, 0), a = b = 5, equations of
the asymptotes: x = 0 and y = 0. 551. (6,2) and .
552. 3^ — the line touches the hyperbola. 553. The line fails
to meet the hyperbola. 554. The line: 1) touches the hyperbola;
2) cuts the hyperbola at two points; 3) fails to meet the hyperbola.
555. The line 1) cuts the hyperbola for | m | > 4.5; 2) touches the
hyperbola for m = ± 4 . 5 ; 3) passes outside the hyperbola for
| m I < 4.5. 556. k W — b* = m*. 557. 559. 3x — 4y —
a2 b2
— 10 = 0, 3* — 4// + 10 = 0 . 560. 10* — 3 y — 32 = 0, 10*— 3y + 32 = 0.
561. x + 2y — 4 = 0, *-f-2i/ + 4 = 0; d = O p L . 562. M t (—6 , 3);
o
d = | i / l 3. 563. 5*— 3 y — 16 = 0, 13* + 5(/ + 48 = 0. 564. 2* + 5i/ —
- 1 6 = 0. 565. d = ; _ V r 0 . 566. f - g - 1 . f | = l . 567.

*2 yi *2 y2
]-6 - j = l . 568. * = —4. * = 4, y = — 1 and y = 1. 572. - ^ - - ^ = 1,
573.
*2 1/2
575. 2 * + \ \ y + 6 = 0. Hint. Use the property of
16 9 ~
the hyperbola formulated in Problem 574. 577. *2— </2= 1 6 .
578. 579. ^ - - = 1 . 580. q = . 581. </ = 2.
16 9 ~ 25 4 3
Fig. 113.
Fig. //4 .
582. <71 = 2; <7j = y . 583. 1) 2) y2- — .v; 3 ) * 2-= — ;/;

4) x2 = —6y. 584. 1) p = 3; situated in the right half-plane (sym
metrically with respect to the axis Ox); 2) p = 2.5; situated in the
upper half-plane (symmetrically with respect to the axis Oy), 3) p — 2;
situated in the left half-plane (symmetrically with respect to the
axis Ox); 4) p = -^ ; situate d in the lower half-plane (symmetrically
with respect to the axis Oy). 585. 1) //2 = 4x; 2) //2 = —9x; 3) x 2 = y\
4) x2 = — 2y. 586. 40 cm. 587. x2 = — 12//. 588. 1) That portion of
the parabola y 2 = 4x which is situated in the first quadrant (Fig. 116);
2) that portion of the parabola y 2 = —x which is situated in the
second quadrant (Fig. 117); 3) that portion of the parabola //2 = — 18x
which is situated in the third quadrant (Fig. 118); 4) that portion
of the parabola y2 = 4x which is situated in the fourth quadrant
(Fig. 119); 5) that portion of the parabola x 2 = 5y which is situated
in the lirst quadrant (Fig. 120); 6) that portion of the parabola
x2 = —25y which is situated in the third quadrant (Fig. 121); 7) that
portion of the parabola x 2 = 3y which is situated in the second quad
rant (Fig. 122); 8) that portion of the parabola x2 = — 16y which is
situated in the fourth quadrant (Fig. 123). 589. F (6 , 0), x-f-6 = 0.
590. 12. 591. 6. 592. (9, 12); (9, — 12). 593.y2 -=— 28x.
594. 1) ( y — P)2 = 2p (x — a); 2) ( y - P)2 = - 2 p ( x - a ) . 595.1)
(x — u )2 = 2p ( y — p); 2) ( x - a )2 = - 2 p ( y - P). 596. 1) A (2, 0),
p = 2 , x — 1 = 0; 2) A f - t 0 , p = 3, 6 x — 13 = 0; 3) A ^ 0 , — y ) .
p = 3, 6 1 / + 11 = 0 ; 4) A (0, 2), p= y . 4p-9= 0. 597. 1) A (— 2. 1),
p = 2; 2) / 1( 1, 3), p= - ; 3) A (6, — 1). p = 3. 598. 1) 4 ( - 4 , 3),
p = - ; 2) >1(1, 2), p — 2\ 3) 4 ( 0 , 1), p = y . 599. 1) That por-

tion of the parabola (y — 3)2= 1 6 ( x — I) which is situated below the
line y — 3 = 0 (Fig. 124); 2) that portion of the parabola (x + 4)2 =
= 9 ( //- f 5 ) which is situated to the right of the line x + 4 = 0
(Fig. 125); 3) that portion of the parabola (x — 2)2 = —2 (t/ — 3) which
is to the left of the line x — 2 = 0 (Fig. 126); 4) that portion of the
parabola (|/ + 5)2 = —3(x-}-7) which is s: tuated below the line
y + 5= 0 (Fig. 127). 600 x = - y i- y + 7 601. p = i ; t 2- x + 3.
602. x ‘t + 2xy + yi — 6x + 2</ + 9 = 0. 603. F (9, —8). 604. 4a:2— 4x y +
+ i/2 + 32a: + 34(/ + 89 = 0. 605. (2. 1). (—6 , 9 ) . 606. ( - 4 , 6) - t h e
line touches the parabola. 607. The line and the parabola do not
intersect. 608. The line: 1) touches the parabola; 2) cuts the parabola
at two points; 3) fails to meet the parabola 609. 1) k < — ; 2) fc=l/2;
3) k > 1/2 610. p — 2bk. 612. y xy = p (x + x x). 613. x + f/-F2 = 0-
614. 2x— //— 1 6 = 0 615. d = 2 ^ 1 3 . 616. M { (9, —24); d = 1 0 .
617. 3x — // -f 3 = 0 and 3x - 2y + 12 = 0. 619. 5x— 18//+ 25 = 0.
Fig. 118. Fig. 119.
Fig. 120. Fig. 121.

tig. \9K.
620. d = 13-^. 621. (6 , 12) and (6 , —12). 622. (10, /3 0 ) ,
(10, - V 3 0 ) . (2. / 6 ) . (2, - ^ 6 ) 6 2 3 .(2 .1 ), ( - 1 . 4 ) Y ? ± i - S .
I + p ) anJ ( ? = £ ! , ! = £ ! ? ) . «25. 9 _ , 8 , o . Us.

the property of the parabola formulated in Problem 624. 628. 1) Q =
= 5 — 3 cos 0 1 2) e = 5 + 3 c o s 6 ' 629, l} 6 = 4 — 5 c o s 0 : 2) Q= ~
~~ 4—5cos0 ' 63°' 1 )e= = 5 + 1 3 to s 0 ; 2 ) e = _ 5 + 1 3 co s0 ‘ 6 3 ,'e = l — c o s0 ’
632. 1) An ellipse; 2) a parabola; 3) one branch of a hyperbola; 4) an

ellipse; 5) one branch of a hyperbola; 6) a parabola. 633. 13, 12.
91 OQ
634. 8 , 6. 635. q = — ------ , p = -------5 . 636. The equations of the
* 2 cos0 * 2 cos0
directrices are o = — r — - ? , , Q= — f-— t ; ’. the equations of the
* 5cos0 * 5cos0
asymptotes are f y sm » - < cos 8 ■ • ------ 3 sin 8 + 4 cos 8 '
M7. ( « .i ) . ($. - i ) . •». ( 3 .|» ) . (3. ~ § » ) .
6». I) ( | . n) : 2) ( p , i ) . (p . - i ) . 640. .
«'• 6“ - » - W ' m - 3 t + 2 5 it = 0.
644. 9 x — 32(/— 73 = 0. 645. x — y = 0, x + 4y = 0. 646. x + 2i/ = 0,
8x — 9i/ = 0. 647. x -f 2i/ = 0., 2x — 3(/ —0. 654. 2 x — 5y = 0.
655. l x r' y — 20 — 0. 656. x — 8y — 0, 2x — y —0. 657. a — 2// — 0, 3 x —

t/ = 0; x -f 2f/ = 0, 3a-t*/ = 0. 661. i/ + 2 = 0. 662. 2a — y-\ '\ - 0 . 665.
Curves 1), 2), 5) and 8) have a single centre; curves 3), 7) have no
centre; curves 4), 6) have infinitely many centres. 666. 1) (3, —2);
2) (0, —5); 3) (0, 0); 4) (— 1, 3). 667. 1) a — 3*/ — 6 = 0 ; 2) 2x + y - ~
— 2 = 0; 3) 5x — y + 4 = 0. 668. 1) 9a2 — I8xy + 6y2 + 2 - 0;
2) 6 a 2 -f 4xy + y 2 — 7 = 0; 3) 4x2 -f 6xy + y 2 — 5 = 0; 4) 4a2-f-2xy Jr
- r § y 2 j r 1 = 0 . 669. 1) m ^ 4, n may have any value; 2) tn--~ 4,
n # 6; 3) m = 4, n = 6. 670. 1) ^ = 2; 2) k l = — 1, fc2 - - 5; 3 ) for
every k ^ 2 which satisfies the inequalities — 1 < k < 5; 4) for
k < — \ and for k > 5. 671. a 2— 8//2— 4 = 0. 672. a2 -f xy -f y 2 -f-
+ 3i/ = 0. 673. 1) Elliptic equation; represents the ellipse
a'2 y ,z
-g- + — = 1; the new origin is O ' (5, —2); 2) hyperbolic equation;
X>2 >2
represents the hyperbola ~ — — = 1 ; the new origin is O ' (3, —2);

lb 9
/2 /2
X if
3) elliptic equation — = —1; represents no geometric object
(is an equation of an imaginary ellipse); 4) hyperbolic equation;
represents a degenerate hyperbola (the pair of intersecting lines
4a'2— y ' 2 = 0); the new origin is O' (—1, — 1); 5) elliptic equation;
represents the degenerate ellipse 2a '2 + 3y'2= 0 (a single point).
/2 r2
X u
674.* 1) Hyperbolic equation; represents the hyperbola —— —- = 1 ;
. 0 1 . 2
tan a = —2, c o s a - — , sin a = ----- — ; 2) elliptic equation; rep-
V 5 Vs
a '2 u’1
resents the ellipse — - } - ^ - = l ; a = 45°; 3) elliptic equation; rep
resents the degenerate ellipse x '2-f 4//'2= 0 (a single point); tan a = 2,
co sa= -^,
1 2
sina = —7^ ; 4) hyperbolic equation; represents the de-
v 5 y 5 2
generate hyperbola a ' 2— t/ '2—0 (a pair of intersecting lines); tan a = ^ - ,
3 2 ^
c o s a = —= , s i n a = —7= ; 5) elliptic equation; represents no geomet-
Y 13 V 13
ric object (is an equation of an imaginary ellipse); has the form
a '2
— -f y ,2 = — 1 in the new coordinates; a = 4 5 ° , 675. 1) H yperbol
ic; 2) elliptic; 3) parabolic; 4) elliptic; 5) parabolic; 6) hyperbolic.
676. 1) Hyperbolic equation; represents the hyperbola whose equation
y'2
c a n be r e d u c e d to t h e f o r m a /2— ^-=1 by tw o consecutive trans-
* In Problem 674 1) — 5), a is the angle from the positive A-axis

to the positive x'-axis
- - x —u
formations of coordinates: x = x + 2, y = y — 1 and x— »
JC "'I
y = — —=r- (Fig. 128); 2) elliptic equation, represents the ellipse
yf 2
X*2 y
— + ^ - = 1, to which form it can be reduced by two consecutive
transformations of coordinates: x = x — 1, y = y + 1 and x = X r ,

V2
M -i" (/,
«/ = —pp=r- (Fig. 129); 3) hyperbolic equation; represents the hyper-
X't y’2
bola -7r — ~ = \ t to which form it can be reduced by two consecu-
y oo
live transformations of coordinates: * = x + 3, y = y —4 and
M — 2y' ~ 2 x r - y*
x= —- , y= (Fig. 130); 4) hyperbolic equation; repre-
rs V5
sents the degenerate hyperbola x #t— 4(/,2 = 0 (a pair of intersecting
lines), to which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transfor
- x' + 3y'
mations of coordinates: x = x —2, y = y and x
VTo ’
3xf I /
y= — f Fig. 131); 5) elliptic equations; represents no geomet
ric object (the imaginary ellipse x ,2 + 2y'* = — 1, to which form it

can be reduced by two consecutive transformations of coordinates:
represents the degenerate ellipse 2x'2 + 3y'2 = 0 (a single point), to

which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transformations
of coordinates: x = x,
~ n
y —y —2 and
~ x>—y'
x ——
' *' + y
, u= — «
f2 f2
677. 1) The ellipse - ^ - + - ^ - = 1; 2) the hyperbola 9x2— 16*/* = 5;

3) the degenerate hyperbola x 2— 4y2 = 0 (the pair of intersecting
lines whose equations are x — 2// = 0, x -\-2y = 0)\ 4) the imaginary
ellipse 2 a:2 + 3 y 2 = — 1; the equation represents no geometric object;
5) the degenerate ellipse x 2~\-2y2= 0; the equation represents a single
x2 u2
point, namely, the origin of coordinates; 6) the ellipse — + 1;
7) the hyperbola ^ ----y 2= 1; 8) the ellipse ~ - + «/2— 1. 678. 1) 3
and 1; 2) 3 and 2; 3) 1 and

1 4) 3 and 2. 679. 1) jc = 2, y = 3;
2) jc = 3, y = —3; 3) x== 1, y = — 1; 4) x = 2 , y = 1. 680. 1) 2 and 1;
2) 5 and 1; 3) 4 and 2; 4) 1 and — . 681. 1)x + y — 1 = 0 , 3x + y +
+ 1 = 0 ; 2) x —Ay —2 = 0, x — 2// + 2 = 0; 3) x — y = 0, x — 3y = 0\
4) x + y — 3 = 0, x-\ -3y— 3 = 0. 682. 1) An ellipse; 2) a hyperbola;
3) a pair of intersecting lines (a degenerate hyperbola); 4) the eq u a
tion represents no geometric object (an imaginary ellipse); 5) a point
(a degenerate ellipse). 689. 1) Parabolic equation; represents the
parabola y"2= 2x"t to which form it can be reduced by two consecu-
# f 4 —4 * ' + 3 y' — Zx' — 4y'
tive transformations of coordinates: x = ------ =— — , y = -------- ?------
and 3, y' = y" + 2 (Fig. 132); 2) parabolic equation; repre
sents the degenerate hyperbola xw* = l (a pair of parallel lines), to
which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transformations of
coordinates:
3*' — 2 y' 2*' + 3i f 4 n
and x' = x + y' ~ y
V 13 ~ l/"l3 yu
(Fig. 133); 3) parabolic equation; represents no geometric object and
is reduced to the form y"2 -j - 1—0 bv two consecutive transforma
tions of coordinates: x — y— and x' = x", y' =
= y" — 4. 690. 1) The parabola y 2 = 6x\ 2) the degenerate parabola
y 2 = 25 (the pair of parallel lines whose equations are y — 5 ^ 0 ,
«/-f5 = 0); 3) the degenerate parabola y z ~ 0 (the pair of coincident
lines which coincide with the ,v-axis). 693. 1) (.v -4- 2//)- + 4x + y — 15 — 0;
2) (3.t— y)2— x + 2y — 14 = 0; 3) {bx — 2y)2-\-3x — y + 11 = 0 ;

4) (4x-\-2y)2— bx + 7y = 0\ 5) (3x — 7y)2 + 3x — 2y — 24 - 0 . 697. 1) 3;
2)3; 3) 4) y / l 0 . 699. 1) 2* + 1/ — 5 = - 0,2* + </— 1 = 0 :
2)2* — 3i/ — 1 = 0 ,2 * — 3i/ + 11 = 0; 3) 5* — ij — 3 = 0 , 5 * — (/ + 5 = 0.
700. 1) * — 3i/ + 2 = 0 ; 2) 3* + 5i/ + 7 = 0; 3) 4* — 2y — 9 = 0.
701. (x2 + y 2)2 — 2c2 (x2 — y 2) = a* — c*. 702. (x2 + y 2)2 = 2a2 (x2 — if);
g2 — 2a2 cos 20. 703. e z = S sin 2 6 ; (x2 + y2)2= 2Sxy. 705. Q= ^ - 0 a n d
e = — — 0. 706.(2r — x ) y 2= x 2. 707. * (a2 + y 2) = a2. 708. q = ± 6;
x2y2 + (x + a)2 (*2— b2) ~ 0. 709. Q= ± a *an *2 ((* + a)a + i/2] =

<=a2y 2. 710. q = 2a cos 0 ± 6; (x2 -\-y2— 2ax)2 — b2 (x2 + y 2). 711. q =
= a | sin 20 / ; (x2 -f- y 2)3 = \ a 2x 2y 2. 712. x = acos3 t, y = as\n3 t;
2 2 2
xT + y 3 = 0 3 . 713. Q = a cos3 0, (*2 + //2)* = aJt3. 714. *=

«=a (cos / + / s i n /), // = a (sin t — / cos /). 715. x = a ( t — sin/); */ =
c=a (1— cos t)\ x + V y (2a — y) = a arccos - — - . 716. x = a ( 2 c o s f —

— cos 2/), y = a ( 2 sin t — sin 21)\ q = 2a (1 — cos 0). 717. x = ( a+b ) cos t —
-a c o s ^ /, y = (a + b ) s i n t — 718. x = (b — a) c o s t e r
. ^— a i ^ v . , . b— a .
+ a c o s ------ /, y (b — a ) sin t — a s i n --------t.
a a
Part Two
720. 1) (4, 3, 0), (—3, 2, 0), the point C lies in the plane Oxy
and hence the projection of C on Oxy coincides w ith C, (0, 0, 0);
2) (4, 0, 5), (—3, 0, 1), (2, 0, 0), the point D lies in the plane Oxz
and hence the projection of D on Oxz coincides w ith D\ 3) (0, 3, 5),
(0 , 2 , 1), (0, —3, 0), the point D lies in the plane Oyz and hence
the projection of D on Oyz coincides w ith D\ 4) (4, 0, 0),
( - 3 , 0, 0), (2, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0); 5) (0, 3, 0), (0, 2, 0), (0, —3, 0),
(0, 0, 0); 6) (0, 0, 5), (0, 0, 1), (0, 0 , 0), the point D lies on the
2-axis and hence the projection of D on the 2-axis coincides w ith D.
721. 1) (2, 3, — 1), (5, —3, —2), (—3, 2, 1), (a, b, —c); 2) (2, —3, 1),
(5, 3, 2), ( - 3 , —2, — 1), (a, - 6, c); 3) (—2, 3, 1). ( - 5 , —3, 2),
(3, 2, — 1), ( — a , b, c); 4) (2, —3, — 1), (5, 3, —2), (—3, —2, 1),
(a, - b , — c); 5) ( - 2 , 3, - 1), ( - 5 , - 3 , - 2 ) , (3, 2, 1), ( - a , b , - c ) ;
6) ( - 2 , - 3 , 1), (—5, 3, 2),(3, - 2 , - 1 ) , ( - a , - b , c); 7) ( - 2 , - 3 , - 1 ) ,
(“ 5, 3, —2), (3, —2, 1), (—a, —6, —c). 722. (a, a, —a),
(a , — a , a ) , (— a , a , a ) , (— a , — a , a ) . 723. 1) The first, third, fifth
and seventh octants; 2) the second, fourth, sixth and eighth octants;
3) the first, third, sixth and seventh octants; 4) the second, fourth,
fifth and eighth octants; 5) the third, fourth, sixth and seventh
octants. 724. 1) The first, third, fifth and seventh octants; 2) the
second, th ird , fifth and eighth octants; 3) the first, second, seventh
and eighth octants; 4) the first, third, sixth and eighth octants;
5) the second, fourth, fifth and seventh octants. 725. 1) (—3, 3, 3);
2) (3, 3, - 3 ) ; 3) ( - 3 , 3, - 3 ) ; 4) ( - 3 , - 3 , - 3 ) ; 5) (3, - 3 , - 3 ) .
726. 1) 7; 2) 13; 3) 5. 727. 0 4 = 6 ; OB = 1 4 ; O C = 13; OD = 25.
730. <£ M xM 3M 2 is obtuse. 732. (5, 0, 0) and (— 11, 0, o)- 733.
(0, 2, 0). 734. C (3, —3, —3), R = 3. 735. (2, — 1, — 1), (— 1, —2, 2).
(0, 1, —2). 736. 7. 737. * = 4, y=-—1, z = 3. 738. C (6 , 1, 19) and
D ( 9, —5, 12). 739. D (9 , —5, 6). 740. The fourth vertex of the paral
lelogram may coincide with one of the following points: Dx (—3, 4, —4),
D 2 ( 1, - 2 , 8), D3 (5, 0, - 4 ) . 741. C ( l , 5, 2), D (3, 2, 1), £ ( 5 , - l , 0 ) ,
F (7, -*-4, - 1 ) . 742. A ( - \ , % 4). B (8. - 4 , -2 ). 743. | ^ 7 4 .
744. VTA. 745. x =, ^ + * » + *» + *« . y = * i + * « + *» + »« ,
2= 21+ Z2+ Z3+ /4 m1x1+ m 2x2 4 - m3*3 +m 4r4

746. x= y=
^l + ^2 + ^3 + m4
_ m ly l + + m3y3 - f mAy4 z = m' Zl + m2z2 - f rn373 + m4zi ?47

Wl + ffl2 + ^3 + ^4 ’ ^ l + ^ 2 + m3 + rn4
(2, —3, 0), (1, 0. 2), JO, 3. 4). 748. |f l| = 7. 749. z = ± 3.
750. A B = {—4, 3. —1}, B/4 = {4, —3. I}. 751. /V (4, !.1).
752. (—1, 2. 3). 753. X = f T , Y = 1, Z = — 1. 754. c o s c t= |,
Q 3 16 3 . 4 12
cos p = — -g- ,cos y —— 25 • 755* cos a = — , cos p = — , cos y = — .
756. 1) Possible; 2) impossible; 3) possible. 757. 1) Impossible;
2) possible; 3) impossible. J758. 60’ or 120 . 759. a = { l ^ - l , 0 T }
or a = {1. -1 , —V 2 \. 760. ^ , ( ^ 3 , 3, \ f 3),
M j ( — V~3, — V"3, — \ T ) . 761. See Fig. 134. 762. | a — ft | = 22.
763. _j_a + 6 | = 20. 764. | a + b | = | a — b | = 13. 765. | a + 6 | =

= 129 =s= 11.4, | a — 'o | = 7. 766. |a + 6 | = K"l9 = 4.4, |a — ft| = 7.
767. 1) Vectors a and b must be mutually perpendicular; 2) the
angle between vectors a and b must be acute; 3) the angle between
vectors a and b must be obtuse. 768. | a | = | 6 |. 769. See Fig. 135.
774. | /? | = 15. 775. 1) {l, — 1, 6}; 2) {5, —3, 6}; 3) {6. —4, 12};
4) -jl, - oJ> ; 5) {0. - 1 . 12}; 6) J 2^ . 776. The vec-
tor b is three times as long as the vector a, the
vectors are oppositely directed. 777. a = 4, p = — 1.
779. The vector A B is two times as long as the vector CD\ the
/ 6 2 31
vectors are similarly directed. 780. a 0 = < — , — — , — j > .
781« - { * • n r - n r J82- i0 ^ * '= 6-

783. d = — 4 8 / + 4 5 y — 36*. 784. c = £ - 3 , 15, 12}. 785. J M =
= { 3, 4, —3 } , B N = { 0, - 5 , 3} , C P = { - 3, 1, 0}. 787. a =
= 2/? + 5<7. 788. a = 2 b - \ - c t b - a - - r , c = a — 2b. 789. p = 2 a — 3b.
790. A M = -^-& + c* = -y b — c, where Mt N

and P are the midpoints ol the sides of the triangle ABC
791. A D = \ \ A B — 7AC, BD = \OAB — 7A C , CD = \ \ A B — SAC ,

/ D + BD + C D - 3 2 > 4 B - 2 2 / l C . 793. c = 2p — 3q + r. 794. d = 2 a —
—3b + £ =■-—2a + 3&+ ^t ^ ^H— c 3 a= ~2 ^

- y C + 3 - d . 795. 1) —6; 2) 9; 3) 16; 4) 13; 5) — 61; 6) 37; 7) 73.
796. 1) —62; 2) 162; 3) 373. 797. The sum of the squares of the
diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of
its sides. 798. — ab — ab when vectors a and b are collinear and
oppositely directed; a b = a b when vectors a and b are collinear and
sim ilarly directed. 799. When b is perpendicular to a and c\ also
3
when a and c are collinear vectors. 800. a b + be + c a = — -g-.
801. ab + bc + c a = — 13. 802. | p | = 10. 803. a = ± |-.

2
804. | a | = |& |. 807. B D = ^ c — b. 808, a = arccos . 809. <p =
VT
= arccos . 810. The plane perpendicular to the axis of the
vector a and cutting oft an intercept equal to on this axis.

811. The line of intersection of the planes w hich are perpendicular
to the axes of the vectors a and b and cut off intercepts equal to
and —r , respectively, on these axes. 812. 1) 22; 2) 6; 3) 7;
ia
4) —200; 5) 129; 6) 41. 813. 17. 814. 1) —524; 2) 13; 3) 3;
4) ( A B - A C ) BC = { —70, 70, —350 } and AB (4C ■DC )---

= { —78, 104, —312 }. 815.31. 816. 13. 818. u - 6 .
5 4 \
819. cos(p= — . 820. 45°. 821. arccos f — -g-J • 823. x =
= {-2 4 ,3 2 ,3 0 }. 824. j c = J 1, - , - j }. 825. x= - 4 i -
~6j+\2k. 826. Jt —{ —3, 3, 3} . 827. jc { 2, -3 , 0 }. 828. Jf =

= 2i + 3y—2k. 829. ^ 3 . 830. — 3. 831.-5. 832.6. 833.- 4.
834.5. 835. —1 1 . 836. X = — - , Y = — ^ , Z = - . 837. 3.
3 3 3
838.-6 - . 839. | [aft] |= 15. 840. | |aft] I -= 16. 841. aft-=-± 30.
842. 1) 24; 2) 60. 843. 1) 3; 2) 27; 3) 300. 844. Vectors a and ft must
be collinear. 846. When vectors a and ft are p rpendicular.
850. 1) { 5, I, 7 }; 2) { 10. 2. 14 }; 3) { 2 0 , 4. 28 }. 851. P, {6 , —4, - 6 };
2) { —12, 8 , 12}. 852. {2, 11, 7}. 853. { —4, 3, 4}. 854.15;
cos a = y , cos fi = — , cosy - • 855. 23; cos a - — y ,
6 2 1 4
cos ft—— cos v - . 856. }^ 6 6 ; cos a - - —— , cos ft —--------- ,
1 7 ' 7 y 66 V 66
7 5 V 17
cos V —— — . 857. 14 square units. 858. 5. 859. sin c( = ——— .
V 66 21
860. { —6 , —24, 8 }. 861. rn = { 45, 24, 0 }. 862. Jt^{7 , 5, l }
864. \ [ a b ] c ] = : { - 7, 1 4,-7}; [ a [ b c \ ] - { 10 , 13, 19}. 865. 1) Right-
handed; 2) left-handed; 3) left-handed; 4) right-handed; 5) the vectors
are coplanar; 6 ) left-handed. 8 6 6 . a b c — 24. 867. a b c — ± 27; the
plus sign is taken if the triad a, b , c is right-handed; the minus
sign, if left-handed. 8 6 8 . When vectors a , b , c are mutually per
pendicular. 873. abc^= — 7. 874. 1) Coplanar; 2) non-coplanar;
3) coplanar. 876. 3 cubic units. 877. 11. 878. (0 , 8 , 0); D2 (0 , —7, 0).
881. X = — 6 , Y^= — 8, Z = — 6. 882. Vectors a and c must be
collinear, or vector b must be perpendicular to vectors a and c . 88 5. The
points M t, M 2, AC, lie on the surface; the pomts A43, A45, /Vf6 do not lie on
the surface. The equation represents a sphere withcentre at theoriginand
radius 7. 886. 1) ( 1, 2 , 2) and ( 1, 2 , —2); 2) there is no such point
on the given surface; 3) (2, 1, 2) and (2, — 1, 2); 4) there is no such
point on the given surface. 887. 1) The plane Oyz\ 2) the plane Oxz;
3) the plane Oxy\ 4) the plane parallel to the plane Oyz and situated
in the near half-space at a distance of two units from Oyz\ 5) the
plane parallel to the plane Oxz and situated in the left half-space
at a distance of two units from Oxz\ 6) the plane parallel to the
plane Oxy and situated in the lower half-space at a distance of five
units from Oxy\ 7) the sphere with centre at the origin and radius 5;
8) the sphere with centre at (2, —3, 5) and radius 7; 9) the equation
represents a single point, namely, the origin; 10) the equation
represents no geometric object in space; 11) the plane which bisects
the dihedral angle between the planes Oxz, Oyz and is situated in
the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th octants; 12) the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oyz, Oxy and is situated in the
2nd, 3rd, 5th and 8 th octants; 13) the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oxy, Oxz and is situated in the
1st, 2nd, 7th and 8 th octants; 14) the planes Oxz and Oyz; 15) the
planes Oxy and Oyz; 16) the planes Oxy and Oxz; 17) all the three
coordinate planes; 18) the plane Oyz and the plane parallel to the
plane Oyz and situated in the near half-space at a distance of four
units from Oyz; 19) the plane Oxz and the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oxz, Oyz and is situated in the
1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th octants; 20) the plane Oxy and the plane which
bisects the dihedral angle between the planes Oxz, Oxy and is situated
in the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6 th octants. 889. x 2 + y 2 + z2 = r2.
890. ( x — a )2 -|-(y — p )2 -h (z — y) 2 = r 2. 891. y — 3 = 0. 892. 2z — 7 = 0 .
893. 2x + 3 = 0. 894. 20*/ b 53 = 0. 895. *2 + y 2 + z2 = a2. 896. x 2 + y 2 +
X2 IJ2 72 X2 U2
+ = 897. x + 2 z ~ 0 . 898. - + ^ + - = 1. 899. +
z2
+ jg = — 1. 900. The points M t , M 3 lie on the given curve; the
points M 2, M 4 do not lie on the curve. 901. Curves 1) and 3) pass
through the origin. 902. 1) (3, 2, 6) and (3, —2, 6); 2) (3, 2, 6) and
(—3, 2, 6); 3) the given curve contains no such point. 903. 1) The
z-axis; 2) the y - axis; 3) the *-axis; 4) the straight line passing
through the point (2, 0 , 0) parallel to the axis Oz; 5) the straight
line passing through the point (—2, 3, 0) parallel to the axis Oz;
6) the straight line passing through the point (5 , 0 , —2) parallel to
the axis Oy; 7) the straight line passing through the point (0, —2, 5)
parallel to the axis Ox; 8) the circle (lying in the plane Oxy) with
centre at the origin and radius 3; 9) the circle (lying in the
plane Oxz) with centre at the origin and radius 7; 10) the circle
(lying in the plane Oyz) with centre at the origin and radius 5;
11) the circle (lying in the plane z — 2 = 0) with centre at the point
(0, 0, 2) and radius 4. 904. I x2+ y2+ *2= 9. 905. / x 2+ y 2+ z 2= 25,

I y = 0. \ y + 2 = 0.
(x — 5)2 + (*/ + 2)2 4- (z — l )2 = 169,
906.
{ x = 0.
x 2 + y 2 + z2 = 36,
907. 908. (2; 3; —6), (—2; 3 ; - 6).
{( x — l )2 + (l/+ 2)2 + (z — 2)2 = 2 5 .
909. (1, 2, 2), (— 1, 2, 2). 910. 1) The cylindrical surface whose
elements are parallel to the axis Oy and whose directing curve is
the circle represented (in the plane Oxz) by the equation *2 + zl = 25;
2) the cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Ox
and whose directing curve is the ellipse represented (in the plane Oyz)
u2 z2
by the equation ^ + 77= 1; 3) the cylindrical surface whose elements
z5 lb
are parallel to the axis Oz and whose directing curve is the hyperbola
x£ I/2
represented (in the plane Oxy) by the equation — — — - 1 ; 4) the
cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Oy and
whose directing curve is the parabola represented (in the plane Oxz)
by the equation x 2 = 6z; 5) the cylindrical surface whose elements
are parallel to the axis Oz and whose directing curve is the pair of
lines represented (in the plane Oxy) by the equations x = 0 ,
x — y = 0 ; this cylindrical surface consists of two planes; 6) the
cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Oy and
whose directing curve is the pair of lines represented (in the
plane Oxz) by the equations * — z = 0, x + z — 0\ this cylindrical
surface consists of two planes; 7) the x-axis; 8) the equation repre
sents no geometric object in space; 9) the cylindrical surface whose
elements are parallel to the axis Oy and whose directing curve is the
circle represented (in the plane Oxz) by the equation x 2 + ( z — 1)* = 1;
10) the cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Ox
and whose directing curve is represented (in the plane Oyz) by the
equation • 911. 1) x 2 + 5y2— 8 y — 12 = 0;
2) 4x2 + 5z2 + 4? — 60 = 0; 3) 2y — z — 2 = 0.
Qi9 n | 8x2+ V - 3 6 A ' + 1 6 i / - 3 = 0, I ? ^ 2 z - 7 = 0,
2* ] \ z = 0; 2) \ y = 0;
3) | 4</2 + 8z2 + 16i/ + 20z — 31 = 0 , 913 x ~ 2 y + 3z + 3 = 0.
| x = 0.
914. 5* — 3z = 0. 915. 2x — y — z — 6 = 0. 916. x — y — 3z + 2 = 0.

917. x + 4i/ + 7 z + 16 = 0. 919. 9x — y + 7 2 - 4 0 = 0 . 921. 3* + 3// +
+ z — 8 = 0. 923. 1) n = {2, — 1, —2} , n = { 2k, — X, — 2 \ };
2) « = { 1, 5, - 1 }, n = { l , 5X, - X }; 3) n = { 3. - 2 . 0 }, n =
= {3?i, - 2 X . 0}; 4) n = { 0, 5, - 3 } . n = 0. 5*. - 3 k };
5) « = { 1, 0, 0 }, n = { X. 0, 0 }; 6) n = { 0, 1 , 0 } ; « = { 0, X. 0 },
where X is any number other than zero. 924. 1) and 3) represent
parallel planes. 925. 1) and 2) represent perpendicular planes.
926. 1) / = 3, m = — 4; 2) 1 = 3. m = — J - ; 3) / = — 3 y , m = — l y .
1 1 2 1 3
927. 1) 6 ; 2) — 19; 3) — y . 928. 1) j n and y n; 2) j rt and y n ;
3) ; 4) arccos ^ and jt — arccos % . 929. 5x — 3i/ + 2z = 0.

z 15 15
930. 2x—3z — 27 = 0. 931. 7x — y —5 z = 0 . 932. * + 22— 4 = 0.
934. 4* — y — 2z — 9 = 0 . 936. x = l . y = — 2, 2 = 2. 939. 1) a # 7;
2) a = 7, 6 = 3; 3 ) a = 7 , b + 3. 940. 1) 2 — 3 = 0; 2 ) y + 2 = 0;
3) jt + 5 = 0. 841. I) 2i/ + 2 = 0; 2) 3* + z = 0; 3) 4 * + 3 i / = 0 .
942. 1) i/ + 4 2 + 10 = 0; 2) * — 2 — 1 = 0 ; 3) 5 x + y — 13 = 0.
943. (12, 0, 0), (0, — 8, 0), (0, 0, - 6). 944. - + y + ^2 = L

945. a = — 4, b = 3, c = y . 946. 240 square units. 947. 8 cubic

x , l) , z , x u ,
units. 948. = 1. 950. x +
- 3 + - 4 + 2 = 1- 949- - 3 + T +
-f-«/ + z + 5 = 0. 951. 2x — 2 l y + 2z + 8 8 = 0 , 2 x — 3 y — 2 z + 1 2 = 0 .
952. x + ij + z — 9 — 0, x —y — z-{ -l= 0, x — y + z—3=0,
x + y — 2 — 5 = 0. 953. 2x — y — 3z — 15 = 0.
954. 2x — 3y + z — 6 = 0. 955. x — 3y — 2z + 2 = 0.
956. Planes 1), 4), 5), 7), 9), 11) and 12) are represented by normal
equations. 957. 1) y x — y p + y z— 6 = 0; 2) — y * + y {/— y z —
—3=0; ,, 2 3 6 11 . . . 2 , 2 1 1 .
3) y A— y !/_ y e _ _ = 0 ; 4) y X + - y _ y Z_ y = 0;
o) — ,'/ + j | z — 2 = 0; 6) | x - y y — y = 0; 7) — y — 2 = 0; 8) x —
—5 = 0 ; 9) z — 3 = 0; 10) z — y = 0. 958. 1) a = 6 0 ° , p = 45°, Y = 60°,

p = 5; 2) a = 120 , (5 = 60 , Y = 4 5 \ p = 8 ; 3) a = 45°, p = 90°, Y = 45°,
p = 3 V'2\ 4) a ==90", p = 1 3 5 ° , Y= 4 5 ° , p = V 2; 5 ) a = 1 5 0 \ p = 1 2 0 ° ,
Y = 90 , p — 5; 6) o = 90°, p = 90°, Y = 0 " , p = 2; 7) a = 1 8 0 ° , p = 90°,
Y = 9 0 \ p = y ; 8 ) a = 90', p = 180\ Y = 9 0 ° , p = y ; 9) a = a r c c o s y ,
P - ji - -arccos y Y = arccos-^- , p = 2; 10) a = jt

o
arccos y , |5 = n —
3 6 4
arccos — , y ^ a r c c o s y , p = y . 959. 1) 6 = —3, d = 3; 2) 6 = 1,
d = l ; 3) 6 = 0, d = 0 — the point M3 lies in the given plane;
4) 6 = —2, d — 2\ 5) 6 = —3, d = 3. 960. d = 4. 961. 1) On the same
side; 2) on the same side; 3) on opposite sides; 4) on the same side;
5) on opposite sides; 6) on opposite sides. 964. 1) d = 2; 2) d = 3.5;
3) d = 6.5; 4) d = 1; 5) d = 0.5; 6) d = ~ . 965. 8 cubic units. 966. The
conditions of the problem are satisfied by two points: (0, 7, 0) and
(0, —5, 0). 967. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two
points: (0, 0, —2) and ^0, 0, —6 ^ ^ . 968. The conditions of the
problem are satisfied by two points: (2, 0 , 0) and •

969. 4 x — Ay — 2z-\~ 15 = 0. 970. 6x + 3y + 2 z + 11 = 0 . 971. 2x — 2y —
— z — 18 = 0, 2x — 2y — z + 12 = 0. 972. 1) 4 x — y — 2z— 4 = 0; 2) 3* +
+ 2 y — z + 1 = 0; 3) 20x— \2y + 4 z + 13 = 0. 973. 1) 4 * ~ 5y + z — 2 = 0,
2x - \ - y — 3z-f-8 = 0 ; 2) x — 3y — 1 = 0, 3x + y — 2z— 1 = 0; 3) 3x — 6y-\-
+ 7z + 2 = 0, * + 4 p - f 3z + 4 = 0. 974. 1) The point M and the origin
lie in two complementary angles; 2) the point M and the origin lie
inside the same angle; 3) the point A4 and the origin lie in two ver
tical angles. 975. 1) The points A1 and N lie in two complementary
angles; 2) the points i\\ and N lie in two vertical angles. 976. The
origin lies inside the acute angle. 977. The point A1 lies inside the
acute angle. 978. 8 x — 4y — 4z 4-5 = 0. 979. 23* — //— 4z — 24 = 0.
980. x — y — z — 1 = 0 . 981. x + y + 2z = 0. 982. | 5* — '.V— 3 = 0,
5x-f-2z —3 = 0, / 7// —2z-f3 = 0, Q83 1 3x —y — Iz 4- 9 = 0,
{ 5' + fc - J i S ; { 7i,- 2 ;+ x,23:S
= 0:. ’ \{ 5//4-2z = 0.
984. (2, - 1, 0); 1l J- . 0. - - j ; (0. 2. -I). 986. 1) D = —4;
2) D = 9; 3) D = 3. 987. 1) A i = A 2~ 0 and at least one of the num
bers D lf D2 is different from zero; 2) B l = B 2~- 0 and at least one
of the numbers D lt D 2 is different from zero; 3) C 1= C2 = 0 and at
least one of the numbers Dlt D 2 is different from zero.
m ■> 21 w -rw , - 3 ) *-*- •>

5) B l = D l = Q, B 2 = D 2 — 0; 6) C1 = D1 = 0 , C2= D * = 0.
989. 1) 2x 4- 15// 4- 7z 4- 7 = 0; 2) 9y 4- 3z -j- 5 = 0; 3) 3x4-3z — 2 = 0;
4) 3x — 9// — 7 = 0; 990. 1) 23* — 2// + 21z — 33 = 0; 2) y + z — 1 8 = 0 ;
3) x 4- z — 3 = 0; 4) x — y 4-15 = 0. 991. 5x-\-5z — 8 = 0. 992. a (5x —
—2y — z — 3) 4~ P (* 4 -3 y — 2z-|-5) = 0. Hint. The line of intersection of
the planes 5x —2y — z — 3 = 0, x + 3y — 2z 4-5 = 0 is parallel to the
vector / = {7, 9, 17}; hence, the conditions of the problem will be
satisfied by all planes which belong to the pencil of planes passing
through this line. 993. 1lx — 2y — 15z —3 = 0. 994. a (5x —y — 2z — 3) 4-
4- P (3x — 2y — 5z4-2) = 0. Hint. The line of intersection of the
planes5x— y — 2z — 3 = 0, 3x — 2y — 5z4-2 = 0 is perpendicular to the
plane x - f - l9//— 7z— 1 1 = 0 ; hence, the conditions of the problem
will be satisfied by all planes belonging to the pencil of planes
through this line. 995. 9x 4-7//4-8z 4-7 = 0. 996. x — 2y 4 - z —- 2 == 0,
x — 5y 4-4z — 20 = 0. 997. The plane belongs to the pencil. 998. The
plane does not belong to the pencil. 999. / = —5, m = — 11.
1000. 3x — 2//4-6z4-21 = 0 , 189x4-28//4-48z — 591 = 0 . 1001. 2x — 3i/ —
— 6z 4-19 = 0, 6x — 2y — 3 z-f 18 = 0. 1002. 4x — 3i/4-6z— 12 = 0,
12x — 49//4-38z 4-84 = 0. 1003. 4x4-3//— 5 = 0, ‘5 x4-3z — 7 = 0,
5 y —4z + 1 = 0. 1004. / 7x— y + l = 0 , J 5x — z — \ = 0 ,
2= 0; \ l/ = 0;
2x- —4y —82+ 1= 0,
— 3 == 0 . 1006. | 2x-- y + z — 1= 0.
y z 4- 3 Qx x — 2 y r4-3 .
2 = _ , ; 3) 1 0 0 •
z 4-3 — 1 //+ 2 z— 1 #
. 1008. 1) *
:7 2 3 —2 ;
*—3 y + \ _ z x _
2) r . . O , ^ / 4)
2 —1 3 * 3 0 —2 ’ ~'1 1 0 0
1009. I) x = 2 l + l, y — — 3/ — 1, 2 = 41 — 3; 2) x = 21 + l, y = 5 l — 1,
2 = — 3; 3) a = 31 + 1, y = — 2/ — 1, 2 =--5/ — 3. 1010. 1) x = l + 2,
y = — 21 + 1, 2 = 1 + 1; 2) x = l + 3, // = — 1 - 1 , 2 = 1; 3) x = 0, y = t.
z = — 3 / + 1. 1011. ( 9 , —4 ,0 ), (3, 0 , - 2 ) , (0, 2, —3). 1012. x = 5/ + 4,

z+ 7 x — 2 _ y + l __
y = — 11/ — 7, z = — 2. 1013. = = 1014.
—8 “ 6~“ -1 ~
2+ 3 1015. x = 3/ + 3, t / = 15/ + 1, z = 19/ — 3. 1016. a = { l , 1, 3};
—7
a = j X , X. 3X}, where X is any number other than zero. 1017. a = '
= — 2/ + liy + 5fc; a = — 2 X i + \ \ X j - \ - 5 X k , where X is any number
other than zero. 1018.: y —3 z + 5 1019. 1) x — 2 y + 1 .
2 —4 " —5
—4 ' 2 7 4‘
Solution. Setting, for example, z0 = 0, we find from the given system:
x0 = 2, y 0 = — 1; thus, we have already found one point, A40 (2 , — 1,0),
of the line. Next, let us find its direction vector. We have
/ ? i = { l , —2, 3}, /i2 = {3, 2, —5}; hence, a = [ n ^ ] = {4, 14, 8},
that1 is, /' = 4, m = 1- 0 Soubstituting
14, 'n = 8. . ,. ii__
the vajues 0f Xot yQt 2q
1
x — x0 z — z0
o
— u we
1
and /, m, n just found in the relations
/ m n ’
x—2 y+1 *
obtain the canonical equations of the given line:
4 14 8 ’
x —2 _ _ //+ 1 9v x y+ \ _ z— \ . x —3 _ y—2 _ z
or 3)
; —5 12 13 ’ 1 2 1
1020. 1) x = / + 1, y = — 7t, :— / + !, I/ = 3 / + 2 ,
CO
o
z = 5/ — 1. 1023. 60°. 1024. 135° 1025.
-fl
II
x+1 r/ — 2 z+ 3 x + 4 0 + 5 _Z — 3
1029. 1030. 1031. x =
—3 3 2
= 2t — 5, r/ = — 3/ + 1, z = — 4/. 1032. u=13. 1033. d = 2 1 .
1034. x = 3 — 6/, */ = — 1 + 18/, z = — 5 + 9/. 1035. x = — 7 + 4/,
y = 12 — 4/, z = 5 — 2/. 1036. x = 20 — 6/, y = — 18 + 8/, z = — 32 + 24/;
(2, 6, 40). 1037. The equations of motion of M are x = — 5 + 6/,
y = 4 — 12/, z = — 5 + 4/; the equations of motion of /V are x = — 5 + 4/,
£/ = 16— 12/, z = — 6 + 3/; 1) P (7, —20, 3); 2) this time is 2; 3) this
time is 3; 4) M 0P = 28, N 0P-= 39. 1040. 1) (2, - 3 , 6); 2) the line
x —2
is parallel to the plane; 3) the line lies in the plane. 1041.
_ y + 4_z+ l inAO x — 2 _ y + 3 _ z + 5
1043. 2x — 3(/ + 4z— 1 = 0 .
" 5 - 3 • ,042- 6 ' —3 —5
1044. x + 2*/ + 3z = 0. 1045. m = — 3. 1046. C = — 2. 1047. ,4 = 3 ,
D = — 23. 1048. 4 = -3 , = 1049. 1= — 6, C = y .
1050. (3, —2, 4). Solution. To find the desired point, solve the equa
tions of the given line simultaneously with the equation of the plane
passing through the point P and perpendicular to this line. First of
all, note that the direction vector {3, 5, 2} of the given line will
be a normal vector to the required plane. The equation of the plane
through P (2, — 1, 3) and having / i = { 3 , 5, 2} as its normal vector
will be of the form 3 (x — 2) + 5(*/ + l) + 2 (z— 3) — 0, or 3x + 5y Ar
+ 2z — 7 = 0. By solving simultaneously the equations
A n sw ers and H in ts 293
/ X = 3/, !/=-- 5' — 7, z — 2/ + 2 ,

we find the coordinates of the de-
\ 3 a -j- 5y -I- 2z — 7 —0,
sired projection to be a - 3, y = — 2, z --4. 1051. Q (2, —3, 2).
1052. Q (4, 1, —3). 1053. (1, 4, —7). Solution. To find the desired
point, solve the equation of the given plane simultaneously with the
equations of the straight line drawn from the point P perpendicular
to this plane. First of all, note that the normal vector {2, — 1, 3}
to the given plane will be the direction vector of the required line.
The parametric equations of the straight line passing through
P (5, 2, — 1) and having a = {2, — 1, 3} as its direction vector will
be of the form a =. 2/ + 5, y — — / + 2, z — 3t — 1. By solving simul-
taneously the equations / 2a — y -f-3z-|-23 = 0, we find
\ x = 2 t + 5 , y = — t + 2, z = 3< — 1, e l,n d
the coordinates of the desired projection to be a = 1 , y = 4, z = — 7.
1054. Q (—5, 1, 0). 1055. P (3, —4, 0). Hint. The problem can be
solved by the following procedure: (1) show that the points A and
B lie on the same side of the plane Oxy\ (2) find a point symmetric
to one of the given points with respect to the plane Oxy: for example,
find the point B x symmetric to B\ (3) write the equations of the
straight line passing through the points A and B x\ (4) by solving the
equations of the line just found sim ultaneously with the equation of
the plane Oxy, we obtain the coordinates of the desired point.
1056. P ( — 2, 0, 3). 1057. P (—2, —2, 5). 1058. P (—1, 3, —2).
1059. 1) P ( —25, 16, 4); 2) this time is equal to 5; 3) M 0P = 60.
1060. a = 28 — 7.5/, // = — 30 + 8/, z = — 27 + 6/; 1) P (—2, 2, —3);
2) the interval of time from ^ — 0 to t 2 = 4; 3) M0P = 50. 1061. This
time is equal to 3. 1062. d = 7. Solution. On the line X- ^~— = — ^ =
z—8 32
= us choose a point, say M x (—3, —2, 8), and assume that
the direction vector a = {3, 2, —2} of the line is drawn from the
point Mj. The modulus of the vector product of the vectors a and
M\P will give the area of the parallelogram constructed on these
vectors; the altitude drawn from the vertex P of this parallelogram
will be the required distance d. Hence, the formula for calculating
| [ a M iP] |
the distance d is d = Now find the coordinates of the
\ a \
vector M XP from the coordinates of its terminal and initial points:
A 4iP = {4 , 1, — 10}. E valuate the vector product of the vectors a
I J h
and MjP: [ a MxP\ = 3 2 —2 = — 18/ + 22y— 5k. Find its modulus
4 1 — 10
| \a M jP ] | = Y 182 + 222 + 52= y " 8 3 3 = 7 V 17. Calculate the modulus
of the vector a: | a | = V 9 + 4 + 4 = V \ 7 . F inally, determine the
7 1A17
required distance d = - ^ = - = 7. 1063. 1) 21; 2) 6; 3) 15. 1064. d = 25.
1065. 9 j r + l l y + 5z— 16 = 0. 1068. 4x + 6y + 5z— 1 = 0 . 1070. 2 x — 16o—
— 13z + 31 = 0 . 1072. 6x — 20(/— l l z + l = 0 . 1074. (2, —3, —5).
1075. Q (1, 2 , - 2 ) . 1076. Q ( 1 , - 6 , 3). 1077. 13a - 1 4 y + Uz + 51 = 0 .

1079. x — S y — 132 + 9 = 0. 1081. ^ ^ = ^ ~ = ^ p . 1082.a = 81—3,
(/ = — 3/ — 1, z = — 4 1 + 2 . 1083. 1) 13; 2) 3; 3) 7. 1084. 1) x 2 + y 2 +
+ z2 = 81; 2) (a — 5)2 + ( / / + 3)2 + (z— 7)2 = 4; 3) (a - 4 ) 2 + (p + 4)2 +
+ (z + 2)2 = 36; 4) (a - 3 ) 2 + (j/ + 2)2 + (z - 1 ) 2 = 18; 5) (a - 3 ) 2+
+ (i/ + l)2 + ( z - l ) 2 = 21; 6) at2 + y 2 + z2 = 9; 71 ( A - 3 ) 2 + (y + 5)2 +
+ (z + 2)2 = 56; 8) ( a - 1)2 + (</ + 2)2 + ( z - 3 ) 2 = 49; 9) (a + 2)2 +
+ ( < / - 4 )2 + (z — 5)2 = 81. 1085. (a — 2)2 + (</ — 3)2 + (z + l )2 = 9 and
a 2 + (</ + l )2 + (z + 5)2 = 9. 1086. R = 5. 1087. (a + l )2 + (y— 3)2 +
+ (z— 3 )2 =-4. 1088. ( a + l )2 + (r/— 2)2 + (z— 1)2 = 49. 1089. ( a ~ 2 ) 2 +
+ ( < / - 3 )2 + ( z + l )2 = 289. 1090. 1) C ( 3 , —2 , 5) , r = 4; 2) C (— 1 , 3 ,0 ) ,
r = 3; 3) C (2 , 1. — 1). r = 5; 4) C (0, 0, 3), r = 3;
5) C(0, - 1 0 . 0), r — 10. 1091. a = 5 1 - 1 , u = — 1 + 3, z = 2 1 - 0 . 5 .
1 , 3 ,1
X— J y + ~2 Z+ ~2
1092. — 2— = - ^ 3- = — — - . 1093. 1) Oulside the sphere.
2) and 5) on the sphere; 3) and 4) inside the sphere. 1094. 1) 5;
2) 21; 3) 7. 1095. 1) The plane cuts the sphere; 2) the plane touches
the sphere; 3) the plane passes outside the sphere. 1096. 1) The line
intersects the sphere; 2) the line passes outside the sphere; 3) the
line touches the sphere. 1097. M 1 (— 2, —2, 7), d = 3.
1098. C , _ l . 2, 3). R = 8. 1099. I < ' - ' ) ' + < * -2 > ‘ + < * - D 1- * .
I 2a — z — 1 = 0 .
(x —I)2 + (</ + l)2 + (z + 2)2 = 65,
1100.
18a —22i/ + 5z —30 = 0.
(,x— 2)2 + 1/2 + (z — 3)2 = 27,
1101. 5 a — 8i/ + 5z — 7 = 0.
x + y —2 = 0.
1104. a 2 + j/2 + z2— 10a + 15(/ — 25z = 0. 1105. a 2 + i/2 + z2 + 1 3 a — 9(/ +
+ 9z— 1 4 = 0 . 1106. a 2 + ((/ + 2)2 + z2 = 41. 1107. 6 a — 3 i / - 2 z —49 = 0.
1108. (2, —6, 3). 1109. a = ± 6 . 1110. 2 a — y — z + 5 = 0.
1111. A1A + (/1i/ + z1z = r 2. 1112. A 2R 2 + B 2R 2 + C2R 2 = D 2.
1113. (At — a) (a — a) + ((/! — P) (y — P) + (zt — y) (z— y) = r 2. 1114. 3 a —
— 2i/ + 6z— 11 = 0 , 6a + 3i/ + 2z— 30 = 0. 1115. x + 2 y — 2z— 9 = 0,
a + 2(/ — 2z + 9 = 0. 1116. 4a + 3z— 40 = 0, 4a + 3 z + 1 0 = 0 . 1117. 4a +
+ 6i/ + 5z— 103 = 0, 4 a + 6</ + 5z + 205 = 0. 1118. 2 a — 3(/ + 4z— 1 0 = 0 ,
3 a — 4i/ + 2 z — 10 = 0. 1120. a — y — z — 2 = 0. 1122. A x + By + Cz +
+ D = 0. 1123. A c o s a + j/cos p + zcos y — P = 0. 1124. d = | r , « — p |;
d = | A! c o s a + j/, cos P + Z] cos y — P I- >125. (r2— r ,) ( r — r ,) = 0,
(*2— *i) ( x — a,) + (</2— i/i) ( y — Pi) + (z2— zj) (z— z.) = 0.
x—x^y —y^z—z^
1126. a la 2 ( r— ro) = 0 ,4 1, m, ni = 0. 1127. (r2 — /T) X
l2 m2 n Q
* — *1 y —y, z —z,
* ( r 3~ r i ) ( r — fj) = 0 ; x 2— x 1 t/2— £/, z2— z x = 0.
x z — x x yz — y x z3 — z l
x - x 0y — y 0z — z0
1128. /ii/f 2 (/■■— r 0) = 0; Ax Bx C\ =0. 1131.
An Bn C2
_ y —yo _ z- zq 1132. l ( r — r i)(r.2— r i )\ = 0\ ( r ( r 2 — r x)l = [ r , r 2],
r = r i + (r2— r l) t . 1133. a (r— r^ ^ O ; / (x — .v , ) + m (</ — (/,) +

+ n (z — z i ) = 0 . 1134. ( r — r 0) = 0. 1135. n 1n. , (r— ro) ~ 0 .
z—
*
*
1
c
0
1136. r — rnA~nt, . 1137. rr = r a A-[n2n 2\ t ,
1
A B C
x — x0 _ y — ijo _ zo r 0n + D — 0,
1138.
I B, C2 Cl A l /4i B x an -- 0;
B, C, C, A ,
\ A x 0-{- B y0 + Cz0 + D —0,
1139. a la 2( r— r0) = 0. 1140. a , a 2( r 2 — r , ) ^ o .
\ A l + Bm + Cn = 0.
r0n + D A x tt A-By0 A~ Cz0A-D
1141. a;
an * = x° — Al + B m + C n
^-<ro+ 5</o'rCz0+ D A x 0 -f By0 + Cz0 + D
I7+B,«+C,i z=" z" /I / Brn -\-Cn
/1 x ,+ % i+ C z ,+ D ,
1142. r i - ^ L + R „ ,
n- ------+ ^
A x t A- B y x A~ C?i A~ D 0 A x x + B y x + Czx + D „ ,
------- -42
JTj.R
+ B2tu+ .rt----B'
C2 z -'z‘-------- a *A-B* + C* 0h
+ (rLw ^ a a , (xi — xu) I + (i/i — i/q) m + (zt — z„) n
a2 ■ Ar" A° 1 I2 + n2
_____ , { x , — x a) l A - ( y l — y „ ) m + { z l — 2 0) n n
z = Z„ +
y - y » + -------------P A -m '-f^
! (-<1 — *o) I + (j/i — y,|) w + (?1 — 2 p ) n n u44> d= V" K^—r„) a l~
/2+ m2+ n- Va*
2 2
J‘ l — lJo *1 — zo Zi — ?« *1 — *0 *1 — *0 i / i — y#
+ + I m
/ I m n n I
d=
V /2 + m2 A- n-
^2 *2 Xl /l
absolute
m2 y 2— yi
value of m x
ll4g d = l_a1a2| ^ —rOj; d==. n x n 2 z2 Zj

t
K Ia,a2)2 1 / 1 « i "i 2 n i l\ 11 m\ I2
r 1 + + /2 /n2 |
n 2 l2
/?/ /?/«
1147. — a a n d ---- — a\ x, — /--■ . !/i —t t ~ , ,■»
|aI la V /2+ m2+ n2 V/ 2+ m2+ n 2
'/?« . Rl Rm
zt = — and x2 —~T7~7 . • ‘Ji ;
}/ /2+ m2+ n2 ^ / 2+m 2+ /i2 ' 1/2 j/~/--hm2 + n2 ’
Rn
z2 = - 1148. r0+ — a and r0—-— . a ;
V I2 + m 2 + n 2 ' I« I
, Rl , Rm
i\rn
Xl~ Xo+ ]A/T+■„« + „ . ’ i,l- yo+ Y T + ^ + ^ ’
Rn Rl
Zi = z0 + - t= = = = = and x 2= x 0
y l2-j-m2-j-n2 V l2+ m2+ n2
Rm Rn
y2 i/o _/——— -— - * ^2==Zq~
, l2
V - -\-m2
, +. . n. 2 v /2 + m2 + n 2 ‘
114U. ( r , - r 0) (<■-/•„) = «>. 1150. ( r - r 1)’ - (r',l + P )’'; ( * - * , ) • +
+ !»->■)■+ (»-*■>• - ^ 0)1 ■ 1151.

A x + By + Cz R _ 0' A x + B y + Cz | p _ ft
~ + /? = 0;
n. î4* + S2+ C* V" /l2 + fl2 + Ca
1152. a ( r - fo) fl-O , ° ( r — r») + /? = 0;
Ia I Ia .
l ( x — x 0) + m ( y — y 0) + n ( z — z0) n n
V t * + m* + n 2
H x - x 0) + m i y - y 0) + n ( z - z 0) n ^
|//2 +m2+ „2
(2. —3, 0). (2, 0. ^ 3 ) , (2. 0. — / 3 j . 1154. 4.3; (4. 0, — 1),
(—4, 0, - 1 ) . 1155. 15; ^0, - 6 , — . 1156. The equations of the
projections on the planes Oxy, Oxz, and Oyz are, respectively:
I x 2 + 4xy + 5y2 — x = 0 t ( x 2— 2 x z - f 5 z 2— 4x = 0,
(a)
i *=0;
(b) |
(W i
,-0 i
, . / yi + z2 + 2‘ y — z = 0 ,
(c) \
t x = 0.
1157. An ellipse with centre at
(2, — 1, 1). H i n t . The centre ot the section is projected into the

centre of the projection. 1158. A hyperbola with centre at (1, — 1, —2).
1159. 1) An ellipse with centre at (— 1, 1, 3); 2) a parabola; has no
centre; 3) a hyperbola with centre at (2, —3, —4). 1160. 1) 1 < | m | <
< } f 2; 2) | m | < 1. 1161. 1) m ^ 0 and m — ; when m= —
— a degenerate ellipse (a point); 2) m = 0. 1162. (9, 5, —2).

1163. (3, 0, — 10). 1164. (6, —2, 2). 1165. m = ± 18. 1166. 2* —
— 2z — 4 = 0. 1167. x — 2y + 2z— 1 = 0 , x — 2y + 2z + 1 = 0;
x2 y 2 + z
9 ' 25 " 69- < /,= |.? 2 = 5 ’
Answers and Hints 2e7
y2 ii 2 l 22 y2 l £.2 7^ y2 i/2
1172. fL + « L + L = i. 1173. ---- 2 = 1 . 1 1 7 8 . ---------- ^ - = 2 z .
a2 b2 a1 c2 p q
1180. 1) (3, 4, —2) and (6, —2, 2); 2) ( 4 , —3, 2)—the line touches
the surface; 3) the line and the surface have no points in common;
2x — \2y — z + 16 = 0,
on the surface. 1181.
x — 2y + 4 = 0;
16 = 0,
1182. i
-8 = 0. 1 a:
z- 1 a // + 9 z + 3 x _ y —3_ 2
"83- T = ^ - “ — 2 ’ 1 1184.
12 2 • T~ 0 ^—2 ’
x—2 y z x2
1185. a: ccost^ . 1186. 1) a2 - ^ b2
0 3 —4 17 i c-.
1/2 Z “ X 2 U 2 Z2
3) _ - + | + c 2 = o . 188. A2 + / / 2— Z2 = 0.
2 I/2 ( Z - C ) 2
= 0. 1190. 3x2 — 5//2 - f7 z 2— 6x//-f-10*z— 2i/z—
,189- s- + ¥ -
- 4 a+ 4 / / - 4 z + 4 = 0 . 1181. ^ + f g - J = °- " 92- *2- 3 / / 2 + z2 = 0
1193. 35a:2 + 35i/2 — 52z2 — 232a// — 11 6 a z + 116//z + 232a — 70// — 116z +
-)- 3 5 = 0 . 1194. a // + a z + / / z = 0 — the axis of the cone is situated in
the first and seventh octants; a // + a z — i/z = 0 — the axis of the cone
is situ ated in the second and eighth octants; x y — xz — yz = 0 — the
axis of the cone is situated in the third and fifth octants; x y — xz +
+ yz = 0— the axis of the cone is situated in the fourth and sixth octants.
1195. 9a2— 16//2 — I 6 z 2 — 90a + 225 = 0. 1»9G. a 2 + 4//2 — 4z2 + 4xy +
+ 12az — 6 y z = 0. 1197. 4 a 2 — 15//2 — 6z2 — 12az — 36a + 24z + 66 = 0.
1198. 16x 2 + 16//2 + 13z2— 16 a z + 24 //z + 16 a — 24 //— 26z ~ 23 = 0.
1199. a2— y 2 — 2xz + 2yz + x + y — 2z = 0. 1200. 5a2 + 5//2 + 2z2— 2xy +
+ 4az + 4//z— 6 = 0. 1201. 45a2 + 72//2 + 45z2 + 36a// + 72az — 36//Z +
+ 5 4 a + 216// — 54z — 567 = 0. 1202. 5a2 + 10//2 + 13z2 + 12a// — 6az +
+ 4 / / z + 26a + 20//— 3 8 z + 3 = 0. 1203. a 2 + 4//2 + 5z2 — 4a//— 125 = 0.
1204. 1) 18; 2) 10; 3) 0; 4) —50; 5) 0; 6) a 2— a,; 7) 0; 8) I.
1205. 1) a = 12; 2) x = 2; 3) a 1 = — 1, a 2= —4; 4) a 1 = — 1/6; a 2 = 3/2;
5) * /,2= ± 2 /; 6) *1 = 2a2)3 = —2 ± /; 7) x = ( - l ) n — + - ^ - n , where
n is any integer; 8) x = -^-(2/t + 1 ) , where n is any integer.

1206. 1) a > 3 ; 2) a > — 10; 3) a < —3; 4) — 1 < a < 7.
1207. 1) x — 16, y = 7; 2) x = 2 , // = 3; 3) the system has no solu
tions; 4) the system has an infinite number of different solutions,
X— 1
each of which may be determined from the formula y = — by
assigning arbitrary values to x and computing the corresponding
values of y \ 5) x = ^ ^ ^ , f/ = ^ — p - ; 6) the system has no solu
tions. 1208. 1) o # — 2; 2) a=^— 2, b ^ 2; 3) a = — 2, 6 = 2.
1209. a = 10/13. 1210. 1) x = — 21, y = 7t, z = 4/; 2) * = 2i, y = 3t,
2 = 0; 3) x = 0, y — t, = 3/; 4) x = 0, y = t, z = 2t\ 5) x = 2/, y = 5t,

2
z — 4t\ 6) x = 41, y = 2 t t 2 = 3/; 7) x = / , y = 5 t , 2 = 11/; 8) x = 3/,
y = 4t, z = l l / ; 9) x = 0, r/ = /, z = 3/; 10) x = (a + l ) / , t / = ( l — a2) / ,
z = — (a + 1 ) / provided that a ^ — 1. (If a = — 1, then any solution
of the system will consist of three numbers x, y , z, where x, y may
be chosen at will and z = x + y)\ 11) x = ( 6 — 6 ) / , y = (3a — 2 ) t ,
2
2 = (a b — 4) t provided that a ^ — or b ^ 6. ^ I f a = - ^ and 6=6,
O
then x, y may be chosen at v II and z = ^ x + 2y\ ;
12) x = 3 ( 1 — 2a ) / , y = ( a b + \ ) t % z — 3 ( b + 2) t provided that
a ^ — - or b ^ z — 2. jÎf a = — — and b — — 2, then x, y may be
chosen at will and z = 2 ( 3 y — x ) . l 1211. — 12. 1212. 29. 1213. 87.

1214. 0. 1215. — 29. 1216. 2a3. 1223. — 4. 1224. 180. 1225. 87.
1226. 0. 1227. (x — y) (i/ — z) (z — x). 1229. 2a 2b. 1230. sin 2a
1231. x y z ( x — y) (y — z) ( z — x). 1232. (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 -f-c2 — ab —
— ac — b e ) . 1234. 1) x = — 3; 2) x l - - — 10, x 2 = 2. 1235. l ) x > 7 / 2 ;
2) — 6 < x < — 4. 1236. * = 2 4 -^-. i/ = 2 1 y . z=10. 1237. jc = 1,
y — 1, 2 = 1. 1238. x = 2, y = 3 , 2 = 4. 1239. x = 1, y = 3, 2 = 5.
1240. x = 13 , // = 8 , 2=h4-. 1241. x = 2, u = — 1, z=l.
4 J 4 2 "
b+ c a— b a+ b b+ c
1242. * = y= 1243.
~2T x ~ ~~2~ ’ y ~ 2 ’
a -f- c
2 = —— . 1244. The system has an infinite number of solutions,
each of which can be found from the formulas x = 2z — I, y = z + 1
by assigning arbitrary values to 2 and calculating the corresponding
values of x, y. 1245. The system has no solutions. 1246. The system
has no solutions. 1247. 1) a — 3; 2) a = —3, 3) a = —3,
b = — . 1249. The system has the unique solution x = j/ = z = 0.

o
1250. The system has an infinite number of solutions, each of w hich
can be found from the formulas x = 2/, */ = — 3t t z = 5t by assigning
arbitrary values to t and calculating the corresponding values of x,
y, 2 . 1251. a = 5. 1252. 30. 1253. —20. 1254. 0. 1255. 48. 1256. 1800.
1257. (b + c + d)(b — c — d)(b — c + d)(b + c — d) 1258. (a + b + c + d)X
X(a + b — c — d) ( a - b + c-—d)(a — b — c + d). 1259. (a + b + c + d ) X
x (a — b + c — d) [(a — c)2 + ( b - d ) 2\. 1260. (be — cd)2.
TO THE READER
Peace Publishers would be glad to have your opinion
on the translation and the design of this book.
Please send all your suggestions to 3t Pervy Rizhsky
Pereulok, Moscow, U. S. S R .
p r i n t e d in the Union of Sovi et Socialist Republics

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PEACE

TO Cy^A PCTBEHHOE H3/JATEJlbCTBO

Translated from the Russian by

C h a p t e r 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry 9

C h a p t e r 2. The Equation of a Curve .............................................. 35

C h a p t e r 3. Curves of the First O r d e r .............................................. 47

§ 13. I ncompl ete Equat ions of Straight Lines. Discussion

Chapter 4. Geometric Properties of Curves of the Second

Chapter 5. Simplification of the General Equat ion of a Curve

Chapter 6. Some Elementar y Problems of Solid Analytic

C h a p t e r 7. Vector Algebra . . . 115

Chapter 8. The Equation of a Surface and the Equations of

Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants . . . 230

§ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations of the First

Answers and Hints

ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS OF PLANE

§ 1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis.

The point 0 is called the origin of coordinates; the coordinate of

* In diagrams, horizontal axes usually have their positive direc­

If and A12 (x2) are two arbitrary points of the line a,

expresses the value of the segment M,A42 and the formula

1. Plot the points:

4. Find the value AB and the length \AB\ of the seg­

3) B (—1) and B A = 2 \ 4) B (—5) and B A = —3\

6. Characterize geometrically the location of the points

8. Given the three points 71 (—7), B ( —1) and C(l).

\.L Find the coordinate of a point M , given:

3) C (— 1), D (3) and A= ^ =

0 M X of the x-axis, and 0 M V is the value of the segment 0 M V of

17. Plot the points:

20. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with

system); the angle 0 is here understood as in trigonometry. The

In cases where a cartesian and a polar coordinate system are to

* OM denotes here the length of the segment, understood as in

will be the formulas for transformation from cartesian to polar

26. Plot the following points given in polar coordinates:

in a polar coordinate system. The positive direction ol

40. One vertex of a triangle OAB is at the pole 0, and

§ 4. A Directed Segment. The Projection of

S g t" "• •'K liU hlr tfagypraitr

The projection of a segment AB on an axis u is denoted by the

M , M 2 on the coordinate axes can be calculated from the formulas

d = V ( x2— a ,)2 + (y2— y l)2.

44. Calculate the projection on an axis u of the seg­

1) rf= 6 , < f= -J; 2) d = 6 , q>=^;

45. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segments

50. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segment whose

to B. Find the length of the diagonals of the paral­

82. Determine the coordinates of the point M 2 symmetric

§ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio

.._"b ^**2 D\ ~b ^1/2

91. Given three vertices A (3, —5), 6(5, —3), C(—1,3)

104. A straight line passes through the points A (7, —3)

109. The point of intersection M of the medians of a

111. A uniform plate has the shape of a square with

that the cut-off line joins the midpoints of two adjacent

114. Three masses m, n and p are placed at the points

§ 6. The Area of a Triangle

125. The area S of a parallelogram is 12 square units;

127. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if the

* In diagrams, horizontal axes usually have their positive direc

4. Find the value AB and the length \AB\ of the seg

44. Calculate the projection on an axis u of the seg

to B. Find the length of the diagonals of the paral

In other words, the slopes of perpendicular lines are negative recip

C (—2, 0) of a triangle. Write the equations of the bisec

are equal to —3 and —5, respectively. Find the coordi

1) 3—^ 4 - 7 = 0 , 2) —2 0 4 -3 = 0 , 3) 5*— 2y— 6 = 0 ,