Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Mechanical behavior and constitutive model of shotcrete–rock interface

subjected to heat damage and variable temperature curing conditions
Hu Yunpeng a,b, Wang Mingnian a,b, Wang Zhilong a,b, Wang Qiling a,b, Liu Dagang a,b,⇑
a
School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu Sichuan 610031, China
b
Key Laboratory of Transportation Tunnel Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu Sichuan 610031, China

h i g h l i g h t s

Failure modes and mechanical properties of shotcrete-rock interface were discussed.

High temperatures had impact on macroscopic and microcosmic properties of shotcrete.

New thermal damage model was proposed for shotcrete-rock in high-geothermal tunnel.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The hydration of shotcrete under a high curing temperature is usually accompanied by the evolution of
Received 3 November 2019 internal defects and microdamages. To study the physical and mechanical properties and the perfor-
Received in revised form 21 June 2020 mance of the bond between shotcrete and rock in a high and changing temperature environment in tun-
Accepted 8 July 2020
nel construction, shear experiments on shotcrete-rock specimens under different initial curing conditions
(60 ℃, 80 ℃, 100 ℃ with relative humidity of 55%) were conducted. The results indicated that the shot-
crete used in a high geothermal tunnel was actually cured under high and variable temperature, which
Keywords:
caused the damage in the micro-unit of shotcrete near the contact face and, to different extents, the
Variable high temperature
Shear failure mode
reduction in strength of the interface. The main reason is that high temperatures have a significant
Interfacial properties impact on the quantity and distribution of the shotcrete hydrates, and they also lead to the formation
Thermal damage and increase of micro cracks. However, the increase in normal stress had a certain inhibitory effect on
the damage caused by the high temperature. Specimens under different normal stresses and initial curing
temperatures exhibited two typical failure modes. Moreover, the stress–strain curves were also obtained
and used to calibrate the parameters of the proposed thermal damage constitutive model. The research
results may provide some supports for the design and analysis of underground engineering affected by
high geothermal.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The supporting counterforce provided by the axial force of the

shotcrete layer (rNg ) will change the stress state of surrounding
Shotcrete is extensively used in tunneling and underground rock from one dimension to three dimension and improve the
engineering, and it has a dominant impact on the interactions with bearing capacity of surrounding rock. The axial force of shotcrete
the rock mass deformation [1,2]. Previous researches show that for is mainly composed of support reaction at arch(r0 Ng ) and the inter-
shotcrete structure, shear failure is more likely to occur frequently face shear resistance(r0 Ns ). The shear force at the interface is trans-
when adhesion to the surrounding rock is well [3,4]. As the first ferred from shotcrete to the interior of the surrounding rock by
step to guarantee the safety of construction after excavation, the means of tangential stress, which is helpful to form the vaulted
shotcrete linings behaviors are highly dependent on the shear compressive stress zone inside the surrounding rock, thus reducing
strength at the shotcrete-rock contact [5,6]. As shown in Fig. 1, the stress concentration caused by unloading of the surrounding
rock. Therefore, the degradation of interface shear force has signif-
icantly impact on the support effect of spraying layer [7].
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong
Generally, the development of the interfacial shear strength
University, Chengdu Sichuan 610031, China.
mainly varies with normal stress, curing age, interfacial roughness
E-mail addresses: huyunpeng@my.swjtu.edu.cn (H. Yunpeng), ldg@home.swjtu.
edu.cn (L. Dagang). and so on. As we all know, the shotcrete strength has typical time-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120171
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

Fig. 1. Supporting effect of shear resistance at surrounding rock interface.

dependent properties. Some research achievements also showed [20,21]. Some investigations proposed Digital Image Correlation
that there is a coupling effect of many influence factors and curing (DIC) method to study the behaviour of the structural material
age on the development of shear strength [8]. For a bonded inter- directly at the moment the initial crack initiation, and it was suc-
face, it was indicated that the peak strength had a certain correla- cessfully applied in the measurements of fracture toughness. it will
tion with the initial normal stress and normal stiffness during also be helpful for detecting defects in concrete elements [22–24].
shearing and bonding of concrete-sandstone [9]. As for the rough It has been proved that the environment with high temperature
surface, The test results presented that the interfacial shear has positive effect on the accelerating of cement hydration
strength is characterized by bond strength with low normal stress [25,26].By using X-ray diffraction, it has also been proved that
while it is largely influenced by friction under high level of normal shotcrete did suffer microstructural damage under specific tem-
stress [10]. From the view point of energy, some research achieve- perature conditions [27,75]. Therefore, in a high geothermal envi-
ments showed that the shear keys between two contacted media ronment, the changing performance of the shotcrete-rock
are helpful for the enhancing of interfacial fracture energy, but interface may lead to a significant loss of bond strength [28,29],
they made few contribution to the shear strength of samples with even to a loss of the supporting function of the shotcrete [30].
properly roughened surfaces [11]. As for the curing age, the devel- Nevertheless, most studies focused on the characteristic of
opment of shotcrete strength has typical time-dependent proper- shotcrete or the interface under constant high temperature or nor-
ties. The increased range of shotcrete bonding strength is greater mal temperature conditions. Previous field tests and investigation
at first, and it became smaller with time’s extension. results have proved that the shotcrete usually undergoes a variable
However, with the rapid development of transportation engi- temperature evolution rather than a constant temperature in the
neering, numerous challenges to the construction of tunnels in actual high geothermal tunnel [31]. On the one hand, few studies
complex geological conditions have appeared. Recently, more and have given importance to the real environmental curing condi-
more tunnels worldwide constructed under high geothermal envi- tions, which have significant impact on both the shotcrete itself
ronment appeared [12–14].This phenomenon is mainly caused by and the behavior of its bond with rock. High temperature and force
the depth of the tunnel, activity of magma or hot groundwater are the two important factors for the damage of shotcrete rock
and the age of the formation. The infiltration of surface water interface, which make the damage complicated. However, the
and original groundwater formed high-temperature spring and related investigations of interface damage triggered by combina-
steam after heated by the deep high-temperature rock mass. They tion of high temperature and force have not yet been seen in the
are trapped between joints and cracks in rock strata, resulting in present studies. On the other hand, when shotcrete is subjected
stable high temperature environment. In high altitude areas, espe- to high temperature and external forces, the reduction of mechan-
cially in Southwest China, the safety of shotcrete lining is severely ical parameters and the initiation and propagation of microcracks
influenced by high geothermal. In high-temperature environment, could be considered as a damage accumulation process. At present,
the development of the shotcrete and interface strength are researches have proposed many statistical damage constitutive
affected significantly by rock temperature. The high temperature models of concrete under complex loading [32–34], however, few
may weaken the shear adhesive mechanical properties of the sup- studies have paid attention to constitutive model of shotcrete–rock
porting materials [15] and the thermal stress caused by high tem- interface subjected to heat damage and variable temperature cur-
perature may induce cracking in the supporting structure [16]. ing conditions. In this case, the establishment of a statistical dam-
Therefore, the properties of the shotcrete-rock interface under a age model considering temperature effect will present a new
high geothermal environment [17] are attracting more attention. quantitative method to analyze the influence of heat damage on
According to numerous studies and field surveys, the experi- shear behavior of shotcrete-rock interface.
ments about shotcrete-rock specimens under different conditions Therefore, based on the previous field tests achievements of our
(20 °C–90 °C) proved that the bond strength at 35 °C is higher than research team in Sangzhuling tunnel [31], more careful and in-
that obtained in normal curing conditions. The bond strength was depth researches is worth doing on the supporting design of high
ascendant first and descendant at last with the increase of temper- geothermal tunnel. This study aims to investigate the characteris-
ature, indicating the negative effect on the interfacial strength by tics of the interfacial strength properties between shotcrete and
excessive temperatures [18,19]. The mechanical properties of the rock in an environment of high and changing temperatures. The
shotcrete-rock interface was also related to the microstructure shear tests are first carried out to estimate the evolution of
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 3

mechanical properties along with changes of temperature for face. The bottom and sides of the granite were polished into a
shotcrete-rock samples. Then, with the aid of scanning electron smooth surface. To avoid data dispersion, the same shotcrete and
microscope (SEM), the mechanism of parameter degradation of rock were used for all samples and three or more specimens were
shotcrete-rock interface and the change of microstructure under set for each condition.
different curing temperature are investigated. According to the As shown in Fig. 3, The shear test was conducted with a YDS-2
theory of statistical microcosmic damage mechanics and general- rock mechanic multifunctional machine. The normal maximum
ized strain equivalent principle, a constitutive model of shot- load was 600 kN and the horizontal maximum load was 300 kN.
crete–rock interface subjected to heat damage and variable The data-acquisition device included 1 normal force sensor, 1 shear
temperature curing conditions was obtained. Finally, the verifica- force sensor, 2 horizontal displacement sensors and 4 normal dis-
tion results show that the proposed models are in good agreement placement sensors. The rate of shear force was set as 0.1 kN. The
with the experimental data and the conclusions in other research curing test equipment is HX/HS-010L with a constant temperature
achievements. The test results may provide useful information and humidity test chamber. The temperature can be regulated in
and theoretical support for the design of support in high geother- the range of 0 to 100 ℃ and the relative humidity adjustment range
mal tunnel. is from 30% to 98%. The adjustment precision of the temperature
and relative humidity parameters are of 0.1 ℃ and 0.1%, respec-
tively. The microcosmic tests were conducted on S-3000N scanning
2. Laboratory tests
electron microscope, as shown in Fig. 4. The scanning angle is
between 20° and 90° and the magnification ranges from 5 to
2.1. Shotcrete materials
300,000. The accelerating voltage and probe current are 0.5–
30 kv and 1012–108A, respectively. The supporting pre-
Shotcrete C25 was selected as the test shotcrete strength grade,
treatment instrument for specimen was the E-1010 carbon coater.
and the mix properties were based on one high geothermal tunnel
in the Lhasa-Nyingchi railway, China. The Type I Portland cement
(produced by southwest cement factory of China) was used in the 2.3. Testing methods
tests, whose strength grade is 42.5. The specific gravity is 3.15 g/
cm3 and the cement chemical composition is shown in Table 1. As The literatures [38–40] have proved that the high temperature
the main coarse aggregate, the diameter of gravel was from 5 to had more obvious adverse effect on the long-term properties of
10 mm. The particle size distribution is shown in Table 2 and the concrete when the curing temperature was higher than 50 ℃–
fineness modulus was 2.58. The ratio of water cement was set at 60 ℃. The higher the temperature, the more serious the deteriora-
0.48. There are two additives used for improving the properties of tion of concrete characteristics. According to the author’s previous
shotcrete. One was the TW-SNG accelerating agent, which was made in-site research in Sangzhuling tunnel, the geothermal tempera-
by Tianwei Building Materials Technology (Guizhou) Co. LTD. The ture is from 47 to 89.9 ℃. Therefore, in order to study the impact
aluminium ion content of accelerating agent was 0.02% and the total of high temperature on the interfacial shear strength more com-
amount of alkali was 10.82%. The initial and final setting time were prehensively, three different temperatures 60 ℃, 80 ℃ and 100 ℃
254 s and 579 s, respectively. The amount of reducing agent of shot- were tested, and the relative humidity was set as 55%. Further-
crete was 3%. Another was HT-HPC polycarboxylate superplasticizer, more, based on the stress test results in the adjacent area[41,42]
which was made by Huangteng Chemical (Shanxi) Co. LTD. The den- and abundant measured data of the surrounding rocks pressure
sity was 1.06g/cm3 and the water-reducing rate was 27%. The [10,43–45], three types of normal stress were researched in the
amount of reducing agent of shotcrete was 1%. No other mineral shear tests: 0.5 MPa, 1.0 MPa and 1.5 MPa. The experiment was
additives in the samples. The raw materials for the wet-spraying based on the Code for design of concrete structures and Standard
shotcrete mix are shown in Table 3. for test methods of concrete physical and mechanical properties
[46,47]. In order to research the microstructure and morphology
2.2. Specimen preparation and testing apparatus of the hydration products, a few pieces of the samples taken out
from the interface after the shear tests and immersed into ethanol
The granite rock blocks used for the tests were also collected to terminate hydration. Before the scanning testing, removing the
from the surrounding rock on site. The cemented surface between specimens from the ethanol and keep dry for a certain time, and
rock and shotcrete was engraved according to Barton’s standard a platinum coating was applied onto the surface subsequently.
contour curve. It is commonly considered that the higher the value The shotcrete that cured under VTC-60 ℃ and VTC 100 ℃ were
of the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) is, the larger the shear selected as the test samples for comparative analysis.
strength when the normal stress was constant [35–37]. However, The study on the variable temperature effect in high geothermal
the value of JRC of all testing samples were set at 0–2 to highlight tunnel in Lhasa-Nyingchi and Lhasa-Shigatse railway has been
the vriable and high-temperature effect and reduce the influence of reported by many research papers [31,48,49]. Therefore, variable
the interfacial roughness on shear strength. It can be seen in temperatures curing method was selected in the shear experi-
Figs. 2 and 3a. Firstly, a rectangular granite was cut and put into ments to reflect the real conditions in high geothermal tunnel. As
a mold. Then, the material was placed on granite blocks by a wet shown in Fig. 5, the initial curing temperatures was high and it
spraying process. The test piece was cut and polished into a 10- decreased during the same time and reaches 28 ℃ in 7 days. During
cm length square body, in which the shotcrete and granite occu- the entire curing process, the humidity in the test was maintained
pied each half of the body. The upper and lower surfaces were pol- at a certain level until 28 days. Since six specimens as an experi-
ished in a direction parallel to the shear plane to make sure that ment group, the number of specimens used in the test was more
the normal stress of the test could be applied on the concrete sur- than 54. The experiment details are provided in Table 4.

Table 1
Chemical composition of Portland cement.

Item CaO MgO Fe2O3 Na2O K2O Al2O3 SiO2 Loss

Content/% 66 1.71 4.76 0.2 1.0 6.2 18.6 1.53
4 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

Table 2
Particle size distribution of sand.

Grain diameter <0.15 mm <0.3 mm <0.6 mm <1.18 mm <2.36 mm <4.75 mm <9.5 mm

Content/% 4.28 25.88 42.4 67.98 79.56 91.38 100

Table 3
Mixing proportions of shotcrete.

Item W/C Water (kg.m3) Cement (kg.m3) Gravel (kg.m3) Sand (kg.m3) Water reducer (kg.m3) Accelerator for hardening (kg.m3)
Value 0.48 208 434 791 1015 4.34 13.02

Fig. 2. Fabrication of specimens and form of the interface.

a. Direct shear apparatus and specimen b. Specimen curing device

Fig. 3. Curing equipment and direct shear device.

3. Test results and discussion facial surface of shotcrete-rock will most likely be the weak field
[45]. Through the comparison and analysis of test results, it could
3.1. Shear failure mode be found that there were two typical failure modes under the test
conditions. As shown in Fig. 5, in one case, the shear failure
The shear failure modes of the samples were diverse under dif- occurred on the shotcrete–rock interface and the rupture surface
ferent curing conditions and normal stress. As the studies have developed through most of the contact surface regions (F1). Only
indicated that a high temperature below 100 °C almost had no a small part of the shotcrete near the interface were destroyed
effect on the mechanical properties of granite. Therefore, the inter- under external loads, which led to a little shotcrete powder
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 5

Fig. 4. Equipment for the SEM test.

failure mode was F1 and F2, respectively. Normal stress had little
impact on the failure pattern of specimen under these conditions.
When the temperature was 80 ℃, the failure mode of specimen
changed from F1 to F2 under 1.5 MPa. It means that normal stress
had different impact on the shear performance with the increase of
temperature, but the impact would also be limited.

3.2. Microstructure observation

As for the high temperature curing condition, the reaction rate

of hydration of the cementing material increases with temperature
rise, which is actually beneficial to an early strength [31]. However,
more thermal action is not always better. As shown in Fig. 8, under
100 ℃, the microstructure and morphology of hydrates in tested
samples were significantly different from those under 60 ℃. The
curing temperature had great influence on the quantity and distri-
bution of hydration productions[50]. The solid matter in the pic-
Fig. 5. Relationship between curing temperature and curing time. ture tend be denser and more continuous if the hydration
products are numerous and concentrated [51,52]. Under 60 ℃ cur-
ing condition, the cement hydration slurry is closely combined and
remaining on the granite face. Shear slip failure of the samples remains structural integrity. The C-S-H gel was abundant in
occurred, with obvious scratches on the shear surface. In the other cement paste, which indicated that the hydration degree is in a
case, there was shear failure of the mixed mode (F2). Compared higher level. Compared with the 100 ℃ condition, the hydrates
with Fig. 6a, more damage of shotcrete could be found in Fig. 6b. under VTC-60 ℃ condition at 28 days were obviously denser and
The abrasions on the shotcrete face were conspicuous and the less porous. Under VTC-100 ℃ curing condition, the amount of
shape and fluctuation of the rupture surface were quite different. gel decreased and the hydration products showed some directional
Moreover, a quantity of shotcrete was stripped under shear force distribution. The crystal water began to dissipate, and the surface
and adhered to the rock face. of the gel began to show holes left by the loss of crystal water.
According to Fig. 7, the initial curing temperature had a signif- There were a large number of loose and defective network struc-
icant effect on the interface failure mode. When the normal stress tures at the interface, which can be obviously observed in hydra-
was 0.5 MPa, the shear failure mode of the samples cured at 60 ℃ tion products. The generated hydration aggregates were porous
was F1. Similar results were also obtained under an initial curing and loose, which confirms the negative effects of the excessive heat
temperature of 80 ℃. When the normal stress increase to on the transfer of the hydration state to that of a normal cement-
1.0 MPa, F1 was still the main failure mode of the specimens cured based paste.
at 60 ℃ and 80 ℃, but when compared with the condition of Generally, most of the different types of particle tend to be
0.5 MPa, the failure mode of the samples at 100 ℃ changed to F2. increased in number and homogeneously distributed as the hydra-
However, it is noteworthy that there was a marked change in the tion degree increase. What’s more, more hydration products can
shear failure mode results under a normal stress of 1.5 MPa. The also fill the voids of inner structures effectively [53,54]. As shown
shear failure mode of the samples cured at 80 ℃ and 100 ℃ shifted in Fig. 9 [31], with the hydrated reaction deep, more hydration
to F2. Moreover, when the temperature was 60 ℃ and 100 ℃, the products spread to the voids of aggregate step-by-step and are

Table 4
Experiment details.

Testing item Temperature /℃ Relative humidity/% Curing method Normal stress/MPa Curing age/d
Shear strength 60,80,100 55 VTC 0.5,1.0,1.5 28
SEM 60,100 1.0
6 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

a. Shear failure along the cemented surface b. Mixed shear failure

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the shear failure mode.

The shear stress-displacement curve was different owing to the

influence of the normal stress and curing temperature [55,56]. As
shown in Fig. 11, the shear stiffness significantly increased with
the rise of normal stress. However, high temperature has negative
effect on the increase of Ka. Shear stiffness is more sensitive to tem-
perature (T/℃) changes under this kind of normal stress level.
Especially when the temperature was over 80 ℃, the impact on
the growth of shear stiffness by normal stress(r/MPa) tended to
decline. Their relationship can be formulated as follows
(R2 = 0.995):

K a ¼ 7:867 þ 0:0034T  0:0018T 2 þ 1:19  105 T 3 þ 0:869r ð1Þ

It has been studied or demonstrated in many previous
researches that the lower the degree of cement hydration, the
greater the compressibility of cemented materials. The compaction
degree of shotcrete materials also sustain at a lower level [57,58].
The corresponding vertical deformation-shear displacement curves
of the shotcrete-rock interface in Fig. 12 (with the normal stress of
Fig. 7. Classification chart of different types of shear failure modes.
0.5 MPa) show that there was a significant contraction of all the
specimens interface during the shear tests progress when the tem-
perature was more than 60℃. Under the action of normal force, the
then deposited evenly and orderly. Finally, the strength was
surfaces of both shotcrete and rock moved closer at an early stage
enhanced gradually along with the accumulating aggregate and
of direct shear test. However, with the increasing of shear displace-
hydrate in the slurry region. However, the study results indicated
ment, the specimens cured at 60 °C showed a little dilating behav-
that the hydration reaction seems to be inadequate under the high
ior, while the samples cured at a higher temperature of 80 °C and
temperature curing condition and the distribution of hydration
100 °C continues to contract. The test results show that the con-
products is also relatively discrete. Moreover, SEM images of the
tract of interface increased with the curing temperature. It meant
shotcrete samples under the VTC-60 ℃ condition showed only a
that there was a heat damage effect exist on the shotcrete-rock
few micro cracks. But at a higher temperature, more micro cracks
interface and around. The study findings were similar with the
were well developed. Thus, the weak shear-resistance regions
SEM pictures in terms of the integrity of shotcrete microstructure.
tended to appear more when the hydration reaction proceeds
incompletely. The local voids that mainly caused by high curing temperature in
the hydration progress have reduced maximumly by loading, and
the normal stress also resulted in the destruction of the inner
3.3. Stress–displacement curves in shear test
asperities on the interface [59,60].
The nine types of stress-displacement curve in this paper are
presented in Fig. 10. It showed that the peak strength increases 3.4. Strength characteristics
with the increasing of normal force. The main reason was that
the greater the normal force on the shear plane, the larger the con- As shown in Fig. 13, the peak shear strength varied from
tact areas between rock and shotcrete. The particle movement 1.48 MPa to 2.90 MPa and the peak shear displacement (the dis-
caused greater force of friction on the interface and led to a higher placement corresponding to peak shear strength) varied from
peak shear stress finally. It was also obvious that the shear stress 0.41 to 0.66 mm. Both of them had a clear positive correlation with
rose rapidly to the peak value at the initial time, then turned into the normal stress [61]. However, the initial curing temperature had
the falling section and ultimately decayed to the residual strength. different influence on the development of peak shear displacement
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 7

Fig. 8. SEMs of interfacial shotcrete under variable and high temperature curing conditions.

a. Fully hydrated b. inadequately hydrated

Fig. 9. Distribution characteristics of shotcrete materials after hydration reaction.

8 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

and stress. With a constant normal force, the peak shear stress
decreased with the increase in temperature. Compared with the
shear strength at 60 ℃, the largest drop of strength at 100 ℃ was
of approximately 25% under the normal stress of 0.5 MPa, but
the amplitude of decrease showed a decline under a high level of
normal stress. The peak shear displacement had a positive correla-
tion with the initial curing temperature and the largest increase
was of approximately 35%. Nevertheless, when the temperature
exceeded 80 ℃, the amplitude of the increase in displacement
showed a decreasing trend under the three types of normal stress
conditions. Specially, the change law of shear strength and dis-
placement corresponded to the transformation of the failure mode,
reflected in the 80–100 ℃ or 1.0–1.5 MPa curing condition.
Fig. 14 showed the experimental curves of interfacial peak shear
stresses under VTC60-80 ℃ and the corresponding shear strength
envelopes. By fitting linear regression lines through the results of
the interface strength, the relative shear envelopes were obtained.
It indicated that the shear failure envelopes of the interface follow
Fig. 10. Shear stress-displacement curves under different levels of normal stress.
the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion under the experimental condi-
tions. The Fig. 15 also manifested similar results. The cohesion of
the shotcrete-rock interface decreased from 1.46 MPa to
0.92 MPa when the temperature increased from 60 °C to 100 °C.
However, the friction angle of the interface experienced a slight
increase from 42.9° at 60 °C to 45.7° at 100 °C.
Actually, as for the mechanical characteristics, the shear
strength of the shotcrete itself mainly depends on the aggregates,
hydrates, hardened paste and their adhesion strength. As shown
in Fig. 16, the more aggregates and hydrates near the shear zone,
the more energy will be needed for shear failure until the shear
crack runs through the whole shear plane [5]. However, if the shot-
crete keeps hydrating at a faster rate under high temperature con-
ditions, there will be compact protective shield on the cement
particles surface that would inhibit the hydration reaction. Thus,
the hydration reaction would be maintained at a lower level
[62,63]. On the other hand, high temperature may lead to a stren-
uous thermal motion of many hydrates. Most of them would
deposit near the large aggregates after impact and migration. The
reduction and uneven distribution of the hydrate production can
easily result in the generation of an intensively weak region. More-
over, during the whole hydration progress, the heat stress may also
lead to the appearance of many micro cracks, moisture transferring
Fig. 11. Interfacial shear stiffness under different conditions. and bubble expansion in the interface transition zone, which
would result in a loose shotcrete structure near the interface. Thus,
it would be easier to be destroyed for the samples interface under a
certain shear force.
In summary, the test results of interfacial shotcrete under high
and changing temperature conditions illustrated that the high cur-
ing temperature had a great influence on the hydration progress. It
has laid down a foundation for the properties development of shot-
crete itself before it was fully hardened. It means that the high cur-
ing temperature did cause damage to a micro-unit of shotcrete
near the shotcrete-rock interface in the aspect of integrity or uni-
formity, thereby causing the difference of failure modes and the
reduction of the interface strength characteristics under different
normal stress levels and temperatures.

4. Establishment of thermal damage constitutive model

4.1. Description of damage model

The above microcosmic and strength test experimental results

on the characteristics of the shotcrete-rock interface indicated that
a higher initial curing temperature did cause damage to the micro-
unit of shotcrete near the contact face, and the excessive heat had a
Fig. 12. Shear stress-shear displacement curves under normal stress (0.5 MPa). significant negative effect on the mechanical properties of inter-
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 9

a Peak shear strength VS temperature b Peak shear displacement VS temperature

Fig. 13. Test results of peak shear strength and displacement.

face. With the development of internal defects, the macroscopic

constitutive behavior of the material may have substantial
changes, which reduce the mechanical performance of the shot-
crete. Therefore, the new thermal damage constitutive model of
the shotcrete-rock interface under changing and high tempera-
tures has to be able to reasonably reflect the preceding physical
characteristics.
For a material body of shotcrete-rock cured under changing and
high temperature (Fig. 17), assuming S is the initial area of the
cross-section and S1 is the current area of the cross-section with
defects after the appearance of the damage under high tempera-
ture curing conditions. The effective area (without damage) S2
excluding the area of defects is given as:

S2 ¼ S  S1 ð2Þ
For the quantitative description of the damage state, which is
characterized by a measure of voids, a variable D was introduced
into calculation to evaluate the level of thermal damage. D varies
from 0 to 1 corresponding to the undamaged and completely dam-
aged states.
Fig. 14. Peak shear stress vs normal stress of shotcrete-rock interface.
D ¼ S1 =S ð3Þ
According to the Lemaitre hypothesis of strain equivalence and
Hooke’s law, the normal stress r and shear stress s on the surface
of the whole body are the applied stress (apparent stress), whereas
the normal stress r01 and shear stress s01 on the net area of the
undamaged part are the net stress. The expressions can be
obtained as follows:

r01 ¼ F=S2 ð4Þ

s01 ¼ T=S2 ð5Þ

F ¼ r  S ¼ r01  S2 ð6Þ

T ¼ s  S ¼ s01  S2 ð7Þ

where F and T are the normal load and tangential load acting on a
shotcrete element, respectively. In the process of element shear
deformation, normal force F provides a certain amount of friction.
However, the element stress state changes from elastic deformation
Fig. 15. Fitting curves of strength parameters and temperature. to plastic deformation with the increase of shear force T. Associat-
10 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

a. Many and evenly distributed b. Many but not evenly distributed

c. Few but evenly distributed d. Few and not evenly distributed

Fig. 16. Shear failure with different distributions of hydrates.

Fig. 17. Force analysis diagram of the temperature-damaged element.

ing the damage variable D defined above with these results, we As the microelement was on the unyielding condition when it
obtain was being influenced by the shear action, the shear stress-
displacement curves exhibited a linear elastic response, which
r ¼ r01  ð1  DÞ ð8Þ
can be established as follows:
s ¼ s01  ð1  DÞ ð9Þ s01 ¼ K a  u0 ð10Þ
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 11

 
where u0 is the shear displacement of the damaged state, and K a is sf  rtanu K a uf  sf c
m¼  ð18Þ
a parameter for bonding strength and shear deformation of the sf  rtanu K a uf lnðK a uf =sf Þ
interface. The shear displacement of both the damaged and undam-
aged area was the same by the coordinate deformation relationship It can be clearly observed that there was a significant correla-
(u ¼ u0 ) [64–66]. It can be described as tion between the model parameters (F0, m) and the interface shear
behavior in Fig. 18a and Fig. 18b. The peak shear strength of the
s ¼ K a  u0  ð1  DÞ ð11Þ interface was proportional to the value of parameter F0 and oppo-
site to the parameter m. However, the results showed that m and
4.2. Evolution equation of damage F0 had a greater impact on the trend of the post-peak stress–strain
curve, and a small influence on the linear character of the pre-peak
Frequently, there were many randomly distributed pores and state. As a result, both parameters are of great significance on the
micro cracks near shotcrete-rock interface under the initial high applicability of the thermal damage constitutive model.
curing temperature. Therefore, under an external force, the As a matter of fact, previous studies have revealed that the rela-
destruction of the microelement had a certain randomness, and tionship between the peak shear strength(sf )and displacement(uf )
the strain state depended on the probability of destruction to a changed with the normal stress. Nevertheless, the value of the
great extent. A previous study had indicated that the internal dam- parameters (m, F0) are also associated with a specified level of nor-
age of the material could be described by the Weibull distribution mal stress. Therefore, a new general approach for confirming the
[67–69]. Thus, this study supposed that the damage to the micro- thermal damage constitutive model parameters under different
unit strength of shotcrete is subjected to the Weibull distribution, levels of normal stress is needed[73]. The results in Fig. 18c indi-
whose probability density distribution function can be defined as cated that there was a quadratic function relationship between
follows. the normal stress and uf under changing and high temperature con-
ditions. Thus, the relationship can be abbreviated by the following
PðFÞ ¼ m=F 0 ðF a =F 0 Þm1 exp½ðF a =F 0 Þm  ð12Þ equation,
where m and F0 are the Weibull distribution parameters. P(F)is the
distribution function of the probability density, and Fa is the distri- uf ¼ Ar þ B ð19Þ
bution variable of micro-unit strength under thermal damage. where A and B are the fitting experimental parameters. The fit-
However, the strength of the micro-unit determined whether it ting relationship between the model parameters (A, B) and
had been destroyed, and the destruction probability also decided temperature is shown in Fig. 18d. There were linear and
the damage variable. Therefore, it was necessary to introduce the quadratic function relationships between the temperature and
Mohr-Coulomb [70–72] failure criterion to reflect the degree of parameters (A, B), respectively, and the fitting degree was high.
thermal injury on the micro element of shotcrete: The model parameters at different temperatures can be deter-
F a ¼ s  r  tanu  c ð13Þ mined by the fitting formula, which is expressed as follows:

where cand uwere the angle of friction and the cohesion of the A ¼ a1 T þ a2 ð20Þ
interface, respectively. When Fa  0, the micro-unit of shotcrete will
not be damaged. B ¼ b1 T 2 þ b2 T þ b3 ð21Þ
The damage variable D can be expressed as a probability statis-
Substituting Eq. (20) and Eq. (21) into Eq. (19), uf can be
tics of micro-unit destruction. Hence the thermal damage evolve-
expressed as follows:
ment model can be expressed as follows.
8 uf ¼ ða1 T þ a2 Þr þ b1 T 2 þ b2 T þ b3 ð22Þ
>
< 0 ðF a 6 0 Þ
D¼ FRa   ð14Þ The shear test results of the microelement were linearly fitted
>
: PðxÞdx ¼ 1  exp ðF a =F 0 Þm ðF a > 0Þ
0
by a Coulomb shear strength line:
sf ¼ rtanu þ c ð23Þ
4.3. Determination of model parameters Based on the test data, the relationship between the strength
parameters(c,u) and temperature is shown in Fig. 15. The friction
The statistical damage evolution equation can be obtained by angle increased with the increase in curing temperature, but the
integrating the damage model. This can be easily achieved by sub- cohesive force decreased linearly with it. The interfacial cohesion
stituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (11), as follows. The value of shear stiff- and internal friction angle within a certain high temperature range
ness may refer to Eq. (1) and Fig. 10. could be obtained by a fitting formula, which is expressed as
(
K a u ðF a 6 0Þ follows:
s¼   ð15Þ
K a uexp ðF a =F 0 Þm ðF a > 0Þ u ¼ d1 T 2 þ d2 T þ d3 ð24Þ
Based on the law of shear deformation curve, when parameter u
c ¼ d4 T þ d5 ð25Þ
reached the value of shear displacement corresponding to the peak
shear strength (uf ),swas equal tosf .From the above analysis, the At the same time, substituting Eq. (24) and Eq. (25) into Eq. (23),
following relationship held true: the key parameters can be obtained as follows.
@s 
j ¼0 ð16Þ sf ¼ rtan d1 T 2 þ d2 T þ d3 þ ðd5 þ d4 T Þ ð26Þ
@u u¼uf ;s¼sf
Similarly, introducing Eq. (16) into Eq. (14) and Eq. (15), we had Finally, combined with Weibull distribution parameters, the
  1 thermal damage model of the shotcrete-rock interface associated
  K a uf m
F 0 ¼ K a uf  rtanu  c ln ð17Þ with the normal stress under changing and high temperatures
sf was established.
12 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

a. Effect of parameter m on the constitutive model b. Effect of parameter F0 on the constitutive model

c. Fitting curves of normal stress and peak shear d. Fitting curves of parameters l,n and temperature
displacement
Fig. 18. Characteristics of model parameters.

8
< K a u ðFa 6 0Þ (1) The theoretical curve of the model is well consistent with

 m 
s ¼ FðT Þ ¼ K a u - d4 Td5 rtanðd1 T 2 þd2 Tþd3 Þ the experimental curve. With the increase in initial curing
: K a uexp - ðF a > 0Þ
F0 temperature, the theoretical curve deviates to the outside
of the experimental results with a small deviation owing
ð27Þ
to the thermal damage to the micro-unit of shotcrete.
(2) The theoretical curve is approximately presented as a
straight line in the elastic stage, and is in agreement with
the experimental curve to some extent.
5. Validation and discussion of the constitutive model (3) Before the peak strength point, the cracks rapidly expand
and connect. The slope of the theoretical curves slowly
In the discussion in the previous section, the damage variable decline with the increase of stress and exhibits plastic hard-
was presented by the damage distribution and the reduction of ening. The simulation results are well consistent with the
shear strength of the material under high temperature. According test data, especially at the peak point.
to the experimental results and relevant parameters in this paper, (4) For the strain softening stage, the decrease in shear stress
the comparison of experimental data with theory results are pre- was faster at the beginning and then became slower gradu-
sented in Fig. 19 and Table 3. Thus, it is not difficult to draw the fol- ally. The model showed the property that there still exists
lowing conclusions small residual strength on the interface after failure, but
 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 13

Fig. 19. Comparison between the experimental and theoretical curves.

the simulation results are a little different from the experi-

mental data owing to the insufficient consideration of the
aggregate interlocking forces and frictional resistance.

Previous study results have proved that there is a certain rule

for the development of shotcrete–rock interfacial adhesion
strength under high temperature curing environment. However,
due to the lack of research on the interface shear strength of sam-
ples under VTC condition, the adhesion tensile strength of shot-
crete–rock experimental results by Cui et al. [18] and Tang et al.
[63], and supplementary shear tests are selected to illustrate the
rationality of the constitutive model. Comparisons between the
results by experiment and model calculation are not to reflect
the perfection of the proposed damage model since there are both
difference and similarity between adhesive tensile strength and
adhesive shear strength of interface, but to demonstrate the capa-
bility to predict the weakening effect of high temperature on the
stress–strain relation of shotcrete–rock interface under VTC condi-
tions from a micromechanical point of view.
As shown in Fig. 20, the calculated results of the development of
adhesion strength in present model are in agreement with that of
previously available test results. With the increase of curing tem-
perature, the adhesion strength decreased significantly, especially
when the temperature is over 50℃. The reduction results for the
Fig. 20. Comparison of the adhesion strength under high curing temperature in
adhesion strength tested by Cui et al. is around 29% at 80℃, while different literatures.
14 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171

for Tang et al, it was around 40%. But the reduction results of 3.0
strength calculated by this model is less than 20%, which is lower Experimental curve
than other results. The compaction effect of normal stress and Theoretical curve
2.5
small differences of test materials may be the main reasons. How-
ever, there is a similar development trend of strength properties

Shear stress/MPa
2.0
1.5MPa
that the higher the curing temperature, the more serious the dete-
rioration of shotcrete characteristics.
1.0MPa
It indicated that the present damage model can reflect the phys- 1.5
ical and adhesion strength properties of interface to some extent.
0.5MPa
In order to further verify the rationality of the thermal damage 0.5MPa
1.0
constitutive model proposed in the study for the shotcrete–rock
interface under VTC mode, supplementary tests on the strength
of the shotcrete–rock interface are conducted. 18 more shot- 0.5
crete–rock specimens that cured under VTC-70 ℃ conditions were
tested. The curing method, relative humidity. normal stress and
0.0
other experimental conditions were consistent with the Chapter 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
3. The Fig. 21 showed the final mechanical properties of Shear displacement/mm
shotcrete-rock interface and it is obvious that the development
of shear bond strength was in general accord with that of samples Fig. 22. Comparison between the experimental and theoretical curves under 70 ℃.
cured under the VTC-60, 80100 ℃ conditions.
According to the equations in the damage model and test
results, the stress–strain curves were predicted and the compar- study results will be more proper for the actual project, which is
ison results between experimental and theoretical results can be mainly affected by high geothermal (60-100 ℃ with low humidity).
seen in Fig. 22 and Table 5. As for the shear strength results under On the one hand, the test results may direct the similar experiment
VTC-70 ℃, the relative error between the experimental and theo- on rock-interface. On the other hand, the constitutive model pro-
retical results is less than 10%. Moreover, the overall relative error posed in this paper can be embedded into large calculation soft-
of the data between the model calculation and the specimen exper- ware to simulate the failure law of the initial support of high
iment under multiple temperature conditions ranged from 0.2% to geothermal tunnel more realistically. According to calculation
18.2%, revealing that the proposed thermal damage model can bet- results, the shotcrete should be strengthened or thickened properly
ter meet the computational requirements for actual engineering for some position. The authors will try to extend the model to more
tasks (<20%). complex curing conditions in the following studies, which would
It can be conclude that with the increase of temperature, the be more proper for application in actual high geothermal projects.
value of sf decreased and uf increased slowly. This indicates that This paper is based on a preliminary research aimed to study the
the degree of damage of the interface changed sharply as the ther- shear strength of shotcrete-rock interface in a high geothermal
mal action increased, which is consistent with the previous theo- tunnel, and some of the micromechanical parameters and other
retical analysis and experimental results. It can also be observed influence factors are not studied intensively in the tests. Moreover,
from the comparison results that the model can reflect the process this article only provides a new method of predicting the shear
of deformation and failure of the shotcrete-rock interface test stress of shotcrete-rock interface characteristics, more deeply
under different normal stress and changing temperature. However, research is necessary to outline the factors that influence the phys-
there are still some limitations in the research. The actual in situ ical and mechanical properties in order to improve the reasonable-
curing environment and loading process are complex. As reported ness of present model.
in the previous research, shear strength depends on not only the
curing temperature, but also the relative humidity, curing time, 6. Conclusions
etc [63,74]. Especially when the relative humidity is more than
61.5%, the coupling effect of temperature & RH on the development This paper presents a study on the performance of the bond
of shotcrete strength will be more significant. Consequently, the between shotcrete and rock in high and changing temperature

Fig. 21. Experimental results of samples cured under VTC-70 ℃.

 H. Yunpeng et al. / Construction and Building Materials 263 (2020) 120171 15

Table 5
Fitting results of the thermal damage constitutive model.

Temp/℃ C/MPa U/° Normal stress/MPa sf Trial vaule sf Computation vaule Relative error uf Trial vaule uf Computation vaule Relative error
60 1.46 42.9 0.5 1.97 1.92 2.5% 0.41 0.40 2.4%
1.0 2.3 2.38 3.5% 0.45 0.49 8.9%
1.5 2.9 2.85 1.7% 0.49 0.51 4.1%
70 1.33 42.6 0.5 1.82 1.733 4.8% 0.43 0.40 6.9%
1.0 2.2 2.196 0.2% 0.49 0.47 4.1%
1.5 2.74 2.659 3.0% 0.52 0.49 5.8%
80 1.2 43.1 0.5 1.7 1.67 1.8% 0.53 0.51 3.8%
1.0 2.16 2.129 1.4% 0.56 0.58 4.5%
1.5 2.66 2.576 3.2% 0.63 0.73 15.9%
100 0.92 45.7 0.5 1.48 1.43 3.4% 0.54 0.52 3.7%
1.0 1.8 1.94 7.8% 0.58 0.61 5.2%
1.5 2.5 2.43 2.8% 0.66 0.78 18.2%

environment in tunnel construction. Different shear experiments Declaration of Competing Interest

on shotcrete-rock specimens under different initial curing condi-
tions were performed to investigate the effect of thermal damage The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
on the bonding strength. For the specimens under different normal cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
stresses and initial curing temperatures, the stress–strain curves to influence the work reported in this paper.
were also obtained and used to calibrate the parameters of a
new thermal damage constitutive model. The following conclu-
sions can be drawn from the study: Acknowledgments

(1) There are two types of typical shear failure modes during the We wish to acknowledge the National Natural Science Founda-
shear test process. One of them was shear failure, which tion of China (grant numbers 51578458, 51878567) and Sichuan
occurred on the shotcrete–rock interface, and the rupture Province Science and Technology Support Program (2019YFG
surface developed through most regions of the contact sur- 0001) for the support in this research.
face (F1). Another shear failure model was the mixed mode
(F2), where scratches on the shotcrete face were conspicu-
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