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8 C H A P T E R

Magnetic Forces,
Materials, and
Inductance

W
! e are now ready to undertake the second half of the magnetic field prob-
lem, that of determining the forces and torques exerted by magnetic fields
on other charges. An electric field causes a force to be exerted on a charge
that may be either stationary or in motion; we will see that a steady magnetic field is
capable of exerting a force only on a moving charge. This result appears reasonable; a
magnetic field may be produced by moving charges and may exert forces on moving
charges; a magnetic field cannot arise from stationary charges and cannot exert any
force on a stationary charge.
This chapter initially considers the forces and torques on current-carrying con-
ductors that may either be of a filamentary nature or possess a finite cross section
with a known current density distribution. The problems associated with the motion
of particles in a vacuum are largely avoided.
With an understanding of the fundamental effects produced by the magnetic
field, we may then consider the varied types of magnetic materials, the analysis of
elementary magnetic circuits, the forces on magnetic materials, and finally, the im-
portant electrical circuit concepts of self-inductance and mutual inductance. ■

8.1 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE


In an electric field, the definition of the electric field intensity shows us that the force
on a charged particle is

F = QE (1)

232
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 233

The force is in the same direction as the electric field intensity (for a positive charge)
and is directly proportional to both E and Q. If the charge is in motion, the force at
any point in its trajectory is then given by (1).
A charged particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B is found ex-
perimentally to experience a force whose magnitude is proportional to the product of
the magnitudes of the charge Q, its velocity v, and the flux density B, and to the sine
of the angle between the vectors v and B. The direction of the force is perpendicular
to both v and B and is given by a unit vector in the direction of v × B. The force may
therefore be expressed as

F = Qv × B (2)

A fundamental difference in the effect of the electric and magnetic fields on


charged particles is now apparent, for a force which is always applied in a direc-
tion at right angles to the direction in which the particle is proceeding can never
change the magnitude of the particle velocity. In other words, the acceleration
vector is always normal to the velocity vector. The kinetic energy of the particle
remains unchanged, and it follows that the steady magnetic field is incapable of
transferring energy to the moving charge. The electric field, on the other hand,
exerts a force on the particle which is independent of the direction in which the
particle is progressing and therefore effects an energy transfer between field and
particle in general.
The first two problems at the end of this chapter illustrate the different effects
of electric and magnetic fields on the kinetic energy of a charged particle moving in
free space.
The force on a moving particle arising from combined electric and magnetic
fields is obtained easily by superposition,

F = Q(E + v × B) (3)

This equation is known as the Lorentz force equation, and its solution is required
in determining electron orbits in the magnetron, proton paths in the cyclotron, plasma
characteristics in a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator, or, in general, charged-
particle motion in combined electric and magnetic fields.

D8.1. The point charge Q = 18 nC has a velocity of 5 × 106 m/s in the direction
av = 0.60ax + 0.75ay + 0.30az. Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted on
the charge by the field: (a) B = −3ax + 4ay + 6az mT; (b) E = −3ax + 4ay + 6az
kV/m; (c) B and E acting together.

Ans. (a) 660 μN; (b) 140 μN; (c) 670 μN


234 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

8.2 FORCE ON A DIFFERENTIAL


CURRENT ELEMENT
The force on a charged particle moving through a steady magnetic field may be writ-
ten as the differential force exerted on a differential element of charge,

d F = dQ v × B (4)
Physically, the differential element of charge consists of a large number of very
small, discrete charges occupying a volume which, although small, is much larger
than the average separation between the charges. The differential force expressed by
(4) is thus merely the sum of the forces on the individual charges. This sum, or re-
sultant force, is not a force applied to a single object. In an analogous way, we might
consider the differential gravitational force experienced by a small volume taken in
a shower of falling sand. The small volume contains a large number of sand grains,
and the differential force is the sum of the forces on the individual grains within the
small volume.
If our charges are electrons in motion in a conductor, however, we can show
that the force is transferred to the conductor and that the sum of this extremely
large number of extremely small forces is of practical importance. Within the
conductor, electrons are in motion throughout a region of immobile positive ions
which form a crystalline array, giving the conductor its solid properties. A magnetic
field which exerts forces on the electrons tends to cause them to shift position
slightly and produces a small displacement between the centers of “gravity” of the
positive and negative charges. The Coulomb forces between electrons and positive
ions, however, tend to resist such a displacement. Any attempt to move the elec-
trons, therefore, results in an attractive force between electrons and the positive
ions of the crystalline lattice. The magnetic force is thus transferred to the crys-
talline lattice, or to the conductor itself. The Coulomb forces are so much greater
than the magnetic forces in good conductors that the actual displacement of the
electrons is almost immeasurable. The charge separation that does result, however,
is disclosed by the presence of a slight potential difference across the conductor
sample in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity of
the charges. The voltage is known as the Hall voltage, and the effect itself is called
the Hall effect.
Figure 8.1 illustrates the direction of the Hall voltage for both positive and neg-
ative charges in motion. In Figure 8.1a, v is in the −ax direction, v × B is in the ay
direction, and Q is positive, causing FQ to be in the ay direction; thus, the positive
charges move to the right. In Figure 8.1b, v is now in the +ax direction, B is still in
the az direction, v × B is in the −ay direction, and Q is negative; thus, FQ is again in
the ay direction. Hence, the negative charges end up at the right edge. Equal currents
provided by holes and electrons in semiconductors can therefore be differentiated by
their Hall voltages. This is one method of determining whether a given semiconduc-
tor is n-type or p-type.
Devices employ the Hall effect to measure the magnetic flux density and, in
some applications where the current through the device can be made proportional
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 235

B z B

FQ FQ
y

I I
(a) (b)

Figure 8.1 Equal currents directed into the material are provided by positive charges
moving inward in (a) and negative charges moving outward in (b). The two cases can be
distinguished by oppositely directed Hall voltages, as shown.

to the magnetic field across it, to serve as electronic wattmeters, squaring elements,
and so forth.
Returning to (4), we may therefore say that if we are considering an element
of moving charge in an electron beam, the force is merely the sum of the forces on
the individual electrons in that small volume element, but if we are considering an
element of moving charge within a conductor, the total force is applied to the solid
conductor itself. We will now limit our attention to the forces on current-carrying
conductors.
In Chapter 5 we defined convection current density in terms of the velocity of
the volume charge density,

J = ρv v

The differential element of charge in (4) may also be expressed in terms of volume
charge density,1

dQ = ρv dv

Thus

d F = ρv dv v × B

or

d F = J × B dv (5)

We saw in Chapter 7 that J dv may be interpreted as a differential current element;


that is,
J dv = K dS = I d L

1
Remember that dv is a differential volume element and not a differential increase in velocity.
236 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

and thus the Lorentz force equation may be applied to surface current density,

d F = K × B dS (6)

or to a differential current filament,

d F = I d L × B (7)

Integrating (5), (6), or (7) over a volume, a surface which may be either open or
closed (why?), or a closed path, respectively, leads to the integral formulations

F = ∫ vol J × B dv (8)

F = ∫ S K × B dS (9)

and

F = ∮ I d L × B = − I ∮ B × d L (10)

One simple result is obtained by applying (7) or (10) to a straight conductor in a


uniform magnetic field,

F = IL × B (11)

The magnitude of the force is given by the familiar equation

F = BIL sin θ (12)

where θ is the angle between the vectors representing the direction of the current
flow and the direction of the magnetic flux density. Equation (11) or (12) applies
only to a portion of the closed circuit, and the remainder of the circuit must be con-
sidered in any practical problem.

E X A M P L E 8 .1
As a numerical example of these equations, consider Figure 8.2. We have a square
loop of wire in the z = 0 plane carrying 2 mA in the field of an infinite filament on
the y axis, as shown. We wish to find the total force on the loop.
Solution. The field produced in the plane of the loop by the straight filament is

H = _____ 15 a A∕m
I a = _____
2πx z 2πx z
Therefore,
−6
B = μ0 H = 4π × 10 −7 H = 3_______
× 10 a T
x z
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 237

Free space

15 A
y

(1, 0, 0) (1, 2, 0)

(3, 0, 0)
2 mA
x

Figure 8.2 A square loop of wire in the xy plane carrying


2 mA is subjected to a nonuniform B field.

We use the integral form (10),

F = −I ∮ B × d L

Let us assume a rigid loop so that the total force is the sum of the forces on the four
sides. Beginning with the left side:

[
az
3 az 2
F = − 2 × 10 −3 × 3 × 10 −6 ∫x=1 _
x × dx a x + ∫y=0 3 × dy a y
_

]
1 az 0 a
+∫ _
x × dx  a x + ∫ _z × dy a y
x=3 y=2 1

[ | | | | ]
1 y (− a ) + ln x a + y (− a )
= − 6 × 10−9 ln x ay + __
3 2 1 0

1
3 0 x
3
y
2
x

= − 6 × 10 −9[(ln 3) a y − _
3 x ( 3) y x]
2 a + ln _
1 a + 2a

= − 8ax  nN

Thus, the net force on the loop is in the −ax direction.

D8.2. The field B = −2ax + 3ay + 4az mT is present in free space. Find the
vector force exerted on a straight wire carrying 12 A in the aAB direction, given
A(1, 1, 1) and: (a) B(2, 1, 1); (b) B(3, 5, 6).

Ans. (a) −48ay + 36az mN; (b) 12ax −216ay + 168az mN


238 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

D8.3. The semiconductor sample shown in Figure 8.1 is n-type silicon, having
a rectangular cross section of 0.9 mm by 1.1 cm and a length of 1.3 cm. Assume
the electron and hole mobilities are 0.13 and 0.03 m2/V · s, respectively, at
the operating temperature. Let B = 0.07 T and the electric field intensity in the
direction of the current flow be 800 V/m. Find the magnitude of: (a) the voltage
across the sample length; (b) the drift velocity; (c) the transverse force per cou-
lomb of moving charge caused by B; (d ) the transverse electric field intensity;
(e) the Hall voltage.

Ans. (a) 10.40 V; (b) 104.0 m/s; (c) 7.28 N/C; (d ) 7.28 V/m; (e) 80.1 mV

8.3 FORCE BETWEEN DIFFERENTIAL


CURRENT ELEMENTS
The concept of the magnetic field was introduced to break into two parts the problem
of finding the interaction of one current distribution on a second current distribution.
It is possible to express the force on one current element directly in terms of a second
current element without finding the magnetic field. Because we claimed that the
magnetic-field concept simplifies our work, it then behooves us to show that avoid-
ance of this intermediate step leads to more complicated expressions.
The magnetic field at point 2 due to a current element at point 1 was found to be
I1 d L1 × aR12
d H2 = _________2
4π R12
Now, the differential force on a differential current element is

d F = I d L × B

and we apply this to our problem by letting B be d B2 (the differential flux density at
point 2 caused by current element 1), by identifying I d L as I2d L2, and by symboliz-
ing the differential amount of our differential force on element 2 as d(d F2):

d(d F2) = I2 d L2 × d B2

Because d B2 = μ0d H2, we obtain the force between two differential current elements,

I1 I2
d(d F2) = μ0 ______2
d L2 × (d L1 × aR12) (13)
4π R12

EXAMPLE 8.2
As an example that illustrates the use (and misuse) of these results, consider the
two differential current elements shown in Figure 8.3. We seek the differential force
on d L2.
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 239

I 2d L 2
d(d F2)
Free space Point 2
R12

I 1d L 1
Point 1

Figure 8.3 Given P1(5, 2, 1), P2(1, 8, 5), I1 d!L1 = −3ay


A · m, and I2 d!L2 = −4az A · m, the force on I2 d!L2 is
8.56 nN in the ay direction.

Solution. We have I1d L1 = −3ayA · m at P1(5, 2, 1), and I2d L2 = −4azA · m at


P2(1, 8, 5). Thus, R12 = −4ax + 6ay + 4az, and we may substitute these data into (13),

(− 4a z) × [(− 3a y) × (− 4a x + 6a y + 4a z)]
4π  10 −7 __________________________
d(d F 2) = ______
4π (16 + 36 + 16) 1.5
= 8.56a y nN

Many chapters ago, when we discussed the force exerted by one point charge on
another point charge, we found that the force on the first charge was the negative of that
on the second. That is, the total force on the system was zero. This is not the case with
the differential current elements, and d(d F1) = −12.84az nN in Example 8.2. The rea-
son for this different behavior lies with the nonphysical nature of the current element.
Whereas point charges may be approximated quite well by small charges, the conti-
nuity of current demands that a complete circuit be considered. This we shall now do.
The total force between two filamentary circuits is obtained by integrating twice:

4π [ 2 ]
I1 I2 d L 1 × a R12
F 2 = μ0 ___ ∮ dL × ∮ _ 2
R12
(14)

4π [ ]
I1 I2 a R12 × d L 1
= μ0 ___ ∮ ∮_ 2
× d L2
R12

Equation (14) is quite formidable, but the familiarity gained in Chapter 7 with
the magnetic field should enable us to recognize the inner integral as the integral
necessary to find the magnetic field at point 2 due to the current element at point 1.
Although we shall only give the result, it is not very difficult to use (14) to
find the force of repulsion between two infinitely long, straight, parallel, filamentary
240 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

F F

I
I

Figure 8.4 Two infinite parallel


filaments with separation d and
equal but opposite currents I
experience a repulsive force of
μ0I2/(2πd) N/m.

conductors with separation d, and carrying equal but opposite currents I, as shown
in Figure 8.4. The integrations are simple, and most errors are made in determining
suitable expressions for aR12, d L1, and d L2. However, since the magnetic field in-
tensity at either wire caused by the other is already known to be I∕(2πd), it is readily
apparent that the answer is a force of μ0I2∕(2πd) newtons per meter length.

D8.4. Two differential current elements, I1ΔL1 = 3 × 10−6ay A · m at P1(1,


0, 0) and I2ΔL2 = 3 × 10−6 (−0.5ax + 0.4ay + 0.3az) A · m at P2(2, 2, 2), are
located in free space. Find the vector force exerted on: (a) I2ΔL2 by I1ΔL1;
(b) I1ΔL1 by I2ΔL2.

Ans. (a) (−1.333ax + 0.333ay − 2.67az) 10−20 N; (b) (4.67ax + 0.667az)10−20 N

8.4 FORCE AND TORQUE ON A CLOSED CIRCUIT


We have already obtained general expressions for the forces exerted on current sys-
tems. One special case is easily disposed of, for if we take our relationship for the
force on a filamentary closed circuit, as given by Eq. (10), Section 8.2,

F = −I ∮ B × d L

and assume a uniform magnetic flux density, then B may be removed from the integral:

F = −I B × ∮ d L

However, we discovered during our investigation of closed line integrals in an elec-


trostatic potential field that ∮ d L = 0, and therefore the force on a closed filamentary
circuit in a uniform magnetic field is zero.
If the field is not uniform, the total force need not be zero.
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 241

T T

O O

R R1 F1
F
R2
P P1
R21
P2
(a) F2 = –F1 (b)

Figure 8.5 (a) Given a lever arm R extending from an origin O to a point P
where force F is applied, the torque about O is T = R × F. (b) If F2 = −F1, then the
torque T = R21 × F1 is independent of the choice of origin for R1 and R2.

This result for uniform fields does not have to be restricted to filamentary circuits
only. The circuit may contain surface currents or volume current density as well. If
the total current is divided into filaments, the force on each one is zero, as we have
shown, and the total force is again zero. Therefore, any real closed circuit carrying
direct currents experiences a total vector force of zero in a uniform magnetic field.
Although the force is zero, the torque is generally not equal to zero.
In defining the torque, or moment, of a force, it is necessary to consider both
an origin at or about which the torque is to be calculated, and the point at which the
force is applied. In Figure 8.5a, we apply a force F at point P, and we establish an
origin at O with a rigid lever arm R extending from O to P. The torque about point
O is a vector whose magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of R, of F, and of
the sine of the angle between these two vectors. The direction of the vector torque T
is normal to both the force F and the lever arm R and is in the direction of progress
of a right-handed screw as the lever arm is rotated into the force vector through the
smaller angle. The torque is expressible as a cross product,

T=R×F

Now assume that two forces, F1 at P1 and F2 at P2, having lever arms R1 and R2
extending from a common origin O, as shown in Figure 8.5b, are applied to an object
of fixed shape and that the object does not undergo any translation. Then the torque
about the origin is

T = R1 × F1 + R2 × F2

where

F1 + F2 = 0
242 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

and therefore

T = (R1 − R2) × F1 = R21 × F1

The vector R21 = R1 − R2 joins the point of application of F2 to that of F1 and is in-
dependent of the choice of origin for the two vectors R1 and R2. Therefore, the torque
is also independent of the choice of origin, provided that the total force is zero. This
may be extended to any number of forces.
Consider the application of a vertically upward force at the end of a horizontal
crank handle on an elderly automobile. This cannot be the only applied force, for if it
were, the entire handle would be accelerated in an upward direction. A second force,
equal in magnitude to that exerted at the end of the handle, is applied in a downward
direction by the bearing surface at the axis of rotation. For a 40-N force on a crank
handle 0.3 m in length, the torque is 12 N · m. This figure is obtained regardless of
whether the origin is considered to be on the axis of rotation (leading to 12 N · m plus
0 N · m), at the midpoint of the handle (leading to 6 N · m plus 6 N · m), or at some
point not even on the handle or an extension of the handle.
We may therefore choose the most convenient origin, and this is usually on the
axis of rotation and in the plane containing the applied forces if the several forces
are coplanar.
With this introduction to the concept of torque, we now consider the torque
on a differential current loop in a magnetic field B. The loop lies in the xy plane
(Figure 8.6); the sides of the loop are parallel to the x and y axes and are of length dx
and dy. The value of the magnetic field at the center of the loop is taken as B0.

B
dx

3
I

4 O
x
2
dy

R 1

Figure 8.6 A differential current loop in a magnetic field B.


The torque on the loop is d!T = I(dx dyaz) × B0 = I d!!S × B.
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 243

Since the loop is of differential size, the value of B at all points on the loop may be
taken as B0. (Why was this not possible in the discussion of curl and divergence?)
The total force on the loop is therefore zero, and we are free to choose the origin for
the torque at the center of the loop.
The vector force on side 1 is

d F1 = I dx ax × B0

or
d F1 = I dx(B0y az − B0z ay)

For this side of the loop the lever arm R extends from the origin to the midpoint
of the side, R1 = − _12 dy ay, and the contribution to the total torque is
d T1 = R1 × d F1
= − _12 dy a y × I dx(B0y a z − B0z a y)
= − _12 dx dy I B0y a x
The torque contribution on side 3 is found to be the same,

d T 3 = R 3 × d F 3 = _12 dy a y × (− I dx a x × B 0)


= − _12 dx dy I B0y a x = d T 1
and
d T1 + d T3 = − dx dy I B0y ax
Evaluating the torque on sides 2 and 4, we find
d T2 + d T4 = dx dy I B0x ay
and the total torque is then

d T = I dx dy(B0x ay − B0y ax)


The quantity within the parentheses may be represented by a cross product,

d T = I dx dy(az × B0)

or

d T = I d S × B (15)

where d S is the vector area of the differential current loop and the subscript on B0
has been dropped.
We now define the product of the loop current and the vector area of the loop as
the differential magnetic dipole moment dm, with units of A · m2. Thus

d m = I d S (16)
244 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

and

dT = dm × B (17)

If we extend the results we obtained in Section 4.7 for the differential electric
dipole by determining the torque produced on it by an electric field, we see a similar
result,

dT = dp × E

Equations (15) and (17) are general results that hold for differential loops of any
shape, not just rectangular ones. The torque on a circular or triangular loop is also
given in terms of the vector surface or the moment by (15) or (17).
Because we selected a differential current loop so that we might assume B was
constant throughout it, it follows that the torque on a planar loop of any size or shape
in a uniform magnetic field is given by the same expression,

T = IS × B = m × B (18)

We should note that the torque on the current loop always tends to turn the loop
so as to align the magnetic field produced by the loop with the applied magnetic field
that is causing the torque. This is perhaps the easiest way to determine the direction
of the torque.
EXAMPLE 8.3
To illustrate some force and torque calculations, consider the rectangular loop shown
in Figure 8.7. Calculate the torque by using T = IS × B.
Solution. The loop has dimensions of 1 m by 2 m and lies in the uniform field
B0 = −0.6ay + 0.8azT. The loop current is 4 mA, a value that is sufficiently small to
avoid causing any magnetic field that might affect B0.
We have
T = 4 × 10 −3 [(1) (2)az ] × (− 0.6ay + 0.8az) = 4.8ax mN · m
Thus, the loop tends to rotate about an axis parallel to the positive x axis. The small
magnetic field produced by the 4 mA loop current tends to line up with B0.

EXAMPLE 8.4
Now let us find the torque once more, this time by calculating the total force and
torque contribution for each side.
Solution. On side 1 we have
F 1 = I L 1 × B 0 = 4 × 10 −3(1a x) × (− 0.6a y + 0.8a z)
= − 3.2a y − 2.4a z mN
CHAPTER 8 Magnetic Forces, Materials, and Inductance 245

B0 = –0.6 ay + 0.8 az T

y
4

1 3
2

4 mA (1, 2, 0)

Figure 8.7 A rectangular loop is located in a uniform


magnetic flux density B0.

On side 3 we obtain the negative of this result,

F3 = 3.2ay + 2.4az mN
Next, we attack side 2:

F 2 = I L 2 × B 0 = 4 × 10 −3(2a y) × (− 0.6a y + 0.8a z)


= 6.4 a x mN

with side 4 again providing the negative of this result,

F 4 = − 6.4a x mN
Because these forces are distributed uniformly along each of the sides, we treat
each force as if it were applied at the center of the side. The origin for the torque may
be established anywhere since the sum of the forces is zero, and we choose the center
of the loop. Thus,

T = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 = R1 × F1 + R2 × F2 + R3 × F3 + R4 × F4
= (− 1ay) × (− 3.2ay − 2.4az) + (0.5ax) × (6.4ax)
+(1a y) × (3.2a y + 2.4a z) + (− 0.5a x) × (− 6.4a x)
= 2.4a x + 2.4a x = 4.8a x mN · m

Crossing the loop moment with the magnetic flux density is certainly easier.
246 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

D8.5. A conducting filamentary triangle joins points A(3, 1, 1), B(5, 4, 2), and
C(1, 2, 4). The segment AB carries a current of 0.2 A in the aAB direction. There
is present a magnetic field B = 0.2ax − 0.1ay + 0.3az T. Find: (a) the force on
segment BC; (b) the force on the triangular loop; (c) the torque on the loop
about an origin at A; (d) the torque on the loop about an origin at C.

Ans. (a) −0.08ax + 0.32ay + 0.16az N; (b) 0; (c) −0.16ax − 0.08ay + 0.08az N · m;
(d) −0.16ax − 0.08ay + 0.08az N · m

8.5 THE NATURE OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS


We are now in a position to combine our knowledge of the action of a magnetic field
on a current loop with a simple model of an atom and obtain some appreciation of the
difference in behavior of various types of materials in magnetic fields.
Although accurate quantitative results can only be predicted through the use
of quantum theory, the simple atomic model, which assumes that there is a central
positive nucleus surrounded by electrons in various circular orbits, yields reasonable
quantitative results and provides a satisfactory qualitative theory. An electron in an
orbit is analogous to a small current loop (in which the current is directed oppositely
to the direction of electron travel) and, as such, experiences a torque in an exter-
nal magnetic field, the torque tending to align the magnetic field produced by the
orbiting electron with the external magnetic field. If there were no other magnetic
moments to consider, we would then conclude that all the orbiting electrons in the
material would shift in such a way as to add their magnetic fields to the applied field,
and thus that the resultant magnetic field at any point in the material would be greater
than it would be at that point if the material were not present.
A second moment, however, is attributed to electron spin. Although it is tempt-
ing to model this phenomenon by considering the electron to be spinning about its
own axis and thus generating a magnetic dipole moment, satisfactory quantitative
results are not obtained from such a theory. Instead, it is necessary to digest the
mathematics of relativistic quantum theory to show that an electron may have a spin
magnetic moment of about ±9 × 10−24 A · m2; the plus and minus signs indicate
that alignment aiding or opposing an external magnetic field is possible. In an atom
with many electrons present, only the spins of those electrons in shells which are not
completely filled will contribute to a magnetic moment for the atom.
A third contribution to the moment of an atom is caused by nuclear spin.
Although this factor has a negligible effect on the overall magnetic properties of
materials, it is the basis of the nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedure
provided by many of the larger hospitals.
Thus each atom contains many different component moments, and their com-
bination determines the magnetic characteristics of the material and provides its
general magnetic classification. We describe briefly six different types of material:
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and
superparamagnetic.

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